CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PUNCHING

Punching is a metal forming process that uses a punch press to force

a tool, called a punch, through the work piece to create a hole via shearing. The
punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is
deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this
slug may be recycled and reused or discarded. Punching is often the cheapest
method for creating holes in sheet metal in medium to high production volumes.
When a specially shaped punch is used to create multiple usable parts from a sheet
of material the process is known as blanking. In forging applications the work is
often punched while hot, and this is called hot punching.
Punch tooling punch and die is often made of hardened steel or
tungsten carbide. A die is located on the opposite side of the work piece and
supports the material around the perimeter of the hole and helps to localize the
shearing forces for a cleaner edge. There is a small amount of clearance between
the punch and the die to prevent the punch from sticking in the die and so less
force is needed to make the hole. The amount of clearance needed depends on the
thickness, with thicker materials requiring more clearance, but the clearance is
always less than the thickness of the work piece. The clearance is also dependent
on the hardness of the work piece. The punch press forces the punch through a
work piece, producing a hole that has a diameter equivalent to the punch or slightly
smaller after the punch is removed.
The pneumatic press makes an important contribution to the output of
engineering work shops and is indispensable for the cheap production of large
quantity of similar articles when the type of articles concerned is suited of this
method of production. A pneumatic press utilizes a compressed air source to
control operation of piston for high pressure to obtain desire component by using
press tools. The press includes a piston operated by the compressed air source to
drive a piston rod to operate the press. This pneumatic press is suitable for small
press tool works. It works on the principal of compressed air. A compressor plant,
pipe lines control valve, drive B members and related auxiliary application.
The air is compressed in an air compressor and for the compressor plant, the flow
medium is transmitted to the pneumatic system, it is of vital important that the
pressure drop between generation and consumption of compressed air is kept very
low, it has been seen that pipeline fittings and joints are mostly responsible for
drop in pressure, if any in pneumatic system.
1.2 NEED FOR AUTOMATION

Automation is the use of control systems and information

technologies to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and
services. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond
mechanization. Where a mechanization provide human operators with machinery
to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly
decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily
experience. Manufacturing company usually produce hundred thousand products a
days, and most of the time they rely on automation to meet their client expectation
and deadline in able to have good profit. Thousand man power is very effective,
new technologies today have important to increase
the productivity of a certain company.
If you will choose between manufacturing hundreds of employees
and maintaining machine, you will probably choose maintaining machines, you
will probably choose maintaining machine because it is easier to handle machines
then people who have different personalities. The ability of hundreds of people can
be done by a single machine which means that you can save a lot of money in
terms of using automated machines in manufacturing certain products less stress of
those personnel that do have attitude problem on their work. Though machines is
considered as one of the biggest investments that you will have for your business,
this will soon worth all the cost you have incurred due to the productivity that can
provide to your company.
All that is need is to have few people who are experienced enough in
handling this kind of machines. A lot of times these machines contain program
logic controller that are considered as the heart and brain of the machines
automation. Learning things about program logic controller is a big advantage
regarding maintenance and trouble shooting.
1.3 BASICS OF PNEUMATICS

Pneumatics has long since played an important role as a technology in the

performance of mechanical work. It is also being used in the development of
automation solutions. Pneumatic systems are similar to hydraulic systems but in
these systems compressed air is used in place of hydraulic fluid.

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control
energy. Pneumatic systems are used extensively in various industries. Most
pneumatic systems rely on a constant supply of compressed air to make them
work. This is provided by an air compressor. The compressor sucks in air from the
atmosphere and stores it in a high pressure tank called a receiver. This compressed
air is then supplied to the system through a series of pipes and valves.

The word ‘pneumatic’ means air. Pneumatics is all about using compressed air to
do the work. Compressed air is the air from the atmosphere which is reduced in
volume by compression thus increasing its pressure. It is used as a working
medium normally at a pressure of 6 kg/sq mm to 8 kg/sq mm. For using pneumatic
systems, maximum force up to 50 kg can be developed. Actuation of the controls
can be manual, pneumatic or electrical actuation. Compressed air is mainly used to
do work by acting on a piston or vane. This energy is used in many areas of the
steel industry

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Pneumatic systems are widely used in different industries for the driving of
automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.

 High effectiveness – There is an unlimited supply of air in the atmosphere to

produce compressed air. Also there is the possibility of easy storage in large
volumes. The use of compressed air is not restricted by distance, as it can easily
be transported through pipes. After use, compressed air can be released directly
into the atmosphere without the need of processing.
 High durability and reliability – Pneumatic system components are extremely
durable and cannot be damaged easily. Compared to electromotive components,
pneumatic components are more durable and reliable.
 Simple design – The designs of pneumatic system components are relatively
simple.
 High adaptability to harsh environment – Compared to the elements of other
systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature, dust, and
corrosive environment, etc. Hence they are more suitable for harsh
environment.
 Safety aspects – Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems
because they can work in inflammable environment without causing fire or
explosion. Apart from that, overloading in pneumatic system only leads to
sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike components of electromotive system,
pneumatic system components do not burn or get overheated when overloaded.
 Easy selection of speed and pressure – The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating
movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and subject to few
limitations. The pressure and the volume of the compressed air can easily be
adjusted by a pressure regulator.
 Environmental friendly – The operation of pneumatic systems do not produce
pollutants. Pneumatic systems are environmentally clean and with proper
exhaust air treatment can be installed to clean room standards. Therefore,
pneumatic systems can work in environments that demand high level of
cleanliness. One example is the production lines of integrated circuits.
 Economical – As the pneumatic system components are not expensive, the costs
of pneumatic systems are quite low. Moreover, as pneumatic systems are very
durable, the cost of maintenance is significantly lower than that of other
systems.

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also

subject to several limitations. These limitations are given below.

 Relatively low accuracy – As pneumatic systems are powered by the force

provided by compressed air, their operation is subject to the volume of the
compressed air. As the volume of air may change when compressed or heated,
the supply of air to the system may not be accurate, causing a decrease in the
overall accuracy of the system.
 Low loading – As the cylinders used in pneumatic systems are not very large, a
pneumatic system cannot drive loads that are too heavy.
 Processing required before use – Compressed air must be processed before use
to ensure the absence of water vapour or dust. Otherwise, the moving parts of
the pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to friction.
 Uneven moving speed – As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of
the pistons are relatively uneven.
 Noise – Noise is usually produced when the compressed air is released from the
pneumatic components.

