UNIT II

ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Fourier Series
The basis of the Fourier Series

Any periodic signal with time period T can be written as a sum of sines and
cosines
�
1
a0 + �[ an cos(nw0t ) + bn sin( nw0t ) ]
x (t ) =
2 n =1
The fundamental frequency for this time period T is
2p radians
w0 =
T sec ond
2 T
The dc term is a0 = �x (t ) dt ,
T 0
and the other terms are
T
2
an = � x (t ) cos( nw0t ) dt ,
T 0
T
2
x (t )sin( nw0t ) dt .
T�
bn =
0

Note that the limits of integration can be taken form –T/2 to T/2 instead of 0 to T. The
calculation of an or bn is done using the orthogonality properties of sines and cosines, i.e.,
2
T
1 if n = m
�
� cos(nw0t ) cos( mw0t )dt = �
T 0 0 if n �m
�
2
T
1 if n = m
�
� sin(nw0t ) sin(mw0t )dt = �
T 0 0 if n �m
�
and
T
2
sin(nw0t ) cos(mw0t ) dt = 0 for all n & m. .
T�0

The fact that identical functions integrate to one indicates that they are orthonormal. For
instance, if we have a signal x(t) with time period T, then we can write it like Eq. (4.2.1).
So when we calculate the an ,
T �
2 �
[ an cos(nw0t ) + bn sin(nw0t )] �
1
am = � �
T 0�
2
a0 + �
n =1
cos(mw0t ) dt .
�
�
The integral of a0 cos( mw0t ) over one period T will be zero. Similarly the integral of
cos(mw0t ) with any sine term will be zero. And the integral of cos(mw0t ) with any other
cosine except m=n will be zero. There will only be one term left:

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 T
2
am cos(mw0t ) cos(mw0t ) dt
T�
am =
0
T
2 1 1
� �
= am �� - cos(2mw0t ) �dt
T 0 �2 2 �
T
2 1 2 1
= am �dt = am T = am
T 02 T 2
We would obtain a similar result for any of the b terms.

Note that the cosine functions (and the function 1) are even, while the sine functions are
odd.

If f (x) is even (f (–x) = + f (x) for all x), then bn = 0 for all n, leaving a Fourier cosine
series (and perhaps a constant term) only for f (x).

If f (x) is odd (f (–x) = – f (x) for all x), then an = 0 for all n, leaving a Fourier sine
series only for f (x).

Example Calculate the Fourier series for the rectangular series shown in Fig.

A periodic time-domain signal.

Solution

There are a couple things we can do to simplify the calculation. First of all, we will add a
dc term of 1/2, and then just leave the calculation of a0 off. And using symmetry, we will
calculate over the interval 0 to T/2, and double it.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 an =
2
T {
T /4
2 � cos ( nwo t ) dt
0 }
4 �1 T / 4�
= � � � sin ( nwot ) �
� �
T �nwo 0
4 � �n 2p T � � 2 �np �
= sin �
� �=
� sin � �
2p n � � T 4 � p n �2 �
� 2 / np n = 1,5,9
�
an = �-2 / np n = 3,7,11
�0 n = 0, 2, 4
�

Notice that just the first three non-zero terms of the Fourier series result in a pretty good
approximation (Fig. 1). As more and more terms are added, the series comes closer to the
rectangular function (Fig. 2.)

Figure 1. Fourier series reconstruction using two terms (left) and three terms (right).

Fig 2 Reconstruction of the series of fig 1. using an increasing number of terms.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Example 2

� 0 ( -p < x < 0 )
Expand f ( x) = � in a Fourier series.
�p - x ( 0 �x < +p )

L = p.

1 p 1 0 1 p
a0 = � f ( x ) dx = � 0 dx + �( p - x ) dx
p -p p -p p 0

p
( p - x) � = p
� 2
1
= 0 + � �
p � -2 �
� �0 2

1 p 1 p
f ( x ) cos nx dx = 0 +
an =
p �
-p p �( p - x ) cos nx dx
0
p n
n ( p - x ) sin nx - cos nx �
1� 1 - ( -1)
= � � =
p� n2 �0 n 2p

1 p 1 p
bn = � f ( x ) sin nx dx = 0 + �( p - x ) sin nx dx
p -p p 0
p
n ( p - x ) cos nx + sin nx �
1� 1
= � � =
p� -n 2
�0 n

Therefore the Fourier series for f (x) is

� n
1 - ( -1)
� �
f ( x) =
p
4
+
� � 2
� np
n =1 �
1
cos nx + sin nx �
n �
�
( -p < x < +p )

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Complex Series

In general, even if we only have one frequency, say wn = nw0 , we still need two
numbers, an and bn , to describe the nth series term. Since we know that the sine and
cosine terms are orthonormal, we might wonder if we could change the two real numbers
to one complex number. Start with
xn (t ) = an cos(nwnt ) + bn sin(nwnt ) ,
and use Euler’s equations:
� e jnwnt + e- jnwn t + � � e jnwn t - e- jnwnt + �
xn (t ) = an � �+ bn � �
� 2 � � 2j �
We will begin by grouping the positive and negative frequency components
�a b � jnwnt �an b �- jnwnt
xn (t ) = � n - j n � e +� + j n � e
�2 2� �2 2�
(
= X n e jnwnt + X *n e - jnwnt )
The original series
�
1
x (t ) = a0 + �[ an cos(nw0t ) + bn sin( nw0t ) ]
2 n =1
can be written
�
x (t ) = �X e
n =-�
n
jnw0t
.
Notice that the new series goes between plus and minus infinity because the Euler
equations used plus and minus terms. We determine the X n in the same way
1 T
X n = �x (t )e - jnwot dt .
T 0
This depends on a similar orthonormality condition
1 T jnwot jmwot 1 T j ( n -m )wot
T� T�
e e dt = e dt = 1 if n = m
0 0

otherwise
1 T jnwot jmwot 1 T j ( n - m )wot
�
T 0
e e dt = �
T 0
e dt

1 1 t =T
= e j ( n - m )wot
T j ( n - m ) wo t =0
1 1
=
T j ( n - m ) wo
( e j ( n - m )2p - 1) = 0.

