ELEMENTARY CHARGES

 Protons carry the smallest positive charge.

 Protons and uncharged neutrons generally reside
in an atom’s nucleus.
 Protons are held in the nucleus by the strong
force.
 The smallest negative charge is the charge on the
ELECTRON.
 In normal atoms, electrons orbit the nucleus.
 The ELECTRIC FORCE between electrons
and protons supplies the centripetal force to keep
electrons in the atom.
Summary of Subatomic Particles
 The charges carried by the proton and electron
 PROTON are equal in size.
 In nucleus
 Tightly Bound  The mass of the proton is about 2000 times the
 Positive Charge mass of the electron.
 Massive ELECTROSTATICS

 NEUTRON  study of electric charge at rest.

 In nucleus
THE ELECTRIC FORCE AND NEWTON’S
 Tightly Bound
THIRD LAW
 No Charge
 Massive  For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
 ELECTRON
 Outside nucleus
 Weakly Bound
 Negative Charge
 Not very massive

FROM NEUTRAL TO IONS

INTERACTION BETWEEN CHARGED AND

NEUTRAL OBJECTS
 Any charged object - whether positively charged
or negatively charged - will have an attractive
interaction with a neutral object.
REPULSIVE VS ATTRACTION FORCE
ELECTRICAL CHARGES
 REPULSIVE INTERACTION - When objects
 Fundamental property of matter repel each other, one can be certain that both
 An object with an excess of electrons is objects are charged.
negatively charged.  ATTRACTIVE INTERACTIONS - On the
 An object with deficiency of electrons (too other hand, one can conclude that at least one of
many protons) is positively charged. the objects is charged.
 An object with the same number of electrons
and protons is neutral. CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
  Materials in which charges are free to move
TWO TYPES: about are called electrical conductors.
1. POSITIVE CHARGE - every
 Materials in which charges are not free to
proton has a single positive charge
move about are called electrical insulators.
(1.6 x 10-19 C).
2. NEGATIVE CHARGE - every CONDUCTORS
electron has a single negative charge
(-1.6 x 10-19 C).
  An object made of a conducting material
will permit charge to be transferred
across the entire surface of the object.
 Since conductors allow for electrons to
be transported from particle to particle, a
charged object will always distribute its
charge until the overall repulsive forces
between excess electrons is minimized.
INSULATORS
 In contrast with conductors, if
charge is transferred to an insulator
at a given location, the excess
charge will remain at the initial
location of charging.
EXAMPLES :
 Examples of conductors include
metals, aqueous solutions of salts
(i.e., ionic compounds dissolved in
water), graphite, and the human
body.
 Examples of insulators include
plastics, Styrofoam, paper, rubber,
glass and dry air.
SEMICONDUCTORS
 materials which are good insulators in pure
form, but their conducting properties can be
adjusted over a wide range by introducing very
small amounts of impurities.
Ex: Silicon, germanium, etc.
Transistors, computer chips, etc.
SUPERCONDUCTORS
 are materials that lose all resistance to charge
movement at temperatures near absolute zero (0
K or about -273oC).
 Recently, “high temperature” (above 100 K)
superconductors have been discovered.
INDUCING THE MOVEMENT OF CHARGE
 In conducting objects, electrons that are found in
the electrons clouds are so loosely bound that
they may be induced into moving from one
portion of the object to another portion of the
object.
ELECTRON MOVEMENT WITHIN A
CONDUCTOR
 If the negatively charged balloon is brought near
the aluminum pop can, the electrons within the
pop can will experience a repulsive force.
 The repulsion will be greatest for those electrons
that are nearest the negatively charged balloon.
Many of these electrons will be induced into
moving away from the repulsive balloon.
 This electron movement leaves atoms on the
balloon's side of the can with a shortage of
electrons; they become positively charged. And
the atoms on the side opposite of the can have an
excess of electrons; they become negatively
charged.
POLARIZATION
 The two sides of the aluminum pop can have
opposite charges. Overall the can is electrically
neutral; it's just that the positive and negative
charge has been separated from each other. We
say that the charge in the can has been polarized.
POLARIZATION IN INSULATORS
 In an insulator, electrons merely redistribute
themselves within the atom or molecules nearest
the outer surface of the object.
CHARGING BY FRICTION
 Electron Affinity refers to the relative amount
of love that a material has for electrons.
 If atoms of a material have a high electron
affinity, then that material will have a relatively
high love for electrons.
 The frictional charging process results in a