1.6 COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators and air motors provide the force and
movement for the most of pneumatic systems, for holding, moving, forming, and
processing of materials. To operate and control these actuators, other pneumatic
components are needed such as air service units for the preparation of the
compressed air and valves for the control of the pressure, flow and direction of
movement of the actuators. A basic pneumatic system consists of the following two
main sections.

 Compressed air production, transportation, and distribution system

 Compressed air consuming system

The main components of the compressed air production, transportation, and

distribution system consist of air compressor, electric motor and motor control
centre, pressure switch, check valve, storage tank, pressure gauge, auto drain, air
dryer, filters, air lubricator, pipelines, and different types of valves. The main
components of air consuming system consist of intake filter, compressor, air take
off valve, auto drain, air service unit, directional valve, actuators, and speed
controllers. Basic components of the pneumatic system are
 Fig: 1.6 Major components of pneumatic system

Intake filter also known as air filter is used to filter out the contaminants from the
air.

Air compressor converts the mechanical energy of an electric or combustion motor

into the potential energy of compressed air. There are several types of compressors
which are used in the compressed air systems. Compressors used for generation of
compressed air is selected on the basis of desired maximum delivery pressure and
the required flow rate of the air The types of compressors in the compressed air
systems are (i) piston or reciprocating compressors, (ii) rotary compressors, (iii)
centrifugal compressors, and (iv) axial flow compressors.
Reciprocating compressors are (i) single stage or double stage piston compressor,
and (ii) diaphragm compressor. Rotary compressors are (i) sliding vane
compressor, and (ii) screw compressor.

Electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used to

drive the air compressor.

The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the air receiver. The
purpose of air receiver is to smooth the pulsating flow from the compressor. It also
helps the air to cool and condense the moisture present. The air receiver is to be
large enough to hold all the air delivered by the compressor. The pressure in the
receiver is held higher than the system operating pressure to compensate pressure
loss in the pipes. Also the large surface area of the receiver helps in dissipating the
heat from the compressed air.

For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the compressed air needs to be
cleaned and dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is humid.
These particles can cause wear of the system components and presence of moisture
may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to get rid of these
impurities. Further during compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore cooler is used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air. The water
vapour or moisture in the air is separated from the air by using a separator or air
dryer.

The air treatment can be divided into three stages. In the first stage, the large sized
particles are prevented from entering the air compressor by an intake filter. The air
leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at high temperature. The
compressed air from the compressor is treated in the second stage. In this stage
temperature of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler and the air is dried
using a dryer.

The air treatment can be divided into three stages. In the first stage, the large sized
particles are prevented from entering the air compressor by an intake filter. The air
leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at high temperature. The
compressed air from the compressor is treated in the second stage.
 In this stage temperature of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler and the
air is dried using a dryer.

Air drying system can be adsorption type, absorption type, refrigeration type, or
the type that uses semi permeable membranes. Also an inline filter is provided to
remove any contaminant particles present. This treatment is called primary air
treatment. In the third stage which is the secondary air treatment process, further
filtering is carried out.

Lubrication of moving parts of cylinder and valves is very essential in pneumatic

system. For this purpose compressed air lubricators are used ahead of pneumatic
equipment. Lubricator introduces a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This
helps in lubrication of the moving components of the system to which the
compressed air is applied. Correct grade of lubricating oil usually are with
kinematic viscosity around 20- 50 centistokes.

Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for control of direction
flow, pressure etc. The main function of the control valve is to maintain constant
downstream pressure in the air line, irrespective of variation of upstream pressure.
Due to the high velocity of the compressed air flow, there is flow-dependent
pressure drop between the receiver and load (application). Hence the pressure in
the receiver is always kept higher than the system pressure. At the application site,
the pressure is regulated to keep it constant. There are three ways to control the
local pressures which are given below.

 In the first method, load vents the air into atmosphere continuously. The
pressure regulator restricts the air flow to the load, thus controlling the air
pressure. In this type of pressure regulation, some minimum flow is required to
operate the regulator. If the load is a dead end type which draws no air, the
pressure in the receiver rises to the manifold pressure. These type of regulators
are called as ‘non-relieving regulators’, since the air must pass through the load.
 In the second type, load is a dead end load. However the regulator vents the air
into atmosphere to reduce the pressure. This type of regulator is called as
‘relieving regulator’.
 The third type of regulator has a very large load. Hence its requirement of air
volume is very high and cannot be fulfilled by using a simple regulator. In such
cases, a control loop comprising of pressure transducer, controller and vent
valve is used. Due to large load the system pressure may rise above its critical
value. It is detected by a transducer. Then the signal is processed by the
controller which directs the valve to be opened to vent out the air. This
technique is also used when it is difficult to mount the pressure regulating valve
close to the point where pressure regulation is needed.

Air cylinders and motors are the actuators which are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system. Actuators are output
devices which convert energy from compressed air into the required type of action
or motion. In general, pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or moving
operations in various industries. These operations are carried out by using
actuators. Actuators can be classified into three types which are (i) linear actuators
which convert pneumatic energy into linear motion, (ii) rotary actuators which
convert pneumatic energy into rotary motion, and (iii) actuators to operate flow
control valves- these are used to control the flow and pressure of fluids such as
gases, steam or liquids. The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear
actuators is similar. However they differ at their operating pressure ranges. Typical
pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 kg/sq mm and that of pneumatic
cylinders is around 10 kg/sq mm.

1.7 DISTRIBUTION OF COMPRESSED AIR

Proper distribution of compressed air is very important for achieving good

performance. Some important requirements which are to be ensured are as follows.

 Piping lay out (open or closed loop) with suitable number of drain valves at
diagonally opposite corners
 Piping design has important parameters like diameter of pipe for given flow,
pressure drop, number and type of fitting and absolute pressure
 Slope of the main horizontal header from compressor which is normally 1:20
 Take off branches from the top of horizontal headers are with U or at 45 deg

 Provision of accumulator with drain cock at the bottom of all vertical headers
 Air service unit connected at right angles to vertical headers
All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols.
Each symbol shows only the function of the component it represents, but not its
structure. Pneumatic symbols can be combined to form pneumatic diagrams. A
pneumatic diagram describes the relations between each pneumatic component,
that is, the design of the system. A typical diagram of a pneumatic system.

Fig: 1.7 Typical diagram of a pneumatic system

When analyzing or designing a pneumatic circuit, the following four important

considerations must be taken into account

 Safety of operation
 Performance of desired functions
 Efficiency of operation
 Costs
1.8 APPLICATION OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

There are several applications for pneumatic systems. Some of them are
pneumatic presses, pneumatic drills, operation of system valves for air, water or
chemicals, unloading of hoppers and bins, machine tools, pneumatic rammers,
lifting and moving of objects, spray painting, holding in jigs and fixtures, holding
for brazing or welding, forming operations, riveting, operation of process
equipment etc.
 CHAPTER -2

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

Power
supply

Push Controller Pneumatic Output

button using PLC control mechanical
system machine

Input detector

Feedback sensor

Fig: 2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

2.1 POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an

electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric
current from a source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the
load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power
converters.

Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while

others are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter
include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics
devices.
 Other functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the
current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of an
electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic noise or voltage surges on
the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction, and storing energy so it
can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary interruption in the
source power (uninterruptible power supply).

All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in
the form of electric current from a source, and one or more power output
connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may come from the
electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy storage devices such as
batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar power converters, or another
power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired circuit connections,
though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer to power their loads
without wired connections. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and
outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

2.1.1TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a static device which convert electrical power from one

circuit to another without changing its frequency. it Step up (or Step down) the
level of AC Voltage and Current.

2.1.1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon

of mutual induction between two windings linked by common magnetic flux. The
figure at right shows the simplest form of a transformer. Basically a transformer
consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and secondary winding. The coils
are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary
winding is connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is
produced around the winding. The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get
linked with the secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary
winding which is called as 'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not
get linked with secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'. As the flux produced
is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing), EMF gets induced in
the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced
emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then
mutually induced current flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is
transferred from one circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).

2.1.1.2 LAMINATED CORE

This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in electric power
transmission and appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power
electronic devices. They are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW.
The insulated laminations minimizes eddy current losses in the iron core.

Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving a
high level of insulation between the windings. The rectangular cores are made up
of stampings, often in E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are sometimes used.
Shields between primary and secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI
(electromagnetic interference), or a screen winding is occasionally used.

Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out

built into the winding, to shut-off power at high temperatures to prevent further
overheating

Fig: 2.1.1.2 LAMINATED CORE

2.1.1.3 TOROIDAL

Doughnut-shaped toroidal transformers save space compared to E-I cores,

and may reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring shaped core, copper
windings wrapped round this ring (and thus threaded through the ring during
winding), and tape for insulation.

Toroidal transformers have a lower external magnetic field compared to

rectangular transformers, and can be smaller for a given power rating. However,
they cost more to make, as winding requires more complex and slower equipment.

They can be mounted by a bolt through the center, using washers and rubber pads
or by potting in resin.

Fig: 2.1.1.3 TOROIDAL

2.1.1.4 AUTOTRANSFORMER

An autotransformer has one winding that is tapped at some point along the
winding. Voltage is applied across a portion of the winding, and a higher (or lower)
voltage is produced across another portion of the same winding. The equivalent
power rating of the autotransfomer is lower than the actual load power rating. It is
calculated by: load VA × (|Vin – Vout|)/Vin. For example, an auto transformer that
adapts a 1000 VA load rated at 120 volts to a 240 volt supply has an equivalent
rating of at least: 1,000 VA (240 V – 120 V) / 240 V = 500 VA. However, the actual
rating (shown on the tally plate) must be at least 1000 VA.
2.1.1.5 VARIABLE AUTOTRANSFORMER

By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the

secondary connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer with a
near-continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for wide voltage
adjustment in very small increments.

Fig: 2.1.1.5 VARIABLE AUTOTRANSFORMER

2.1.2 DIODE

An electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one

direction. In circuit diagrams, a diode is represented by a triangle with a line across
one vertex.

The most common type of diode uses a p-n junction. In this type of diode,
one material (n) in which electrons are charge carriers abuts a second material (p)
in which holes (places depleted of electrons that act as positively charged particles)
act as charge carriers. At their interface, a depletion region is formed across which
electrons diffuse to fill holes in the p-side. This stops the further flow of electrons.
When this junction is forward biased (that is, a positive voltage is applied to the p-
side), electrons can easily move across the junction to fill the holes, and a current
flows through the diode. When the junction is reverse biased (that is, a negative
voltage is applied to the p-side), the depletion region widens and electrons cannot
easily move across. The current remains very small until a certain voltage (the
breakdown voltage) is reached and the current suddenly increases.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are p-n junctions that emit light when a
current flows through them. Several p-n junction diodes can be connected in series
to make a rectifier (an electrical component that converts alternating current to
direct current). Zener diodes have a well-defined breakdown voltage, so that
current flows in the reverse direction at that voltage and a constant voltage can be
maintained despite fluctuations in voltage or current. In varactor (or varicap)
diodes, varying the bias voltage causes a variation in the diode’s capacitance; these
diodes have many applications for signal transmission and are used throughout the
radio and television industries. (For more detail about these and other types of
diodes, see semiconductor device.)

Early diodes were vacuum tubes, an evacuated glass or metal electron tube
containing two electrodes—a negatively charged cathode and a positively charged
anode. These were used as rectifiers and as detectors in electronic circuits such as
radio and television receivers. When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (or
plate), electrons emitted from the heated cathode flow to the plate and return to the
cathode through an external power supply. If a negative voltage is applied to the
plate, electrons cannot escape from the cathode, and no plate current flows. Thus, a
diode permits electrons to flow from cathode to plate but not from plate to cathode.
If an alternating voltage is applied to the plate, current flows only during the time
when the plate is positive. The alternating voltage is said to be rectified, or
converted to direct current.

2.1.3 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to
reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or
operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
force, or chemical activity.
 Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits
and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete
components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits.

2.1.3.1 LINEAR RESISTOR

A linear resistor is the type of resistor whose resistance

remains constant with increase in the potential difference or voltage applied to it.

Or the Resistance or Current passed through the resistor does not changes as
the applied voltage ( P.D ) changes. The V-I characteristics of such resistor is a
straight line as shown on the figure below or in other words these types of resistors
follows Ohm’s Law very strictly.

2.1.3.2 NON LINEAR RESISTOR

Non-Linear Resistor are those types of resistors in which the Current

passed through it is not exactly directly proportional to the Potential Difference
applied to it. These types of resistors have non-liner V-I characteristics and does
not strictly follows ohm’s Law.

2.1.3.3 BASED ON RESISTOR’S VALUE

Based on the resistance value of the resistor the resistors can be classified
into following group:

2.1.3.4 FIXED VALUE RESISTOR

Fixed value resistors are those types of resistors whose value is fixed already
while manufacturing and cannot be changed during it’s usage.

Fig: 2.1.3.4 FIXED VALUE RESISTOR

2.1.3.5 VARIABLE RESISTOR OR POTENTIOMETER

Variable Resistors or Potentiometers are those types of resistors whose Value

can be changed during it’s usage.

