Lab Experiment # 1

Introduction to EE LAB

Objective: Acquaintance of electronics lab and its equipments.

Electronics lab is equipped with 10 work benches. Each work bench contains its dedicated main
220V AC mains supply switch board, multimeter, oscilloscope, DC power supply, function
generator and trainer boards. Before going to lab work each student should ensure following two
things

1: Safety: Execution of Lab work in a safe manner is even more important than performing
accurate electronic measurement and construction of neat circuit. The first step is always to
become familiar with the lab itself. You should know where the fire extinguishers and
emergency exit are located.
The ever present hazard in an electronics lab is an electric shock. Most people equate the severity
of electric shook wit the voltage i.e, a 1000V shock is deadlier than a 100V shock. This is not
true. The real measure of a shock is the amount of current that flows through the body.
Following table lists the impact of ac alternating current on the bode

Current Effect
1-5mA Threshold of sensation
5-20Ma Involuntary muscle contraction
20-100ma Pain, breathing difficulties
100-300ma change in heart beat, possible death
>300ma respiratory paralysis, burn, unconsciousness [1]

The amount of the current flowing through the body during an electric shock depends on the
voltage and resistance between the terminals of voltage source. This resistance consists of (1)
Resistance of the contact point between body and the circuit (2) skin resistance at the point the
current flows into the bode (3) Internal resistance of a body (4) skin resistance where current
flows out of the body(e.g shoes). Obviously larger the resistance the smaller would be the
current. Therefore in order to minimize the the electric shock hazard
a) Always power down the electrical equipment, disconnect the power cord and wait for the
few seconds before touching exposed wires. Remember circuit breakers are usually set
for much larger currents (e.g household breakers are at 15A and higher) then the current
that kills a person(200-300Ma). Do not assume that your circuit is powered with 5V, it is
not dangerous. In some circuits capacitors can be charged to a much higher voltage and
give you a nasty surprise
b) Do not wear rings, watches, necklace and any other loose metallic object. Rings and
watches are especially dangerous as the skin beneath them is wet by sweat making the
resistance of skin much lower
c) Make sure your hands are dry. Resistance of wet skin can be as low as 1K ohm as
opposed to dry skin. Which is about 500k ohm
 d) Make sure that your shoes are dry ( especially in rainy days). Do not lean on metallic
objects (like legs of bench table) as you are providing a very large contact is for the
current to flow out of your body to ground.

2. Cleanliness: Maintaining the cleanliness of lab is not only the duty of lab staff but is also
important for students. Whenever you come to lab place your bags outside of lab. You are not
allowed to eat anything within the lab. Don’t through any waste material in lab. After performing
the lab experiment place every apparatus to its original place. These are some of the basic rules.
A rule list is attached to each work bench.

Basic equipment student will get to know

1: Plug, Socket and switch:

AC power plugs and sockets are devices for removable connecting electrically operated devices
to the supply. A plug connects to a matching socket. Plugs are mostly or completely male, while
sockets are mostly or completely female; the plug has protruding prongs or pins that fit into
matching slots or holes in the socket. Generally the plug is the movable connector attached to an
electrically-operated device's power cord, and the socket is a fixture on equipment or a building
structure. Wall-mounted sockets are also called receptacles, outlets, or power points.

Plug Socket

Switch:
Switch is mechanism by which any part of the circuit can be cut of or joined to either main
supply or rest of the circuit

Inserting or Removing plug: Before inserting plug switch off the main supply. When removing
a plug from a socket pull at the plug body, not the cable, else internal connections may be
damaged.

