>TISSUES –an aggregate of cells
usually of a particular kind together
with their intercellular substance
that forms one of structural
materials of a plant or an animal.
*4 MAJOR TYPES
1. EPITHELIAL
2. CONNECTIVE
3. MUSCLE
4. NERVOUS
>EPITHELIAL
-free surface
-basement membrane
-avascular
*Functions: Protection, secretion,
absorption and excretion; to cover
organ, lining of hollow organs.
*SIMPLE SQUAMOUS –contains
one single layer of cell/tissue.
-structure of the cell is flat.
*FUNCTION: Diffusion and
filtration.
*SIMPLE CUBOIDAL –one
singular layer but structure is
cuboidal.
*FUNCTIONS: Secretion and
excretion.
*SIMPLE COLUMNAR –
sometimes possesses microvilli
-often have goblet cells
-produces and secretes mucus
*FUNCTION: protection, secretion,
and absorption
*PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
COLUMNAR –often have cilia
-often have goblet cells
*FUNCTION: protection, secretion,
and movement of mucus
*STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS –top
cells are flat
-can accumulate keratin
-found in the lining of respiratory
tract.
*FUNCTION: protection
*TRANSITIONAL –cube-shaped
and elongated cells.
*FUNCTION: dispensability and
protection.
*GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
*ENDOCRINE –glands that are
ductless.
*EXOCRINE
-UNICELLULAR –composed of
one cell; goblet cell
-MULTICELLULAR –composed of
many cells; sweat glands, salivary
3 VARIOUS TYPES
*MEROCRINE GLAND –secretion
are being directly secreted outside
the gland with the cell being intact.
*APOCRINE GLAND –secretion
would move at one part of the cell.
*HOLOCRINE GLAND –the entire
cell containing the secretion would
move out the gland.
>CONNECTIVE TISSUES –most
abundant tissue type
*FUNCTION: -bind structures
-Provide support and protection
-serve as framework
-fill spaces
-store fats
-produce blood cells
-protect against infection
-help repair tissue damages
-have matrix
-have cells that usually divide
-vascularity depends on the area
intact
-Connective tissue proper
-loose connective tissue
-adipose tissue
-reticular connective tissue
-dense connective tissue
-elastic connective tissue
MAJOR CELL TYPES
*FIBROBLAST –fixed cells
-most common cell
-large; star shaped
-produce fibers
*MACROPHAGES –first line of
defense
-histiocytic
-attached to fibers
-phagocytic
-important in defense
*MAST CELLS –fixed cells
-release heparin –responsible for
blood cloth
-release histamine
>SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE
TISSUE –cartilage, bone, blood
>LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-mainly fibroblast
-fluid to gel-like matrix
-collagenous fibers
-elastic fibers
>ADIPOSE TISSUE –adipocytes
*FUNCTION: -serves as a
cushions
-insulate and stores fats
-found beneath the skin –behind
the eyes and heart and kidney
>DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-packed collagenous fibers
-elastic fibers
-few fibroblast
>RETICULAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE –composed of reticular
fibers.
>ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-abundant in elastic fibers
-some collagenous fibrous
fibroblast
-could be found in the large
arteries of the heart.
>SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
*BONES –support of the muscle
-protection
-production of blood cell
-attachment per muscle
-solid matrix
*CARTILAGE –rigid matrix
-poor blood supply
3 TYPES
*HYALINE –most abundant in
nose and respiratory passages
*ELASTIC –flexible; such as ears
and larynx
*FIBROCARTILAGE –very tough
Serve as shock absorber
-intervertebrae
*BLOOD –fluid matrix called
plasma
-red blood cells [responsible for
transport of nutrients and oxygen]
-white blood cells [responsible for
defense mechanism]
-platelets [responsible for blood
clothing]
>MUSCLE TISSUES
-muscle cells are called muscle
fibers
-are contractile
3 TYPES
*SKELETAL MUSCLE –attached
to the bones [are voluntary]
*SMOOTH MUSCLE –walls of the
organ/skin [are involuntary]
*CARDIAC MUSCLE –found in the
heart [also involuntary]
>NEURON/NERVOUS TISSUE
-found in the brain, spinal cord,
and peripheral nerve
-basic cells are neurons
-neurological cells are supporting
cells
-sensory reception [conduction]
*CELL BODY –cell like support
center
*NUCLEUS –main control center
*DENDRITES –responsible in
receiving messages from another
cell
*AXON –passes messages
*MYELIN SHEATH –covering of
the axon
-increases neurologic transmission
*SCHWANN’S CELLS –
responsible for nerve regeneration
and phagocytosis during nerve
damage
*NODE OF RANVIER–responsible
for constriction in the myelin
sheath [promotes action potential]
*AXON TERMINAL –relay
message of the other cells
-forms junctions with other cells
*NEUROLOGICAL CELL –
supporting cell at axon
>ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN
OF AN ANIMAL
*Hierarchical Organization Of
Animal Complexity
5 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION
1. PROTOPLASMIC
2. CELLULAR
3. CELL-TISSUE
4. TISSUE-ORGAN
5. ORGAN SYSTEM
*PROTOPLASMIC GRADE OF
ORGANIZATION –simplest
eukaryotic organisms
-protoplasm contains organelles
with specialized functions and
diversity among groups is due to
varying subcellular components
and structures
*CELLULAR GRADE OF
ORGANIZATION –form
metazoans [multicellular
organisms like Volvox.