Fig: 2.1.3.5 VARIABLE RESISTOR OR POTENTIOMETER

These types of resistor usually contains a shaft which can be rotated or moved by
hand or a screw driver to change it’s value in between a fixed range for ex: 0 Kilo
Ohms to 20 Kilo Ohms.

2.1.3.6 PACKAGE RESISTOR

These types of resistor is a resistor which contains a package which contains

two or more resistors inside it.

Fig: 2.1.3.6 PACKAGE RESISTOR

It have many terminals and the resistor’s resistance can be chosen by using any two
terminals among the available terminals or can also be used as an resistor array for
various purposes.

2.1.3.7 BASED ON COMPOSITION

On the basis of the composition of the resistor the resistors can be classified as:

1. CARBON COMPOSITION:

These types of resistors are made by a composition of Carbon Particles

which are hold together by a binding resign. The proportion of carbon particles and
resign used determines the value of the resistor. At both ends of the composition a
Metal Cap with a small rod of tin is attached to solder it or use it in circuits , then
the whole package is enclosed in a plastic case to prevent moisture and reaction
with air.

These types of resistors normally produces noise in circuit due to electron

passing through one carbon particle to another , thus these types or resistors are not
used in critical circuits although they are cheap.

2. CARBON DEPOSITION:

The resistor which is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon around a

ceramic rod is called Carbon Deposition resistor. They are made by heating a
ceramic rod inside a flask of methane and depositing the carbon around it by using
Glass Cracking process. The value of resistor is determined by the amount of
carbon deposited around the ceramic rod.

3.CARBON DEPOSITION:

The resistor which is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon around a

ceramic rod is called Carbon Deposition resistor. They are made by heating a
ceramic rod inside a flask of methane and depositing the carbon around it by using
Glass Cracking process. The value of resistor is determined by the amount of
carbon deposited around the ceramic rod.
4. HIGH VOLTAGE INK FILM:

These types of resistors are made by coating a special resistive ink in a

helical band above a ceramic base. These resistors can withstand very high voltage
of up to one thousands of kilo voltages and usually have high resistance too
ranging from on kilo ohms to one hundred thousand mega ohms.

5. METAL FILM:

Metal film resistors are made by depositing vaporized metal in vacuum on a

ceramic core rod. these types of resistors are very reliable , have
high tolerance and also have high temperature coefficient. These types of resistors
are costlier compared to other but are used in critical systems.

6. METAL GLAZE:

Metal Glaze resistors are made up of glass and metal which is mixed and
applied as a thick films to a ceramic substrate and then fired to form a film.

7. WIRE WOUND:

Wire wound resistor are made by winding a metal wire around a ceramic
core. The metal wire is an alloy of various metals based on the characteristics and
resistance of the resistor required. These types of resistor have high stability and
can also withstand high powers but are usually bulkier compared to other types of
resistors.

8. CERAMIC METAL:

These types of resistor are made by firing certain metals blended with
ceramics on a ceramic substrate. The proportion of the mixture in the blended
ceramic and metal determines the value of the resistor. These type of resistors are
very stable and also have accurate resistance. These types of resistors are mostly
used as Surface Mount type resistor for using in SMD PCB.
2.1.4 CAPACITOR

The capacitance is the ratio of electric charge (Q) to the voltage (V) and the
mathematical expansion is following.

C = Q/V

Where,

 Q is the electric charge in coulombs

 C is the capacitance in farad

 V is the voltage between the plates in volts

2.1.4.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAPACITORS

The different types of capacitors are following.

1. Electrolytic Capacitor

2. Mica Capacitor

3. Paper Capacitor

4. Film Capacitor

5. Non-Polarized Capacitor

6. Ceramic Capacitor

2.1.4.2 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Generally, the electrolyte capacitors are used when the large capacitor
values are required. The thin metal film layer is used for one electrode and for the
second electrode (cathode) a semi-liquid electrolyte solution which is in jelly or
paste is used. The dielectric plate is a thin layer of oxide, it is developed
electrochemically in production with the thickness of the film and it is less than the
ten microns.
 Fig: 2.1.4.2 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

This insulating layer is very thin, it is possible to make capacitors with a large
value of capacitance for a physical size, which is in small and the distance between
the two plates is very small. The types of capacitors in the majority of electrolytic
are polarized, which is DC voltage is applied to the capacitor terminal and they
must be correct polarity.

If the positive to the positive terminal and the negative to the negative
terminal as an incorrect polarization will break the insulating oxide layer and there
will be permanent damage. All the polarized electrolytic capacitors have polarity
clearly with the negative sign to show the negative terminal and the polarity should
be followed.

The uses of electrolytic capacitors are generally in the DC power supply

circuit because they are large in capacitance and small in reducing the ripple
voltage. The applications of this electrolytic capacitors are coupling and
decoupling. The disadvantage of the electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low
voltage rating because of the polarization of electrolytic capacitor.

2.1.4.3 MICA CAPACITOR

This capacitor is a group of natural minerals and the silver mica capacitors
use the dielectric. There are two types of mica capacitors which are clamped
capacitors & silver mica capacitor. Clamped mica capacitors are considered as
an obsolete because of their inferior characteristic. The silver mica capacitors are
prepared by sandwiching mica sheet coated with metal on both sides and this
assembly is then encased in epoxy to protect the environment. The mica capacitors
are used in the design calls for stable, reliable capacitor of relatively small.
 Fig: 2.1.4.3 MICA CAPACITOR

The mica capacitors are the low loss capacitors, used at high frequencies and this
capacitor is very stable chemically, electrically, and mechanically, because of its
specific crystalline structure binding & it is a typically layered structure. The most
common used are Muscovite and phlogopite mica. The Muscovite mica is better in
the electrical properties and the other Mica has a high-temperature resistance.

2.1.4.4 PAPER CAPACITOR

The construction of paper capacitor is between the two tin foil sheet and
they are separated from the paper, or, oiled paper & thin waxed. The sandwich of
the thin foils and papers then rolled into the cylindrical shape and then it is
enclosed into the plastic capsule. The two thin foils of the paper capacitors attach
to the external load.
 Fig: 2.1.4.4 PAPER CAPACITOR

In the initial stage if the capacitors the paper was used in between the two foils of
the capacitor, but these days the other materials like plastics are used, therefore it is
called as a paper capacitor. The capacitance range of the paper capacitor is from
0.001 to 2.000micro farad and the voltage is very high which is up to 2000V.

2.1.4.5 FILM CAPACITOR

The film capacitors are also capacitors and they use a thin plastic as the
dielectric. The film capacitor is prepared extremely thin using the sophisticated
film drawing process. If the film is manufactured, it may be metalized depend on
the properties of a capacitor. To protect from the environmental factor the
electrodes are added and they are assembled.