transfer of electrons between the two objects that
are rubbed together.
 Suppose that a rubber balloon is rubbed with a
sample of animal fur.
 Rubber has a much greater attraction for
electrons than animal fur. As a result, the atoms
of rubber pull electrons from the atoms of
animal fur, leaving both objects with an
imbalance of charge.
CONCLUSION : Having an excess of electrons, the
rubber balloon is charged negatively. Similarly, the
shortage of electrons on the animal fur leaves it with
a positive charge.
TRIBOELECTRICSERIES
 is a list that ranks materials according to their
tendency to gain or lose electrons.
 Materials shown highest on the table tend to
have a greater affinity for electrons than those
below it.
 Subsequently, when any two materials in the
table are rubbed together, the one that is higher
 can be expected to pull electrons from the
material that is lower.
THE LAW OF CONVERSATION OF
CHARGE
 Prior to the charging, both objects are
electrically neutral. The net charge of the system
is 0 units. After the charging process, the more
electron-loving object may acquire a charge of -
12 units; the other object acquires a charge of
+12 units. Overall, the system of two objects has
a net charge of 0 units.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
 Being made of metal (a conductor), electrons are
free to move between the spheres - from sphere
A to sphere B and vice versa.
 Being charged negatively, the electrons are
repelled by the negatively charged
balloon. Subsequently, there is a mass
migration of electrons from sphere A to sphere
B.
 Looking at the spheres individually, it would be
accurate to say that sphere A has an overall
positive charge and sphere B has an overall
negative charge.
APPLYING THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
CHARGE
 If sphere A has 1000 units of positive charge,
then sphere B has 1000 units of negative charge.
 Determining the overall charge of the system is
easy arithmetic; it is simply the sum of the
charges on the individual spheres.
 Overall Charge of Two Spheres = +1000 units +
(-1000 units) = 0 units
 Charge is neither created nor destroyed during
this charging process; it is simply transferred
from one object to the other object in the form of
electrons.
Charging a Two-Sphere System Using a Positively
Charged Object
 The presence of the positive charge induces a
mass migration of electrons from sphere B
towards (and into) sphere A.
 This movement of electrons from sphere B to
sphere A leaves sphere B with an overall
positive charge and sphere A with an overall
negative charge. The two-sphere system has
been polarized.
The Importance of a Ground in Induction Charging
 There will be a mass migration of electrons from
the left side of the sphere to the right side of the
sphere causing charge within the sphere to
become polarized caused by the – charge object.
 The touching of the sphere allows electrons to
exit the sphere and move through the hand to
"the ground“. It is at this point that the sphere
acquires a charge.
 Looking at the right side of the sphere, excess
electrons not only find the balloon repulsive but
also the other excess electrons nearby.
 When the hand comes nearby, these negative
electrons see opportunity to find a vast body of a
human being into which they can subsequently
distance themselves even further from each
other.
Grounding
 Providing a path from a charged object to
the Earth is called grounding it.
 Charges will be attracted from (or repelled
to) the Earth by the charged object.
 Since the Earth is so large, both the charged
object and the Earth are neutralized.
Charging by Conduction
 Charging by conduction involves the contact of
a charged object to a neutral object.
 In contrast to induction, where the charged
object is brought near but never contacted to the
object being charged, conduction charging
involves making the physical connection of the
charged object to the neutral object.
Example: A neutrally charged student touching
a van de graaff generator
Charging by Conduction Using a Negatively Charged
Object
 Once the contact of the sphere to the
electroscope is made, a countless number of
excess electrons from the sphere move onto the
electroscope and spread about the sphere-
electroscope system.
 When charging by conduction is done, the
electroscope will have an excess negative
charge. The metal sphere is still charged
negatively, only it has less excess negative
charge than it had prior to the conduction
charging process.
 There is a mass migration of electrons until the
positive charge on the aluminum plate-metal
sphere system becomes redistributed.
 The aluminum plate is still charged positively;
only it now has less excess positive charge than
it had before the charging process began.