-have greater structural complexity
by combining cells into larger
aggregates.
*CELL-TISSUE GRADE OF
ORGANIZATION –tissue
-eumatozoans [jellyfish;sponges]
*TISSUE-ORGAN GRADE OF
ORGANIZATION –aggregated
tissues now assembled into larger
functional units called organs
-Parenchyma
-Stroma
-represented by flatworms
*ORGAN-SYSTEM GRADE OF
ORGANIZATION –several organs
work together to perform a
common function for the survival of
the animal.
>ANIMAL BODY PLANS
*ARE DIFFERENT IN:
-Grade of organization
-Body symmetry
-Number of embryonic layers
-Number of body cavities
*SYMMETRY –is a balance of
proportions and the
correspondence of size and shape
of parts on opposite sides of a
median plane.
Types of Animal Symmetry
*SPHERICAL –ball-shaped
*RADIAL –tube or vase-like
*BILATERAL –right and left sides
*SPHERICAL SYMMETRY –
creates mirror halves
-best suited for floating
*RADIAL SYMMETRY –body
divided into similar halves by more
than two planes passing through
longitudinal axis.
-found in sponges, jellyfishes, sea
urchins, and related groups
*PARTS: oral and aboral surface
*BILATERAL SYMMETRY –
organism divided along a sagittal
plane into two mirror portions
forming right and left halves.
-much better fitted for directional
[forward] movement which is
advantageous to an animal moving
through its environment head first
-cephalization
-mouth in front area
TYPES OF ORGAN-SYSTEM
GRADE OF ORGANIZATION
>INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
*INTEGUMENT –is a protective
outer covering
*POIKILOTHERM
*HOMEOTHERM
*The integument of Endothermic
animals
-temperature regulation
-sensory receptors
-has excretory and respiratory
function
-camouflage and signaling or
display [pigmentation]
-secretes molecules that may play
role in mate attraction, predator
repulsion, and detection of
pheromonal cues that influence
behavioral interaction between
animals.
*INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT
-unicellular eukaryotes [pellicle]
-most invertebrates
-epidermis
-cuticle
*PARASITIC PLATYHELMINTIS –
syncytial tegument
*Mollusks have soft epidermis
which contains mucous glands that
secrete calcium carbonate shell.
*Cephalopods have more
complex integument made of
cuticle, simple epidermis,
connective tissue, and iridocytes
[reflective cells]
*Arthropods have the most
complex invertebrate integuments
that provide protection and skeletal
support [exoskeleton]
*Cuticle may remain soft and
flexible like in many cells
crustaceans and insect larvae but
can also be found into general
ways.
*CALCIFICATION –deposition of
calcium carbonate in procuticle.
*SCLEROTIZATION –formation of
cross linkages between proteins.
-results in the formation of
sclerotin, which is very resistant to
damage.
*Since arthropod cuticle is so
tough, molting must occur to allow
growth.
-molting starts with epidermal cells
dividing by mitosis.
-enzymes secreted by epidermis
digest most of the procuticle
-digested materials are absorbed
and reused.
-space beneath the old cuticle
grows new epicuticle and
procuticle are formed.
-after old cuticle is shed, new
cuticle is thickened and calcified or
sclerotized
*Basic vertebrate integuments and
its derivatives are best exemplified
by frog and human skin
-thin outer stratified
epithelial layer called epidermis is
derived from ectoderm
-inner, thicker layer called
dermis is derived from mesoderm
*EPIDERMIS is made of several
layers of stratified squamous
epithelium [absorbs UV rays
(10%)]
-basal layers of cells undergo
frequent mitosis to renew cells are
made and old cells are displaced
upward.
-Exceedingly tough fibrous proteins
called keratin accumulates in the
interior of cells in the process
called keratinization
-as old cells die, keratin
accumulates in all the cytoplasm of
the cells and become cornified [cell
death]
*Stratum corneum is formed
when highly cornified cells become
thick and highly resistant to
abrasion and water diffusion that
eventually forms calluses and
footpads of mammals.
*Dermis supports, cushions, and
nourishes the epidermis.
-may contain true bony structure
of dermal origin much like scales of
modern fishes, which evolved from
bony armor of early fishes
-most amphibians lack dermal
bones in their skin but have
vestiges of dermal scales
-in reptiles, dermal bones form the
armor of crocodilians, the beaded
skin of lizards, and the shell of
turtles.
-for some mammals, dermal bone
gives rise to antlers and the bony
cores of horns.