So when we try to calculate the n coefficient

1 T �
X n = ��X m e jmw0t e - jnwot dt ,
T 0 m =-�
the only term that survives is m = n

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 1 T 1 T
Xn = � X n e jnwot e - jnwot dt = �X n dt = X n .
T 0 T 0
Note that the complex form has plus and minus values. But X - n = X n , so if we know
*

the positive one, we know the negative one. Once again we can plot the coefficients X n
out, but since they are complex, we will have to plot magnitude and phase. This is called
the line spectra.

Example Redo the previous example of using the complex series.

Solution
As before, it won’t hurt to add a dc term, and then just leave it out of the series.
So now we calculate

1 T /2
Xn = � x (t )e - jnwot dt
T - T / 2

1 T /4 1 1 - jnwot T / 4
= � e - jnwot dt = e
T - T / 4 T jnwo -T / 4

1 1
= e - jnwoT / 4 - e jnwoT / 4 �
�
� �
T jnwo
Remember that
2p
wo =
T
So

1 T
Xn = e - jnp / 2 - e jnp / 2 �
�
T jn 2p � �

1 � �np � � 1 �np �
= 2 j sin �
� � �= np sin �2 �
jn 2p � �2 � � � �
1
X 1 = X -1 =
p

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 1 �2p �
X2 = sin � �= 0 ,
np �2 �
as will all even terms. Furthermore,
1 �3p � 1
X 3 = X -3 =
sin � �= -
3p �2 � 3p
Since the positive and negative terms are the same.
� �
x (t ) = �X e
n =-�
n
jnw0t
= �X ( e
n =1,3,5
n
jnw0t
+ e - jnw0t )
�
2� 1 1 �
= �2 X cos ( nw0t ) = cos ( w0t ) - cos ( 3w0t ) + cos ( 5w0t ) - ... �
�
p�
n
n =1,3,5 3 5 �

Example Find the Fourier series of the function below

Solution

E E
Step 1 x ( t) = - pT / 2 ( t + T / 4 ) + pT / 2 ( t - T / 4 )
2 2
Step 2
�wT �
sin � �
ET
X ( w ) = ( - e jwT / 4 + e - jwT / 4 ) �4 �
2 2 wT
4
Step 3
�np �
sin � �
1 E
Xn = X ( w = nw0 = 2p n ) = ( -e jp n / 2 + e - jp n / 2 ) �2 �
T 2 np
�np �
sin � �
p
� �n 2 jE 2 �np �
= - jE sin � � � �= - sin � �
�2 � np np �2 �
Step 4
Since X - n = - X n we will convert the exponential to the sine series

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 � �
2 E 2 �np �
x ( t ) = � X n ( e jnwot - e - jnwo t ) = � sin � � sin ( nw0t )
n =1 n =1 p �2 �
2E � 1 1 �
= �sin ( w0t ) + sin ( 3w0t ) + sin ( 5w0t ) + ...�
p � 3 5 �
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example Determine the Fourier series of the function in Fig. 1. (T = 1).

Old Way:

We know the fundamental frequency is

2p
w0 = = 2p
T
Now to calculate the X n
T /4
1
Xn = � 1e - jnw0t dt
T -T / 4
1 1 �- j nw40T nw T
j 0 �
= e -e 4 �
T - jnw0 �
� �
1 2 �nw T �
= sin � 0 � .
T nw0 �4 �

New Way:

Now, to return to the problem in the figure: We can recognize that

x0 ( t ) = pTh / 2 (t ) ,
and its Fourier Transform is
�wt � �wT �
sin � � sin � �
X0 ( w) =t �2 �= T �4 �= 2
.
wt 2 �wT � w
2 � �
�4 �
Therefore,
�nw T �
sin � 0 �
Xn =
1T � 4 �= 1 2 sin �nw0T �
� �,
T 2 �nw0T � T nw0 �4 �
� �
�4 �

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 2p
and since w0 =
T
sin ( np / 2 )
Xn = .
( np )
1 -1 1
X 0 = 1/ 2, X 1 = X -1 = , X 3 = X -3 = , X 5 = X -5 =
p 3p 5p
So my series is
�
x ( t) = �X e n
jn 2p t
= X 0 + 2 X 1 cos(2p t ) + 2 X 3 cos(6p t ) + ...
n =-�

1 2 2 2
= + cos(2p t ) - X 3 cos(6p t ) + X 3 cos(10p t )
2 p 3p 5p

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The bottom line is that we can bring to bear everything we have learned about FT to help
us calculate the Fourier series.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example

Write the Fourier series of the function in (T = 1)

Solution

From the table, one of the triangles has the FT

F { Dt } = F { DT / 2 }
t �wt � 1 �w �
= X ( w ) = sin c 2 � �= sin c 2 � �
2 �4 � 4 �8 �
1 1 �nw �
X n = X ( jnw0 ) = sin c 2 � 0 �
T 4 �8 �
Notice that X n = X - n , and the dc term X ( w = 0 ) = 1/ 4 so the series is
�
1 �
x ( t) = �X e n
jnw0t
= + � 2 X n cos ( nw0t )
n =-� 4 n=1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 Example Find the Fourier series of the function given by
�
x ( t) = �e -2 t - nT
T =1
n =-�
Solution

Look at just the term centered at t = 0

x0 ( t ) = e -2 t
We know that its Fourier transform is
2� 2
X ( w) = .
2 + w2
2

So the X n terms are

1 4 4 1
X n ( w) = = = 2 .
T 4 + ( nw0 ) 2
4 + ( 2p n )
2
1 + ( p n)
Obviously, these are even, except for the dc term, which is
1
X0 ( w) = =1
1 + ( p 0)
2

So we can write
� �
x(t ) = (
�X ne jnw0t = 1 + �X n e jnw0t + e- jnw0t )
n =-� n =1
�
= 1 + �2 X n cos ( nw0t ) .
n =1

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Practice Problems

1.The diagram below represents one period of a time series that extends infinitely
in each direction. Write the Fourier series of this signal. T= 1 second. Your
answer should be a real series (i.e., not complex functions).

2. The pattern below extends infinitely in each direction. The interval is 1 second.
Write a Fourier Series. {Your final answer should be a sine series.}
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 3. Write a Fourier series to describe the function below. You may assume that it
extends infinitely in both directions. The amplitude of the delta functions is
one. The time scale is seconds. Your final answer should be a sine and/or
cosines series.