2: Bread Board/ Patch Board: A breadboard is a rectangular plastic box filled with holes,
which have contacts in which you can insert electronic components and wires. A breadboard is
what you use to patch together a temporary version of your circuit.
Description:
The bread board in your lab has 3 portions. The top and bottom rows have two rows of holes
each. Each row consists of sets of 5 holes each. Each of these 5 holes are wired together
internally. These four rows can be used to distribute various voltages and ground to more than
one points one the circuit.
The middle portion is where you wire up your main circuit. It has a matrix of holes spaced 0.1”
with column numbers 1, 2, 3 etc. The number of columns may be 50 or 100 depending on the
size of the board. The five holes in the top half rows (A to E) of each column are interconnected
internally and so are the five holes in the top half (rows Fto J). Thus each half of column can
become a node receiving up to 5 connections.
One of the main advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not soldered and if
they are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the board
.

3: Power Supply: A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more
electric loads. Power supply model RXN 303D is provided in the Basic Electronics lab. It
converts 220V mains to a variable DC voltage between 0 to 30 V DC. It can supply up to 1.5A of
current as demanded by the load. The maximum value of a current allowed at a given time can
be set by the operator through front controls.

Voltage limit=0-30V
Current limit=0-2A

Control and Indicators of Model: The face of PSU model consists of three areas

a) The connection terminals ( bottom right) including Red +ive, Black or return and yellow
( grounded to the body). The black terminal is not grounded. It floats to what ever
potential it is connected to
b) The control area. This are consists of Voltage knobs for coarse and fine setting. It also
has two current knobs for coarse and fine settings of the current allowed to the circuit. Te
current limit switch is a safety device to protect against accidental shorts. The voltage
applied to the circuit is reduced irrespective of the knob setting to keep the current below
the set level
c) The displays are at the very top displays the terminal voltage in the digital form. The
current display along the side the voltage display shows actual current being drawn by the
circuit and not necessarily the limit set by the control

4: The Multimeter: A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is

an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters (AMM) and
digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based
on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar
of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

In lab we will use multimeter more often. Every test bench has one multimeter. Multimeter has
two probes. One is black usually for ground point and other is red for more positive point on DC
circuits. It has display screen for readings to be displayed. Circular knob for choosing the right
quantity to be measured

Quantities to be measured: Contemporary multimeter can measure many quantities. The

common ones are:

 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

 Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.

 Resistance in ohms.

Additionally, some multimeter measure:

 Capacitance in farads.
 Conductance in siemens.
 Decibels.
 Duty cycle as a percentage.
 Frequency in hertz.
 Inductance in henrys.
 Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe,
often a thermocouple

DMM as voltmeter:

Voltmeter measures voltage. As voltage is potential difference between two points. DMM probes
are placed across the two different points in circuit to find potential difference between those two
points.
There are often two separate modes for AC and DC voltage. Both will have a V but one will
have two lines, one dashed and one solid (DC) and one with have a wave next to it (AC).
This meter has the double line for DC voltage, and 5 ranges, from 200mV to 600V. The lightning
bolt symbol is a gentle reminder that this voltage is extremely dangerous.

There is also the V-wave symbol for AC and two ranges since most AC voltages that are
measured are power voltages and are pretty big. (For small AC waveforms, a scope is best since
you will be able to see the waveform itself) .

When the probes are not connected to anything, they should display 0V. They might flicker a bit
if they pick up ambient voltage (your home is a big radiator of 60Hz voltage which can couple
into your meter probes).

Exercise 1: Check the battery with the multimeter

Digital Multimeter as Ammeter: Ammeter measures current. As current flows across the length
of conductor. So ammeter is placed in series across any wire in order to find current flowing
through it. So any circuit which is pre patched needs to be broken before connecting ammeter
which is not the case with voltmeter.

1: Set the knob at ammeter mode

2: Insert the probes in COM slot and A slot

DMM as ohmmeter:
For finding resistance of any device through ohmmeter set the multimeter at ohmmeter mode by
rotating its knob. Usually resistance is across two points. So place the leads of ohmmeter across
the ends of element.
Look for an ohm (Ω) symbol, if it’s a ranging meter there will be a bunch of subdivided modes.
If it’s auto-ranging there will be only one.