ELECTRICAL CHARGE
 Symbol : q or Q
 Classification: scalar quantity
UNITS OF CHARGE
 The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb.
 1 Coulomb = the charge of
6.24 x 1018 electrons
Charge is Conserved
Electric charge is conserved -
 Electric charge moves from one place to another
- no case of the net creation or destruction of
electric charge has ever been observed.
 In solids, only electrons can move.
 In liquids, gases, and plasmas, both positive and
negative ions are free to move.
“Creating” an Electric Charge
 When you “create” an electric charge you
are actually separating existing charges -
not creating charges.
 One object ends up with an excess of
electrons (- charge), and the other a deficit
of electrons (+ charge).
Force as a Vector Quantity
 Since it is a vector, it has both direction and
magnitude.
 How about the electrical force’s magnitude?
What are the factor’s that could affect the
strength of the force?
First: The quantity of the charge of one of the
balloons
Second: The quantity of the charge of the other
balloon
Third: The distance between the two balloons
ELECTRICAL FORCES
The electrical force between 2 charges depends on:
 The quantity of each charge
More charge means more force.
 The distance of separation between the charges
Coulomb found that the electrical force between two
charged object is:
 Directly proportional to each charge.
 Inversely proportional to the square of the
distance of separation between the charges.
Coulomb’s Law
F = magnitude of the electrical force, N
k = electrical constant = 9.00 X 10 9 Nm2/C2
q1 , q2 = electrical charge of object 1 and 2 respectively,
C
r is the distance of separation between the two objects,
m
NOTE!
 When using the "+" and "-" signs in the
calculation of force, the result will be that a "-"
value for force is a sign of an attractive force and
a "+" value for force signifies a repulsive force.
COULOMB’S EQUATION
 The value of this constant is dependent upon the
medium that the charged objects are immersed
in. In the case of air, the value is approximately
9.0 x 109 N • m2 / C2.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
 Suppose that two point charges, each
with a charge of +1.00 Coulomb are
separated by a distance of 1.00 meter.
Determine the magnitude of the
electrical force of repulsion between
them.
SOLUTION:
 Given:
 Q1 – 1.00 C
 Q2 – 1.00 C
 d – 1.00 m
 Find: Felect - ?
 Q values are on the order of 10-9 or
possibly 10-6 Coulombs.
 Charge is often expressed in units of
microCoulomb (µC) and nanoCoulomb
(nC).
The following unit equivalencies will assist in such
conversions.
1 Coulomb = 106 microCoulomb
1 Coulomb = 109 nanoCoulomb
VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS
 Direct Relationship - Increase in one variable
always causes another measurable quantity to
increase.
  Inverse Relationship - One variable always
causes another measurable quantity to decrease.
INVERSE SQUARE RELATIONSHIP
 The pattern between electrostatic force and
distance can be further characterized as an
inverse square relationship.
EXAMPLE:
 If the separation distance is doubled (increased
by a factor of 2), then the electrostatic force is
decreased by a factor of four (2 raised to the
second power).
 If the separation distance is tripled (increased by
a factor of 3), then the electrostatic force is
decreased by a factor of nine (3 raised to the
second power).
ELECTRIC FIELDS
 ACTION AT A DISTANCE
- referred to as field forces.
- The concept of a field force is utilized by
scientists to explain this rather unusual force
phenomenon that occurs in the absence of
physical contact.
 FIELD FORCE
- A charged object creates an electric field -
an alteration of the space in the region that
surrounds it.
- Electric forces are exerted upon those
charged objects when they enter that space.
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH
EXAMPLE:
 A force of 3 N is acting on the charge 6 μC at
any point. Calculate the electric field intensity at
that point?
SOLUTION:
Given: F = 3 N , q = 6 μC
Formula: E=F/q
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH
 Is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and
direction.
 The dimensions of electric field are
newtons/coulomb, N/C.
 Even if you take away the test charge, there is
still an electric field at that location.
 The conventional test charge for measuring
electric field is +q.
REVISITING C.L
EXAMPLE:
 What is the magnitude of the electric field 1m
above a 24 μC charge?
 What is the strength of the electric field 1mm
away from a 38 μC charge? If a 2 μC charge is
placed in this field at a distance, what will be
the force on it?
AN INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 The strength of an electric field as created
by source charge Q is inversely related to
square of the distance from the source.
 Electric field strength is location dependent,
and its magnitude decreases as the distance
from a location to the source increases.
 So if separation distance increases by a
factor of 2, the electric field strength
decreases by a factor of 4 (2^2).
 If separation distance decreases by a factor
of 2, the electric field strength increases by a
factor of 4 (2^2).
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 Charge Q acts as a point charge to create an
electric field. Its strength, measured a distance of
30 cm away, is 40 N/C. What is the magnitude
of the electric field strength that you would
expect to be measured at a distance of ...
a. 90 cm away?
b. 45 cm away?
ANSWER:
a.) d increases by a factor of 3; divide the original
E by 9.
b.) d increases by a factor of 1.5; divide the original
E by (1.5)2.
a) 4.44 N/C, b) 17.8 N/C
The Direction of the Electric Field Vector
 The precise direction of the force is dependent
upon whether the test charge and the source
charge have the same type of charge (in which
repulsion occurs) or the opposite type of charge
(in which attraction occurs).
 The worldwide convention that is used by
scientists is to define the direction of the electric
field vector as the direction that a positive test
charge is pushed or pulled when in the presence
of the electric field.
IN CONCLUSION…
• Positive Source Charge – electric field vector
would always be directed away from positively
charged objects
• Negative Source Charge - electric field vectors
are always directed towards negatively charged
objects.

Electric Field Lines

 These pattern of lines, sometimes referred to

as electric field lines, point in the direction
that a positive test charge would accelerate if
placed upon the line.