4. The series below is made up of function of the form

f ( t ) = e -50t .
2

Write the Fourier series for T = 0.1 sec.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Fourier Transform

The Fourier Transform

Let x(t ) be a nonperiodic signal of finite duration, i.e.,
x(t ) = 0 t > T1

Let us form a periodic signal by extending x(t ) to xT0 (t ) as,

lim xT0 (t ) = x (t ) , [i.e., the period is infinity]
T0 ��
�
2p
xT0 (t ) = �c e
k =-�
k
jkw0t
w0 =
T0
Then, (01)
1 T0 / 2
- jkw0t
ck =
T0 �
- T0 / 2
xT0 (t )e dt

1 T0 / 2 1 �
Or, ck = � x(t )e - jkw0t dt = �x(t )e
- jkw0 t
dt
T0 - T0 / 2 T0 -�

�
Let us now define X (w ) as, X (w ) = �x(t )e
- jwt
dt
-�

1
Thus, ck = X (kw0 ) .
T0
Substituting this in equation (01) we get,
�
X (kw0 ) jkw0t 1 �
X (kw0 ) jkw0t
xT0 (t ) = �
k =-� T0
e =
2p
�
k =-� T0
e w0

As T0 � �, w0 � 0 . Let us assume w0 = Dw .

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 1 �
Thus, lim xT0 (t ) = lim
T0 �� Dw �0 2p
�
k =-�
X (k Dw )e jkw0t Dw = x(t )

1 �
Or, x(t ) = � X (w )e jwt d w (02)
2p -�

x(t ) in equation (02) is called the Fourier Integral. Thus a finite duration signal is represented by
Fourier integral instead of Fourier series.
The function X (w ) is called the Fourier transform of x(t ) .
Symbolically these two pairs are represented as,
�
X (w ) = F{ x(t )} = �x(t )e - jwt dt
-�

1 �
jwt
And x(t ) = F -1{ X (w )} = �X (w )e dw
2p -�

Alternatively, F .T .
x(t ) ��� � X (w ) .

Example
1. Find the Fourier transform of e - at u (t ) a > 0.
� � 1
X (w ) = �e - at u (t )e - jwt dt = �e - ( a + jw )t dt = .
-� 0 a + jw

2. Find the Fourier transform of d (t ) .

�
F {d (t )} = �d (t )e - jwt dt = 1
-�

3. Find the inverse Fourier transform of d (w ) .

1 �
- jwt 1
F -1{d (w )} = �d (w )e dw = .
2p -� 2p

1
Thus,
F .T .
��� �d (w ) or, 1 ���
F .T .
� 2p �
d (w ) .
2p

4. Find the inverse Fourier transform of d (w - w0 ) .

1 � 1 jw0t
F -1{d (w - w0 )} = � d (w - w0 )e jwt d w = e
2p -� 2p
Thus, e jw t ���
0 F .T .
� 2p �
d (w - w0 )
1 jw0t
We know, cos w0t =
2
(
e + e jw0t ; ) Thus, cos w0t ���
F .T .
�p [ d (w - w0 ) + d (w + w0 ) ]

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 5. Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse x(t ) shown in Figure.
T sin wT sin wT
X (w ) = �e - jwt dt = 2 = 2T
-T w wT
�wT �
= 2T sin c � �
�p �

sin wT
The magnitude spectrum is, X (w ) = 2 , and the phase
w

� sin(wT )
�0, >0
� w
spectrum is, arg { X (w )} = � .
� sin(wT )
p, <0
� w

6. Find the inverse Fourier transform of the rectangular spectrum shown below.

1 W
jw t 1 W �Wt �
x(t ) = �e dw = sin(Wt ) = sinc � �. The plot is shown in Figure above.
2p -W pt p �p �

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Some Properties of Fourier Transform
1. Symmetry property: If f (t ) � F (w ) then F (t ) � 2p f ( -w ) . (duality property)

Example: Apply symmetry property to show that d (t + t0 ) + d (t - t0 ) � 2 cos t0w .

1
2. Scaling Property: If f (t ) � F (w ) then f (at ) � F (w / a ) .
a

3. Time-shifting Property: If f (t ) � F (w ) then f (t - t0 ) � e - jwt0 F (w ) .

4. Frequency-shifting Property: If f (t ) � F (w ) then f (t )e jw0t � F (w - w0 ) .

Example: Find the Fourier transform of the gate pulse shown in Figure below.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 We get the Fourier transform by applying time-delay property to the F.T. of rectangular pulse
(symmetrical).
�wt �- jwt / 2
Thus, F (w ) = t sinc � �e .
�2p �
Example: Sketch the Fourier transform of f (t ) cos10t using frequency shifting property.
1 j10t 1 - j10t �
�
[property 4] f (t ) cos10t = f (t ) � e + e �. Therefore,
2
� 2 �
1
f (t ) cos10t � [ F (w - 10) + F (w + 10) ] . The sketch is shown in Figure below. Here,
2
�2w �
f (t ) � 4sin c � �.
�p �

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 5. Time and Frequency convolution:
1
f1 (t ) * f 2 (t ) � F1 (w ) F2 (w ) and f1 (t ) f 2 (t ) � F1 (w ) * F2 (w ) .
2p

6. Time differentiation and time integration:

df (t ) t F (w )
� jw F (w ); �f (t )dt � + p F (0)d (w ) .
dt -� jw
1 � jwt df (t ) 1 �
(a) f (t ) = � F (w )e d w � = jw � � F (w )e jwt d w = jw �f (t )
2p -� dt 2p - �

�df (t ) � df (t )
Therefore, F � �= jw F { f (t )} , or, � jw F (w ) .
� dt dt
� t
(b) f (t ) * u (t ) = �f (t )u (t - t )dt = �f (t ) dt
-� -�

Using convolution property, F { �f (t )dt } = F (w) ���j1w + pd (w)���

t

-�

t F (w )
Therefore, �f (t )dt �
-� jw
+ p F (0)d (w ) .

