14/06/2019

FLUID FLOW
PHENOMENA

FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

The flow of fluids in industrial processes is an important unit operation because
Chemical Engineers are concerned with the safest, most economical and most
efficient way to transport fluids from one location to another location through
pipes or open ducts. It is essential for a Chemical Engineer to estimate the
pressure drop that occurs during a flow in the system, and hence the power
required for pumping, selection of the most suitable type of pump and
measurement of flow rates.
UNIT DRIVING FORCE
OPERATIONS
Fluid Flow Difference in Pressure (Pressure gradient) P
Heat Transfer Difference in Temperature T
(Temperature gradient)
Particulates No driving force, involves mechanical operations, Not applicable
e.g. Size reduction, conveying, filtration

Mass Transfer Difference in concentration Concentration

(Difference in Chemical Potential)
NOTE:
Chemical Potential is a form of potential energy
that can be absorbed or released during a
chemical reaction

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FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

POTENTIAL FLOW
➢ Flow of an ideal fluid, one that is incompressible and has zero viscosity
➢ Characteristics of Potential Flow:
a) Neither circulation nor eddies can form within the stream, so that it is
also called irrotational flow
b) Friction cannot develop, so that there is no dissipation of mechanical
energy into heat.

(Force required to
overcome the friction in
the fluid between the
plates and to maintain
the velocity “u”)

FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

RHEOLOGY
 Studies the relationships between the shear stress and shear rate
 The study of flowing matter
 The overall science that considers flow and deformation of fluids
 It emanated from the Greek philosopher Heraclitus, who wrote
“panta rhei” translated as “everything flows”
 Study of deformation and flow of matter
 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the
action of a shearing force.
e.g. Intuitively, a fluid flows!
 Inquiry into the flow behavior of complex fluids
 Complex fluids do not follows Newton’s Law or Hooke’s Law (of
elasticity)

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What is Rheology Anyway?

 “Rheology is the study of the flow of materials
that behave in an interesting or unusual manner.
Oil and water flow in familiar, normal ways,
whereas mayonnaise, peanut butter, chocolate,
bread dough, and silly putty flow in complex and
unusual ways. In rheology, we study the flows of
unusual materials.”
 “… all normal or Newtonian fluids (air, water, oil,
honey) follow the same scientific laws. On the
other hand, there are also fluids that do not
follow the Newtonian flow laws. These non-
Newtonian fluids, for example mayo, paint,
molten plastics, foams, clays, and many other
fluids, behave in a wide variety of ways. The
science of studying these types of unusual
materials is called rheology”

Rheology as an Interdisciplinary Science

Physics Chemistry

Rheology
(of liquids)

Rheology
(of liquids)

Mechanics Technology/
of Engineering
Continuum

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FLUID FLOW
Fluid flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or non-uniform; laminar or
turbulent; one-dimensional, two dimensional or three-dimensional; and
rotational or irrotational.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

TERM DEFINITION
Streamline An imaginary line in a field of flow at an instant of time such that the
fluid velocity at any point is tangential to it (there can be no flow across a
streamline)
Stream A family of streamlines forming a cylindrical passage of infinitesimal
filament cross-section.
Stream Is bounded by an infinite number of streamlines forming a finite surface
tube across which there is no flow.
Streak line A line made by a dye injected into a fluid at one point and thus marks the
positions of all particles of fluid which have passed that point.
Pathline A line made by a single particle as it moves during a period of time.

While the path line refers to a path of a single particle, a streamline refers
to an instantaneous picture of the velocity directions of a number of
particles. In a steady flow, streamlines, streaklines and path lines are the
same.

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES DEFINITION
1. Steady and Steady Flow Type of flow in which the fluid
Unsteady Flow characteristics (velocity, density,
pressure and temperature) at a point DO
NOT change with time. Although
velocity does not change with time, it
may change from point to point in space.
Unsteady Flow Type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics at a point changes with
time. Flow is time – dependent.
2. One-dimensional, One- True one-dimensional flow of an
Two –dimensional dimensional incompressible fluid occurs when the
direction and magnitude of the velocity
at all points are identical
Two- Occurs when fluid particles move in
dimensional planes or parallel planes and the stream
line patterns are identical in each plane.

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TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES DEFINITION
3. Uniform and Uniform Type of flow in which the velocity at any given
Non-uniform Flow time does not change with respect to space.
Flow Convective acceleration is zero. The velocity
vector is identical in magnitude and direction
at every point in the flow field. The velocity
itself may not be constant with respect to
time, but any change that may occur at every
point simultaneously and the streamline must
be straight.
i.e. Length of direction of flow
Non- Type of flow in which the velocity at any given
Uniform time changes with respect to space. Velocity
Flow vector is dependent on position.

