MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS.

“What is not measured does not exist.”

Max Born, 1926

Generic scheme of a measurement

Environment

Disturbance Influence

x +D x y +Dy1

Matching

Matching
Measurement
Measurement
System Observer
Object
(noisy)
Influence Influence
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 2

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS

1.1. Definition of measurement
Measurement is the acquisition of information
about a state or phenomenon (object of
measurement) in the world around us.

Measuring is basically used to monitor a process

or operation, or as well as controlling process.

e.g. Thermometer, barometers are used to

indicate environmental conditions.

A measurement must be descriptive

(observable) with regard to that state (or object)
we are measuring: there must be a relationship
between the object of measurement and the
measurement result.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 3

Descriptiveness (observability) of a measurement

REAL WORLD IMAGE

empirical states abstract numbers
phenomena, etc. symbols, labels, etc.

?
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.2. Definition of instrumentation 4

1.2. Definition of Instrumentation

In order to guarantee the objectivity of a measurement, we
must use artifacts (tools or instruments). The task of these
instruments is to convert the state (or phenomenon) into a
different state (or phenomenon) that cannot be misinterpreted
by an observer.

The field of designing measurement, instruments and systems

is called instrumentation.

Instrumentation systems must guarantee the required

descriptiveness, the selectivity, and the objectivity of the
measurement.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 5

Example: Measurement as mapping

Empirical space Image space

State (phenomenon): Transformation

Abstract symbol, B
Static magnetic field

B= f (R, w, V )

R
w Measurement model

V
Instrumentation

d[B cos(w t) A]
v=-
dt
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring? 6

1.3. Why measuring?

Let us define ‘pure’ science as science that has sole purpose

of describing the world around us and therefore is responsible
for our perception of the world.

In ‘pure’ science, we can form a better, more coherent, and

objective picture of the world, based on the information
measurement provides. In other words, the information allows
us to create models of (parts of) the world and formulate laws
and theorems.

We then determine (again) by measuring whether this models,

hypotheses, theorems, and laws are a valid representation of
the world. This is done by performing tests (measurements) to
compare the theory with reality.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements 7

1.4. Types of measurements

To represent a state, we would like our measurements to have
some of the following characteristics.

Distinctiveness: A = B, A  B.

Ordering in magnitude: A < B, A = B, A > B.

Equal/unequal intervals: IA-BI < IC-DI, IA-BI = IC-DI,

IA-BI > IC-DI .

Ratio: A = k B (absolute zero is required).

Absolute magnitude: A = ka REF, B = kb REF

(absolute reference or unit is required).

These five characteristics are used to determine the five types

(levels) of measurements.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements 8

ABSOLUTE Abs. unit

RATIO Abs. zero

INTERVAL Distance is meaningful

ORDINAL States can be ordered

NOMINAL States are only named

Illustration: Levels of measurements (S. S. Stevens, 1946)

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 9

1.5. Scaling of measurement results

A scale is an organized set of measurements, all of which
measure one property.

The types of scales reflect the types of measurements:

1. nominal scale,
2. ordinal scale,
3. interval scale,
4. ratio scale,
5. absolute scale.

National Instruments, Inc.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 10

1. Nominal scale

Examples: numbering of football players, detection and

alarm systems, etc.

Any one-to-one transformation can be used to

change the scale.

1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0

OK

National Instruments, Inc.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 11

2. Ordinal scale

Examples: IQ test, competition results, etc.

Any monotonically increasing transformation, either linear or

nonlinear, can be used to change the scale.

OK

National Instruments, Inc.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 12

3. Interval scale

Examples: time scales, temperature scales (C, F), etc.,

where the origin or zero is not absolute (floating).

Any increasing linear transformation can be used to

change the scale.

+ + + -
D D
OK A
C C B C
D B B D
B C
A A
A

2X+1 NB: x(-1) does not

change the
interval but
does change
the order: A>C.

National Instruments, Inc.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 13

4. Ratio scale

Examples: temperature (K), distance, mass, current, voltage

scales, etc., where the origin or zero is absolute.

The only transformation that can be used to change the

scale is the multiplication by any positive real number.

+ + + 0 0

OK

0 0 0 0 0 0
-
x2 NB: x(-1) does not
change the ratio
and interval but
does change
the order.

National Instruments, Inc.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 14

5. Absolute scale

Examples: measurement of any physical quantities by

comparison against an absolute unit (reference).
Pressure is a force that can be measured absolutely.
No transformation can be used to change the scale.
An absolute scale can only be applied to measurements in
which a true minimum is known to exist.

10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 -10 -10

(Same interval) (Same ratio) (Same ratio,

different order)

Not the same absolute values.

National Instruments, Inc.