Example: Using the time-differentiation property, find the F.T. of the triangle illustrated in figure
below.
Performing F.T. of the first
equation,

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 4 � �wt � � 8 2 �wt �
� -w 2 F (w ) = cos � �- 1�= - sin � �
t�� �2 � � t �4 �

�wt p �
sin 2 � � � 2
8 �wt � 8 �4 p ���wt �
� F (w ) = 2 sin 2 � �= 2 � �
tw �4 � tw �
2
wt � �4p �
� �
�4p �
2
� �wt � �
sin � �
�
t 4 � t �wt �
� F (w ) = �� � � �= �sinc 2 � �
2 � �wt � � 2 �4p �
� � ��
4
�� ��

Example:
Calculate the Fourier transform X(jw) for the signal x(t) .

x(t) = t for-1<t<1

-1

Solution:
y(t)=dx(t)/dt
We know,
Analysis Equation is given by:
∞
X(jw) = ∫-∞ x(t) e-jwt dt
+1
∫
= -1 t e-jwt dt
To calculate derivative we need to calculate discontinuity, if discontinuity occurs we
have impulse at that point,

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 1

-1
+1
Hence y(t) is the sum of a rectangular pulse and two impulses at -1 and +1

+1
Y(jw) = -e-jw - ejw + ∫-1 e-jwt dt

= -2coswt + {2 (e-jw - ejw)/-2jw}

=-2cosw + 2sinw/w

Note that Y (0) = -2cos (0) + 2*1 {sin x/x=1}

=-2+2
=0
Using Integration Property, we obtain

X (jw)=Y(jw)/jw + π Y(0) δ (w)

With Y (0) =0
We have
X (jw) = 2sinw/jw2-2cosw/jw

This expression for X (jw) is purely imaginary and odd, which is consistent with the
fact that x (t) is real and odd.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem

Energy in time domain is equal to energy in frequency domain.

 
Energy E =  | g (t ) | 2 dt =  | G ( f ) | 2 df
- -

Consider the time domain energy

 
E= - | g (t ) | 2 dt = - g (t ) g * (t )dt

=  g (t ) g * (t )e - j 2pft dt f =0
-

= G ( f )  G * ( - f ) | f =0

=  G ( )G * ( f - (- ))d f =0
-

=  G ( )G * ( )d
-

=  | G ( f ) |2 df
-

Rayleigh‘s energy theorem or Parseval’s theorem for Fourier transform

Define energy spectral density of g (t ) as E g ( f ) =| G ( f ) | 2
Ex : consider a Sinc pulse
A f
g (t ) = ASinc(2Wt )  ( )
2W 2W
method (i):
 
E= | g (t ) | 2 dt =A 2  g (t ) g * (t ) dt
- -

2  2 2 1  2 A2
= A  Sinc (2Wt ) dt = A   Sinc (u )du = 2W
- 2W -
method(ii): Applying Rayleigh’s energy theorem
A 2  2 f A 2 W A2
E=(
2W
)
-
 (
2W) df = (
2W
)
-W
df =
2W 
Parseval’s Theorem:

 * 
- g1 (t ) g 2 (t ) dt =  G ( f )G 2* ( f )df
- 1
If g1 (t ) = g 2 (t ) , then the theorem reduces to Rayleigh’s energy theorem.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Laplace Transformation
Why Laplace Transforms?
1) Converts differential equations to algebraic equations- facilitates combination of
multiple components in a system to get the total dynamic behavior (through addition
& multiplication)
2) Can gain insight from the solution in the transform domain ("s")- inversion of
transform not necessarily required
3) Allows development of an analytical model which permits use of a discontinuous
(piecewise continuous) forcing function and the use of an integral term in the forcing
function (important for control)
Definition of a Laplace Transform


F(s) = L[f (t )] =  f (t )  e -st dt

0

L [ F ( s)] = f ( t )
-1

Examples of Evaluating Laplace Transforms using the definition

(1) x(t)=1 and step function x(t)=u(t)

  t =
1
L[ x(t ) = u (t )] =  x(t )e dt =  e dt = -  e - st d (- st )
- st - st

0 0
s t =0
e - st t = e -t - jwt t = e - - jw e - 0 - jw 0
=- =- e =- e + e
s t =0 s t =0 s s
(| e - jw |= 1 e - = 0 , (if  > 0) e -   , (if  < 0)
1 1
= (cos 0 - j sin 0) =
s s
1
 L(1) = L[u (t )] = (Re(s)) > 0
s
(2) x(t ) = e -t u(t )
 
-t -t - st
L[e u(t )] =  e e dt =  e - ( + s ) t dt
0 0

~
Define a new complex variable s = s + 
 ~
-s t
 e dt
0
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 
- st 1
we know e dt =
s
Re( s ) > 0
0

 ~ ~
-st 1
 e dt = ~
Re( s ) > 0
0 s

1
  e - ( + s ) t dt = Re( s +  ) > 0
0
s +
1
 L[e -t u (t )] = Re( s +  ) > 0 or Re( s ) > - Re( )
s +
1
 L[e -t ] =
s +
(3) x (t ) = d (t )

L[d (t )] =  d (t )e - st dt
0

= e - st = e -t e - jwt
t =0 t =0

= e -t (coswt - jw sin wt )

t =0
=1
No constraint on s.
(4)Find L(cos w0t )
Key to solution : express (cos w 0t ) as linear combination of d (t ) , u (t ) ,
and/or e -t :

L[d (t )] = 1
1
L[u (t )] =
s
1
L[e -t ] =
s +
let  = jw 0
1
L[e - jw 0 t ] =
s + jw 0
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 let  = - jw 0
1
L[e jw 0 t ] = L[e - ( - jw 0 ) t ] =
s - jw 0

Can we use e - jw 0 t and e jw 0 t to express cos(w 0t ) ?

e - jw 0 t = cos( -w 0t ) + j sin( -w 0t )
= cos(w 0t ) - j sin(w 0t )
e jw 0 t = cos(w 0t ) + j sin(w 0t )

e - jw 0t + e jw 0t = 2 cos(w 0 t )
e - jw 0 t + e jw 0 t
 cos(w 0 t ) =
2
1
 L[cos(w 0 t )] = [ L(e - jw 0t ) + L(e jw 0t )]
2
1 1 1 
=  + 
2  s + jw 0 s - j w 0 
1  ( s - jw 0 ) + ( s + jw 0 ) 
=  
2  ( s + jw 0 )( s - jw 0 ) 
s
=
s2 + w0
2

H.W. Find L[sin w 0t ]

Convergence of the Laplace Transform

 
(1) To assure  x (t )e
- st
dt =  x (t )e -t e - jwt dt converge,  = Re(s) must be
0 0
psotive enough such that x(t )e -t goes to zero when t goes to positive
infinite

(2) Region of absolute convergence and pole

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 (3) How to obtain Fourier transform form Laplace transform:
s = jw
L[ x (t )] = X ( s )  X ( jw ) = F ( x (t ))

Important: why introduce Laplace transform; definition of Laplace transform
as a modification of Fourier transform; find the Laplace transforms of the 
three basic functions based on the (mathematical) definition of Laplace 
transform. 