Fig: 2.1.4.5 FILM CAPACITOR

There are different types of film capacitors are available like polyester film,
metalized film, polypropylene film, PTE film and polystyrene film. The core
difference between these capacitors types is the material used as a dielectric and
dielectric should be chosen properly according to their properties. The applications
of the film capacitors are stability, low inductance, and low cost.
The PTE film capacitance is a heat resistance and it is used in the aerospace and
military technology. The metalized polyester film capacitor is used in the
applications are it requires long stability at a relatively low.

2.1.4.6 NON-POLARIZED CAPACITORS

The non polarized capacitors are classified into two types plastic foil
capacitor and the other one is the electrolytic non polarized capacitor.

Fig: 2.1.4.6 NON-POLARIZED CAPACITOR

The plastic foil capacitor is non-polarized by nature and the electrolytic capacitors
are generally two capacitors in the series, which are in the back to back hence the
result is in the non-polarized with half capacitance. The non-polarized capacitor
requires the AC applications in the series or in parallel with the signal or power
supply.
The examples are the speaker crossover filters and power factor correction
network. In these two applications, a large AC voltage signal is applied across the
capacitor

2.1.4.7 CERAMIC CAPACITOR

The ceramic capacitors are the capacitors and use the ceramic material as a
dielectric. The ceramics are one of the first materials to use in the production of
capacitors as an insulator.

Fig: 2.1.4.7 CERAMIC CAPACITOR

There are many geometries are used in the ceramic capacitors and some of them
are the ceramic tubular capacitor, barrier layer capacitors are obsolete because of
their size, parasitic effects or electrical characteristics. The two common types of
ceramic capacitors are multilayer ceramic capacitor (MLCC) and ceramic disc
capacitor.
The multilayer ceramic capacitors are prepared by using the surface mounted
(SMD) technology and they are smaller in size, therefore, it is used widely. The
values of the ceramic capacitors are typically between the 1nF and 1µF and the
values are up to 100µF are possible.

The ceramic disc capacitors are manufactured by coating a ceramic disc with silver
contacts on both sides and to achieve with the larger capacitance, these devices are
made from multiple layers. The ceramic capacitors will a have high-frequency
responses due to the parasitic effects like resistance and inductance

2.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

A PLC or a programmable logic controller is a solid state digital industrial

computer, in which control devices such as limit switches, push buttons, proximity
or photoelectric sensors, float switches or pressure switches, etc., provide incoming
control signal into the unit. This incoming control signal is called an input. The
block diagram for the working of PLC .
A formal definition is given by National Electrical Manufactures Association
(NEMA): A PLC is a digitally operated electronic system designed for use in an
industrial environment which uses a programmable memory for the internal
storage of user-oriented instructions for implementing specific functions such as
logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control, through digital and
analog inputs and outputs, various types of machines or processes.
A PLC is defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable
memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing,
timing, counting, and arithmetic in order to control the machines process.
 Fig: 2.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

2.2.1 FEATURES OF PLC

Input module are defined as the module which reads the signal from
the field such as push buttons or limit switches and pass on the signal status to the
CPU for processing. The input modules are of two types digital and analog.

Digital modules that read the signals are of two states such as ON or OFF
conditions only. The digital module can accept the signal of various types of
voltage like 24 V DC, 110 V AC, 220 V AC but any one module can accept only
one type of signal.

The analog input modules which is continuously variable signals such as

voltage or current like +/- 10 V DC, +/- 5 V DC, 500 mV.
Output modules are defined as the module that gives the signals from the system to
actual field elements such as solenoids or lamps. The output modules are also two
types, digital and analog.

2.2.2 INTERFACE MODULES

 In any PLC interface modules are used for connecting the I/O modules in
two or more racks to each other.

2.2.3 BASIC STRUCTURE OF PLC

The fig shows the basic structure of a PLC. It consists of 6 major devices.
They are

1. SENSING SECTION

These are usually made up of sensors and switches which transmit the
signals from the input devices.

2. INPUT SECTION

This contains two major areas — the physical terminals where the input
signals from the input devices are attached to the PLC and the internal conversion
electronics. This internal conversion electronics converts and isolates the high
voltage input level from field devices, into +5 V dc which is necessary for the
microprocessor and the other solid-state circuitry.
3. CONTROLLER

This is the processor which processes the signals from input section and
generates controlling signals for the system.

4. PROGRAMMER

This is usually a PC which is used to enter the program to the PLC.

5. OUTPUT SECTION

 Power supply unit is needed to convert the mains AC voltage to the low DC
voltage (5V/12V/24VDC) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the
input and output interface module.
 The programming device is used to enter the required program in to the
memory of the processor. The program is developed in the device and then
transfer to the memory unit of the PLC usually the programming device is the
 computer and program is transferred to CP via RS232 communication port or
through Ethernet port.
 The memory unit is where the program containing the control action to be
exercised by the microprocessor is stored and where the data is stored from the
input for processing and for the output.
 The Input and Output sections are where the processor receives information
from external devices and communicates information to external devices. The
inputs might do from push button, selector switches, limit switches, temperature
sensor, flow sensor, pressure sensor, photoelectric sensors, and auxiliary
contacts of switch gears like contactor, overload relay etc.

2.2.4 PLC SYSTEM CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING

1. Power supply
2. Control processing unit
3. Digital input/output module
4. Field hardware devices

1. POWER SUPPLY MODULE

In any PLC system power is provided by a module called power supply

module. The power supply can be internal or external. Normally in the low range
PLCs the power source is built in, in the CPU itself. In the medium range PLCs,
the power supply is external and that has to be wired to the CPU and the I/O
module. In some high range PLCs, the power supply is built in the I/O chassis
itself. The power supply input will be either 220 V AC or 110 V AC and the output
can be either 24 V DC or as per the specified voltage. Each of the input and output
module has to be powered up as per the corresponding operating voltage.

2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The CPU is the brain behind the system and is similar to the CPU of the
computer. It performs all the functions.
The CPU will have the following:
Arithmetic logic unit, RAM, Timer, Counter, Flags, Program Memory, ON/OFF
switch, A slot for battery, A slot for EPROM/ EEPROM, Programming Port /
Communication Port, Interface Cable Connection Provision, LED Indications for
Diagnostic Functions.

3. INPUT / OUTPUT MODULE

This receives the signals from the PLC which are used to control the system
to which the PLC is connected.