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1. Performance Characteristics:

A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument

is essential for selecting the most suitable instrument for specific
measuring job. It consist of two basic characteristics-
Static & Dynamic.
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1. Static Characteristics:
It is in general used for instruments which are used to measure an
unvarying process condition.
All static characteristics are obtained by one form or another by a
process called as calibration.
1. Instrument:
A device or a mechanism used to determine the present
value of the quantity under measurement.
2. Measurement:
The process of determining amount, degree or capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the
system units being used.
3. Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in the output (response) of the
instrument to a change of input (or measured variable).
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]

4. Resolution:
The smallest change in a measured variable to which an
instrument will respond.
5. Precision:
A measure of consistency of the instrument output for a given
value of input. (successive reading do not differ).
6. Error:
The deviation of the true value from the desired value.

7. Expected Value:
The most probable value that calculation indicate one should
expect to measure.
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

8. Accuracy:
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement
compared to the desired (expected) value.
a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one
particular point of scale. It does not give any information about
the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as
uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale
range.
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

9. Linearity:
Linearity is defined as the ability of an instrument to
reproduce its input linearly.
 Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum deviation of the
calibration points from the ideal straight line.
 Linearity is defined as,
Linearity=Maximum deviation of o/p from idealized straight line ∕ Actual
readings.
 Maximum deviation from linear relation between input and output.
 The output of an instrument has to be linearly proportionate to the
measured quantity.
 Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage (% fs).
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

9. Linearity:
The graph shows the output reading of an instrument when a few input
readings are entered.
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

10. Range:
The input range of an measuring device is specified by the
minimum and maximum values of input variable (Xmin to Xmax) .
e.g.: from -10 to +150 oC (for the measurement device with
temperature input).

The output range of an measuring device is specified by the

minimum and maximum values of output variable (Ymin to Ymax).
e.g.: from 4 to +20 mA (for the measurement element with current
output).
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

11. Span:
The input span of a measuring devices is specified by the
difference between maximum Xmax and minimum Xmin values
of input variables: (Xmax - Xmin ).
e.g: for a measuring devices with input range from -10 oC to +150 oC
the input span is: +150 oC - (-10 oC) = 160 oC.

The output span of a measuring devices is specified by the

difference between maximum Ymax and minimum Ymin values of
output variables: (Ymax - Ymin).
e.g.: for a measuring devices with output range from 4 to +20 mA span
is: +20 mA - 4 mA = 16 mA.
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1. Static Characteristics: [Continued]…

12. Reliability:
It refers to the consistency of a measure. The degree to
which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification can be
depended on to be accurate.
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1. Dynamic Characteristics:
Dynamic (or transient behaviour of an instrument is used to
determine its response (quick), after the input is applied.

It is determined by subjecting its primary element(sensing element) to

some unknown and pre-determined variations in the measured
quantity.
Variations can be-
1. Step Change:
In which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous, finite
change in measured variable.

2. Linear change:
In which the primary element is following a measured variable,
changing linearly with time.

3. Sinusoidal change:
In which the primary element follows a measured variable, whose
magnitude changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude.
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1. Dynamic Characteristics: [Continued]…

The dynamic characteristic of an instrument are-
1. Speed of response:
It is the rapidity with which an instrument respond to changes in
the measured quantity.

2. Fidelity:
It is the degree to which an instrument indicates, the changes in
the measured variable without dynamic error
(also termed faithful reproduction).

3. Lag:
It is the delay in the response of an instrument to change in the
measured variable.

4. Dynamic Error:
It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing
with time and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static
error is assumed.
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Dynamic Characteristics Response of Zero order Instrument

Electronic Instrumentation, H S Kalsi, Page no.9, TMH, 2 edition.

 27

Error in Measurement:
Factors affecting the measurement are-
1. Measuring instrument itself.
2. Person using the instrument.

The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value is expressed

in terms of the error of measurement.

Error may expressed as

a. Absolute error:
Is the difference between expected value and measured value of a
variable.
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b. Percentage error:
Is the ratio of absolute value to the expected value.
 29

Static Error:
Static error of measuring instrument is the numerical difference
between the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement
(i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indications).

Categorized as-
1. Gross error:
due to human mistake in-
reading,
in instrument,
error in recording observations.

2. Systematic error:
due to-
shortcomings of instrument such as defective parts,
ageing,
effect of the environment on instrument.
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2.1 Instrumental Error:

Are inherent in measuring instrument because of their mechanical
structure. Can be avoided by-
- selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
applications.
- applying correction factor after determining the amount of instrumental
error.
- Calibration of instrument.

2.2 Environmental error:

Due to-
conditions external to the measuring devices,
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument,

can be avoided by-

- air conditioning,
- hermetically sealing certain components of instrument,
- using magnetic shield.
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2.3 Observational error;

Introduced by the observer.
Are caused by the habits of individual observer.
e.g. an observer may always introduce an error by consistently holding its head
too far to the left while reading a needle and scale reading.

Sources of error:
1. Defective piece of hardware in the instrument.
2. Poor design.
3. Poor maintenance.
4. Certain design limitations.
5. Change in process parameters.
6. Error due to operator.
7. Insufficient knowledge of process parameter and design condition.