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 (4) Properties of Laplace Transform
I. Properties of Laplace Transform

Property Original Function Transformed Function

Linearity af (t) + bg(t) aF(s) + bG(s)
f (t - a) u(t-a) e-asF(s)
Shifting
eat f (t) F(s - a)
1 s
Scaling f (at) F( )
a a
(n)
snF(s)-sn-1f(0)-sn-2f(0)-sn-3f(0)-
f (t)
…-f (n-1)(0)
Differentiation
d n F ( s)
(-t)nf (t)
ds n
t 1
 0
f ( t ) dt
s
F (s)
Integration 1 

t
f (t )  s
F ( s )ds
t
Convolution  0
f ( t ) g ( t - t ) dt F(s)G(s)
1 T
Periodic Function f (t) = f (t + T)
1 - e - sT  0
f (t )e - st dt

Initial Value Theorem lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )

t0 s 

f (t ) F (s)
lim = lim
t  0 g (t ) s  G ( s )

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t  s 0

Final Value Theorem f (t ) F ( s)

lim = lim
t  g (t ) s  0 G( s)
1. Linearity
L [af (t) + bg(t)] =
  
 0
[af (t ) + bg (t )]e - st dt = a  f (t )e - st dt + b  g (t )e - st dt = aF ( s ) + bG( s )
0 0

Ex. 1
Find the Laplace transform of cos2t.
1 + cos 2t 11 s  s2 + 2
Solution : L [cos 2 t ] = L [ ]=  + 2  =
2 2  s s + 2 2  s ( s 2 + 4)
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 2. Shifting
 
( a ) L [ f (t - a )u (t - a )] =  f (t - a )u(t - a )e - st dt =  f (t - a )e - st dt
0 a

Let t = t - a, then
 
L [ f (t - a )u (t - a )] =  f ( t)e - s ( t+ a ) dt = e - sa  f ( t)e - st dt = e - sa F ( s )
0 0
 
(b) F ( s - a ) =  f (t )e -( s -a ) t dt =  [e at f (t )]e - st dt = L [e at f (t )]
0 0

Ex. 2
0, t<4
What is the Laplace transform of the function: f (t ) =  3 .
 2t , t  4
Solution: f (t) = 2t3u(t - 4)
L [f (t)] =L {2[(t - 4)3 + 12(t - 4)2 + 48(t - 4) + 64] u(t - 4)}
 3! 2! 1 64   3 12 24 32 
= 2e -4 s  4 + 12  3 + 48  2 +  = 4e -4 s  4 + 3 + 2 + 
s s s s  s s s s 
3. Scaling


L [ f ( at )] =  f ( at )e - st dt
0

Let t = at, then

t s
 -s t 1  - t 1 s
L [ f ( at )] =  f ( t)e a
d =  f ( t)e a dt = F ( )
0 a a 0 a a
Ex. 3
Find the Laplace transform of cos2t.
s
Solution : L [cos t ] = 2
s +1
s
1 2 s
 L [cos 2t ] = = 2
2 ( s )2 + 1 s + 4
2

4. Derivative
(a) Derivative of original function
  
L [f (t)] =  0 f (t )e dt = f (t )e - ( - s )  f (t )e - st dt
- st - st
0 0
(

(1) If f (t) is continuous, equation (2.1) reduces to

L [f (t)] = -f(0) + sF(s) = sF(s) - f(0)
(2) If f (t) is not continuous at t = a, equation (2.1) reduces to
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 a- 
L [f (t)] = f (t )e - st 0
+ f (t )e - st
a+
+ sF ( s ) = [f(a-) e-sa - f(0)] + [0 - f(a+) e-sa] +

sF(s)
= sF(s) - f (0) - e-sa [f (a+) - f (a-)]
(3) Similarly, if f (t) is not continuous at t = a1, a2, …,…, an, equation (2.1) reduces
to
n
L [f (t)] = sF ( s ) - f (0) -  e i [ f ( a i ) - f ( a i )]
- sa + -

i =1

[Deduction] If f (t), f (t) , f (t), …, f (n-1)(t) are continuous, and f (n)(t) is piecewise
continuous, and all of them are exponential order functions, then
n
L [f (n)(t)] = s F ( s ) -  s f
n n -i ( i -1)
( 0)
i =1

(b) Derivative of transformed function

dF ( s ) d    
=  f (t )e - st dt =  [ f (t )e - st ]dt =  ( -t ) f (t )e - st dt = L [( -t ) f (t )]
ds ds 0 0 s 0

d n F ( s)
[Deduction] n
= L [( -t ) n f (t )]
ds

Ex. 4
Find the Laplace transform of tet.
1 d  1  1
Solution : L ( e t ) =  L (te t ) = -  =
s -1 ds  s - 1  ( s - 1) 2
Ex. 5
t 2 , 0  t  1
f (t ) =  , find L [ f (t )] .
0, t > 1
Solution : f (t ) = t 2[u(t ) - u (t - 1)]
2!
L [ f (t )] = L [t 2 u(t )] - L [t 2 u(t - 1)] = - L {[(t - 1) + 1]2 u(t - 1)}
s3
2
= - L {[(t - 1) 2 + 2(t - 1) + 1]u (t - 1)}
s3
2 2 1 1
= 3 - e -s ( 3 + 2 2 + )
s s s s
L [ f (t )] = sF ( s ) - f (0) - e [ f (1+ ) - f (1- )]
-s

2 2 2 2 2 2
= [ 2 - e - s ( 2 + + 1)] - 0 - e -s (0 - 1) = 2 - e - s ( 2 + )
s s s s s s
5. Integration
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 (a) Integral of original function

t  t
L [  f ( t)dt] =   f ( t)dte - st d t
0 0 0

1  - st t    1
- s   0
= e f ( t)dt -  f (t )e - st dt  = F ( s )
0 0
 s
t t t 1
 L [  ... f (t )dtdt  dt ] = F ( s)
0 0 0 sn
(b) Integration of Laplace transform
    
s
F ( s )ds = 
s  0
f (t )e - st dtds =  f (t )  e - st dsdt
0 s

 e - st  f (t ) - st f (t )
= f (t ) dt =  e dt = L [ ]
0 -t s
0 t t
   1
    F ( s )dsds  ds = L [ f (t )]
s s s tn

Ex. 6
1 - e -t 1 - e -t
Find ( a ) L [ ] (b) L [ 2 ] .
t t
1 1
Solution : ( a ) L [1 - e -t ] = -
s s +1

1 - e -t  1 1  s
L [ ]=  ( - )ds = ln s - ln( s + 1) s = ln
t s s s +1 s +1 s

s s +1
= 0 - ln = ln
s +1 s

1 - e -t  s +1 s +1  1 1
(b) L [ 2 ] =  ln ds = s ln -  s( - )ds
t s s s s
s s +1 s
 
s +1  1  s +1 
= s ln + ds =  s ln + ln( s + 1)
s s
s s +1  s s
= [ ( s + 1) ln( s + 1) - s ln s ] s = s ln s - ( s + 1) ln( s + 1)


Ex. 7
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 sin kt e - st
  sin x
Find ( a )  dt (b)  dx .
0 t - x
- st
 sin kte sin kt
Solution : ( a )  dt = L [ ]
0 t t
k
L [sin kt ] = 2
s + k2
sin kt  k 1  1
L [ ]=  2 ds =  ds
t s s +k 2
k s ( s )2 + 1
k

-1s p s
= tan = - tan -1
k s 2 k
 sin x  sin x
(b)  dx = 2  dx
- x 0 x
- st
 sin kte
= 2 lim  dt
k 1 0
s 0
t
p s
= 2 lim( - tan -1 ) = p
k 1 2 k
s 0

6. Convolution theorem
t  t
L [  f ( t) g (t - t)dt] =   f ( t) g (t - t)dte - st dt t
0 0 0 t= t
   
=  f ( t) g (t - t)e dtdt =  f ( t)  g (t - t)e dtdt
- st - st
0 t 0 t

Let u = t - t, du = dt , then t
t  
L [  f ( t) g (t - t)dt] =  f ( t)  g (u )e - s ( u + t ) dudt
0 0 0
 
=  f ( t)e - st dt  g (u )e - su du = F ( s )G ( s )
0 0

Ex. 8
t
e
t -t
Find the Laplace transform of sin 2t dt.
0

1 2
Solution :  L [e t ] = , L [sin 2t ] = 2
s -1 s +4
t
 L [  e t -t sin 2t dt] = L [e t * sin 2t ] = L [e t ]  L [sin 2t ]
0

1 2 2
=  2 =
s - 1 s + 4 ( s - 1)( s 2 + 4)
7. Periodic Function: f (t + T) = f (t)
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
  T 2T
L [ f (t )] =  f (t )e - st dt =  f (t )e - st dt +  f (t )e - st dt + 
0 0 T
2T T T
and  f (t )e - st dt =  f (u + T )e - s ( u +T ) du = e - sT  f (u )e - su du
T 0 0

Similarly,
3T T
 2T
f (t )e - st dt = e -2 sT  f (u )e - su du
0
T
 L [ f (t )] = (1 + e - sT + e -2 sT + )  f (t )e - st dt
0

1 T
=
1 - e - sT  0
f (t )e - st dt

Ex. 9
k
Find the Laplace transform of f (t ) = t , 0 < t < p, f (t + p ) = f (t ) .
p
1 p k
- ps  0
Solution : L [ f (t )] = te -st dt
1- e p
1 k 1 p p
= - ps
[ (te - st -  e -st dt )]
1- e p -s 0 0

p
-k 1
= - ps
(te - st + e - st )
ps(1 - e ) s 0

-k - sp e - sp 1
= ( pe + - )
ps(1 - e - ps ) s s

8. Initial Value Theorem:


 L [ f ' (t )] = sF ( s ) - f (0)  lim  f ' (t )e - st dt = lim sF ( s ) - f (0)  0 = lim sF ( s ) - f (0)
s  0 s  s 

we get initial value theorem lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )

t 0 s 

f (t ) F ( s)
Deduce general initial value theorem : lim = lim
t 0 g ( t ) s  G ( s )
9. Final Value Theorem:

L [ f ' (t )] = sF ( s ) - f (0)  lim  f ' (t )e -st dt = lim sF ( s ) - f (0) 
s 0 0 s 0

lim f (t ) - f (0) = lim sF ( s ) - f (0)  final value theorem : lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )

t  s 0 t  s 0

f (t ) F ( s)
General final value theorem : lim = lim
t  g (t ) s  0 G( s)

Ex. 10

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 t sin x
Find L [  dx ] .
0 x
sin x
t sin t
Solution : Let f (t ) =  dx  f (t ) = , f ( 0) = 0
0 x t
1
L [tf ' (t )] = L [sin t ] = 2
s +1
d 1
- L [ f ' (t )] = 2
ds s +1
d 1 d 1
- [ sF ( s ) - f (0)] = 2  [ sF ( s )] = - 2
ds s +1 ds s +1
sF(s) = -tan-1s + C
From the initial value theorem, we get
lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t 0 s

p p
0=- + C C =
2 2
p 1
sF ( s ) = - tan -1 s = tan -1
2 s
1 1
F ( s ) = tan -1
s s

  e- x 
EG. Find L   t dx  .
 x 
-x
 e e -t
Solution : Let f (t ) =  dx  f (t ) = - , lim f (t ) = 0
x x t t 
1
L [tf ' (t )] = L [ -e -t ] = -
s +1
d 1
- [ sF ( s ) - f (0)] = -
ds s +1
d 1
[ sF ( s )] =
ds s +1
sF ( s ) = ln( s + 1) + C
From the final value theorem : lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t  s 0

ln( s + 1)
0 = 0 + C  C = 0, and F ( s ) =
s
sin x
t  e- x
[Note] 0 x dx, and 
t x
dx are called sine, and exponential integral function,

respectively.

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 [Exercises] Find the Laplace transform of the problems:1-4, and 7
1.e - t (A cos t + B sin t ) 2.t 2 cos t 3.u (t - p) cos t
 cos x 
4. dx (cosine integral function) 5. Find the value of the integral  te -2 t cos tdt
t x 0

-t - 3t
e -e
6. Find the value of the integral  dt
0 t
7.
f (t)
k
a 2a 3a 4a
t
-k

A( s + ) + B 2 s( s 2 - 3) - se - ps
[Ans .] 1. 2. 2 3. 2
( s + ) 2 +  2 ( s + 1) 3 s +1
ln( s 2 + 1) 3 k as
4. 5. 6. ln 3 7. tanh
2s 25 s 2

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 Inverse Laplace Transform

I. Inversion from Basic Properties

1. Linearity
Ex. 1.
-1 2s + 1 4( s + 1) -1
(a ) L [ ] ( b) L ]. [
s2 + 4 s 2 - 16
2s + 1 s 1 2 1
Solution : ( a ) L -1[ 2 ] = L -1[2 2 + ] = 2 cos 2t + sin 2t
s +4 s +2 2
2 s +2
2 2
2
4( s + 1) s 4
(b) L -1[ 2 ] = L -1[4 2 + 2 ] = 4 cosh 4t + sinh 4t
s - 16 s -4 2
s - 42

2. Shifting

Ex. 2.
-1 e - ps 2s + 3 -1
(a ) L [ ] (b) L ].
[
s 2 + 2s + 2 s + 3s + 2 2

e - ps e - ps
Solution : ( a ) L -1[ 2 ] = L -1[ ]
s + 2s + 2 ( s + 1) 2 + 1
1
L -1[ ] = e -t sin t
( s + 1) 2 + 1
and L [ f (t - a )u(t - a )] = e -as F ( s )
-1e - ps
L [ ] = e -( t -p ) sin(t - p)u (t - p) = -e -( t -p ) sin tu(t - p)
( s + 1) 2 + 1
3
2( s + ) 3
2 s + 3 2 - t t
(b) L -1[ 2 ] = L -1[ ] = 2e 2 cosh
s + 3s + 2 3 1 2
(s + )2 - ( )2
2 2

3. Scaling

Ex. 3.
-1 4s
L [ ].
16 s 2 - 4
-1 4s -1 4s 1 1 1 t
Solution : L [ ]= L [ ] = cosh 2  t = cosh
16s 2 - 4 (4s) - 2
2 2
4 4 4 2
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 4. Derivative
Ex. 4.
-1 1 -1 s+a
(a )L [ ] ( b) L [ln ].
( s + w2 ) 2
2
s+b
w d w 2ws
solution : ( a ) L [sin wt ] =  L [t sin wt ] = - ( 2 )= 2
s +w
2 2
ds s + w 2
( s + w2 ) 2
2ws
Let F (t ) = t sin wt  L [ F ' (t )] = s  2 - F (0)
( s + w2 ) 2
s2 ( s 2 + w2 ) - w2 1 w2
L [ F ' (t )] = 2w = 2 w [ ] = 2 w [ - ]
( s 2 + w2 ) 2 ( s 2 + w2 ) 2 s 2 + w2 ( s 2 + w 2 ) 2
2w3
= 2 L [sin wt ] -
( s 2 + w2 ) 2
1 1
=  L [2 sin wt - F ' (t )]
(s + w )
2 2 2
2 w3
1 1 1
L -1[ 2 ]=  [2 sin wt - F ' (t )] = (sin wt - wt cos wt )
(s + w ) 2 2
2w 3
2 w3
s+a
(b) Let L [ f (t )] = ln = ln(s + a ) - ln(s + b)
s+b
d 1 1
L [tf (t )] = - [ln( s + a ) - ln(s + b)] = - = L [e -bt - e -at ]
ds s+b s+a
- bt - at
e -e
 f (t ) =
t
5. Integration

Ex. 5.
-1 1 s -1 s+a -1
(a ) L [ ( )] ( b) L
]. [ln
s2 s + 1 s+b
1 s -1 1 1 t t t
Solution : ( a ) L -1[ 2 ( )] = L -1[ - 2 ] =  e -t dt -   e -t dtdt
s s +1 s( s + 1) s ( s + 1) 0 0 0

t
= -( e -t - 1) +  ( e -t - 1)dt = -( e -t - 1) - ( e -t - 1) - t = 2 - 2e -t - t
0

1 1
(b) L [e -bt - e -at ] = -
s+b s+a

e -bt - e -at  1 1 s+b s+a
L [ ]=  ( - )ds = ln = ln
t s s+b s+a s+a s s+b
-1 s+a e -bt - e -at
L [ln ]=
s+b t

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 6. Convolution

Ex. 6.
-1 1 s -1
(a ) L [ ] ( b) L [
].
( s + w2 ) 2
2
( s + w2 ) 2 2

w 1 1
Solution : ( a ) L [sin wt ] = 2  L [ sin wt ] = 2
s +w 2
w s + w2
1 1 t
L -1[ 2 ] = 2  sin wt sin w(t - t)dt
(s + w ) 2 2
w 0
1 t1
= 2  [cos(wt - wt + wt) - cos(wt + wt - wt)]dt
w 02
t
1 t 1  1 
=
2 w2 0 [cos(2wt - wt ) - cos wt ]dt = 2w2  2w sin(2wt - wt ) - t cos wt  0
1 1 1
= {[ (sin wt - sin( -wt )] - t cos wt} = (sin wt - wt cos wt )
2w 2w
2
2w3
1 1 s
(b) L [ sin wt ] = 2 L [cos wt ] = 2
w s +w 2
s + w2
s 1 t
w 0
L -1[ 2 ] = sin wt cos w(t - t)dt
( s + w2 ) 2
1 t1
=  [sin(wt + wt - wt) + sin(wt - wt + wt)]dt
w 02
t
1 t 1  -1 
= 
2w 0
[sin wt + sin(2wt - wt )]dt = 
2w 
t sin wt +
2w
cos(2wt - wt )
0
1 1 t
= {t sin wt - [cos wt - cos(-wt )]} = sin wt
2w 2w 2w

-1 2npT s-4
[Exercises] 1. L [ s -3 / 2 ] 2. L -1
[ ] 3. L -1
[ ]
T s + ( 2np) 2
2 2
s - 8s - 9
2

-1se -2 ps / 3 1 -1 1 s -1 s +1
4. L [ ] 5. L [ tan -1 ] 6. L -1[ln ] 7. L -1
[ ]
s2 + 1 s s s +1 s + s +1
2

1 1 s +1
8. L -1[ln(1 + 2 )] 9. L -1[ 2 ] 10. L -1[ 3 ]
s s ( s + 1) 2
s

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 1 t 2 np t 2p 2p
[Ans .] 1. 2 t / ( ) or 2 2. sin 3. e 4 t cosh 5t 4. cos( t - )u ( t - )
2 p T 3 3
t
t sin u 2 sinh t - 3 1 3 2(1 - cos t )
5.  du 6. 7. e (cos 2
t+ sin t) 8.
0 u t 2 3 2 t
4 1 2
9. e - t ( t + 2 ) + t - 2 10. t 3/ 2 + t
3 p 2

II. Partial Fraction

Ex. 7.
-1 s +1
L [ ].
s + s 2 - 6s
3

s +1 s +1 A A A
Solution : 3 = = 1+ 2 + 3
s + s - 6s s( s - 2)( s + 3) s s - 2 s + 3
2

s +1 1
A1 = lim =-
s 0 ( s - 2)( s + 3) 6
s +1 3
A2 = lim =
s 2 s ( s + 3) 10
s +1 -2
A3 = lim =
s  -3 s ( s - 2 ) 15
1 3 -2
-
s + 1 1 3 2
L -1[ 3 ] = 6 + 10 + 15 = - + e 2 t - e -3t
s + s - 6s
2
s s-2 s+3 6 10 15

Ex. 8.
-1 s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12
L [ ].
s 2 ( s - 1)( s - 2)( s - 3)

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE

 s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 C 2 C1 A A A
Solution : 2 = 2 + + 1 + 2 + 3
s ( s - 1)( s - 2)( s - 3) s s s -1 s - 2 s - 3
s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 - 12
C 2 = lim = =2
s 0 ( s - 1)( s - 2)( s - 3) -6
d s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12
C1 = lim [ ]
s 0 ds ( s - 1)( s - 2)( s - 3)
4( -1)( -2)( -3) - ( -12)[( -2)( -3) + ( -1)( -3) + ( -1)( -2)] - 24 + 12  11
= = =3
[( -1)( -2)( -3)] 2 62
s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 - 1
A1 = lim =
s 1 s 2 ( s - 2)( s - 3) 2
s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 8
A2 = lim = = -2
s 2 s ( s - 1)( s - 3)
2
-4
s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 9 1
A3 = lim = =
s 3 s 2 ( s - 1)( s - 2) 18 2
-1 s 4 - 7 s 3 + 13s 2 + 4 s - 12 1 1
L [ ] = 2 t + 3 - e t - 2 e 2 t + e 3t
s ( s - 1)( s - 2)( s - 3)
2
2 2
Ex. 9.
-1 s2
L [ ].
s4 + 4
s2 s2 s2
Solution : 4 = 2 2 =
s + 4 ( s ) + 2  s 2  2 + 2 2 - 2  s 2  2 ( s 2 + 2) 2 - ( 2 s ) 2
s2 As+B As+B
= = 1 2 1 + 2 2 2
( s + 2 s + 2)( s - 2 s + 2) ( s + 1) + 1 ( s - 1) + 1
2 2

s2 - 2i
lim = A1 ( -1 + i ) + B1  = ( - A1 + B1 ) + iA1
s  -1+i ( s - 1) + 12
4 - 4i
8 - 8i 1
= ( - A1 + B1 ) + iA1  A1 = - , B1 = 0
32 4
2
s 2i
lim = A2 (1 + i ) + B2  = ( A2 + B2 ) + iA2
s 1+ i ( s + 1) + 1
2
4 + 4i
8 + 8i 1
= ( A2 + B2 ) + iA2  A2 = , B2 = 0
32 4
1 1 1 1
2 - ( s + 1) + ( s - 1) +
s
L -1[ 4 ] = L -1[ 4 4+4 4]
s +4 ( s + 1) + 1
2
( s - 1) + 1
2

e -t et
= ( - cos t + sin t ) + (cos t + sin t )
4 4
Ex. 10.
EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE
 -1s 3 - 3s 2 + 6 s - 4
L [ ].
( s 2 - 2 s + 2) 2
s 3 - 3s 2 + 6s - 4 As + B cs + D
Solution : = +
( s - 2 s + 2)
2 2
[( s - 1) + 1]
2 2
( s - 1) 2 + 1
lim ( s 3 - 3s 2 + 6 s + 4) = A(1 + i ) + B
s 1+ i

2i = ( A + B ) + iA  A = 2, B = -2
d 3 d
lim ( s - 3s 2 + 6 s + 4) = A + [c(1 + i ) + D ] lim [( s - 1) 2 + 1]
s 1+ i ds s 1+ i ds

0 = A + ( c + ic + D )2i = ( A - 2c ) + 2i ( c + D )
c = 1, D = -1
-1 s 3 - 3s 2 + 6 s - 4 2( s - 1) s -1
L [ ] = L -1{ }+ L -1
[ ]
( s - 2 s + 2)
2 2
[( s - 1) 2 + 1]2 ( s - 1) 2 + 1
t
= e t ( 2  sin t + cos t ) = e t (t sin t + cos t )
2

-1 s +1 -1 s -1
[Exercises] 1.L [ 2.L [ ]
bs + 7 s + 2]
2
( s + 3)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)
-1 s -1 11s 3 - 47s 2 + 56s + 4
3.L [ ] 4.L [ ]
( s - 2 s + 2)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)
2
( s - 2) 3 ( s + 2)
-1 s2 -1 1
5.L [ ] 6.L [ ]
s4 + 4 ( s - 1) 3
2

t 2
1 - 1 - t 1 4 1
[Ans]1. e 2 - e 3 2. e -t ( 4 cos t - 3sin t ) - e -3t 3. sin t sinh t
2 3 5 5 2
1 1
4.e 2t ( 2t 2 - t + 5) + 6e -2t 5. (cosh t sin t + sinh t cos t ) 6. [(3 + t 2 ) sinh t - 3t cosh t ]
2 8

EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ECE