Insert the probes in COM slot and V slot

Note: Never find the resistance of any element whenever it is plugged in circuit. Always remove
that element from the circuit from circuit. Because resistance of circuit will add into the circuit

6: DEV 2769 Trainer board:

This trainer is equipped with all necessary accessories required to perform basic electronic and
electric experiments. Trainer has on board DC power supply of +5v, +12V, -5V, -12V, bread
board, function generator, resistors etc

Exercise: Each work bench has user manual related to every equipment. Study the manual of
this trainer
Basic Electric quantities: Draw the symbol of each quantity

Sr. No. Components Symbol Type/Type No.

1 Resistor (R)
2 Capacitor
3 Inductor

Tasks

1: Measurement Resistance:
a) Zero Checking:
On the AVO meter (model…..) locate the mode switch, and select Ohms in lowest
available range.
Connect the two leads together. The meter must read close to zero ohms or at max a
fraction of an ohm. If not report the instrument to the lab supervisor. Some instruments
may provide a “null or zero” adjust knob.

b) If the meter passes the zero error check, switch to the lowest range available for checking
6.8K.
c) Press the ends of the meter probes/leads firmly across one of the resistance. If the meter
reads “over range” or “over load” or any such reading, the applied resistance is outside
the “selected” measuring range.
d) If you are unable to read the resistance color code yet, you have to depend on the meter.
Try another one out of those provided and select the one which reads close to 6.8K. That
is your R1.
e) Similarly identify(if not through color code). R2,R3,R4,R5 etc. in measurement
R3(120K) you may come across the “over range” indication. Switch to the next higher
range to read the value.
f) Having notes the values of the resistances switch the meter to “OFF”. This is especially
necessary in battery powered(portable) instruments.
g) READING COLOR CODED RESISTANCE VALUES
Example: For a 1000 Ω color coded resistor,
1st color band = brown = 1
2nd color band = black = 0
3rd color band, multiplier = red = exponent 2
last band, tolerance color band = gold
To calculate the resistance value: 1 0 x 10^2 = 10 x 100 = 1000 Ω
The 1 and 0 are the first two digits in the 1000 Ω value.
The 1 and the 0 don’t multiply or add. They are simply digits.
 2. Patching the Circuit:
Patch the circuit in fig…

V= __________________

R1=_________________

R2=_________________

MEASURED VALUES THROUGH DMM:

VOLTAGE across R1 VOLTAGE across R2 CURRENT mA

(VR1) (VR2) (I)

CALCULATED VALUES :

VOLTAGE across R1 VOLTAGE across R2 CURRENT mA

VR1=I*R1 VR2=I*R2 I=V/(R1+R2)

CONCLUSIONS:
 EXPERIMENT No: 02
Verification of Ohm’s law

Apparatus: Resistance, connecting/ jumper wires, DC variable power supply, Digital multimeter
DMM

Theory: Every conductor possesses some resistance, which is defined as the opposition to flow
of electrons. The devices which are specifically made for the purpose are called “Resistors”.
Ohm’s law states,
“Voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing through a component if resistance
of that component remains constant”.
Mathematically Ohm’s law can be exposed as follows,
V=I×R
Thus relating different quantities, if voltage across certain resistor is given we can find
current through it and vice versa. The elements which obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic devices.
Note that Ohm; law mathematically is the linear relation So graph mathematically should be
straight line if a graph is drawn between voltage and current keeping the resistance constant
Procedure:
You have to connect the circuit given in circuit diagram given in figure 1 according to the steps
given below.