*Claws, beaks, nails, and horns
are made up of combination of
epidermal and dermal components
>ANIMAL COLORATION –tends
to be vivid and dramatic when
used for warning coloration or as
recognition matters.
-some colors are subdued or
cryptic for camouflage and
disguise.
*BIOCROMES – reflects specific
light rays.
*CHROMATOPHORE –small sack
like cells with pigment structure
*CEPHALOGOD -
*MELANIN PIGMENT –are
secreted by melanocytes or
malanophores
*CAROTENOID PIGMENTS –
orange structure produced in
xanthopores
*OMMOCHROMES and
PTERIDINES –yellow pigment in
mollusk.
*IRIDOPHORES –silvery or
metallic colors
*Most mammals are color blind
*DERMAL MELANOPHORES –
responsible for producing melanin
in growing hair of mamals.
A. The crustaceans
chromatophore dispersed and
concentrated.
B. The cephalopod chromatophore
muscles contracted to expose
pigments.
*Injurious effects of sunlight like
human sunburn demonstrates the
damaging effect of ultraviolet
radiation on cells [sunburn
(enlargement of the blood vessels).
Sun tan, skin cancer, genetic
mutations]
>SKELETAL SYSTEM
*Skeletons
*HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS
-coelomic fluids
-alternative contraction
-invertebrates
-not rigid
-uses body fluids in order to move
from one place to another.
*RIGID SKELETONS –being used
for attachment
*OUTER EXOSKELETON –shell
*INNER ENDOSKELETON –bone
structure
-exoskeleton is typical of mollusks,
arthropods, and other invertebrates
that will have shells, spicules
-can be for protection and
locomotion but has to be
periodically molted since it does
not grow with the animal in many
cases.
*ENDOSKELETON –is found in
echinoderms, cnidarians and
vertebrates
*Vertebrate endoskeleton is
formed inside the body and
composed of specialized
connective tissue like bone and
cartilage.
*NOTOCHORD –is a semi-rigid
supportive axial rod of
protochordates and all vertebrate
larvae
-made of large vacuolated cells
surrounded by layers of elastic
fibrous collagen sheaths
*Most vertebrates have bony
skeletons with some interspersed
cartilage.
*CARTILAGE –is soft, pliable
tissue that resists compression
with a basic form.
-other types of cartilage includes
elastic and fibrous tissues that
form bundles and are arranged in
herringbone design
*BONE –is living tissue with
significant deposits of inorganic
calcium salts in an extracellular
matrix of collagen fibers in protein-
carbohydrate gel
-most bone develops by replacing
hyaline cartilage called
endochondral bone replacement
[within cartilage]
-Embryonic cartilage is eroded and
becomes honeycombed; it is then
filled with bone-forming cells
-fully formed bone varies in density
and comes into two types –
spongy (cancellous) and compact
(lamellar) bones
*Microscopic structure of bone
consist of bundles of osteons
cemented together with
interconnected blood vessels and
nerves
*blood vessels and nerves
interconnected within the bones
and allow rapid healing
-Bone is a dynamic tissue such
that bone growth and remodeling
are complex restructuring
processes.
-Bone growth responds to several
hormones: parathyroid hormone
and calcitonin [selected by the
thyroid gland; capable of secreting
D3 vitamins and maintaining the
calcium
*PLAN OF THE VERTEBRATE
SKELETON –has both the axial
[middle; skull, vertebral column,
sternum, ribs] and appendicular
[limbs, pectoral, girdle, pelvic
girdle] skeleton divisions
*VERTEBRATE SKULLS –have
increased concentration of brain,
sense organs, and food gathering
apparatus
-vertebral column became
structurally adapted to withstand
new regional stresses given by the
two pairs of limb appendages
*Humans also have 7cervical
vertebra, 12 thoracic vertebrae,
and 5 lumbar vertebrae
-nearly all mammals have 7
cervical vertebrae –from the short
necks of dolphins to the long neck
of giraffes
A. VENTRAL – FRONT
B. DORSAL – BACK
*RIBS –are either long or short
skeletal structures that articulate
medially with the vertebrae and
extend into the body wall.
-Sloths have 24 pairs of ribs, while
horses have 18 pairs
-Primates other than humans have
13 pair of ribs
-humans generally have 12 pairs;
some have a rare 13th pair.
-Tetrapods, unless they are
limbless, have two pairs of
pentadactyl limbs (five-toed) that
are supported by respected girdle
*EFFECT OF BODY SIZE ON
BONE STRESS follows what
Galileo realized in 1638:
-the ability of limbs to support a
load decreases as the animals
increase size
-consider one animal twice as long,
wide and tall as a second animal:
-the larger animal has
eight times the volume and eight
times the weight
-the strength of the legs,
however, is based on the cross-
sectional area of bones, tendons,
and muscles, which is only four
times greater.
-therefore, eight times the
weight is to be carried by four
times the strength.
*ATLAS –in contact with the skull
[the YES joint}
*AXIS –[the NO joint]