4. FIELD HARDWARE DEVICES

This is the system which is controlled by the PLC. As mentioned before, it

may be a motor which controls the movement of a conveyor or a lift; it may be
metal cutting machine whose outputs are to be precision made, etc.

2.2.5 SCAN CYCLE OF PLC

Fig: 2.2.5 SCAN CYCLE OF PLC

When power is turned on initially the PLC does a quick sanity check to
ensure that the hardware is working properly. If there is a problem the PLC will
halt and indicate there is an error. For example, if the PLC power is dropping and
about to go of this will result in one type of fault. If the PLC passes the sanity
check it will then scan (read) all the inputs. After the input values are stored in
memory the programmed logic will be scanned (solved) using the stored values –
not the current values. This is done to prevent logic problems when inputs change
during the programmed logic scan.

When the programmed logic scan is complete, the outputs will be scanned
(the output values will be changed). After this the system goes back to do a sanity
check, and the loop continues indefinitely. Unlike normal computer, the entire
program will be run every scan .A typical time for each of the stage is in the order
of millisecond or microsecond depending on the processor speed.

2.3 PROXIMITY SENSOR

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects

without any physical contact.

A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of

electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field
or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity
sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For
example, a capacitive proximity sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable
for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a metal target.

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because
of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor
and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure

the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in
large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

2.3.1 TYPES OF SENSORS

 Capacitive

 Capacitive displacement sensor

 Doppler effect (sensor based on Doppler effect)

 Eddy-current

 Inductive

 Magnetic, including magnetic proximity fuse

 Optical

 Photoelectric

 Photocell (reflective)

 Laser rangefinder

 Passive (such as charge-coupled devices)

 Passive thermal infrared

 Radar

 Reflection of ionizing radiation

 Sonar (typically active or passive)

 Ultrasonic sensor

 Fiber optics sensor

 Hall effect sensor

 CHAPTRE-3

WORKING OF THE PROJECT

3.1 IN5408 DIODE

Fig: 3.1 IN540 DIODE

DESCRIPTION

A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It

allows current to flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the
opposite direction. The two terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode.
The symbol of diode is as shown in the figure below.

Fig: 3.1.2 IN5408 DIODE DESCRIPTION

 Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current
(ac) into pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type,
voltage, and current capacity. Diodes have polarity, determined by
an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead). Most diodes allow current to
flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode.

SPECIFICATION

 Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage, VRRM: 1000V

 Average Rectified Forward Current at TA = 75oC , IO = 3A

 Peak Surge Forward Current, IFSM = 150A

3.2 IN4007 DIODE

Fig: 3.2 IN4007 DIODE

Features:

 Average forward current is 1A

 Non-repetitive Peak current is 30A

  Reverse current is 5uA.

 Peak repetitive Reverse voltage is 1000V

 Power dissipation 3W

1N4007 EQUIVALENT DIODES:

1N4148, 1N4733A, 1N5408, 1N5822, Zener Diodes

DESCRIPTION:

A diode is a device which allows current flow through only one direction.
That is the current should always flow from the Anode to cathode. The cathode
terminal can be identified by using a grey bar as shown in the picture above.

For 1N4007 Diode, the maximum current carrying capacity is 1A it

withstand peaks up to 30A. Hence we can use this in circuits that are designed for
less than 1A. The reverse current is 5uA which is negligible. The power
dissipation of this diode is 3W.

APPLICATIONS OF DIODE:

 Can be used to prevent reverse polarity problem

 Half Wave and Full Wave rectifiers

 Used as a protection device

 Current flow regulators

3.3 IN4001 DIODE

 Fig: 3.3 IN4001 DIODE

IN4001 Diode Features

 Average forward current is 1A

 Non-repetitive Peak current is 30A

 Reverse current is 5uA.

 RMS reverse voltage is 35V

 Peak repetitive Reverse voltage is 50V

 Available in DO-41 Package

1N4001 EQUIVALENT DIODES

1N4148, 1N4733A, 1N5408, 1N5822, Zener Diodes.

DESCRIPTION

A diode is a device which allows current flow through only one direction.
That is the current should always flow from the Anode to cathode. The cathode
terminal can be identified by using a grey bar as shown in the picture above.

For 1N4001 Diode, the maximum current carrying capacity is 1A it

withstand peaks up to 30A. Hence we can use this in circuits that are designed for
less than 1A. The reverse current is 5uA which is negligible. It can withstand
reverse voltage peak up to 50V.
Applications of Diode

 Can be used to prevent reverse polarity problem

 Half Wave and Full Wave rectifiers

 Used as a protection device

 Current flow regulators

3.4 NON-POLARIZED CAPACITORS

The non polarized capacitors are classified into two types plastic foil
capacitor and the other one is the electrolytic non polarized capacitor.

Fig: 3.4 NON-POLARIZED CAPACITORS

The plastic foil capacitor is non-polarized by nature and the electrolytic capacitors
are generally two capacitors in the series, which are in the back to back hence the
result is in the non-polarized with half capacitance. The non-polarized capacitor
requires the AC applications in the series or in parallel with the signal or power
supply.

The examples are the speaker crossover filters and power factor correction
network. In these two applications, a large AC voltage signal is applied across the
capacitor.

3.5 INDUCTIVE SENSOR

An inductive sensor is a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic

induction to detect or measure objects. An inductor develops a magnetic field when
a current flows through it; alternatively, a current will flow through a circuit
containing an inductor when the magnetic field through it changes. This effect can
be used to detect metallic objects that interact with a magnetic field. Non-metallic
substances such as liquids or some kinds of dirt do not interact with the magnetic
field, so an inductive sensor can operate in wet or dirty conditions.

Fig: 3.5 INDUCTIVE SENSOR

PRINCIPLE

The inductive sensor is based on Faraday's law of induction One form of

inductive sensor drives a coil with an oscillator. A metallic object approaching the
coil will alter the inductance of the coil, producing a change in frequency or a
change in the current in the coil. These changes can be detected, amplified,
compared to a threshold and use to switch an external circuit. The coil may have a
ferromagnetic core to make the magnetic field more intense and to increase the
sensitivity of the device. A coil with no ferromagnetic core ("air core") can also be
used, especially if the oscillator coil must cover a large area.
 Another form of inductive sensor uses one coil to produce a changing
magnetic field, and a second coil (or other device) to sense the changes in the
magnetic field produced by an object, for example, due to eddy currents induced in
a metal object.

APPLICATIONS

Inductive proximity sensor (proximity switch)

An inductive proximity sensor is a non-contact electronic proximity sensor.