Figure 1

a) Resistance measurement: First of all determine the value of a resistor supplied by

instructor. By DMM
1. Set the DMM to ohmmeter mode. Make sure black probe should be connected to the
COM port and red probe should be connect to the ohm port
2. Set the knob to ohm scale, Connect the resistor ends across the probe of DMM.
3. Set the knob to maximum range on the scale drawn on ogmter.
4. Note the reading of Resistance

b) Current measurement:
1. Take the protoboard and jumper wires. On the protoboard top horizontal rows of select
one of the hole and connect one jumper wire to any of the hole
2. On the protoboard locate the whole 2A which is one of the hole located on vertical
connected columns. Connect the other end of the jumper wire to this hole 2A.
 3. Take the DMM set it to ammeter mode. For this purpose set the black probe in COM port
and red probe to the mA/Ua port. Set the DMM knob to ammeter range. Note that DMM
ammeter is a part of the circuit. DMM should be power off first
4. Locate the hole 2C. Connect a one end of jumper wire at this hole and other end of the
jumper wire should be connected to one probe of DMM.
5. As DMM ammeter is a port of the circuit, Now locate the hole 7C on bread board.
Connect one end of jumper wire at this hole and other end to DMM ammeter probe.
6. Locate the hole 7 E. Connect the resistor one end at this hole
7. Locate the hole 7F. connect the other end of resistor at this hole
8. Locate the hole 7 H, connect a jumper wire at this hole.
9. Connect the other end of jumper wire to bottom horizontally connected 25 pair holes,
10. For DC power supply connections connect the positive end of Power supply to top
horizontal holes and negative end to bottom horizontal holes
11. Note that ammeter and resistor is connected in series with Power supply
12. Now switch on power supply and DMM. Rotate the knob of power supply in order to
increase the voltage from 0v to 5v in the steps of 0.5v
13. Note DMM ammeter current reading. Fill the Table 1 column 3 with current readings
Note you should move the knob of DMM from maximum to minimum scale. You should
be careful while measuring current and determine whether it is in mA or Ua
14. After taking the current measurements switch off the power supply and DMM

c) Current calculation: Apply the ohm’s law to solve for the current by the following formula and
fill the column 4 of Table 1
I= V/R
d) Voltage Measurement
For voltage measurement perform the following steps
1. In the above circuit keeping the circuit same. Locate the holes where resistor ends are
connected. R is connected from hole 7E to 7F.
2. Take the DMM. Set it to voltmeter mode. For this make sure that black probe is
connected to COM and red probe is connected to the V port. Knob of DMM should also
be at Voltmeter probe.
3. As voltage is measured by connecting the DMM in parallel. Take a jumper wire connect
one of it to hole 7B and other to 7 G. Connect red probe of DMM to 7B and black probe
to 7G.
4. Now switch on the DMM and DC power supply. Increase the applied voltage by rotating
the knob of DC power supply from 0V to 5V in the increments of 0.5V. note down the
DMM voltmeter reading and record it in the column 5 of Table 1. This is measured
voltage across the resistor
5. After taking the voltage measurements switch off the power supply

e) Voltage calculations:
 Apply the Ohm’s law to find the voltage across resistor mathematically for each value of
I in current measurement and multiplying it by R. and fill the table 1 column 6
Error Calculation:
Find the error in both voltage and current measurement by the formula given. Error shows how
precisely you have verified Ohm’s law. Draw the graph between voltage across R and current
through R.

Observations and Calculations

Resistance= __________________

Sr Applied Current Voltage Error in Error in

No Voltage Current Voltage
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
(ammeter Ohm’ law (Voltmeter Ohm’s 𝐼−𝐼′
*100 𝑉−𝑉 ′
𝐼 𝑉
reading) reading) law
I I’=V/R V V’=IR *100

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Graph

Conclusions:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 Lab #3
Series and Parallel Circuits

Objective: To become fully familiarize with series and parallel circuits.