Steady Uniform Flow – flow of fluid through a long pipe of uniform cross-
section at a constant rate
Unsteady Uniform Flow – flow through a long pipe at a decreasing rate
Steady Non-uniform Flow – flow through an expanding pipe at a constant rate
Unsteady Non-uniform Flow – flow through an expanding pipe at an increasing
rate.

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES DEFINITION
4. Compressible Compressible Type of flow in which the density of the
and fluid changes from point to point
Incompressible (density is not constant) e.g.GASES
Flow Incompressible Type of flow in which the density of the
fluid is constant. e.g. LIQUIDS
5. Rotational Flow Rotational Flow Flow illustrated by fluids in rotating
and Irrotational tanks where the velocity of each particle
Flow varies directly as the distance from the
center of rotation
Irrotational ➢ Flow of an ideal fluid
Flow ➢ Flow in which no shear stresses occur
and hence no torques exist and that
the fluid particles cannot experience
rotational motion about their own mass
centers.

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TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES DEFINITION
6. Laminar and Laminar ➢ Type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
Turbulent Flow well-defined paths.
➢ This occurs at relatively low velocities where fluid
(type of flow particle move smoothly, parallel everywhere.
according to the ➢ Moves in thin, straight line
conditions of ➢ This type of flow is also called stream – line flow or
flow through a viscous flow. Influenced by viscous forces
closed channel ➢ Application: stack gas sampling
of any cross- Turbulent ➢ Turbulent flow travels in random, chaotic paths and is
section) Flow characterized by irregular fluctuations and heavy
mixing. Influenced by inertial forces
➢ Turbulent flow occurs at relatively high velocities

LAMINAR FLOW TURBULENT FLOW

Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow

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RHEOLOGY
a)The overall science that considers flow and deformation
of fluids
b) The study of the relationship between force and
deformation in continuous medium

NEWTON’s Law of Viscosity

States that the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate. The constant of proportionality is the viscosity

The greater the shear stress, the faster will be the fluid flow.

RHEOLOGICAL FLUID TYPES

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RHEOGRAM
Plot of the shear stress versus the shear rate (velocity gradient)

TYPES OF FLUIDS
TERM DEFINITION
Ideal a) A substance that is unable to resist internal shear and
fluids tensile forces. Do not exist in nature.
b) Assumed to have no viscosity or non-viscous (inviscid),
thus no resistance to shear
c) Incompressible
d) Have uniform velocity when flowing
e) No friction between moving layers of fluid
f) No eddy currents or turbulence
Real fluids a) Fluids that have surface tension, viscosity and
compressibility
b) Exhibit infinite viscosities
c) Compressible
d) Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
e) Experience friction and turbulence in flow
Newtonian a) Fluids where stress is directly proportional to rate of
Fluids strain
b) Fluids that follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity

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TYPES OF FLUIDS
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Non-Newtonian a) A fluid whose flow Non-Newtonian
Fluids or Memory properties differ in any Fluids or Memory
Fluids way from those of Fluids
Newtonian fluids.
b) The viscosity of non-
Newtonian fluids is
dependent on shear rate
or shear rate history.
Time – Properties are independent Bingham plastic
independent of time under shear Pseudoplastic
Fluids Dilatant fluids
Time dependent Properties are dependent Thixotropic
Fluids upon duration of shear Rheopectic
Viscoelastic Properties which exhibit
fluids characteristic of a solid

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

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TIME INDEPENDENT
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Bingham
Plastic

Time- Pseudoplastic
Non-Newtonian
Independent Fluids
Fluids
Fluids

Dilatant Fluids

TIME INDEPENDENT NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Bingham plastic / Bingham fluids ➢ Fluids that have a linear clay suspensions,
(Yield – Stress Fluids) shear stress/shear strain drilling mud,
relationship require a toothpaste,
finite yield stress before mayonnaise,
they begin to flow (the chocolate,
plot does not pass mustard,
through the origin) Water suspensions
➢ Requires finite stress to of rock or grains,
initiate flow Highly
➢ Bingham plastic is the concentrated
simplest non-newtonian suspensions of fine
fluid. particles,
➢ It is the same as Sewage sludge
newtonian fluid in Digested sewage
behavior and the only Clay
difference is that a Mud
certain amount of shear Chewing gum
is needed to initiate flow. Tar
➢ Tendency of a material to Thermoplastic
flow only when stresses polymer solutions
are above a threshold High con’cn of
stress asbestine in oil

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TIME INDEPENDENT
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Pseudoplastic Fluids ➢ The viscosity appears Blood,

(Shear thinning fluid) to decrease when the Nail polish,
shear rate increases. whipped cream,
➢ Majority of non- ketchup,
newtonian fluids are molasses,
pseudoplastic syrups,
materials. It exhibits latex paint,
a shear thinning Silly putty
effect that is GRS latex solutions
viscosity decreases Greases
with increase in shear Molasses
rate. Examples are Paint
polymeric solutions or Starch
melts and suspensions Soap
of paper pulps or Most emulsions (egg)
pigments. Printing inks
➢ The term Paper pulp
shear thinning – tendency of “pseudoplastic” is
some materials to decrease in discouraged since it is
viscosity when driven to flow at an old/outdated
high shear rates, such as by terminology.
higher pressure drops

TIME INDEPENDENT
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Dilatant Fluids The viscosity Oobleck (Corn
(Shear thickening fluid) appears to starch dissolved
increase when in water)
the shear rate Paper pulp,
increases. Sand in water,
Starch in water
beach sand
Quicksand
Feldspar
Mica
Candy compounds
Peanut butter

shear thickening
– tendency of some materials to
increase in viscosity when driven to
flow at high shear rates

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NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

TIME DEPENDENT
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Thixotropic
Non- Time – Fluids
Real
FLUID Newtonian Dependent
Fluids
Fluids Fluids Rheopectic
Fluids
 Time-dependent fluids
 For time-dependent fluids, the shear stress depends on the past
history of the rate of deformation, as a result of structure or
orientation buildup or breakdown during deformation.

1. THIXOTROPIC
 shear stress decreases with time at constant shear rate.
(mayonnaise, clay suspensions, etc.)
2. RHEOPECTIC
shear stress increases with time at constant shear rate.
(bentonite sols, gypsum suspension in water, etc.)

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NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
THIXOTROPIC FLUIDS:

Thixotropic fluid behavior.

o is initial viscosity
 is viscosity after infinite time.

NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
RHEOPECTIC FLUIDS:

Rheopectic fluid behavior

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VISCOELASTIC
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Exhibit elastic recovery from deformations which occur during
flow. Polymer fluids comprise the largest fluids in this class.

Viscoelastic Effects:
1. Weissenberg effect
2. Fluid Memory
3. Die Swell

Non-Newtonian
FLUID Real Fluids Viscoelastic
Fluids

FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

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FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

VISCOSITY
➢In everyday terms and for fluids only, viscosity is “thickness” or “internal
friction”. Thus, water is “thin”, having a lower viscosity, while honey is
“thick”, having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the
greater its ease of movement (fluidity)
➢Ratio of shear stress to shear rate

UNITS OF VISCOSITY:
Viscosity 1 poise 100 cP (centipoises)
1 g/cm.s
0.1 Pa.s
1 cP 0.001 kg/m.s
2.4191 lbm/ft.h
6.72 x 10-4 lbm/ft.s
2.09 x 10-5 lbf.s/ft2

NOTE:
1. The viscosities of liquids are generally much greater than those of gases
2. The viscosity of a liquid increases with pressure, but the effect is
generally insignificant at pressures less than 40 atm.

NOTE: n = apparent viscosity

NEWTON’s Law of Viscosity NEWTONIAN FLUIDS:

States that the shear stress
is directly proportional to the
shear rate. The constant of
proportionality is the
viscosity.
Newtonian fluids follows or are characterized by
a plot which is a straight line passing through the
origin. Fluids of this type follow Newton’s Law
of Viscosity. In Newtonian Fluid, the shear
stress is proportional to shear rate, and the
proportionality constant is called the viscosity.

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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TERM Symbol DEFINITION FORMULA
DENSITY Amount of mass
or Mass  in a unit volume
density (rho) of substance.
SPECIFIC
VOLUME
VS The volume
occupied by a
unit mass of fluid
SPECIFIC The weight per
WEIGHT  unit volume of a
or Unit (gamma) material
weight
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
SG A dimensionless
or ratio of a
or material’s density
Relative S to some standard
Density
reference
or
Relative density.
Gravity

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TERM Symbol DEFINITION FORMULA
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
SG A dimensionless
or ratio of a
or material’s
Relative S density to some
Density
standard
or
Relative reference
Gravity density.

For water at 40C:

H2O = specific weight = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3

 H2O = density = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 62.4 lbm/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3

SGH2O = specific gravity = 1.0

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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TERM Symbol DEFINITION FORMULA
VISCOSITY a) A material property
or  that measures the
Dynamic (mu) fluid's resistance to
Viscosity flow. The measure of
a fluid’s resistance to
internal shear
stresses or angular
deformation.
Dependent on
temperature.
b) Viscosity is the
constant of
proportionality
between shear
stress and the
gradient (spatial
derivative) of
velocity

VISCOSITY

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NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE
➢ Temperature affects the viscosity
➢ The relationship between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases
are:

For LIQUIDS:

WATER:
 Viscosity of liquid at t0C, in poise
0 = 0.00179 Poise
0 Viscosity of liquid at 00C, in poise = 0.03368
,  Constants for the liquid  = 0.000221

AIR:
For GASES:
0 = 0.000017 Poise
= 0.000000056
 = 0.1189 x 10-9

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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TERM Symbol DEFINITION FORMULA
KINEMATIC The ratio of the dynamic
VISCOSITY
or
 viscosity (μ) to the density
of the fluid ( ρ )
(nu) Unit: m2/s, ft2/s
Momentum
diffusivity cm2/s = stoke

SURFACE a) It is the intermolecular Pressure inside a

TENSION  cohesive forces that droplet of liquid:
(sigma) causes bubbles and
droplets to take on a
spherical shape, since
any other shape would
have more surface area
per unit volume. P = gage pressure
b) The capacity of liquids (N/m2)
to resist tensile
stresses at their = surface
surface is called surface tension (N/m)
tension. d = droplet
diameter (m)

REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re = NRe)

Osborne Reynolds (1883) gave a visual demonstration
of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a
pipe, using an experimental set-up that is still popular
today.

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity

that is used to help predict similar flow patterns in
different fluid flow situations. The concept was
introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851, but the
Reynolds number is named after Osborne Reynolds
(1842–1912), who popularized its use in 1883. Sir George Stokes

The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial

forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies
the relative importance of these two types of forces
for given flow conditions. Reynolds numbers frequently
arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine
dynamic similitude between two different cases of
fluid flow. They are also used to characterize
different flow regimes within a similar fluid, such as
laminar or turbulent flow Osborne Reynolds

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REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re = NRe)

A. Reynolds Number for Newtonian Fluids:

Re Reynolds Number
D Diameter of the tube or pipe
V Average velocity of fluid
 Density of the fluid
 Viscosity of the fluid
 Kinematic viscosity
G Mass velocity
NOTE:
Laminar flow when Re<2100
Transition flow when 2100<Re<4000
Turbulent flow when Re>4000

REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re = NRe)

B. Reynolds Number for Non-Newtonian Fluids:

Flow Property Indexes for Pseudoplastic

Fluids:
Re Reynolds Number FLUID n' K’ x 10-3
D Diameter of the tube or 1.5% Carboxymethyl 0.554 3.13
pipe cellulose in water
V Average velocity of fluid 3.0% Carboxymethyl 0.566 9.31
cellulose in water
 Density of the fluid
4.0% paper pulp in 0.575 20.02
 Viscosity of the fluid
water
n' Flow property index for
14.3% clay in water 0.350 0.173
non-Newtonian Fluids
25% clay in water 0.185 1.59
K’ Flow property index for
non-Newtonian Fluids Applesauce 0.645 0.500

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PROBLEMS
1. For the following situations of steady flow, determine whether flow is laminar
or turbulent:
a) water at 100C flowing at an average velocity of 2 m/s in a 100 mm pipe
b) air at 2 atm pressure and 1800F flowing at 50 ft/s in a 12 inch duct
c) oil with a specific gravity of 0.78 and viscosity of 20 cP flowing at 5 ft/s
in a 2 inch pipe
d) polymer melt with a density of 900 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 1 Pa-s flowing
at 0.2m/s in a 15 mm tube.
2. A flat plate 30 cm by 50 cm slides on oil (=0.8 N.s/m2) over a large plane
surface. What force is required to drag the plate at 2 m/s, if the separating
oil film is 0.5 mm thick.
3. A 15 cm long cylindrical metal rod slides inside a tube filled with oil. The inner
diameter of the tube is 5 cm and the clearance is 0.05 mm. The mass of the
rod is 0.5 kg when immersed in the oil. What is the viscosity of the oil if the
steady state velocity of the rod is 0.1 m/s?
4. The distance between two parallel plates is 0.00914 meters and the lower plate
is being pulled at a relative velocity of 0.366 m/s greater than the top plate.
The fluid is used is soy bean oil with a viscosity of 4 x 10-2 Pa-s at 303K.
a) Calculate the shear stress and the shear rate in fps and SI units.
b) If glycerol at 293K having a viscosity of 1.069 kg/m-s is used instead of
soy bean oil, what relative velocity in m/s is needed using the same distance
between the plates so that the same shear stress is obtained as in part
“a”. Also, what is the new shear rate?

THE VELOCITY PROFILE

When a fluid is flowing over a surface or through a pipe, its velocity
at various points in a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow is
rarely uniform. Because of the resistance encountered by the flowing
fluids at the surface of the pipe wall, the fluid particles in contact
with the surface of the wall may be considered to have no net
forward velocity. That is, there is no slip at the wall surface and the
velocity of the fluid is zero. Thus, a cross-sectional view of the
velocity distribution of the fluid flowing in a long straight pipe would
show the maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, with the
velocity gradually decreasing to zero as the wall is approached.

If the fluid is frictionless and the conditions of slip exist at the wall,
the velocity becomes uniform throughout the cross section of the
pipe and the velocity profile becomes flat or the ultimate flow beyond
both laminar and turbulent flow is ideal or plug flow where all the
velocities across the tube cross section are the same. The plug or
ideal flow concept is used in a number of applications. Particular
examples are such systems as flow reactors or flow-through packed
beds.

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THE VELOCITY PROFILE

FIGURE 1: Velocity distributions in a pipe.

TYPE OF FLOW SHAPE OF VELOCITY PROFILE

LAMINAR FLOW true parabola or parabolic
TURBULENT FLOW Blunter parabola
PLUG FLOW or Ideal Flow flat

THE VELOCITY PROFILE

AVE. VELOCITY of Newtonian Fluids
with LAMINAR FLOW in pipes Symbol Definition
u Maximum velocity
or
uMAX
U Constant, equal to
the velocity at the
For Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube: centerline of the
tube
r Radial distance
from the centerline
R Radius of the tube
n =1/7 for values of
For Turbulent Flow in a Smooth NRe < 1 x 105
Circular Tube: =1/8 for values of
Nre > 1 x 105 to
4 x 105
V Average velocity

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FLOW IN BOUNDARY LAYERS

A boundary layer is defined as that part of a moving fluid in which the fluid
motion is influenced by the presence of a solid boundary. When a fluid enters
a pipe, viscous effects due to the pipe wall will develop. The region where
viscous effects are important is referred to as the boundary layer. The
boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding
surface where the effects of viscosity are significant.

When the velocity profile reaches a constant, meaning the velocity profile no
longer changes along the pipe, the flow is said to be fully developed.

FULLY
DEVELOPED
REGION

FLOW IN BOUNDARY LAYERS

TRANSITION LENGTH
The length of the entrance region of the tube necessary for the boundary layer to
reach the center of the tube and for fully developed flow to be established. The
approximate length of straight pipe necessary for completion of the final velocity
distribution is
Where:
Le = transition length
D = pipe diameter

Le

FULLY
DEVELOPED
FLOW

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TRANSITION LENGTH

PERRY’S handbook: ENTRANCE and EXIT EFFECTS in a PIPE

FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA PROBLEMS

1. TRANSITION LENGTH
a) Estimate the transition length at the entrance to a 15 mm tube
through which 100 percent glycerol at 600C is flowing at a
velocity of 0.3 m/s.
b) Repeat part a for 100 percent n-propyl alcohol entering a 3 inch
pipe at 300C and a velocity of 7 ft/s.
2. Air at 300C and 5 bars is flowing inside a ½ inch schedule 40 steel
pipe. If the flow is at 4.0 ft3/min at standard temperature and
pressure (00C and 1 atm), is the flow likely to be laminar or
turbulent?
3. Crude oil is pumped at 1.5 m/s through a pipeline 1 m in diameter.
What value of the oil viscosity would laminar flow exist?
4. The apparent viscosity of non-newtonian liquid at a given shear rate
is the value indicated by a viscometer operating on the liquid at that
shear rate. It is the viscosity that would be indicated by the
viscometer if the liquid were Newtonian.
a) Calculate the apparent viscosity of a 4% suspension of paper
pulp in water at shear rates du/dy of 10s-1 and 1000s-1
b) Repeat for a 25% suspension of clay in water

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