It is used for positioning and detection of metal objects. The sensing range of an
inductive switch is dependent on the type of metal being detected. Ferrous metals,
such as iron and steel, allow for a longer sensing range, while nonferrous metals,
such as aluminum and copper, may reduce the sensing range by up to 60 percent.

Since the output of an inductive sensor has two possible states, an inductive
sensor is sometimes referred to as an inductive proximity switch.

The sensor consists of an induction loop or detector coil. Most often this is
physically a number of turns of insulated magnet wire wound around a high
magnetic permeability core, such as a ferrite ceramic rod or coil form, and the
winding may or may not have a feedback tap some number of turns from one end
of the total winding. It is connected to a capacitance to form a tuned frequency
oscillator tank circuit. In conjunction with a voltage or current gain device like a
transistor or operational amplifier, this forms a tuned frequency oscillator. When
power is applied, the resulting oscillation is a high frequency alternating electric
current in the coil that has a constantly changing magnetic field able to induces
eddy currents in proximal (target) conductors. The closer the target is and the
greater its conductivity (metals are good conductors, for example), the greater the
induced eddy currents are and the more effect their resulting opposing magnetic
fields have on the magnitude and frequency of the oscillation. Its magnitude is
reduced as the load is increased in a non-magnetic conductor like aluminum
because the induced field in the target opposes the source induction field, lowering
net inductive impedance and therefore simultaneously tuning the oscillation
frequency higher. But that magnitude is less affected if the target is a highly
magnetically permeable material, like iron, as that high permeability increases the
coil inductance, lowering the frequency of oscillation.

A change in oscillation magnitude may be detected with a simple amplitude

modulation detector like a diode that passes the peak voltage value to a small filter
to produce a reflective DC voltage value, while a frequency change may be
detected by one of several kinds frequency discriminator circuits, like a phase lock
loop detector, to see in what direction and how much the frequency shifts. Either
the magnitude change or the amount of frequency change can serve to defined a
proximity distance at which the sensors go from on to off, or vice versa.

Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, traffic

lights, car washes, and a host of automated industrial processes. Because the sensor
does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for applications where
access presents challenges or where dirt is prevalent.

We have gained recognition as an eminent enterprise, devotedly engaged in

offering a broad range of Inductive Proximity Sensor. It has 8 mm dia, 12 mm
dia, 18 mm dia, 30 mm dia models with their respective sensing distance.Backed
by a team of experts, this sensor is manufactured using high grade components and
advance technology.

PRODUCT SPECIFICATION

Sensing Distance 1mm to 30mm

Protection Circuit Surge absorbing circuit
Brand Carlo Gavazzi
Operating Voltage 90-250 VAC
Hysteresis Greater Than 10% of sensing distance
Operating Humidity 35% - 95% RH
Protection Class IP - 67
Power ripple 50/60Hz
Output current 100 mA max.
Current consumption 2.0 mA max.
Residual Voltage Greater Than 15 V

3.6 LAMINATED CORE

This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in electric power
transmission and appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power
electronic devices. They are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW.
The insulated laminations minimizes eddy current losses in the iron core.

Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving a
high level of insulation between the windings. The rectangular cores are made up
of stampings, often in E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are sometimes used.
Shields between primary and secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI
(electromagnetic interference), or a screen winding is occasionally used.

Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out

built into the winding, to shut-off power at high temperatures to prevent further
overheating

3.7 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

An air cylinder is an operative device in which the state input energy of

compressed air i.e. pneumatic power is converted in to mechanical output power,
by reducing the pressure of the air to that of the atmosphere.

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS

A double acting cylinder is employed in control systems with the full

pneumatic cushioning and it is essential when the cylinder itself is required to
retard heavy messes. This can only be done at the end positions of the piston stock.
In all intermediate position a separate externally mounted cushioning derive most
be provided with the damping feature. The normal escape of air is out off by a
cushioning piston before the end of the stock is required.
As a result the sit in the cushioning chamber is again compressed since it
cannot escape but slowly according to the setting made on reverses. The air freely
enters the cylinder and the piston stokes in the other direction at full force and
velocity.
 Fig: 3.7 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

SPECIFICATION:

Stroke length : cylinder stroke length 100mm =0.1m

Piston rod : 10mm =10 X10-3m

Quantity : 1

Seals : Nitride (Buna-N) Eastover

Piston : EN-8

Medium : Air

Temperature : 0-80°C

3.7.1 PISTON
 The piston is a cylindrical member of certain length which reciprocates
inside the cylinder. The diameter of the piston is slightly less than that of the
cylinder bore diameter and it is fitted to the top of the piston rod. It is one of the
important part which converts the pressure energy into mechanical power. The
piston is equipped with a ring suitably proportioned and it is relatively soft rubber
which is capable of providing good sealing with low friction at the operating
pressure. The purpose of piston is to provide means of conveying the pressure of
air inside the cylinder to the piston of the oil cylinder.
Generally piston is made up of
 Aluminium alloy Blight and medium work.
 Brass or bronze or CI-heavy duty.

The piston is double acting type. The piston moves forward when the high-
pressure air is turned from the right side of cylinder. The piston moves backward
when high pressure acts on the piston from the left side of the cylinder. The piston
should be as strong and rigid as possible.
The efficiency and economy of the machine primarily depends on the working of
the piston.

3.7.2 PISTON ROD

 Fig: 3.7.2 PISTON ROD

The piston rod is circular in cross section. It connects piston with piston of
other cylinder. The piston rod is made of mild steel ground and polished. A high
finish is essential on the outer rod surface to minimize wear on the rod seals. The
piston rod is connected to the piston by mechanical fastening. The piston and the
piston rod can be separated if necessary one end of the piston rod is connected to
the bottom of the piston. The other end of the piston rod is connected to the other
piston rod by means of coupling. The piston transmits the working force to the oil
cylinder through the piston rod. The piston rod is designed to withstand the high
compressive force. It should avoid bending and withstand shock loads caused by
the grinding force. The piston moves inside the rod seal fixed in the bottom cover
plate of the cylinder. The sealing arrangements prevent the leakage of air from the
bottom of the cylinder while the rod reciprocates through it.

3.7.3 CYLINDER COVER PLATES

Fig: 3.7.3 CYLINDER COVER PLATES

The cylinder should be enclosed to get the applied pressure from the
compressor and act on the pinion. The cylinder is thus closed by the cover plates
on both the ends such that there is no leakage of air. An inlet port is provided on
the top cover plate and an outlet ports on the bottom cover plate. There is also a
hole drilled for the movement of the piston. The cylinder cover plate protects the
cylinder from dust and other particle and maintains the same pressure that is taken
from the compressor. The flange has to hold the piston in both of its extreme
positions. The piston hits the top plat during the return stroke and hits the bottom
plate during end of forward stroke. To the cover plates must be strong enough to
withstand the load.

3.8 SEALS AND CONNECTORS

Seal is an important component of a pneumatic system and is used to prevent

the air leakage through the joint. This project passes the static seal which are used
to prevent the leakage through the stationary surface. Material of the seal is Teflon
tape. Teflon has the following properties

 Withstand the system pressure and temperature without any damage.

 Resist the wear and abrasion.
 Recover from deformation.
 Resists the adverse effects such as deterioration and shrinking caused by the
system.

3.9 PRESSURE REGULATOR

Constant pressure level is required for the trouble free operation of

a pneumatic control. A pressure regulator is fitted downstream of the compressed
air filter. It provides a constant set pressure at the outlet of the outlet of the
regulator. The pressure regulator is also called as pressure reducing valve or
pressure regulating valve.
 Fig: 3.9 PRESSURE REGULATOR

3.10 PUNCH AND DIE

A typical die and punch set used for blanking operation is shown in figure.
The sheet metal used is called strip or stock. The punch which is held in the punch
holder is bolted to the press ram while die is bolted on the press table during the
working stroke, the punch penetrates the strip, and on the return stroke of the press
ram the strip is lifted with the punch, but it is removed from the punch by the
stripper plate. The stop pin is a gage and it sets the advance of the strip stock
within the punch and die. The strip stock is butted against the back stop acting as a
datum location for the centre of the blank.
The die opening is given angular clearance to permit escape of good part (blank).
The waste Skelton of stock strip, from which blanks have been cut, is recovered as
salvaged material. The clearance angle provided on the die depends on the material
of stock, as well as its thickness. For thicker and softer materials generally higher
angular clearance is given. In most cases, degree of angular clearance is sufficient.
The height of cutting land of about 3 mm is generally sufficient.

3.11 5 /2 SOLENOID VALVE WORKING PRINCIPLE

Fig: 3.11 5 /2 SOLENOID VALVE WORKING PRINCIPLE

 5/2 way is a five port, two position valve that will put a fluid or air
into one end of a double acting device as well as allowing the other end vent to
exhaust .Direct acting are solenoid valves that are activated purely by the
electromagnetic forces in the valve and do not rely on the fluid pressure to assist.

Technical data

Port Size : 0.635x10-2m

Maximum pressure : 0-10 x10 5 N/m2

Quantity :1

Medium : Air

3.12 WORKING

 The compressed air from the compressor in the pressure range of 7-10 bar is
passed through a pipe connected to the solenoid valve with one input.
 The solenoid valve is actuated by the timer unit. The solenoid valve has 2
outputs and one input.
 The air entering the input goes out through the two outputs when the timing
unit is actuated.
 As the air pressure is high at the bottom of the piston, the air pressure below
the piston is more than above it.
 The material is placed on the die, which is fixed on the base of the machine
and the punch.
 As the exhaust valve is opened, the pressurized air pushes the piston
downwards which in turn is connected to the punch.
 Due to this the punch travels down on the metal sheet kept over die, punching
the hole.
 CHAPTER-4

FEATURES OF PNEUMATIC PUNCHING MACHINE

4.1 PNEUMATIC PUNCHING MACHINE

 It is compact in size
 The electrical power consumption is very low
 This principle can be utilized at any places
 It is simple in construction
 Low cost
 Easy to handle
 It eliminate man power

4.2 ADVANTAGES

 The outstanding advantage of pneumatic system is the control valve which

consistently applies a specified load with minimum effort.
 From thin foils to metal sheets can be pierced according to desirable shapes.
  It can be modified to any extend to bring out the required effort.
 Its outcome can be utilized properly in the extensive mechanical field.
 Multiple cylinder systems can be put into action according to the need of
pressing effort.
 In modern payer plants this pneumatic system can be used for loading press
roll.
 Simple construction than the mechanical and hydraulic presses.
 Compared to hydraulic and mechanical presses pneumatic press is
economical.
 It does not require current carrying cables.
 No extra skill is required for operating this system.
 Operation is very smooth and in this system we can get more output by
applying less effort.
 This system can be effectively used for punch mark in industrial materials
such as industries name, address or number of product.

4.3 LIMITATIONS

 Hard and thick materials cannot be riveted.

 Even a bit of leakage may result in power loss.
 Due to the linkages there will be frictional losses.
 Maintenance will be more due to the number of moving parts.
 Stroke length is fixed.

4.4 APPLICATIONS

4.4.1DISCHARGE OF WORKPIECE

The arm fed has wide application in low cost automation. It can be used in
automated assembly lines to pick up the finished product from workstation
and place them in the bins. It can also be used to pick up the raw material
and place them on the conveyor belts and vice versa.

4.4.2 JOB CLAMPING

This unit can also be used in clamping operation in certain area of mass
production where clamping and unclamping have to be done at high speeds.
 The application of this unit is limited to operations, which involves moderate
clamping forces.

4.4.3 TRANSFER OF JOBS BEWTEEN WORKS STATIONS

The gripping method used in a low cost automation to move the work piece
from one workstation to another. The combination of an angular rotary
motion is the principle behind this method. The gripper holds the work
rigidly. The to and fro motion is achieved by mean of the actuating cylinder.

CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION

The project carried out by us made an impressing task in the field of small
scale industries and automobile maintenance shops. It is very usefully for the
workers to carry out a number of operations in a single machine. This
project has also reduced the cost involved in the concern. Project has been
designed to perform the entire requirement task which has also been
provided.
 CHAPTER-6

PROJECT PHOTO
 CHAPTER-7

REFERENCE

[1] P.M.Pradhan, “Experimental Investigation and Fabrication of Pneumatic

Punch”, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology, Vol. 2, Issue 6, June 2013.

[2] A.S. Aditya Polapragada & K. Sri Varsha, “Pneumatic Auto Feed Punching and
Riveting Machine “, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
(IJERT) Vol. 1 Issue 7, September - 2012 ISSN: 2278-0181.

[3] U.P. Singh, “Design Study of the Geometry of a Punching tool”, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 33 (1992) 331-345 Elsevier.

[4] P.C.Sharma, “Methods of reducing Cutting Forces”, Pages 63-66, Production

Engineering, Ninth edition, 2004, S. Chand & Company Ltd.

[5] E. Paul. Degarmo, “Shearing in Metal Cutting”, Pages 518-528, Materials and
Processes in Manufacturing, Eighth edition, 2003, Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.

[6] K. Mahadevan, Design Data Handbook, Third edition, Reprint 2002, CBS
Publishers & distributors.