Apparatus: Resistance, connecting/ jumper wires, DC variable power supply, Digital multimeter
DMM

Introduction:
An electrical circuit is a continuous path or array of paths through which an electrical current can
flow. The two different ways in which components of a circuit can be connected are called "series"
and "parallel". In a series connection, components are connected one after another; therefore, the
same current flows through all of them. In a parallel connection, the circuit components are
connected side by side. That is, the positive and negative sides of each component are respectively
connected together; therefore, each has the same potential drop across. In this lab, we will explore
measurements of current and potential difference in simple circuits. Also, we will attempt to verify
the textbook expressions for the equivalent resistance of components connected in series and in
parallel, and for the power dissipation in a resistive load. For instance, for a circuit consisting of any
three resistance values R1, R2, R3, the equivalent resistance in series Rs and in parallel Rp are,

RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + RN (1)
and
1/ RP = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3 + … + 1/ RN, (2)
respectively.

Apparatus:
A connection board ("breadboard", see figures 1 & 2) with 3 resistor sockets, a multimeter
with ammeter and voltmeter, and a variable voltage supply set for 10 Volts output.
Procedure:
When you are building a circuit, be sure the power supply is turned off the whole time, until
you are ready to take measurements. Use only the plug-in connecting wires supplied. If you
need more wires, ask your instructor.
When connecting the digital multi-meters (DMM), start out by setting the instruments to their least
sensitive scale. You may switch to a more sensitive (smaller value) scale to get a more precise
reading. For example, suppose you have found a voltage to be around 5 Volts after measuring it with
the DMM set on a 200 Volt scale. To get a more precise reading, do not switch to a 2 Volt scale on
the meter since you know the value is greater than 2 Volts. Try a 10 Volt scale (if available), and if
the reading on the display turns out to be slightly less than 5 volts, try a 5 Volt scale (if available).
The smallest scale possible on the meter will give you the value with the most significant figures
attainable with that instrument, therefore, making your measurements more accurate.
CAUTION: If you connect a circuit with zero resistance (only wires between + and - on the
supply) the fuse on your power supply will be damaged and it will need to be replaced.
Don't do this.
NOTE: To measure current, the current must flow through the ammeter. Therefore, the
ammeter must be connected in series with the current to be measured. It must be placed so
that the current to be measured has no alternative but to flow through the ammeter. A
voltmeter on the other hand need only be connected in parallel with the voltage to be
measured.
Measurements on Series Circuit:
1. Use a DMM set to measure resistance in Ohms (Ohms function switch setting) to obtain
the individual resistance values for your three resistors R1, R2 and R3. Write your results on
a data table. Use the example provided at the end of this document on how to read
manufacturer color coded resistance values, and the Resistor Color Coding Chart in the
classroom, to determine the manufacturer specified resistance values of your resistors.
Compare to your results.
2. Assemble your series circuit following the circuit diagram in Figure 1(b). Directly measure the
equivalent resistance (RS) of the resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series using a DMM. Then,
assemble a parallel circuit following the diagram in Figure 1(a) and directly measure the equivalent
resistance (RP) of the resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel. It is important that you take your
resistance measurements only when the power supply is not connected to the rest of your electrical
circuit. Write down your results and use formulas 1 and 2 above to calculate the theoretical values of
your equivalent resistances RS and RP using the measured values for R1, R2 and R3.
3. Connect the power supply to your circuit as shown on the diagram in Figure 2. Set the power
supply to 5V and measure the voltage drop across each resistor, the total voltage across all the
resistors connected together, the current in the circuit and the current through each resistor. Write
down your results.
You will need to change the voltmeter and ammeter connections accordingly to make all
these measurements. When measuring the voltage across a resistor while also measuring
current, connect the voltmeter only across the resistor, not across the resistor and ammeter.
4. Calculate the voltage for each resistor and enter it in your data table. Calculate the total
Voltage of the three resistors by adding your measured values (VS = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...).
5. Compare the results from the preceding two items and account for any differences.
Calculate % Difference.
6. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor by using the formula P=IV, and enter this
in your data table.
Measurements on Parallel Circuit:
1. Reconnect the three resistors in parallel.
Now, follow the diagram as shown in figure 3, and connect the three resistors to the
power supply. Arrows show direction of current flow. Set the power supply to 5V and
measure the voltage drop across each resistor, the total voltage drop across the
positive and negative sides of the circuit, the current in the circuit and the current
through each resistor. Write down your results.
You will need to change the voltmeter and ammeter connections accordingly to
make all these measurements. When measuring the voltage across a resistor while
also measuring current, connect the voltmeter only across the resistor, not across
the resistor and ammeter.
2. Calculate the current for each resistor and enter it in your data table. Calculate the
total current of the three resistors by adding your measured values (IP = I1 + I2 + I3
+ ...). Calculate the predicted current (I*) by substituting your measured values for
the voltages and resistances of each resistor into the formula I*=V/R.
3. Compare the results from the preceding two items and account for any differences.
Calculate % Difference.
Measured Resistance Values
R1 = _____________ R2 = _____________ R3 = ______________
Measured RS = ____________ Measured RP = ______________
Note: Use the digital multimeter to directly measure ALL the values above.
Resistance measurements are taken with the power supply disconnected.
Theoretical Series Resistance RS = R1 + R2 + R3 = ________________
Theoretical Parallel Resistance RP = [1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3]-1 = ________
Measurements in Series
Applied Voltage (Vemf): ____________ (5.00V)
Measured I: ______________
1. Theoretical IT = Vemf/ RS = ___________ (Use your measured RS value)

Total Measured Voltage = ______________

Total Theoretical Voltage = _____________
Measurements in Parallel
Applied Voltage (Vemf): ____________ (5.00V)

Total Measured Current (IP = I1 + I2 + I3) = _______________

Total Predicted Current (IP* = I1* + I2* + I3*) = _______________
 EXPERIMENT No: 04(A)
Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage law KVL

Apparatus: Resistance, connecting/ jumper wires, DC variable power supply, Digital multimeter
DMM

Theory: Kirchhoff was a scientist who first explained the laws of current and voltage in a circuit.
Kirchhoff’s laws are very important laws of electronic, although they are very simple. There are
two laws name Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). They are
explained below:

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL describes the relation between the voltages across different components in a circuit. It is
defined as below:

“In any mesh of a circuit, the sum of all the voltages across components in the mesh is
equal to zero.”

Consider the circuit given below

Figure 2
Since there are two meshes in above circuits there will be two currents flowing in each mesh so
there will be two equations of KVL as follows

Mesh 1 :
V1=I1R1+(I1-12)R3---------------------------------------------(1)
Mesh 2
V2=I2R2+(I2-I1)R3----------------------------------------------(2)
In above equations circuit parameters V1, V2 and values of resistors are known so only unknown
terms are I1 and I2. Rearrange above equations’ and find the value of I1 and I2
Procedure:
You have to connect the circuit given in circuit diagram given in figure 1 according to the steps
given below.
Figure 3

b) Resistance measurement: First of all determine the value of a resistor supplied by

instructor. By DMM
5. Set the DMM to ohmmeter mode. Make sure black probe should be connected to the
COM port and red probe should be connect to the ohm port
6. Set the knob to ohm scale, Connect the resistor ends across the probe of DMM.
7. Set the knob to maximum range on the scale drawn on ohmmeter.
8. Note the reading of Resistances

b) Current measurement:
In this lab you will connect the circuit according to circuit diagram given in figure 2. After
connecting the circuit, Set the values of V1=2V and V2=5V find the current I1 for mesh 1, I2 for
mesh 2 and also current flowing through R3 as R3 is shared by both of the meshes through
ammeter and record the readings in the table
c) Current calculations:

Solve for the equations 1 and 2 keeping the values of V1=2V and V2=5V and find the
corresponding values of I1, I2 also find the current through R3 and record the readings in
table 1 appropriate column

Resistance

R1= R2= R3=

Table 1:

Sr No Applied Voltage Current Measured Current Calculated

V1 V2 11 I2 IR3 I1 I2 IR3
CALCULATION WORK:

CONCLUSION: