Sacred Tanks of South India

SACRED TANKS
OF
SOUTH INDIA
SACRED TANKS
OF
SOUTH INDIA
published by
C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
Chennai
© 2006 C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from

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CONTENTS
Introduction..............................................................................................1
Hydrogeology of Sacred Tanks and its Significance in the

Environmental Regime..............................................................................5
Sacred Tanks of India............................................................................14
Sacred Tanks of Tamilnadu...................................................................17
Sacred Tanks: Glimpses from Epigraphy...............................................25
Sacred Tanks..........................................................................................30
Irrigation Tanks - How Sacred are they?..............................................36
PART 1 ANDHRA PRADESH...............................................................41
Chebrolu.................................................................................................43
Chinnekothapalle....................................................................................45
Hemavathi...............................................................................................46
Kalahasthi...............................................................................................47
Lepakshi..................................................................................................49
Mangalagiri.............................................................................................50
Mannarpolur...........................................................................................52
Penukonda..............................................................................................54
Ponnur....................................................................................................56
R. L. Puram............................................................................................57
Singarayakonda.......................................................................................59
Srisailam..................................................................................................61
Tiruchanur (Alamelumangapuram).........................................................63
Tirumala..................................................................................................65
Tirupathi.................................................................................................67
Warangal.................................................................................................69
Yadagiri Gatta.........................................................................................70
vi Sacred Tanks of South India
PART 2 KARNATAKA...........................................................................73
Ambalapadi.............................................................................................75
Ambutirtham...........................................................................................77
Bababudan Giri......................................................................................78
Belur.......................................................................................................79
Chamundi Hills......................................................................................80
Gokarna..................................................................................................82
Hassan....................................................................................................85
KOLAR....................................................................................................86
Kota........................................................................................................87
Kumbakshi..............................................................................................88
Malpe......................................................................................................90
Melkote...................................................................................................91
Mulbagal.................................................................................................93
Sravanabelagola......................................................................................95
Talakadu.................................................................................................97
Talakaveri................................................................................................99
Udipi.....................................................................................................102
Udipi.....................................................................................................104
PART 3 KERALA.................................................................................105
Adityapuram.........................................................................................107
Alapuzha...............................................................................................108
Alapuzha...............................................................................................109
Chenganoor..........................................................................................110
Chottanikkara........................................................................................112
Ettumanur..............................................................................................114
Contents vii
Evoor.....................................................................................................116
Guruvayur.............................................................................................117
Haripad.................................................................................................119
Irinjalakuda...........................................................................................121
Kaduthuruthy........................................................................................124
Kodungallur..........................................................................................125
Kottayam...............................................................................................127
Kumaranallur.........................................................................................129
Mannarsala...........................................................................................131
Panachikadu.........................................................................................133
Ramapuram...........................................................................................135
Sabarimala............................................................................................136
Thrissur.................................................................................................138
Tiruvalla................................................................................................140
Tiruvananthapuram...............................................................................142
Tiruvananthapuram...............................................................................144
Vaikom.................................................................................................145
Varkala..................................................................................................148
PART 4 PONDICHERRY....................................................................151
Tirunallar..............................................................................................153
PART 6 TAMILNADU........................................................................157
Annamalai Nagar (Tiruvatkalam)..........................................................160
Avinasi..................................................................................................161
Chennimalai..........................................................................................162
Chidambaram.......................................................................................164
viii Sacred Tanks of South India
Gangaikonda Cholapuram....................................................................166
Hosur....................................................................................................168
Kaalaiyar Koil.......................................................................................170
Kudavasal..............................................................................................172
Kumbakonam........................................................................................173
Kundrakkudi..........................................................................................175
Lalgudi..................................................................................................177
Madurai................................................................................................178
Mannargudi...........................................................................................180
Mayavaram...........................................................................................182
Nagercoil..............................................................................................183
Narthamalai..........................................................................................184
Nattarasan Kottai..................................................................................186
Perur.....................................................................................................187
Pillaiyarpatti..........................................................................................188
Pullambadi............................................................................................189
Pushpavanam........................................................................................190
Rameswaram.........................................................................................191
Sankarankoil.........................................................................................193
Seerkazhi...............................................................................................195
Sembanarkoil........................................................................................197
Sholingur...............................................................................................198
Singamuneri..........................................................................................200
Sivaganga..............................................................................................201
Srimushnam..........................................................................................202
Srirangam..............................................................................................203
Srivilliputhur.........................................................................................205
Contents ix
Suchindram...........................................................................................207
Tanjavur................................................................................................209
Tenkasi..................................................................................................210
Tiruaadanur...........................................................................................211
Tiruchendur..........................................................................................213
Tiruchirapalli.........................................................................................214
Tiruchirupuliyur....................................................................................216
Tiruchuzhi.............................................................................................217
Tirukarugavur........................................................................................218
Tirukazhukundram................................................................................219
Tirukkurungudi......................................................................................221
Tirukokarnam........................................................................................223
Tirukoodal.............................................................................................225
Tirukovilur............................................................................................226
Tirukuvalai............................................................................................228
Tirumayam............................................................................................229
Tirumogoor...........................................................................................230
Tirumuruganpoondi..............................................................................231
Tirunelveli.............................................................................................233
Tirupparankunram.................................................................................235
Tiruthuraipoondi...................................................................................237
Tiruvanaikkaval.....................................................................................239
Tiruvannamalai.....................................................................................241
Tiruvarur...............................................................................................244
Tiruvathanur..........................................................................................246
Tiruvavaduthurai...................................................................................247
Tiruvengadu..........................................................................................248
x Sacred Tanks of South India
Tiruvidaimarudur..................................................................................250
Uthirakosamangai.................................................................................251
Vaalikandapuram..................................................................................253
Vaitheeswarankoil.................................................................................254
Vellore..................................................................................................256
Viralimalai.............................................................................................258
Vridhachalam........................................................................................260
1
INTRODUCTION
The lack of perpetual snow-fed rivers in South India led to the

system of water harvesting with the aid of tanks. The tanks were
available for drinking and domestic use. But these tanks also
irrigated large tracts of land. There were different types of tanks:
percolation ponds, natural lakes, artificial reservoirs and temple
tanks. Each can form the subject of an entire tome.
Tanks are found from the Indus period onwards. We do not know
the use of these large brick-lined water storage facilities, whether
they were used for bathing or for storing water, etc. In Mohenjadaro,
Harappa and Dholavira, major sites of the Indus Valley civilization
(3000 to 1500 B.C.), there are several reservoirs and tanks.
The Mahabharata mentions that sage Narada advised Yudhishthira
to excavate large lakes to store water and make cultivation
independent of rainwater. In 300 B.C., Kautilya in his Arthashastra
writes about state help for irrigation. There were officers to
superintend fresh water sources, dams, tanks and irrigation systems.
In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura was the site of a 250 m
long tank fed by the river Ganga. A 11 m wide and 5 m deep canal
took the excess water from the Ganga into a silting chamber where
the dirt settled down. Thereafter, relatively clean water entered a
brick tank and, after further filtering, only clean water could reach
the second tank. The water then went to the third circular tank
with terracotta sculptures on the side. The excess water went back
to the Ganga. In the 11th century king Bhoja created a huge lake
across two hills in Madhya Pradesh, covering an area of over 65,000
ha and fed by 365 streams and springs.
Nearly every South Indian village has a temple and a tank,
and towns and cities have several. The water of the temple tank
was used for drinking water, washing one’s hands and feet before
going into the temple and, sometimes, for irrigating temple lands.
Its limited use meant that it maintained ground water levels, thus
ensuring sufficient water in the domestic wells through the hot
summer months.
The deep faith of the people was harnessed to protect the
environment and natural resources: sacred groves to protect
local biodiversity, sacred trees to protect economically, socially
2 Sacred Tanks of South India
and culturally important species and sacred tanks to maintain

water levels. Temples could mobilize men, money and resources
second only to the state. Endowments from devotees were used
to maintain the temple and its tank, reclaim temple lands, and
excavate channels to irrigate the land. Some of the tanks are as
sacred as the temple: Swami Pushkarani in Tirumala, Tala Kaveri
in Karnataka, Mahamagam Tank in Kumbakonam, Rama Tirtham
in Rameshwaram and Pakshi Tirtham in Tirukkalukunram.
Sacred tanks have different names in each state


In Karnataka, a kalyani is an artificially constructed temple tank,
and a devara kalyani was reserved for gods and goddesses. The
kalyani is usually either rectangular or square in shape and has
stone steps. Its water may be used to bathe the deity or for
drinking purposes. Bathing and washing were not permitted,
while separate kalyanis were built for washing the hands and
face, and strict rules were formulated to prevent pollution.

Kerala is a state with heavy rainfall, so the kulams and cheras
were built for drinking water, water for washing the hands and
face and for bathing before entering the temple.

Pushkarani is the temple tank of Andhra Pradesh, the most
famous being the Swami Pushkarani of the Tirumala temple. The
pushkaranis are sacred in themselves, and were used to provide
bathing water for the deity, for the annual theppam and for
bathing. They also served to maintain the water levels.

Tamil Nadu, a rain-fed state, is very dependant on the kulams
or temple tanks, which were used for providing drinking water,
water for washing the hands and face, and the village water level.
The paucity of water in the state required all homes to be built
facing the tank, necessarily a square or a rectangle, so that the
water would run off the sloping roofs and into the tank.
Temples in South India made endowments to maintain tanks and
irrigation channels. There are several archaeological evidences of
the construction of tanks in ancient and historical India. The
construction of tanks conferred religious merit and the construction
of a temple tank conferred even greater merit. Many of the sacred
Introduction 3
tanks were also used for irrigation, particularly to cultivate temple

lands. A Nagarjuna inscription refers to the excavation of two tanks
along with the establishment of a temple. A Vijayanagar inscription
from Mysore mentions that the temple lands irrigated by a temple
tank constructed by a merchant was exempt from taxes.
Chennai city alone had 39 temple tanks constructed to harvest
rainwater and prevent flooding, besides several thousand yeris
(artificial tanks) to hold rainwater. Kempegowda, the founder of
modern Bangalore, built several tanks. Traditionally, tanks were
desilted by farmers and local people, and the silt used as manure
in paddy fields. The temple tanks were the focus of all activity, and
the water was used for the ritual bath of the deity (abhishekham)
and for the bathing of the devotees. Festivals were held around the
tanks, and a mandapam situated in the centre of the tanks would
house the deity during the theppam or float festivals.
In recent times, temple tanks have fallen into disrepair. Houses
have been built around the catchments of most tanks; the roads
around the tanks have been cemented and tarred, thus preventing
groundwater from seeping in. Today, sewage flows into the temple
tanks, while the devotee washes his clothes and body with detergent
and soap, thus polluting the water and making it unfit for drinking
or for any other cleansing purpose. Some aquifers have lowered
levels, and the limited ground water intrusion has resulted in
many temple tanks going dry. Over-exploitation of ground water
by government and private agencies has also resulted in saline
seawater entering many of the tanks.
In 1999, the C.P.R Environmental Education Centre organized
a seminar on Sacred Tanks of South India, which surveyed and
scaled the dimensions of the subject. Some important papers were
presented; they have been included in this book. This was followed
in 2001, by a “Sub-Regional Workshop for Developing Self-Learning
Materials, Modules and Curriculum on Water Conservation at the
School Level”, funded by UNESCO, New Delhi.
This publication is a combination of the papers presented at
the 1999 seminar on Sacred Tanks, along with the results of the
Centre’s extensive survey of 125 tanks - 17 in Andhra Pradesh, 17
in Karnataka, 24 in Kerala and 67 in Tamilnadu and Pondicherry.
The visual survey and recording of information was accompanied, in

several places, by water analysis, sometimes a qualitative one by local
students and teachers and sometimes a qualitative and quantitative
analysis by the Centre’s chemists.
This documentation is intended to stimulate further interest and
inquiry which, we hope, will lead to the conservation, restoration
and maintenance of this important water harvesting and holding
medium.
Dr. Nanditha Krishna
Director
5
HYDROGEOLOGY OF SACRED TANKS

AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THE
ENVIRONMENTAL REGIME
(Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka,
Kerala and Union Territory of Pondicherry)
Dr. K.R. Srinivasan*
Introduction
Tanks of square or rectangular dimension are considered significant
in the places of worship (historic temples) for offering prayers to
God. They are designated sacred and referred to as “Pushkarani”.
They are provided with steps on all four sides to reach the water
level in the tank. Proper fencing / brick walls on all four sides were
erected to prevent the entry of cattle and also the misuse of tank
waters by the local people.

In the canal-irrigated deltaic areas, they are provided with inlet and
outlet channels to keep the tank waters clean and hygienic.

In the upland and midland areas not served by a perennial
drainage system, provision was made to pump out the tank
waters at regular intervals and refill them with fresh water of
standard chemical quality brought from elsewhere.

In the case of tanks of depth 8m or more below ground level,
there is a possibility of ground water supply from the phreatic
aquifers (watertable) by the effect of gravity. The floor of the
tank was periodically checked to remove the natural silt, clay
and other waste material to revive the possibility of groundwater
supply from the phreatic aquifers for beneficial purposes.
The temple and Pushkarani were well maintained by the temple

administrators by providing watch and ward attendants. In
*Water Resources Specialist, Chennai

Director (Retd.), Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India.
view of the ongoing rapid population growth, urbanization and

industrialization, maintenance activities are hampered to a great
extent due to financial constraints, resulting in the tanks becoming
dilapidated and silted. This has made them dry and undesirable.
In this context, the hydro-geological aspects of select temples with
a “pushkarani” and their environment with respect to source of
recharging of ground water and the possible environmental hazards
in the states of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Union Territory of Pondicherry are discussed in general.
Physiography and Drainage

Southern India comprising of the states of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Kerala and Union Territory of Pondicherry
has an area of 6,38,000 km2.
Geographically, the southern peninsula is divided into four
distinct physiographic units, namely the coastal plains, Eastern
Ghats, Western Ghats and Central Plateau. The western coastal
plain, a narrow coastal strip, lies between the Western Ghats and
the Arabian sea, while between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal, there is the broader eastern coastal belt.
The eastern coastal plain is drained by four major rivers, Godavari,
Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri and receives rainfall both from south-
west and north-east monsoons. The Western Ghats, being directly
in the path of the south-west monsoon have a significant effect
on the rainfall distribution over the area. The Western Ghats and
the region west of it are humid with heavy rainfall ranging from
1000 to 3000 mm with highest rainfall of more than 8000 mm
at Agumbe in Karnataka. The area east of it is comparatively dry
and semi - arid with a rainfall of 450 to 1000mm, except the
east coast region, which receives rainfall from the depressions and
cyclones in April-May and October-December (northeast monsoon).
The rain-shadow effect of the Western Ghats extends inland to a
distance of more than 200 km. and this belt has a length of more
than 1000 km., with annual rainfall less than 600 mm. The annual
potential evaporation exceeds 1800 mm in Andhra Pradesh and
Tamilnadu and is less than 1400mm in the coastal belt. Due to
Hydrogeology of Sacred Tanks and its Significance 7
close proxmity to the sea, some deep aquifers record a mixture of

fresh and saline waters.
Geology
Underlying the area of the Southern Peninsula are various types of
rocks, of which 5,41,895 km2 is occupied by the hard rocks and the
rest consist of semi - consolidated and unconsolidated formations
covering 96,205 km2. Geologically, Southern India presents a broad
spectrum of rock types belonging to various formations ranging
in age from the archaean to recent (>3500 to 10 million) years
occupying the western and central parts. Of these, the hard rocks
constituting the Archaean crystalline complex with a wide range
of rock types of different metamorphic grades, devoid of primary
openings but which later developed femus, cavities, joints and
fractures (10 to 45 m depth below ground level) are best suited for
open wells for groundwater development. Sedimentary rocks (soft
rocks) of the coastal plains of the east and west coast, consisting
of the phreatic, semi-confined and confined aquifers, are suitable
for groundwater development by shallow and deep tube wells.
Groundwater hydrology
Groundwater occurs both in the hard and soft rock formations
under the phreatic and semi-confined / confined conditions in
depth, suitable for groundwater development. Generally, the hard
rock terrain is suitable for small to moderate scale of groundwater
development by large diameter open wells only. It is advisable to
drill bores of 30 to 50m depths at the bottom of open wells to
augment the yield of open wells. In the case of sedimentary areas
(soft rocks), shallow and deep tube wells (50 to 150 m depth)
are the best suited for groundwater development and this must
be tarred on field studies, in view of possibility of getting inferior
chemical quality of groundwater in depth. Yields of developmental
structures depend on basic parameters like permeability and its
variation in depth and space, and thickness of aquifers and nature
of chemical quality of groundwater.
Status of sacred tanks in the hydrogeological regime

Under the above mentioned broad spectrum of hydrogeological
regime prevailing in these states, it is worthwhile to examine the
status of sacred tanks located in the premises of temples in respect
of scope and performance in the context of rapid population
growth, urbanization and industrialization. This can be discussed
under two broad aspects viz., beneficial and environmental aspects
based on the relationship between basic functions of tanks and the
hydrological regime. The structure and design of sacred tanks are
generally the same in soft rock areas, except for the depth, which
varies from shallow to moderate depths (3 to 6m) below ground
level. Tanks in areas of hard rocks record greater depth ranging
from 8 to 12m below ground level depending on the behaviour
of the water table during the rainfall year.
The hydrogeological regime of a sacred tank is strongly influenced
by the regional groundwater flowsystem in which it is located. It
always functions as a discharge area for the regional groundwater
flowsystem, which is controlled by the watershed topography and
the hydrogeological environment. Small sacred tanks in the upland
portion of watersheds are usually discharge areas for local flowsystem
and favourable geological configurations can cause / promote such
tanks to become sites of depression - focused recharge. On the
basis of numerical simulation of steady-state tank and groundwater
flowsystem, it can be stated that where the water table elevations are
higher than the lake bunds on all sides, a necessary condition for
the creation of recharge tank is the presence of a high permeable
formation at depth. In case, a water table mound exists between the
two lakes, there are a few geologic settings that lead to groundwater
movement from one lake to the other. Water level fluctuations can
result from a wide variety of hydrogeological phenomenon, some
natural and some induced by men.
Proper management of tanks involves periodic cleaning of tanks,
prevention of misuse of tank waters and maintenance of hygienic
conditions in the vicinity of tanks, which will lead to recharging
the watertable. Hence, tanks favour sound management of water
resources (Table).
Summary of mechanisms in respect of fluctuation

of water level in tanks
Particulars Unconfined Man Climatic

aquifer induced influence
Ground water recharge
to watertable + +
Evapo-transpiration + +
Bank storage effects
near stream / river + +
Tidal effects near seashore +
Atmospheric pressure + +
Groundwater extraction + +
Irrigation and drainage + +
Geotechnical drainage, open pit,
mining, slopes and tunnels + +
Sacred tanks - Hydrogeological environmental regime

During recent years, much of the emphasis on groundwater
investigation, in both urban and industrialized areas with thick
population has shifted the problem of groundwater supply to
considerations of groundwater quality. As a result of our lifestyle the
groundwater environment is being assaulted by an ever-increasing
number of soluble chemicals. The problems of water quality
degradation of rivers and lakes have been evident for a long time.
Unfortunately the problem of groundwater quality degradation is
in many ways more difficult to overcome due to the heterogeneities
inherent in sub-surface systems. Zones of degraded groundwater
can be very difficult to detect.
The problem of achieving acceptable quality of surface water
focuses mainly on decreasing the known emissions of pollutants
to the system. However, the problem facing hydrogeoscientists
and hydrogeoengineers involved in the protection of groundwater
resources is to identify the areas and mechanisms by which
pollutants can enter groundwater flow-systems and develop reliable

prediction of the transport of contaminants within the flow-
systems. This is necessary as a basis for minimizing the impact of
existing / proposed industrial, agricultural or municipal activities
on groundwater quality.
Against this background, sacred tanks can be a source of pollution/
contamination to the groundwater flow-system, if the upkeep of the
tanks is not sound. The wastes may be transported from the depths
by groundwater flow, with the result that quality of water in wells
is reduced by the contaminated groundwater. In addition, natural
discharges of aquifers such as springs can return a contaminant
to the surface. Because of the slow rate of groundwater movement
and natural flushing of aquifers, when areas are contaminated they
remain so for decades.
The largest potential source of contamination of groundwater is
the disposal of solid and liquid wastes in thickly populated areas.
Waste disposal is not the only source of groundwater contamination.
There are additional sources such as septic systems, agriculture,
accidental leaks and spills, mining, artificial recharge and saltwater
encroachment. In a tropical country like India with alternate wet
and dry climate, the degradation of biowastes of any kind will be
rapid, leading to the pollution / contamination of groundwater
flow-system.
Based on the above factors, it can be summed up that the sacred
tanks may be a minor source of contaminants to the groundwater
resources, but with time and use tanks will lead in a large measure to
the contamination of sub-surface flow-systems in thickly populated
areas. The proper step is to check or arrest such a course. The
management of sacred tanks in the temple premises should involve
periodical pumping of water and refilling with fresh surface water,
removal of silt and wastes from the tank-bed, and prevention of
misuse of tank waters by the local population.
Geological and Hydrological

Status of Pushkaranis - Historic Temples in South India
Place Lithology and Groundwater availability
Andhra Pradesh
Tirupati Venkateswara temple
soft rocks and groundwater
Tiruchanur Alarmelumanga temple
soft rocks and groundwater
Nandyal Nandi temple
spring - tank
Draksharama Shiva Temple
Draksharama - spring tank, Godavari delta
Sri Sailam Shiva temple
spring - tank
West Godavari Venkatesaperumal temple
(Dwaraka Tirumala) Dwaraka tirtha
Karnataka
Tirunarayanapuram Ranganatha temple
Kalyani tank and groundwater
Belur Chennakeshava temple
hard rocks and groundwater
Udipi Krishna temple
Kerala
Tiruvanandhapuram Padmanabha temple
Guruvayur Lord Krishna temple tank
Tamilnadu
Rameswaram soft rocks, sand-dunes, groundwater by
gravity flow (wells and depressions)
Tiruchendhur sacred tanks, open well, sub-surface water

Tiruchirappalli Kaveri alluvium, surface and groundwater
Tiruvanaikoil Kaveri alluvium, surface and groundwater
Kanchipuram Varadaraja temple sacred tank
Madurai Meenakshi temple
hard rocks, ground and surface water
Tiruparangundram Murugan temple
Tirumeyam Ranganadha temple
Sankarankoil Gomathamman temple
Tirunelveli Nellaiyappar temple
Mylapore, Chennai Karpagambal temple
Coastal alluvium ground / surface water
Tiruvallikeni, Chennai Parthasarathy temple
Coastal alluvial and ground / surface water
Sholingapuram Narasimha temple
Tiruvallur Ranganatha temple
hard rocks and Coovam alluvial
groundwater
Palani Murugan temple
Suchindram Ranganatha temple
Tirukokarnam Bhuvaneshvari temple
Virali Malai Murugan temple
Srivilliputhur Andal temple

Srivaikuntam Ranganadha temple
Tenkasi Kasi Viswanatha temple
Thanjavur Brahadeeswarar temple
hard and soft rocks, ground and
surface water
Kumbakonam Chakrathalawar temple
Kaveri alluvium, ground and surface water
Mayavaram Mayurunadhasami temple
Kaveri alluvium and groundwater
Chidambaram Nataraja temple
Kaveri alluvium, ground and surface water
Sirkali Govindaraja temple tank
Kaveri delta
Vaitheeswaran koil Sivan temple tank
ground / surface water
14
SACRED TANKS OF INDIA
Dr. N.V. Pundarikanthan*
The Oxford Dictionary defines “sacred” as something exclusively

dedicated or appropriate to God or some religious purpose. For
every Indian, the rivers are sacred. All the rivers are worshipped
as Goddesses except the Brahmaputra, the only male river. Bathing
in a river is considered sacred as it is believed that all sins are
washed away. Many temples are located on the banks of rivers.
A layout of a temple will always include a tank – a tank revered
and dedicated to God. Such tanks are referred to as “sacred tanks”.
Bathing in a sacred tank is an important ritual. The most ancient
archaeological findings that provide information about religion in
India date back to the third and second millennia B.C. They are
from the Mohenjodaro-Harappan cultures which flourished on the
banks of the river Indus. Though no temple remains have been
found in the Mohanjodaro-Harappan excavations, archaeologists
have come across small tiled pools in individual homes and a large
pool (12m x 7m), apparently for public use. It is assumed that the
residents engaged in ritual ablution, as is practised in India today
(Sergei Tokarev, 1986).
Why are these temple tanks considered sacred? Because, everyone
believes that these tanks contain the waters of the holy rivers.
This is scientifically correct as tanks are linked to the nearby river
through underground tunnels. In some areas, the river water seeps
into the tanks linking these tanks with rivers. Engineering precision
has been applied in building the temple tanks.
The river Kaveri is worshipped as a goddess on par with the
Ganges. “Kaveri” is a common name for girls. The river Kaveri
originates at a point called Tala Kaveri in the Coorg District of
Karnataka in the Western Ghats. The spring water collects in a tank
of size 60ft x 40ft x 4ft. It overflows the tank and starts flowing as
a stream, which later enlarges into the River Kaveri. It is believed
that in the Tamil month of Aipasi or Thula (October – November),
waters from all the holy rivers appear in the tank. If one bathes in
*Professor Emeritus, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, Chennai

Sacred Tanks of India 15
this tank during this period, it is equivalent to bathing in all the

Holy Rivers. It is believed that the River Kaveri also carries water
from all the rivers during this month. This period coincides with
the paddy harvest from the South West Monsoon season. After
bathing in the Tala Kaveri, people carry a handful of harvested
paddy from there and put it in their barn to enable them to reap
a bumper harvest. Even today in the Coorg District, the “Thula”
festival is celebrated with pomp and pageantry.
Along this river is the temple town of Kumbakonam. There are
nearly 17 temples dedicated to different Gods in this small town.
But the town is famous for its Mahamagam tank. This tank was
renovated by Govinda Dikshitar, the Chief Minister of Sevappa
Nayaka during the 16th century. He is associated with a number
of irrigation works and the “Iyyan Channel” created by him is still
in use. The tank is dedicated to Kumbeswarar. The holy ambrosia
which had collected in a pot (kumbam) was broken by Lord Siva.
The spilt ambrosia fell at Kumbakonam and made it a holy place.
There are 20 springs or wells inside the tank, each dedicated to a
different God or river. When the planet Jupiter enters the zodiacal
sign of Leo, the “Mahamagam” is celebrated. It happens once in
12 years. Taking a dip in the tank on “Mahamagam” day is holy
and enables one to attain heaven. Interestingly, the “Thula” bath
at Tala Kaveri is celebrated with the same reverence.
Another archaeologically old and aesthetically beautiful tank is the
Swastik tank. ‘Swastik” is the symbol of eternal revolution. It denotes
movement and dynamism. It is dedicated to Lord Pundarikaksha
at Tiruvellarai, the site of one of the 108 holy Vaishnavite temples.
This was built by a local chieftain during 779-780 A.D. The tank
is in the shape of the swastik. The local people refer to it as
“Chakra Thirtham” or “4 cornered well”, but the archaeological
inscription calls it Marpidugu Perunkinaru. Marpidugu in Tamil
means “Big Thunder”.
Another feature in Tamilnadu is the annual float festival (theppam)
in temples, when the presiding deity of the temple is taken on a
float drawn around the tank. Generally, this festival is celebrated
in the month of “Thai” on full moon day. This coincides with the
main paddy harvest.
The temple tanks are sacred and worshipped. The festivals

associated always coincide with the agricultural harvest. For an
agricultural community, the most important resource is water.
Hence, worshipping water is part and parcel of the people of India.
In this context, the Sacred Tanks symbolize the relevance of water
in the lives of the people.
References
1. Tokarev, Sergei, History of Religion, Progress Publishers, Moscow,
1986.
2. Iyyar, Mahadeva, Sri Kaveri Rahasyam, Amara Barathipariksha Samiti,
1962.
3. Chitti and Janakiram, T., Nadanthai Vazhi Kaveri, Book Venture,
1971.
4. Somasundaran, R., Swastik Kinaru, Dinamani.
17
SACRED TANKS OF TAMILNADU
Prof. K.V. Raman*
The scope of this paper is limited to the tanks associated with

sacred places, temples or other religious institutions. In Tamilnadu,
apart from rivers or canals, water bodies are broadly categorised as
eri (lake), kulam (tank) and kuttai (pool). Of these three, the first
one is the largest, extending to several square miles or acres and
irrigating the lands of the numerous villages eg. Sembarampakkam
lake, Red hills lake (Puzhal Eri) etc. Most of these are naturally
formed in the catchment areas or the small valleys surrounded by
hillocks. Some of them were deepened, extended and bounded by
royal orders or local village assemblies. They are mostly irrigation
lakes. They are usually named after an important or main village
where they are located eg. Madurantakam - eri, Tamaraipakkam
- eri etc. The third category viz. Kuttai (or urani) is a small
shallow, open pool or pond used for washing purposes and
also for cattle. The second category kulam or tanks are deeper,
protected by an enclosure or wall having steps all around used
for bathing and performing sacred rituals. In many villages they
are well protected from misuse, and serve as a source of water
supply for the villagers. This type of tank is often built within
the temple complex or in its front (outside) and often serves
as the temple tank or sacred tank. Such tanks are called sacred
tirthas or Pushkarini. Good examples of this former category (ie.
inside the temple) is the Anantasaras tank and Siva Ganga tank
in the Varadaraja temple and Ekambareswara temple respectively
at Kanchipuram. Examples of sacred tanks outside the temple are
the ones at Parthasarathi temple at Tiruvallikeni and Kapaliswara
temple at Mylapore.
In all probability, the construction of the temple and the
excavation of a tank would have been more or less simultaneous
and complementary processes. A lot of earth was necessary to build
temples, especially brick temples, and the dug-out space (upto
water level) could have been made into a tank. That is why, in the
*Former Head of the Department of Archeology, University of Madras

Tamil language, the temple and tank are usually linked together
(Koilum Kulamum).
In the Hindu concept of pilgrimage and worship, three aspects
are given great importance, Sthala (Place) Murthi (Deity) and Tirtha
(Sacred water): visit to holy places of Puranic or epic association,
having darshan of the deities in ancient places sung by saints and
sages and dip in the holy waters like the rivers and sacred tanks.
When temple and image worship became important, sacred tanks
associated with them were represented as the celestial or heavenly
waters like the Ganga eg. Akasa Ganga at Tirumalai or Siva Ganga
at Chidambaram.
An inscription on Porumamilla tank in Andhra Pradesh dated
1369 A.D., quotes verses from Hemadri which aptly sum up the
importance of water. It says “the gift of water is greatest of all.
As the Vedas have said all this is water; from water alone is
produced food and food (annam) is Brahman. Siva bears the
Ganga, Vishnu resides in the Ocean and Brahma springs from the
waters. A shed for distributing water, a well, a reservoir, a canal,
a lotus tank - merit of constructing them is million and million
times higher” (Hemadri Dan - Kande quoted in the inscription
Ep i. Indica XIV, p.107).
Establishment of tanks came to be considered as one of the
Saptasantanams or seven kinds of wealth which are: a son,
(composition of) a poem, a treasure, (planting) of a grove, the
marriage of a girl, consecration of a temple and a tank. No wonder
our literature and inscriptions are replete with instances of our
kings, nobles and merchants vying with one another in digging
tanks, constructing temples, planting trees. They were recognised
as a valuable source of sustenance, irrigation, agriculture, water
supply for men and cattle. What was considered as a lifeline was
invested with sanctity or sacredness so that common people could
cherish and preserve them. Respect for water in general and temple
tanks in particular is an inborn cultural trait of our people. Several
tanks named after the kings are recorded, like Mahendra-tataka at
Mahendravadi (after Mahendra I Pallava); Vairamega – tataka at
Uttiramerur (after Dantivarma Pallava).
Sacred Tanks of Tamilnadu 19
Objectives of the temple tanks

The objectives of creating a temple tank are many and some of them
have already been indicated. The other objectives are socio-economic
and religious. The tank was a source of water supply for the temple,
and possibly for the inhabitants in its close vicinity. It was used for
temple rituals like the holy bath (abhisheka), cleaning the premises
etc. Besides this, the devotees, before they enter into the precincts
of the temple, could wash or clean their hands and feet to avoid
pollution. Taking bath or sprinkling of water (mantra-snanam) on
the head is an important practice. Tanks were also used for certain
important religious practices like offering ablutions to the ancestors
(pitr-tarpanas), Sandhyavandana and meditation (Japa).
The merit resulting from the construction of such tanks is set
forth in an inscription of 16th century which says “The gods,
men, celestials, beasts and birds quench their thirst acquire the
same merit as they come from the performance of Asvamedha.
It pleases the heart of the father, grandfather (pitamah) and the
pitrs (ancestors)”. It is also a familiar scene in certain temples (eg.
Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai) to see people spend their
evenings sitting on the steps of the tank enjoying the cool breeze
and listening to discourses or musical performances.
A few important festivals centre round the temple tank like the
Teppotsavam and the Tirthavari. Teppotsavam or float festival takes
place in all major temples of Tamilnadu, usually in the Tamil month
of Masi. The principle procession deity (utsava vigraham) is placed
in an ornamental wooden mandapa which floats around the tank
several times. Devotees congregate all around the steps to watch and
worship the deity. In the centre of the major temple tanks there is
a pillared mandapa called Neerazhi Mandapa. Sometimes the deity
would be placed in the centre of the mandapa, Vedic chanting
and musical (Nadaswaram) performances would take place. Some
of the famous Teppakulams are at Tiruchi, Madurai (Mariyamman
Teppakulam), Tanjavur, Kanchipuram, Tiruvarur, Mannarkudi etc.
Tirthavari is the concluding festivals on the tenth and the last day
of the annual Brahmotsava. The deity is given a ceremonial bath. All

the devotees also take bath on the occasion; eg. Tirthavari festival
for Lord Srinivasa in the Swami Pushkarini tank is famous.
Sacredness of the tanks

The tradition of according sanctity to certain tanks and believing
in their spiritual and curative powers has a long history going back
to the Epic and Puranic times. Early Tamil works also throw some
light on the belief. The Sangam literary work Pattinapalai refers
to the existence of two tanks named Surya-kundam and Chandra-
kundam in the port city of Pumpuhar. The practice of associating
the tanks with the Sun and the Moon continued in later times
also. For example, the large stepped tank at Ranganatha Temple
at Srirangam is called Chandra Pushkarini.
The greatness of the holy tank at Tirumala, called Swami
Pushkarini, is described in the Mahatmiya as the pleasure - tank
of god in Vaikunta. It was brought and set here by Garuda for the
sport of Vishnu. Like the Viraja river in Heaven, it dispels sins like
theft, drink and other vices. Prayachitta (ie. Repentance) can be
obtained by a bath in it. The Mahatmiya goes on to say that Mukkoti
of Swami Pushkarini (when three crore tirthas flow into it) occurs
on the 12th day of the bright fortnight ie in Mukkoti-Dvadasi day
of the Dhanurmasa (from the middle of December to the middle
of January) on which day Vishnu’s discus (Chakrattalvar) taken in
procession through the streets is immersed in the Pushkarini, when
all the Devas also are presumed to take a dip. This is considered
a very holy and meritorious occasion and numerous people bathe
in it at that time. There are nearly seventeen tirthas in and around
Tirupati and they have names like: Chakra Tirta, Visveksena,
Panchayudha, Brahma, Saptarishi, Kapila, Akasaganga etc.about
each of which the Mahatmiya relates special significance (Sadhu
Subramanya Sastri, Tirupati Sri Venkateswara, 1998).
Association with holy rivers

Many sacred temple tanks were associated with the holy rivers
of India. Instances of Akasa Ganga (at Tirumala) and Sivaganga
(at Kanchi and Chidambaram) area, were already cited. The

Mahamagam Tank at Kumbakonam where the grand Mahamagam
festival takes place once in every twelve years is a unique one. It is
a veritable miniature Kumba-mela of the South. It is a huge tank
wherein all the holy rivers are believed to have their confluence.
Hence, thousands of devotees from far and near congregate to
have their holy dip. On the banks of the tank there are shrines for
several holy rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswathi, Sindhu, Narmada,
Godavari and the Kaveri. They are deified and worshipped.
Tanks of a few Vishnu temples are named after the sacred milky
ocean, the abode of Lord Vishnu in the Vyuha form. The beautiful
sacred tank of the Vishnu temples at Tirumohur near Madurai
is named as Kshirabdi-Pushkarini. Rajendra Chola I erected a
temple in his capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram to commemorate
his conquests extending upto the River Ganga. He established a
huge tank called Solagangam and described it as a liquid pillar of
victory, (Ganga - Jalamayam jayasthambam states his Tiruvalangadu
Copper Plates, S. I.I. III, p. 425).
Association with the divinities and celestials

The tanks were also associated with or named after celestials and
divinities. The following are the names of the sacred tanks and
temples thereof:
Most of the 108 holy Vaishnava shrines (Divyadesam) have a
specific name for their tanks (Tirthas), trees (sthalavrikshas) etc.
Here are some:
Tank Temple
Vaishanava temples
Chandra pushkarini Srirangam, Ranganatha Temple.
Surya pushkarini Tiruadanur, near Kumbakonam, also
Uraiyur.
Ananta saras Kanchipuram, Varadaraja temple. Ananta
(eternal) is another name of the serpent
counch Adisesha. Ananda - Saras means
the primordial waters.
Tank Temple
Sesha tirtham Kanchipuram, Uragam temple. Sesha
or Adisesha is a symbol of eternity and
fertility.
Lakshmi tirtham Tirunariyur (near Kumbakonam).
Saraswathi tirtham Tiruttankal (near Srivilliputtur).
Garuda tirtham Tiruvendipuram (near Cuddalore).
Gajendra tirtham Ashtabhujakaram Temple Kanchi - named
after the elephant devotee Gajendra who
was rescued by Vishnu (allusion to the
Bhagavata episode).
Varuna pushkarini Tinnanur (near Chennai); Varuna, the rain
god is a symbol of fertility and plenty.
Manasa pushkarini Sirupuliyur (near Mayiladudurai); Manasa
may signify the holy tank of Manasarovar
in the Himalaya.
Sankha chakra tirtham Sirkali.
Jatayu tirtham Tiruppakkuli (near Kanchi) and
Pullanbhudankudi (Kumbakonam).
Indra tirtham Tirupernagar or Appakuduthan or Koviladi
near Lalgudi.
Vaishanava temples
Nandi tirtham Tirukazhukundram (Pakshi tirtha).
Pakshi tirtham Tirukazhukundram.
Sanku tirtham Tirukazhukundram (It is said that once in
12 years a conch comes up in the tank.
Agni tirtham Uttarakosamangai.
Rama tirtham Rameswaram (A number of tirthas are
located within Rameswaram temple).
Saravana tirtham Associated with Muruga;
Tirupparankunram near Madurai.
Association with sages and saints

In quite a few places the tanks are associated with the saints and
sages of yore like Markandeya (at Tirukkazhukuntram), Agastya
(Tirumalai near Salem), Saptarishis, Kapila (Kapila tirtham at
Tirupati), Poigai Alvar (believed to have been born in the tank
of the Tiruvekka Temple, Kanchipuram), Akrurar (Tiruniragam
temple at Kanchi). Tiruvallikeni (Triplicane in Chennai) derives its
name from the lily tank on which it is located. According to the
Vaishnava hagiology saint Ramanuja was born because his father
had a dip in this holy tank. Because of this episode, the tank is
held in great esteem by the people.
Other associations
Some tanks have certain generic name like lotus-tank Kamalalayam
(Tiruvarur), Padmasaras (Tiruchanur); Portamarai - golden lotus
tank (Meenakshi Temple, Madurai), Kanaka or Hema Pushkarini at
Sempanarkoil (near Mayiladudurai); Amirta Pushkarini (at Tanjai
Mamani temple in Tanjavur); Kshirabdi Pushkarini (at Tirumohur
near Madurai).
Thus, in various ways, tanks were associated with temples,
divinities, holy rishis, saints and sages and highly valuable treasures
like gold and divine nectar (amrita). They were revered as holy
tirthas which helped in their preservation. In certain cases, royal
patronage was responsible for the creation and preservation of
these tanks. But the vast number of tanks, especially in villages,
were created by the temples and village assemblies. Revering the
sacred tanks was part of the concept of pilgrimage common to the
Hindus, Buddhists and Jains and it had contributed to the creation
and preservation of the sacred tanks.
Regular repairs and maintenance of the tanks was considered an
important responsibility of the citizens and rulers. Manu imposes
capital punishment on persons who destroy a dam or a tank. The
Padma Purana devotes a special chapter on the conservation of
tanks. Wanton damage to irrigation works was considered a heinous
offence, comparable to the destruction of a child in its embryo
and man-slaughter. Hence, in our inscriptions, we find numerous
instances of the Kings, noble merchants, village committees giving

endowment for creation, and regular maintenance of the tanks.
But it is a matter of concern and anguish that in recent years,
due to growing urbanisation and increasing pressure on land, temple
tanks are surrounded by shops and slums resulting in the neglect
and ruination of the tanks. Concerted efforts should be made to
preserve the tanks and keep them clean so that they continue to
serve the community as an important aspect of their heritage.
25
SACRED TANKS:
GLIMPSES FROM EPIGRAPHY
K.V. Krishnamurthy*
There are innumerable epigraphs, dated from the 3rd to the 17th
century, both lithic and copper plates, left by the various dynasties
that ruled South India. Inscriptions are available from Gupta, Ganga,
Pallava, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Chola, Chera and Pandya dynasties.
These epigraphs are listed and detailed in the following: Annual
Report of the South Indian Epigraphy, Bombay-Karnatic Inscriptions,
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Epigraphica Carnatica, Epigraphica
Indica, South Indian Inscriptions and Topographical List of Inscriptions
of the Madras Presidency. A critical perusal of these inscriptions
provides us with important information about several aspects of
our culture, society, religion and education as well as about our
plants, animals and food, which help us in reconstructing our
cultural, social and political histories.
Data from these inscriptions reveal that the daily life of people
in medieval South India was intimately connected with the temples,
which grew into mammoth institutions, giving great impetus to
all kinds of cultural, religious and social activities. The temples
formed the central structure around which villages / towns / cities
were organised, thereby enabling the public to establish a bond of
mutual reciprocation, so much so that the two became inseparable
in several respects. Several inscriptions speak of this intimate abode;
they also speak of the establishment of several hundreds of new
settlements / villages / cities like Chaturvedimangalam, Brahmapuri,
etc., with temples at the heart of these settlements.
The inscriptions speak of two things that were regularly associated
with these temples: the nandavanas or sacred groves / temple
gardens and the sacred tanks. There were other gardens, called
public gardens, and other tanks, such as the public tanks which
were not considered sacred. It is evident from epigraphical data
that the nandavanas and sacred tanks were either part and parcel
*Professor and Head, Department of Plant Science, Bharathidasan University,

Tiruchirappalli
of the temple complex or were topographically proximal to the

temple. Sacred tanks were integral not only to Hindu temples but
also to Buddhist and Jain temples.
Sacred tanks fulfilled four requirements:


to provide water for the holy bath or abhisheka of the presiding
deity;

to cultivate aquatic plants whose flowers were offered to the
presiding deity of the temple during daily pujas;

to provide water required for the cultivation of plants in the
nandavana;

to enable people visiting the temple’s sanctum sanctorum to have
a bath or to wash their hands and feet, before entering it.
Temples, along with their nandavanas and tanks, were managed
by Maheswaras (temple superintendents), in contrast to Mahajanas
(prominent local citizens) who managed public gardens and
public tanks. For management of larger temples, in addition to
Mahesvaras, a temple committee was usually constituted by the king.
Some inscriptions of the Chola king, Kulottunga III give details
of the constitution of such a committee for the management of
the Chidambaram Nataraja temple and its associated nandavana
and Sacred Tanks. The committee consisted of the following three
representatives of the king, Tennava Brahmarayan, Jayathunga
Pallavarayan and Thillaiyambala Pallavarayan, and the following
five representatives of the temple: Mahesvara kankani seivar
(temple supervisors), srikaryan seiver (priests), samudayam seivar
(person in charge of temple festivals), kovilnayakam seivar (temple
manager), thirumaligai kutru seivar (temple mason) and kanakkar
(accountant).
Temple tanks were considered and maintained as sacred. There
were royal orders to the effect that people should maintain the
sanctity of these tanks. For example, there was a royal proclamation
to the effect that water from Porporavai tank, which was the property
of Lord Natrunainatha, was forbidden to be used for any purpose
other than the cultivation of the temple garden (Epigraph No. 197
of 1925, Annual Report of the Epigraphy Department).
Sacred Tanks: Glimpses from Epigraphy 27
A detailed analysis of epigraphical data reveals that different

species of Nymphaea and Nelumbium were the dominant taxa
that were cultivated in the sacred tanks of temples. However,
there was no clear distinction between these taxa in the minds
of our ancestors and this is reflected in the epigraphs as well.
The epigraphs mention several Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil words,
apparently equivalent to different species of these two genera.
They are, kamala (kamalam), tavare, pankaja (pankajam), padma,
utpala, kalhara (Prakrit and Sanskrit words), alli ambal, tamarai,
kumudam, neithal, chengazhuneer, etc. These formed the major
taxa grown in sacred tanks attached to Hindu, Buddhist and Jain
temples, which accepted these flowers for their own reasons. The
flowers were of special significance to the yogis and tantriks of all
these three religions. The yogi, according to some epigraphs, saw the
lotus flowers deposited at all cardinal points of the human body,
for instance, hridayakamalam (lotus at the heart). For Hindus, the
flower became the seat of Brahma, Saraswathi and Lakshmi, and
also a “must symbol” in one of the hands of all female deities,
according to silpa texts. There are also poetic similes, mentioned in
epigraphs, drawn from the leaf, flower, and the stalk of the lotus
plants, thus paving the way for the establishment of numerous poetic
conventions or alankaras. For the sculptors, painters and craftsmen,
the lotus plant provided an unending series of decorative motifs.
Epigraphs describe the vigorous efforts made by the king as well
as the public to establish and sustain the cultivation of Nymphaea /
Nelumbium in the sacred tanks of temples. According to Epigraph
number 506 of 1906, Annual Reports of the Epigraphy Department,
land was specially donated by the king for the cultivation of the
lotus and a special canal was dug to supply water for the sacred tank
containing these plants (Epigraph number 304 of 1960/1961 and 39
of 1927, Annual Reports of the Epigraphy Department). A royal order
was proclaimed reserving a huge body of water solely to serve as
the source of water to a sacred pond for growing water lilies, the
flowers raised there to be used for the worship of God Visvesvara
in Veedividangachaturvedimangalam. When an objection was raised
by the public that such an act would deprive the cultivation of
other crops, the royal order was slightly modified to the effect that
water from the sacred body of water would be made available for
other crops only on specific days of the week while water would be
supplied daily to the sacred tank (Epigraph number 179 of 1925,
Annual Reports of the Epigaraphy Department). There was also a
record stating that one Koneriraya caused the digging of a temple
tank exclusively for growing the lotus (Epigraph number 201 of
1940/1941, Annual Reports of the Epigraphy Department).
Buds and flowers of lotus / water lily were either strung into
garlands and offered to the presiding deity (Epigraph No. 387 of
1905 and 65 of 1913, Annual Reports of the Epigraphy Department)
or offered individually in various numbers as per the details
provided below:
Name of the Temple No. of flowers Reference

offered
everyday
Apatsahaayesvara, 100 Epigraph No. 175
Palanam of 1927, 28 1227 AD
Nataraja temple, 200 Epigraph No. 284
Chidambaram of 1913, 1217 AD
Arunachaleswara, 600 South Indian Inscription
Tiruvannamalai No.100, 1361 AD
Anateeswara, 1000 Epigraph No. 625 of
Udaiyarkudi 1920, 1020 AD
Naganatha, 2000 Epigraph No. 95 of
Manambadi 1931-1932.
Probably of 1025 AD
Decorating the houses of temple servants with lotus / water lily

flowers obtained from temple tanks was permitted in certain
dynasties. The order permitting such a practice is mentioned,
for example, in Epigraph no. 136 of 1905, Annual Reports of the
Epigraphy Department. This practice became a prestige issue, as
only some temple servants were permitted to decorate their houses
with flowers from the sacred tanks. This finally led to a situation
when the king allowed only those who paid a tax specially levied
Sacred Tanks: Glimpses from Epigraphy 29
for this purpose (Epigraph No. 216 of 1917, Annual Reports of the
Epigraph Department).
There are a number of epigraphical reports which speak of the
destruction of villages / towns / cities along with their temples,
nandavanas and sacred tanks due to wars between kings. The sacred
tanks were demolished, their water getting dried up for want of
maintenance, and their beds were overgrown by grasses such as
arugu (Cynodon dactylon) and korai (reeds and sedges).
It is evident from the above account that epigraphical data
provides an enormous amount of information on the sacred tanks
of our medieval temples. The fully deciphered epigraphs of our
country form only 10% of the total available epigraphs, and the
data summarized above are from a small number of deciphered
epigraphs. If details of all the known epigraphs become available to
us, the information potential will increase enormously. More people
should come forward to exploit data from this source. Also, the data
obtained from a study of epigraphs should be judiciously used in
conjunction with data from literary sources. Then only would the
study on any aspect of the temple tanks become complete.
30
SACRED TANKS
Mr. K.Ganesan, M.A., M.L.I.S.,

Dr.G.Krishnamoorthy, M.A.,Ph.D.
Introduction
Offering sincere prayers and worshipping at temples and sacred tanks
are an important tradition, since our ancestors saw Almighty in every
thing and in every form i.e., idols, water, land and five elements or
panchaboothams. Even the vow made to visit and offer prayers at
different and distant temples is termed as Theertha Yathirai. In this
term, theertham means water and yathirai means travel. Sacred tanks
attached to temples are called by different names like theertham,
thadagam, poikai and thirukkulam in Tamil and pushkarini in Sanskrit.
But the meaning remains one and the same - a water body.
Our temples are designed and designated to preach the practice of
divinity, to purify our souls and keep our body clean and hygienic
through use of the theerthams. However, it is true that due to the
intrusion of western culture, our traditional bhakti cult has been
sidelined. Even the practices that were based on scientific facts and
techniques followed by some communities have started diminishing
and being forgotten.
This research is taken up to bring to light the age-old traditional
practices and rituals followed in the temples of Tamilnadu, which
have proven to have scientific value. The infrastructure and scientific
technique behind the construction of the temple tanks was an
important aspect. In this study, 100 temple tanks were observed
for their different structures, water sources and importance.
Temple tanks - Shapes and structure

Most of the tanks are square or rectangular, but in some places
they are hexagonal and circular in shape. In some temples, a deep
well-shaped structure is also found.
In ancient temples, one tank inside the temple premises and
one outside the premises is common. In some temples there are
two tanks inside the temple itself. Generally, the tank outside the
temple is bigger. In the centre of the tank, a small construction
Sacred Tanks 31
like a mandap is found and it is called Neerazhi Mandap meaning

a choultry in the middle of a tank. The float festival is generally
conducted in these tanks. Though the Kumbakonam Mahamagam
Tank has a rectangular shape, when seen at the centre it narrows
down and looks like a kudam.
Construction and design

The main entrance is designed in such a way that the cold breezes
on the outskirts of the tank flow freely inside the temple area.
Granite slabs have been used for construction in many tanks but
bricks and red stones have also been used. Some tanks have not
been properly constructed and are left bare in earthy patterns.
The average depth is 15 to 20 feet and the tank beds are built for
access. In tanks inside the temples, beautiful mandaps are built on
the sides. In Thiruvanaikka temple these mandaps are found in two
tiers. Later, Tamil hymns like Thirukkural and Thiruvasagam were
inscribed in granite slabs inside the mandapas.
Except for some, in most of the temple tanks, water inlets and
excess water outlets, are found. The design of the water inlet found
inside the temple tanks looks like the face of a lion, crocodile or
human. In the tank at Madurai, we find at the inlet that there are
two big bathtubs that act as a filter point. At the Thirukalukundram
temple tank in the southwestern side the beds are constructed to
enable elephants to access and drink water from the tank.
The Neerazhi Mandap built at the centre of the tank contains
4 or some times 16 pillars. In Tiruvarur Kamalalayam tank and
in the Madurai temple tank, a small temple itself has been built
at the centre.
Water source for sacred tanks

Most of the rivers flowing in Tamilnadu depend on seasonal rainfall,
and water from these rivers were canalised and stored in the sacred
tanks. Tanks were connected to nearby yeris, deep canals, tanks,
etc., when there was no nearby river. Underground channels were
dug to bring water from hill slopes, etc., to the tanks. At Kanchi
Ekambaranathar temple and in Chidambaram Thillai Natarajar

Temple, since the temple area is vast the temple tank is designed
such that, during the rainy season, the water collects in the sacred
tank from the surrounding area itself. Though the temple area
is small and there are no waterways nearby, the tank inside the
Kandarkottam at Chennai has never dried up. The authorities say
that it is due to the deep spring available inside the tank. In some
tanks a few sunken wells are available.
Further, the irrigation tanks are linked in villages so that when
one gets filled up, it will immediately overflow into an adjacent tank.
In the same way, a chain of tanks are built and interlinking canals
are provided for nearby tanks. In the Thanjavur Brahadeeswarar
Temple, underground pipelines have been built from the Sivaganga
tank to the Aiyanar tank, which is at a distance of one km from
it. This connection is well maintained and is still in operation. In
the Chidambaram Thillai Natarajar temple, underground channels
conduct the excess water flow in a northeasterly direction to another
tank called Sivapriyai, belonging to the Kaali Koil. But due to poor
maintenance it is not in use at present.
The average annual rainfall in our country cannot fill up even
one-hundredth of our temple tanks. The evaporation of the water
stored in sacred tanks during summer has to be taken into account.
To prevent this evaporation, a maximum number of water plants
and creepers like lotus, lily, etc., were grown in the tanks by our
ancestors. Hence, it is our responsibility to safeguard the sacred
tanks for their sacred as well as scientific values.
Sacredness or holiness attached to our sacred tanks

The sacred tanks, waterfalls and rivers are holy according to our
tradition, and to stress the benefits and the hygiene we factor
our ancestors attached importance to our daily bathing in these
tanks, and cleanliness. The water bodies are also to be kept clean
scientifically for enhancement of our environment. They went
to the extent of naming them as thirtham, ganga, etc. The water
from the sanctum sanctorum with valuable medicinal qualities, and
river water containing a lot of minerals only were stored in these
Sacred Tanks 33
sacred tanks. Small parapet walls are found on the boundaries of

the sacred tanks to obstruct free flow of rainwater mixed with
sewage from the streets.
Some of the Sthala puranas or stories written to extol the sacred
temple reveal that even vulnerable diseases were found cured after
taking a bath in the sacred tanks attached to those temples. For
example, Singavanman the eldest son of King Manu V who was
the ruler of Gauda Desh, south of the Himalayan region, left the
palace due to severe illness and toured all over South Indian temples
for solace. When he visited the Chidambaram. Lord Koothabiran
Temple, he took a bath in the Sivaganga tank and was surprised to
find he was cured. Even today we are able to collect information
about the various belief and myths from common people, regarding
the curative powers of the water.
Present status of sacred tanks

1. Even during the rainy season most of the tanks are found totally
dry. The main reason for this is that the waterways that bring
water to the tanks are not maintained properly, and are blocked
inadvertently during the development and maintenance works
of other departments.
2. Due to lack of knowledge about the sacredness and indirect
benefits to the community, the people in the area have kept the
place filthy and unhygienic.
3. Private intruders and tresspassers have encroached upon and
occupied the tank area. In some places, the tanks are suitably
levelled to build houses, shops and establishments.
4. Though the attitude and approach to temple tanks is indifferent,
there are some remote places where urbanization and modern
activities have not intruded, and the sacred tanks show their
versatility and testify to their natural beauty. One such sacred
tank is at Thiruvalangadu temple.
5. In some places, there is only one sacred tank attached to the
temple for both Lord Shiva and Lord Narayana, and this makes
us realize the grandeur and coordination prevalent between
both Saivism and Vaishnavism. Chennai Malliswara Temple and
Chennai Kesavaperumal Temple have one sacred tank in common

and in the same way a temple in Chennai Koyambedu also has
one tank in common for two deities.
Suggestions for restoration of sacred tanks

1. It is suggested that like the Temple Car Festival and Float Festival,
where thousands of common men are involved, the work of
maintenance and cleaning of water inlets to the sacred tanks
should be taken up by the temple authorities every year.
2. All the people are to be educated to realize and understand
that the temple tanks are there not only for the celebration of
the annual float festival but to help rainwater harvesting, the
environment and to preserve the flora and fauna of the area.
3. A concrete basement should not be built underneath the temple
tank. This would adversly affect the rainwater recharge, water
quality, etc.
4. High compound walls surrounding the tanks are to be strictly
avoided since the cool breeze flowing from the surface of the
water tanks would be affected by the structures.
Conclusion
To analyse the medicinal qualities scientifically, water quality
tests are taken up. Taking into consideration the hymns of Saint
Thiruvalluvar on water conservation and importance and the
sayings of Saint Tamil Poet Thiruththakka Devar, we should take
all precautions to restore and revive the sacred tanks, which are
beneficial to us in many ways.
Main water source or water body which feeds the respective

sacred tanks
Name of tank Water source
Mahamaka Kulam, Kumbakonam Arasalaaru

Mahalingaswamy Kulam, Thiruvidaimarudur Veera Cholan river
Theppakulam, Sri Ranganathar temple, Srirangam Kaveri
Sacred Tanks 35
Name of tank Water source
Kamalalayam tank, Odam Poki river

Sri Tyagarajaswami temple, Tiruvarur
Porthamarai Kulam, Kaveri river

Sri Sarangapani temple, Kumbakonam
Utkulam, Kaveri river

Jambukeswarar Thirukoil, Thiruvanaikka
Sivagangai Kulam, Channel from

Brahadiswarar temple, Tanjavur Agazhi - Anaicut
Sivasailam Koil Kulam, Azhwarkurichi Kadana river
Kasiviswanathat Koil Kulam, Thenkasi Sitraaru - branch of

Tambaraparani
Theppakulam, Petchiparai
Suchindram temple, Kanyakumari anaicut
Theppakulam, Canal from

Nellaippar temple, Tirunelveli Aiyanar Kulam
Mariamman Theppakulam, Vandiyur, Madurai Vaigai river
Adikeshavaperumal Koil Kulam, Thiruvallur Cooum river
Alankattappar Koil Kulam, Thiruvalankadu Netteri
Kandar Kottam Kulam, Kailasanathar

Thirupporur hill slopes
36
IRRIGATION TANKS -
HOW SACRED ARE THEY?
Dr. Nirmal Sengupta*
What are the sacred tanks? The first image that comes to mind
is that of the temple tanks. Yes, they are sacred. But are they the
same as irrigation tanks? They are not. The temple tanks are dug
out tanks; the irrigation tanks are above-surface tanks. Those who
are from Tamilnadu or from other parts of South India must have
noted this difference. The irrigation tanks are constructed by an
ingenious use of the land characteristics in this part of the country.
Peninsular India, a part of the old Gondwana Plate, is a very old
eroded plateau with gentle slopes towards the sea. The irrigation
tanks are made by constructing major embankments across the
line of the slope that stops the run off. Two sided embankments,
gradually falling in height, are added to this major embankment to
create a three-side storage. The fourth side is left open for water to
enter. Basically, the irrigation tanks are three-sided storage structures
above the surface, whereas temple tanks, like ponds, need lifting
of water. I prefer to call temple tanks as ponds in order to avoid
this confusion. The temple tanks have their role in irrigation. They
are good indicators of the aquifer level. But they are very different
from the irrigation tanks. While studying sacred tanks, it is very
important to differentiate between temple tanks and irrigation tanks.
Many experts believe that tank irrigation require arduous manual
labour in lifting of water and should be replaced by easier means
of irrigation like canals. If temple tanks are equated with irrigation
tanks in the search for sacredness, it only adds to the confusion
and will discredit the ingenious and appropriate irrigation system
of this part of the country.
The sacred aspects of irrigation tanks are worth investigation.
After the sacred grove concept was understood apart from economics
and sociology, moral and ritual approaches to conservation must
be examined. Then came the knowledge of the Bishnoi community
*Madras Institute of Development Studies

Irrigation Tanks - How Sacred are they? 37
and the notion of sacredness as a way to approach conservation.

So it is definite that some kind of sacredness, some moral values
and rituals may be present in the tank system too, which deserve
attention. Very little has been studied about this aspect of tanks. In
some crucial issues of conservation, people have developed customs,
rituals and sacredness to facilitate the goal of conservation.
Trees and groves are fixed resources for which conservation means
refraining from its use. Water is a flow resource that evaporates if
people refrain from using it. Only when there is a water shortage
does the question of conserving water appear. A more important
issue of conservation is the physical structure. To make the proposed
study more effective this paradigmatic difference -conservation of
fixed resources like vegetation and that of flow resources like water
must be understood differently.
Tanks generally irrigate. The important aspect is that from
the idea of irrigation or well irrigation, people think that tanks
always use this part or so called source or conserved area. The
use of the tank is very flexible. If there is considerable reduction
of water, then, in many areas, they will restrict the command area.
In Ramanathapuram district, there is a system wherein the people
(farmers) meet and discuss the successful irrigation of only one
part of the common area. So they ask the waterman to demarcate
one part of the area to be irrigated in every plot. The system
is called Kandavettu. There are certain ritualistic aspects of the
kandavettu which should not be violated. In certain other parts
to the west, use of surface water for irrigation is totally restricted.
One is allowed to irrigate only through shallow channels if there
is a serious shortage of rainfall. In the far western side, which is
practically arid desert, within the Thar desert area, there is the
kharin systems. In the kharin area, the normal rainfall is just 300
mm. But if the rainfall in a year is one third of that rainfall, then
they will convert the whole tank bed to cultivation. The same
system also exists in Bihar. If the actual rainfall in a year is one
third of the normal rainfall the tank bed, not the command area,
is cultivated. In the 19th century, the districts irrigated by tanks
were, according to government reports, completely immune from
famines and floods. It is unbelievable. The Irrigation Commission,
all three Famine Commissions and the District Gazetteers all say
so, repeatedly (Sengupta, 1993). Ramanathapuram is one such
district. Ramanathapuram did not face severe famine conditions
during the Zamindari period.
The tank is also very important as drinking water source for
cattle. Particularly during the drought years, the priority in most
parts of India is to save the seed and cattle. For tanks around
Coimbatore and beyond (to the west), which are dry areas and
where the drought situation is more frequent, this is an important
use. Most of these tanks have pathways so that cattle can go and
drink whatever is left and they cannot be used by human beings
anymore. Now, after the World Bank has entered Karnataka to
modernize the tanks, they have left no open path. So the cattle
now go to drink water. This is a serious survival strategy, which
will do great damage in due course.
Another interesting aspect was tank bed cultivation. The whole
tank bed has excellent moisture. A rich subsoil which, after the rainy
season, can be used for very good cash crop cultivation. In eastern
India, in Bihar, this is excellent for pulse and oilseed cultivation.
Now, since the Public Works Department and Irrigation Department
have adopted these tanks, they have stopped cultivation of tank beds
saying that “we have to do desilting”. The Ramanathapuram district is
the last case because it was under the Zamindari system until 1960s.
There was a battle between the Revenue department and the Public
Works Department, which lasted for 10 long years. The Revenue
department was issuing pattas for even a single year’s cultivation.
Finally after 10 years, they stopped the cultivation. Tamilnadu has
30,000 tanks and nearly 50,000 hectares of tank beds. Through the
people’s initiative and flexibility, they effected economic efficiency.
In earlier times tank bed cultivation was probably done with
some kind of ritualistic fear that arises when encroaching the tank
bed during the rainy season. In Tamilnadu, there was definitely
something of this nature, as in Uttaramerur.
The crucial issues of tank structure are its physical structure and
the inlet and outlet channels. Water does not require conservation,
unlike forests. It is the physical structure which requires conservation.
The important parts are the main embankment and protective
Irrigation Tanks - How Sacred are they? 39
structures. But the most crucial part, which is not understood, is

the tank catchment. Catchments are actually a part of the tank
and the tank cannot be defined as a mere physical structure and
its service. Catchment protection is as important as the protection
of the physical structure. Ten years ago, when the Central Arid
Zone Research Institute brought out the irrigation structure called
kharin in the Thar desert of Rajasthan, it gave total protection for
cultivation within the Jaisalmer District. Basically, these kharanis
require 1: 15 catchments. But the World Bank tried to construct
many tanks in the area. As a result, the existing kharanis that
survived for 200 years are now almost defunct.
The catchment to service command area ratio varies. In Coastal
Tamilnadu it is 3: 1, near Coimbatore it is 5 : 1. But this catchment
protection is one of the biggest issues. If you go to the drier areas
you will clearly see this. Cow dung and mud are used to create
excellent slopes, so that the water should not seep into it. Today
many people feel that catchment areas require forests, etc., to stop
silting. That is not always true. There probably were certain practices
and rituals of catchment area maintenance which are important,
to the crucial issue of tank supply.
On the protection of tank structures; firstly, because of the force
of water, the main embankment may collapse. So there are several
arrangements to make the extra water to go away. In flood-prone
areas, one can divide the tank bed into four to five parts. Water
goes from one part to another through an opening and the people
later close those parts. In case one side of the embankment collapses,
then they immediately close the inlet, so that the other parts don’t
collapse. Tanks, particularly in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh,
are system tanks supplied by channels. The distribution is highly
controversial. In most cases, the courts have come out with certain
orders about the stone slabs that must be fitted in the outlet. Their
exact measurement has to be determined. Very little is known in
our country about the use of people’s technology for this kind of
structure. In comparison, there are studies available in the countries
of Southeast Asia. In Thailand or Indonesia, they have pet names
for this kind of structure called “crocodile’s teeth” or “elephant’s ear”.
This is very important, and worthy of further investigation.
Part 1
Andhra Pradesh
43
CHEBROLU
Temple location The Nageswara Temple, Chebrolu, is at

a distance of 15 km from Ponnur and is
accessible by bus.
Main deity Nageswara
Goddess Ammavarudevi
Temple management Archaeology Department, Government of
Andhra Pradesh
History
As per inscriptions, the Chalukya Kings had renovated the
temple.
Festivals
The Theppam festival during Shivarathri celebrations in the month
of Magha (February–March) is important.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank
Present status of the sacred tank

The tank is opposite the temple. Water from a nearby canal enters
the tank and water from the outlet is let into the agricultural fields.
People are allowed to bathe in the tank and water from the borewell
inside the tank is used for drinking. The temple authorities propose
to undertake desiltation work in the near future. A small temple
for Lord Chaturmukha Brahma Lingeswara is in the middle of the
tank and the annual Theppam festival is observed in this tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is found to be poor. The water contains
a high level of dissolved solids and algae. The colour of water is
yellow. The pH of water is slightly alkaline and contains 370 mg/l

of alkalinity. The level of chloride and total hardness are 680 mg/l
& 320 mg/l respectively. The level of dissolved oxygen is low and
that of ammonia is high.
Special feature
There are eight temples around a single temple tank.
45
CHINNAKOTHAPALLE
Temple location The Sangameswara Temple, Chinnakothapalle,

is at a distance of 25 km from Dharmavaram
and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Sri Sangameswara
Goddess Uma Maheswari
Temple management Government of Andhra Pradesh
Festivals
Annual festivals like Ugadi, Brahmotsavam, Mukkoti Ekadesi,
Teppotsavam, Kalyanotsavam and Rathotsavam are observed.
Mahashivarathri in Magha (February–March) is very important.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple and gets water from the river
Chitravathi. The water from the outlet is also let into the river.
Devotees are allowed to bathe in the tank. Since the area is dry,
the tank is also dry in the summer months.
Water quality
The quality of water is reasonably good. It contains a low level of
dissolved solids and a slightly higher level of algae ammonia. The
pH of the water is neutral and contains 450 mg/l of alkalinity. The
colour seems to be green due to the presence of algae. The level
of total hardness is 180 mg/l and that of chloride is 140 mg/l. It
has a low level of dissolved oxygen.
Special feature
The rivers, Chitravathi, Palaru and Dapularu merge here and hence
the deity is called Sangameswara (sangam means confluence).
46
HEMAVATHI
Temple location The Siddheswara Temple, Hemavathi, lies 35

km from Madakasire of Anantapur district
with good bus and train facilities
Main deity Siddheswara
Temple management Government of Andhra Pradesh and
Department of Archaeology,
Andhra Pradesh
History
Shivalayas were built in the 8th Century and patronised by the
Nolamba Pallavas. The sculptural decorations made by the Nolamba
artists are very famous. Of the four Shivalayas in Hemavathi, only
the Siddheswara Temple has a tank associated with it.
Festivals
Mahashivarathri in February or March is observed in a grand
manner.
Sacred tank(s)
Kalyani Kulam

The temple tank is situated within the temple. Devotees are allowed
to use the water only for performing poojas and other rituals on the
banks of the tank. The water quality is good. The temple authorities
maintain the tank. In ancient days, the tank water is believed to
have displayed seven colours every day and this later dwindled to
3 colours a day. Today no such colour change occurs. However, no
written information is available about the colour change.
47
KALAHASTHI
Temple location This temple is in Kalahasthi which is on

the Renigunta - Guntur rail route. It is
situated between two steep hills, Sripuram
and Mummidicholapuram, said to be a
part of Seshasaila or Mount Meru, in the
ancient days.
Main deity Sri Kalahatheeswarar
Goddess Gnana Prasannambika Devi, believed to be the
sister of Lord Venkateswara of Tirupati.
History
The historical reference to this temple occurs in the works of
Nakkeerar, a celebrated Tamil poet of the Sangam period.
Adi Sankara and several Tamil saints like Sambandar, Appar,
Manikkavasagar, Sundaramoorthi, Pattinathar and Sri Ramalinga
Swami have visited Kalahasti during their pilgrimages.
Tondaiman and the Pallava kings built this temple; Kulothunga
Chola (11th Century A.D.) renovated and extended the main temple;
the Vijayanagar rulers developed the mandapams; Krishna Devaraya
built the 100-pillared mandapam in 1516 A.D.; the Natukottai
Chettiars of Devakottai gave the final shape to the temple in 1912
at a cost of about rupees nine lakhs.
The Shivalinga of Kalahasti is one of the five lingas representing
the five elements water, fire, air, ether and earth. A Vayu linga
(representing air) is installed in this kshetra and the flickering oil
lamp inside the garbagriha is evidence of this.
Mythology
According to the sthala puranam, Brahma used the waters of this
tank which was created by Mahadeva.
Festivals
The most important festivals are the Mahashivarathri which runs
for 10 days in February and the March and Makara Sankranti
which is celebrated in January. About 85 festivals are observed in
this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Saraswathi Tirtham

The tank is near Subramanya temple (a few miles away from the
main temple). Entry to the tank is restricted by an iron railing.
The water quality is very good and free from pollutants. The main
source of water is rainwater.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a low level of
dissolved solids and a high level of algae. The colour is green due
to the presence of algae. The pH is neutral and contains 110 mg/l
of alkalinity, the level of dissolved oxygen is 6.20 mg/l and that of
ammonia is low. The level of total hardness and chloride are 120
mg/l and 150 mg/l respectively.
Special feature
The river Suvarnamukhi flows on one side of the town, which is
bounded on the other side by hills.
49
LEPAKSHI
Temple location The Veerabhadra Swami Temple, Lepakshi,

is at a distance of 12 km from Hindupur
(railway station) in Anantapur district and
is accessible by bus.
Main deity Sri Veerabhadra
Goddess Durga
Temple management Archaeological Survey of India and Govern-
ment of Andhra Pradesh
History
The temple was constructed by Virupanna the governor of
Penukonda province during the Vijayanagar period.
A huge 30’ x 20’ idol of Nandi is near the temple. The temple is
famous for paintings and sculptures of the Vijayanagara period.
Festivals
Mahashivarathri in Magha (February-March) is very important.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple on the eastern side. It is in very
bad condition with weeds and algae growing all over the tank.
Water from Chinnacheruvu (small lake) pours into this tank and
the outlet is connected to Bethacheru (big lake) and is unfit for
any use. Until 20 years back, the tank was well maintained.
50
MANGALAGIRI
Temple location The Panakala Narasimha Swamy Temple,

Mangalagiri, is situated on the Vijayawada
– Guntur road, 12 km southeast of Vijayawada
and 20 km northwest of Guntur.
Main deity Panakala Narasimha Swamy
Temple management The Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowments Board.
History
Mangalagiri means “the auspicious hill”. Jaggery water known as
panaka is offered to the Lord. The belief is that the Lord gives
back the same panaka water on being satisfied.
Krishna Chaitanya, the Bengali poet-saint, visited the temple
in the year 1312 A.D. and the imprint of his feet, and a verse
dedicated to him, are still seen in the temple.
According to inscriptions, Krishna Devaraya, the Vijayanagara
King visited this temple and made many grants in 1520 A.D.
Mythology
After the ocean was churned by the Mandara hill and Goddess
Mahalakshmi emerged with amrutha, the Devas constructed a tank
for Goddess Mahalakshmi to bathe in before merging in Vishnu.
The tank is called Kalyani Pushkarini.
Festivals
The most important festival of this temple is the Brahmotsavam
which lasts for 12 days in March. Other festivals like Vaikunta
Ekadasi, Sri Ramanavami, Hanuman Jayanthi, Narasimha Jayanti,
etc., are also observed.
Sacred tank(s)
Lakshmi Pushkarini
Temple Tank
Mangalagiri 51
Present status of the sacred tanks

Kalyani Pushkarini
The tank is quite far from the temple. Rainfall is the sole source
of water. Until 20 years back the tank was in good condition.
Encroachments due to urbanization block both the inlet and outlet.
The residents dump their garbage around the temple tank. M/s. Oil
and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) renovated the temple tank
two years ago, but it has been polluted again. The Theppotsavam
has not been conducted for the past two years as the tank is in
a bad condition.
Temple tank
This is a small tank just opposite the temple and is also in a bad
condition due to garbage dumped by shop-owners and others
around the tank.
Water quality
The quality of water is poor. The water contains a higher level of
dissolved solids, ammonia and algae. It also contains 660 mg/l of
alkalinity and 600 mg/l of chloride. The colour of water seems to
be yellow and the pH is slightly alkaline. The level of dissolved
oxygen is low.
52
MANNARPOLUR
Temple location The Alaghumallari Krishna Temple, Mannar-

polur, lies 3 km from Sulurpet in Nellore
district, with access up to Sulurpet town by
both bus and train.
Main deity Alaghumallari Krishna
Goddesses Jambavathi and Satyabhama
Mythology
This legendary kshetra lying on the banks of the Kalindi river was
the scene of a battle fought between Krishna and Jambavan in
the Dwaparayuga for possession of the precious Samantakamani.
Jambavan is worshipped in the garbhagriha itself alongwith Lord
Krishna and his consorts Jambavathy (Jambavan’s daughter) and
Satyabhama. The Garuda’s eyes are always wet, which is evident
when his eyes are wiped with a dry cloth.
Festivals
The annual Brahmotsav celebrated in Vaisakha (May-June) draws
huge crowds.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple Tank

The tank is located opposite the temple and the quality of the
water and maintenance is very bad. The residents around the tank
dump garbage in it. The last Theppam festival was celebrated in
1982 but has since been stopped, due to bad water quality and poor
maintenance of the tank. The water flowing through the outlet is
let out into the agricultural fields. Four years ago, fish breeding
Mannarpolur 53
was actively carried on and provided an additional income to the

temple authorities by way of auction.
Water quality
The quality of the water is very poor. It contains a slightly higher
level of dissolved solids and algae. The colour of water is green
in colour due to the presence of algae. It contains 130 mg/l of
alkalinity and 410 mg/l of chloride, the pH is neutral, the level
of dissolved oxygen is 5.40 mg/l. and the level of total hardness
is 400 mg/l.
54
PENUKONDA
Temple location The Shiva Temple, Penukonda, is within the

Ganga Mahal Fort near Anantapur and is
accessible by bus
Main deity Shiva
Goddess Parvathi
History
As per inscriptions, renovation work was carried out during the
Vijayanagara period.
Festivals
Shivarathri celebrations in the month of Magha (February – March)
and Karthigai Deepam (November – December) are important.
Sacred tank(s)
Basavakkarai

Rainwater is the main source for the tank which is opposite the
temple. People living around the tank dump waste in and around
the tank. The water is now stagnant with weeds and unfit for
any use. Till five years back, the tank was in good condition and
the annual Theppam festival was also celebrated. Due to nearby
constructions, both inlet and outlet have been blocked. Recharge
of water in the wells has declined considerably as the tank is in
a bad condition.
Water quality
The quality of the water is very poor. It contains a slightly higher
level of dissolved solids and algae because of which it appears to
Penukonda 55
be green in colour. It contains 530 mg/l of alkalinity, 410 mg/l of

chloride and 410 mg/l of total hardness. The pH of the water is
neutral. The level of dissolved oxygen is low and that of ammonia
is slightly higher.
56
PONNUR
Temple location The Bhavanarayana Temple, Ponnur, is at

a distance of 28 km from Guntur on the
southern side and is accessible by train and
bus.
Main deity Sri Bhavanarayana
Goddesses Sundaravalli, Rajalakshmi
History
As per inscriptions, Sri. Nandyala Naraparaju, a devotee of the
Lord, built this temple in the 10th Century.
Festivals
Brahmotsavam and Theppam festivals are celebrated in the month
of Vaisakha (May-June).
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham

The tank is opposite to the temple and water from a borewell is
the main source. The natural inlet and tank bed were cemented
about 15 years ago. People are permitted to step into the tank
and sprinkle water on their heads. Nobody is allowed to bathe
in the tank.
57
R. L. PURAM
Temple location The Ramatheertha Devalayam, R. L. Puram

is in Cheemakurthy Mandal situated at a
distance of 5km from Cheemakurthy.
Main deity Ramachandramurthy or Moksha
Ramalingeswara
Goddess Bala Tripurasundari
Mythology
In Trethayuga, Sri Rama in order to perform abhishekam to Moksha
Lingeswara created this tank. Hence it is called Rama Tirtham.
Festivals
Every year Mahashivarathri and Sree Rama Navami are observed.
Sacred tank(s)
Vibhuthikundam or Rama Tirtham

The temple tank is behind the temple at the foot of the Pushpagiri
hills. The tank water is very sweet and clean. The devotees are
allowed to bathe in the tank. The water is also used for performing
abhishekam and pooja to the God. Due to the activities of a nearby
granite quarry, the water might, in due course, get polluted.
Water quality
The quality of the water is poor. It contains a low level of dissolved
solids and dissolved oxygen and a low level of algae. The water
appears green in colour due to the presence of algae. The level of
alkalinity and total hardness are 320 mg/l and 320 mg/l respectively.
A slightly higher level of ammonia is present.
Special feature
It is believed that a dip in the tank cures all chronic diseases and
washes away one’s sins. A significant and noteworthy feature is that
when sand (from the tank) mixed with tank water is applied on
the forehead, it turns into white vibhuthi.
59
SINGARAYAKONDA
Temple location The Varaha Narasimha Temple, Singarayakonda,

is situated on a 60 m high hillock. It lies 12
km from Kandukur in Nellore district with
bus facilities from Nellore and Kandukur.
Main deity Varaha Narasimha
Temple management Government of Andhra Pradesh and a Local
Committee.
History
An 16th Century inscription belonging to the Krishna Devaraya
period is found in the temple.
Mythology
It is believed that a single bath assures one of attaining Moksha
or eternal heaven. Sage Narada did penance here and Sri Rama
is said to have visited this place along with Sita and Lakshmana
during their exile.
Festivals
The annual Brahmotsavam falls in Phalguna (March - April) when
lakhs of people visit the temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Bhavanasi

The tank is situated at the foot of the hillock. The main source of
water is rain and the natural springs from the hillock. The villagers
use this water for drinking and for pooja purposes. They are not
allowed to wash or bathe in the tank. The water quality is very
good. The tank was built during the reign of the Vijayanagara
King Krishnadevaraya.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good and even potable. It contains a
low level of dissolved solids and algae. The level of alkalinity and
total hardness are 48 mg/l and 48 mg/l respectively. The pH of
the water is slightly alkaline. The level of dissolved oxygen is 7.20
mg/l, chloride is 12 mg/l and that of ammonia is very low. The
level of total hardness shows that the water is soft.
Special feature
It is believed that an underground tunnel exists in this temple
tank.
61
SRISAILAM
Temple location The temple is 190 km north of Nandyal

Railway station and is accessible by train
and bus
Main deity Mallikarjuna
Goddess Bhramarambika
History
According to inscriptions preserved in the temple, the Vijayanagara
kings made extensive improvements to the temple in 1405 A.D.
Srisailam’s importance can be traced back to the Buddhist
period, when the Mahayana school of Buddhism was known to
have flourished here during the 1st Century A.D.
Festivals
The main festivals are Mahashivarathri and Telugu New Year’s day
celebrations from February to May.
Sacred tank(s)
Pushkarini
Temple tank

Pushkarini
This tank is adjacent to the temple. Water is pumped from the
Patalaganga situated a few kilometers away from the temple.
Devotees are allowed to bathe in the temple and the quality of the
water is good. Theppotsavam is not observed in the temple tank.
Temple tank
This tank is at a distance of 5 km from the temple. The water is
unfit for any use as it is stagnant.
Special feature
The tanks were built by the Saluva Kings of Vijayanagar. Hindu
devotees are allowed to perform abhishekam and poojas to deity.
They are allowed to enter the garbagriha and perform abhishekam
with water from the Patalaganga. This form of worship is unique
to Srisailam, as devotees are not allowed to enter the garbagriha
anywhere else.
63
TIRUCHANUR (ALAMELUMANGAPURAM)
Temple location The Padmavathi temple is 10 km from

Tirupati town.
Main deity Padmavathi
Temple management Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam Board
History
This temple was probably built between 826 A.D. and 960 A.D.
Sri Ramanuja was mainly responsible for renovating the temple
structure.
Mythology
Vishnu came to the earth in search of Mahalakshmi and wandered
around looking for her. He did severe penance for 12 years on the
banks of the river Suvarnamukhi and worshipped her with red
lotuses, which he raised for worship in the Padmasarovar – a tank
dug by him. Mahalakhsmi then appeared before him standing on
a lotus flower with two red lotuses.
Married women perform kumkuma pooja in the name of their
husband here, as it is believed to lengthen his lifespan.
Sacred tank(s)
Tiruchanur Temple tank

The tank is behind the temple. Devotees are allowed to bathe in
it. The Devasthanam pumps water into the tank from a borewell
and water from the outlet is let to the garden after recycling.
The quality of water is good and the tank has been maintained
properly. Twenty years back there was natural water flow and but
today, due to surrounding encroachments, water has to be pumped
into the tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a slightly high
level of dissolved solids and algae due to which the water seems to
be green in colour. The pH of the water is neutral. The water also
contains 490 mg/l of alkalinity, 200 mg/l of total hardness and 280
mg/l of chloride. The level of dissolved oxygen is 6.30 mg/l.
65
TIRUMALA
Temple location Tirumala lies in the midst of seven peaks

of the Nallamalai Hills, an integral part of
the Eastern Ghats. It is seven miles from the
Tirupati East Railway station. The top of the
Tirumalai hill is 2000 feet above sea level.
Main deity Balaji, also known as Venkateswara
Temple management Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam
History
The earliest historical reference to the temple is from the Pallava
period, although the Vengadam hills and its festivals are mentioned
in early Tamil literature. Tolkappiam and Silapadikaram of Sangam
period (300 BC to 300 AD). The Ananda Vimana, as the vimana
over the sanctum sanctorum is called, is the most sacred of vimanas.
From an inscription at the Varadaraja temple of Kancheepuram, we
learn that one Tatacharya built the vimana of Lord Venkateswara
with gold, in the year Pramodoota, corresponding to 1492 or 1570
A.D. Tatacharya was the General Superintendent of temple affairs
under the Vijayanagar King, Venkatapathi Deva Maharaja.
Mythology
Swami Pushkarini
The Swami Pushkarini was Vishnu’s tank in Vaikuntam, and was
brought to earth by Garuda for Vishnu’s use. It lies in front of the
temple of Tirumala, and is regarded as equivalent to the Ganga and
other sacred rivers. Seventeen tirthas or holy waters are believed
to combine in the Swami Pushkarini.
The Varaha Purana attributes the success of Lord Rama in his
battle with Ravana to the bath in the Swami Pushkarini, as it
grants success to all those who bathe in it. The rishi Narayana,
after whom the hill was named Narayanadri, bathed regularly in
the tank and meditated on its banks.
The sacred Mukkoti Ekadasi of the Swami Pushkarini tank

takes place on the 12th day of the waxing moon in the month
of Dhanus (December-January) when Vishnu’s chakra or discus is
taken in procession and immersed in the Swami Pushkarini, when
all the Gods also bathe in the tank. A bath at that time is believed
to wash away one’s sins.
Festivals
The Brahmothsavam lasts for 10 days falling between September
and October, and draws lakhs of devotees. The float festival
is equally important and falls in March-April. Vasantotsavam,
Dhanurmasotsavam and Adhyayanotsavam are other festivals in
the temple calendar.
Sacred tank(s)
Swami Pushkarini

Swami Pushkarini is situated on the northern side of the temple.
The Devasthanam pumps water into the tank and water from the
outlet is let out to the garden. People are allowed to bathe in the
tank. The Devasthanam maintains the tank. The quality of water
is good as the tank is maintained well. An annual Theppam is
celebrated in the tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good.Water contains low level of
dissolved solids and algae. The pH of the water is slightly acidic.
The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 60 mg/l and 120 mg/l
respectively. The water contains 6.40 mg/l of dissolved oxygen, 100
mg/l of chloride and a very low level of ammonia.
67
Tirupathi
Temple location The Govindarajaswami Temple, is near Tirupati

Railway Station.
Main deity Sri Govindaraja
Temple management Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam Board
History
In 1130, Sri Ramanuja brought the image of Govindaraja from
Chidambaram and constructed the temple here.
Festivals
Annual festivals like Ugadi, Brahmotsavam, Mukkoti Ekadesi,
Teppotsavam, Kalyanotsavam and Rathotsavam are observed.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple Tank
Kapila Tirtham

Temple Tank
The tank is just opposite the temple. Devotees are allowed to bathe
in the tank. The Devasthanam maintains the tank very well and
the water quality is good. Twenty years back, water came from a
well inside the temple, but today water is pumped into the tank.
The annual theppam festival is observed in the tank.
Kapila Tirtham
The main source of water for this tank is rainwater and the natural
springs from the hillock. Devotees are allowed to bathe in the tank.
The water quality is good and the tank is maintained properly. The
water is let out to the forest through the outlet.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a low level
of dissolved solids and algae and is slightly green in colour. The
pH of the water is neutral. It contains 200 mg/l of alkalinity, 190
mg/l of total hardness, 6.00 mg/l of dissolved oxygen and 140 mg/l
of chloride. The level of ammonia is low.
69
WARANGAL
Temple location Hanuman Gunta, the thousand pillared

temple, lies in the town of Warangal, the
district head quarters of Warangal district
with convenient train and road facilities.
Main deity Shiva
Temple management Archeological Survey of India (ASI)
History
The renowned Kakati Rudra Deva built this temple in 1184 A.D.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank.

Natural springs and rain water are the main sources of water for
this tank. Since the inlet and outlet are blocked by encroachments,
the tank is full of algae and the water is used for watering the
temple gardens. The tank is not used for bathing.
70
YADAGIRI GUTTA
Temple location The Narasimha temple at Yadagiri Gutta is

one of the important and sacred places in
Nalgonda district, 60 km from Hyderabad.
Yadagiri can be reached by road from
Hyderabad, or from Raigiri Railway Station
by bus.
Main deity Lakshmi Narasimha
Temple management Executive Director, Board of Trustees managed
by Government of Andhra Pradesh
Festivals
All the Vaishnavite festivals are observed in the temple. The Kalyana
Utsavam of the Lord is celebrated for 10 days in the month of
Phalguna (March-April) every year from Suddha Dwiteeya to
Suddha Dwadasi.
Sacred tank(s)
Pushkarini

The temple tank is slightly elevated and located behind the temple.
It has no clear boundary. Water is pumped into the tank from
three wells located nearby. Devotees are allowed to take a dip in
the tank but cannot use soap. The quality of the water is good
and the tank is maintained properly. The outlet is connected to
a drainage pump.
Special feature
The temple is dedicated to Narasimha, the incarnation of Vishnu,
and is situated on the top of a hillock at a height of 92 m. The
place has great importance and attracts devotees throughout the
Yadagiri Gatta 71
year. It is said that the deity here is very powerful and cures severe
ailments when devotees worship for a week or fortnight with
confidence and faith.
There is a chakra on the top of the temple vimana, which is
considered to be of mystic value and power. This chakra glows in
the dark, and sometimes turns on its own. It is not possible to
turn it by any human effort.
Part 2
Karnataka
75
AMBALAPADI
Temple location Sri Janardana and Sri Mahakali Temples,

Ambalapadi, are 10 kms from Udipi and are
accessible by bus.
Main deity Sri Janardana and Sri Mahakali
Temple management Government of Karnataka and Nidambur
Ballala Family Trust
History
Sridhara Nidamburaya is the earliest known ancestor of this Brahmin
family as recorded in the stone inscription found here.
Festivals
The Navarathri festival is celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple Tank

This tank is located opposite the temple and the water quality is
good, as the devotees are not allowed to bathe in it. Instead, the
temple authorities have provided taps on the banks of the tank
for public use. The outflow is connected to an adjacent canal and
desiltation work is carried out every year.
Water quality
The quality of the water is found to be good. The water contains
a low level of dissolved solids and the pH of the water is neutral.
The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 160 mg/l and 100
mg/l respectively. The level of chloride present is 80 mg/l. It does
not contain any algae.
Special feature
Darshana - consultation through oracle - is a time-honoured
religious practice in this temple. Mahakali is consulted through
devotees who act as a medium and get possessed by the deity
to find effective solutions to the numerous personal problems
presented by the devotees. Sri N. Annaji Ballal, the present trustee
of the temple, has functioned for 40 years as the interpreter of the
pronouncements of the oracle in the ‘Darshna’ sessions.
This temple management is involved in running many charities in
this region. They have undertaken renovation of two village temples,
established a nursery school in the temple campus, a library and
reading room, meditation centre, guest houses, etc.
77
AMBUTIRTHAM
Temple location The Rameswara Temple, Ambutirtham, is

between Shimoga and Tirthamhalli and is
accessible by bus.`
Main deity Sri Rameswara
Goddesses Sri Chamundeswari
Temple management Rama Seva Sangam and local committee
Mythology
The tank is said to have been created by Rama to quench Sita’s
thirst. He shot an arrow into the ground, from which place water
sprang out and became a pond. Hence it has derived the name
Ambu Tirtham, where ‘ambu’ means arrow.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambu Tirtham
Present status of the Sacred Tank

The tank is opposite the temple and spring water from Shiva’s idol
in the sanctum sanctorum gets accumulated in this tank. The tank
water is very pure and crystal clear due to proper maintenance.
It is also free from pollutants. The water from the outlet goes to
the surrounding forest.
River Sharavathi originates from this tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a very low
level of dissolved solids. The pH of the water is neutral and the
level of alkalinity and total hardness are 80 mg/l and 90 mg/l
respectively. The level of chloride present is 60 mg/l.
78
BABABUDAN GIRI
Temple location The Dattatreya temple and the Dada Hayat

Dargah are located at Bababudan Giri.
They are in the coffee – growing belt of
the Chikmagalur district, 270 km north of
Bangalore on an enormous ridge that is 5000
feet above sea level.
Main deity Dattatreya
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank
Present status of the temple tank

The tank is diagonally opposite the temple. Water from a stream
collects in this tank and the quality is very good. Since it is a
controversial site, nobody uses this tank.
Special feature
Dattatreya is the much awaited incarnation of the Hindu Trinity of
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Bababudan Giri dargah is one of the
oldest centres of Sufism in South India. Its founding is associated
with a sufi from Arabia, Dada Hayat Qalandar, in the 17th Century.
This site is under dispute and a case has been in progress in the
Chikmagalur District court since 1980.
Both Hindus and Muslims come here and offer their prayers.
Coffee was first introduced into the Chikmagalur area by Maghribi,
a Sufi at Baba Budhan Nagar, 3 km from the dargah.
79
BELUR
Temple location The Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, lies 38

km from Hassan, and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Chennakeshava
Goddesses Bhudevi and Sridevi
Temple management Archaeological Survey of India
History
The temple occupies a vast area measuring 443’ x 396’ with a massive
prakara and two entrances surmounting a five-storeyed tower. Built
in the Dravidian style, it faces the east and was consecrated in 1117
A.D. under the direct supervision of King Dasoja of Balligame.
This temple is the best example of Hoysala architecture built
predominantly in the 12th Century A.D. It is a very important
place for tourism in Karnataka.
Sacred tank(s)
Vasudeva Kalyani Tirtham / Devasaras
Present status of the temple tank

The temple tank is located to the northeast of the main shrine.
The water in the tank is stagnant. Since it is covered with algae,
devotees are not allowed to use the water and the water quality is
also very poor. A well is inside the temple tank.
80
CHAMUNDI HILLS
Temple location The Chamundeswari Temple, Mysore, is on

Chamundi Betla, a little but lovely hillock
lying about 2 km southeast of Mysore city.
This rocky hillock is at a height of 3,489 ft.
above sea level.
Main deity Chamundeswari
Temple management Government of Karnataka
History
The Hoysola king Vishnuvardhana, built this temple in 1128 A.D.
Sri Mummudi Krishnaraja Wodayar, the king of Mysore, renovated
the temple in 1827.
The gigantic stone bull (Nandi) on the hill is a wonderful
piece of sculpture. Nearly 16 feet heigh, it was carved in 1659 at
the insistence of Dodda Devaraja Wodayar, the king of Mysore at
that time.
Festivals
The Navaratri Utsava at Mysore, the festivities in connection
with the birthday of Chamundeswari, is celebrated on Ashadha
Krishna Shashti. The annual Theppam is observed in the month
of October.
Sacred tank(s)
Devi Kere

The sacred tank is outside the temple at a distance of 1 km from
the temple. The water is in a very good condition. The main water
source is rain and the outlet is linked to a nearby temple tank.
The devotees are allowed to bathe in the tank though washing
Chamundi Hills 81
is prohibited. Desiltation is carried out every year by the temple

authorities.
Water quality
a low level of dissolved solids and the pH of the water is neutral.
mg/l respectively. The water contains 250 mg/l of chloride and 70
mg/l of sulphate. It does not contain any colour and the level of
algae is very low.
Special feature
On the way to the temple there is a colossal figure of Nandi and
it is on par with its counterparts found in Brihadeeswara temple,
Thanjavur and Nataraja temple, Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. The
Mysore Dasara surpasses the celebration of this festival in other
parts of India.
82
GOKARNA
Temple location The Mahabaleshwar temple, Gokarna, is

located near Kumta and is accessible by train
upto Hubli, from where the journey has to
be continued by bus or taxi.
Main deity Sri Mahabaleshwar
Goddess Gokarna Nayaki
History
The ancient temple of Mahabaleshwar is said to have been built
by the Kadamba kings of Banavasi who ruled Karnataka from 3rd
to 7th Century A.D. and the Ramayana and Mahabharata make
several references to this place.
Mythology
The Shata-Shringa Parvata and Koti Tirtham
Just as Kailasa was the abode of Eashwara and Vaikuntha that of
Vishnu, Shata-shringa was the abode of Brahma. Once Garuda was
flying high above Shata-shringa Parvata, holding a serpent named
Durmukha in his beak. As he was looking for a place to eat the
serpent, the serpent unexpectedly slipped from his beak and fell
down on the hills below. Garuda became very angry and lifted
the whole Shata-shringa, along with Brahma, other rishis and the
two crores of tirthams (holy waters) and flew away. Brahma awoke
after a while and pressed the hill with the weight of the three
worlds. Garuda had come by this time near Gokarna. Being unable
to sustain the heavy weight, he requested sage Agastya who was
performing tapas below to relieve him of the great burden, as he
would otherwise inevitably go down and sink in the sea.
Agastya through gnana came to know that it was Eashwara’s
will and took pity on Garuda. He then placed the hill in the sea.
Brahma being satisfied that it was Eashwara’s will, left his kamandalu
Gokarna 83
on the Shata-shringa and blessed Garuda with the power to lift

even the three worlds and went to Satyaloka. This kamandalu is
the Kamandalu Tirtham.
Of the two crore tirthams, one crore fell into the sea and the
remaining one crore tirthams fell on the other side of the hill,
combining to become Koti tirtham. On the southern bank of this
tank we can see the Varadeshwara Linga founded by sage Agastya
and the place of his tapas. Garuda Tirtham and Garuda mandapa
are where Garuda performed tapas. It is believed that after bathing
in the Garuda Tirtham those who recite the Gayatri mantra 4 lakh
times in this mandapa obtain success in their desired objective.
Rama Tirtham
Rama came to Gokarna accompanied by Seeta and Lakshmana on a
pilgrimage and created a tirtham for performing penance to Mahadeva.
He bathed in it and offered worship to Sri. Mahabaleshwar.
It is believed that those who bathe in the holy waters of Rama
Tirtham and worship Rama on Sree Ramanavami day, reciting
Ashtakshari Japa, will be freed from the sins of brahmahatya (the
sin of killing another).
Festivals
Astabandha Mahotsava is held once in 12 years. Shivarathri is also
celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Koti Tirtham
Rama Tirtham

Koti Tirtham
The tank is located on the western side of the temple. People are
allowed to bathe in it and the outlet is connected to the sea. The
tank water is good, even though the main pollutant is detergent

present in the bathing soaps used by devotees, although washing
is not allowed. The tank has not been desilted for the last 8 years.
The Theppam is conducted thrice in a year.
Rama Tirtham
The tank is mainly fed by canal water and the quality is average.
People are allowed to bathe in it. The water outlet is totally
blocked due to encroachments (buildings, shops, etc.). It is a very
important tourist spot.
Water quality
of dissolved solids and does not contain algae and colour. The
pH of the water is slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity and total
hardness are 200 mg/l and 250 mg/l respectively.
85
HASSAN
Temple location The Gangadareswara Temple, at Hassan is

accessible by train and bus
Main deity Gangadareswara
Goddess Uma Maheswari
Sacred tank(s)
Devi Kere

The tank is opposite the temple and, till 30 years ago, water from
Kattinakkere lake used to flow into this tank. Encroachments like
a bus stand and shops have sprung up in this area. The outlet was
linked to Chennapatna lake. But today due to encroachments, there
is stagnant water in the tank choked with weeds and pollutants.
The tank water is in a bad condition and maintenance is also poor.
The water was used for many rituals in ancient days.
86
KOLAR
Temple location The Nandeeswara Temple, Kolar, in the state

of Karnataka is a spiritual place on top of a
little hill, lying at a distance of about 2 km
from the central bus stand.
Main deity Kasi Visweshwara
Temple management State Endowment Board
Festivals
Shivarathri and Kartigai Deepam are celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Antharaganga

The tank is adjacent to the temple. Since the main source is natural
spring water from the main idol, the water quality is very good, even
though people are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes. People even
use the water in the tank for drinking. The water from the outlet is
let into the forest area. The devotees clean the tank twice a year.
Water quality
a very low level of dissolved solids and the pH of the water is
neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 100 mg/l
and 40 mg/l respectively. There is 70 mg/l of chloride, 30 mg/l of
sulphate and no colour and algae.
Special feature
The Nandeeswara Temple is an ancient Shiva temple. Its unusual
attraction lies in the Nandi, installed on a high mandapa in the
middle of a big tank. Water gushes out of the mouth of the Nandi
perennially and falls into the tank.
87
KOTA
Temple location The Mahalingeshwara temple, Kota, is situated

on the Gokarnam - Kundapura National
Highways Road. This temple is one among
the 7 important places in North Kannada
region
Main deity Sri Mahalingeshwara
Mythology
It is believed that the Pandavas constructed this temple and tank
in one night.
Festivals
The Mahashivarathri festival is celebrated in the month of
February.
Sacred tank(s)
Mahalingeshwara tank

This tank is located on the northern side of the temple and people
are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes. The main pollutant is
detergent used while washing. The outflow is let into the agricultural
fields. The tank has not been desilted for the past five years.
Water quality
a low level of dissolved solids, 150 mg/l of alkalinity, 140 mg/l
of total hardness and of chloride. The pH of the water is slightly
acidic. It does not contain any algae or colour.
88
KUMBAKSHI
Temple location Sri Vinayaka and Sri Mahalingeswara Temples,

Kumbakshi, are on the coast on a small
hillock situated 26 km from Udipi on the
Kundapura - Udipi bus route
Main deity Sri Vinayakar (on top of the hillock) Sri
Mahalingeswarar (at the foot of the hill)
Temple management Visveswara Upadhyaya Family Trust
History
The temple was probably built about 300 years back.
Mythology
Sage Gowtama’s ashram was at the place where the temple is situated.
Ganapati came in disguise with an illusionary cow. The cow died
and Sage Gowthama prayed to Shiva for the Holy Ganga to give
life to the dead cow. Accordingly Sage Gowthama collected the Holy
Ganga in his kamandala and gave life to the cow by sprinkling the
water on it. A small well was created with his kamandala, which
is believed to be the present tank.
The temple sits in the middle of the tank. One half of the tank is
called as Surya Pushkarini and the other as Chandra Pushkarini.
Festivals
Rathotsavam in the month of Pausha (January-February), Deepam
festival in Kartika (November-December) and Vinayaka Chaturthi
in Sravana (August-September) are celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Surya Pushkarini
Chandra Pushkarini
Kumbakshi 89

The temple is in the middle of the tank which gets water from the
nearby hillock and natural springs. The pollutant-free pure water
is used for pooja purposes and the tank is properly maintained.
The overflow is let into a nearby canal.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a very low
level of dissolved solids, 80 mg/l of alkalinity, 70 mg/l of total
hardness and 60 mg/l of chloride.The pH of the water is neutral.
It does not contain any algae.
90
MALPE
Temple location The Vadapanda Balarama Temple, Malpe, is

on the coast at about 6 kms from Udipi and
is accessible by bus
Main deity Sri Balarama, Sri Shanmuga Subramanya
Festivals
Laksha Deepam (1 lakh oil lamps) celebrated in the month of
Kartika (November-December) is very important.
Sacred tank(s)
Skanda Pushkarini

The tank is opposite to the temple and spring water of medicinal
value accumulates in this tank. People bathe in the tank and the
water is stagnant. Four years back the tank was desilted. The
tank water is good due to proper maintenance. Many rituals are
performed on the banks of this tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a low level of
dissolved solids, 140 mg/l of alkalinity, 100 mg/l of total hardness
and 80mg/l of chloride. The pH of the water is neutral. It does
not contain any algae or colour.
91
MELKOTE
Temple location The Narayanaswami temple is on a hill called

Jadugiri at a distance of 35 km from Mandya
with adequate bus service
Main deity Narayanaswami
Goddess Sridevi and Bhudevi
History
Sri Ramanujacharya stayed here for 14 years and brought
many developments to this temple. Due to the efforts of Sri
Ramanujacharya, Dalits are allowed to worship here.
Festivals
Annual Vairamudi festival is celebrated in the temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Thirunarayanswami Kulam
Yoga Narasimhaswami Kulam
Akka Thangai Kulam
Chokkattan Kulam
Bhaswarajan Kulam
Brahmachari Kulam

Thirunarayanaswami Kulam
It is outside the temple and is surrounded by houses. The residents
use the water for washing clothes. Both inlet and outlet are blocked
by encroachments, so the tank is in a bad condition, polluted with
weeds, aquatic plants and garbage. Several years ago, people used
to drink the water.
Yoga Narasimhaswami Kulam

It is a very big tank at the foot of the hills. It is in a good condition,
getting water from a canal, and water draining from the hillock.
The outlet is connected to another canal reaching the forest. People
are allowed to bathe in the tank.
Akka Thangai Kulam

It is a twin tank with a wall in the middle of the tank. The tank is
outside the temple and is used for bathing. The tank is maintained
well and gets water from the hillock. The water goes through the
outlet to the nearby forest through a canal. This tank has become
a tourist spot and many film shootings take place in this area.
Chokkattan Kulam, Bhaswarajan Kulam and

Brahmachari Kulam
All the three tanks are within the campus of the Academy of Sanskrit
Research under the Directorship of Dr. M.A. Lakshmithathachar
who has taken efforts to conserve and preserve the tanks. The
water from the tanks is used for gardening, growing medicinal
plants and fish breeding. The renovation of the tanks has helped
bring about a steady increase in the water level of the wells situated
around the tanks.
Water quality
of dissolved solids and algae and hence has no associated colour.
The pH of the water is neutral. The level of alkalinity and total
hardness are 150 mg/l and 100 mg/l respectively.
93
MULBAGAL
Temple location The Yoga Narasimha Temple is on the

Banglore-Madras National Highway, 5 km
from Mulbagal town and the Veera Anjaneya
temple is in Mulbagal town.
Main deity Sri Yoga Narasimha, Veera Anjaneya
Temple management Sri Sripadaraja Moola Brindavan Mutt (Yoga
Narasimha Temple) and Government of
Karnataka (Hanuman Temple)
History
The temple was built during the Vijayanagar period. The Hanuman
temple was renovated by Sri Krishna Devaraya of the Vijayanagar
kingdom and a mahamandapa was constructed by Raja Thodaramall
(Revenue Minister in Akbar’s Court)
Festivals
Rathotsavam in Chaitra (April-May) and Sree Rama Navami are
celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Narasimha Tirtham
Veera Anjaneyaswami Tank
Vittala Kulam

Narasimha Tirtham
It is about 2 km from Mulbagal town. It is a beautiful spot lying in
the midst of hillocks and natural greenery. Water from the springs of
the hills gets collected in the tank. The outlet is connected to a nearby
lake. The water quality is very good and free from pollutants. People
are only allowed to take a quick dip and not bathe with soap.
Veera Anjaneyaswami Tank

It is located near the bus stand, amidst a residential area. The tank
is rainfed. Owing to poor maintenance and misuse by the public,
the water is unfit for any use.
Vittala Kulam
This tank is located near the temple. People are allowed to wash
their clothes and hence the water is not fit for bathing. Adjacent
landowners have closed the inlet while the outlet goes to a nearby
lake (Hosakere). The quality of water is very bad.
Water quality
The quality of the water is poor. The water contains a low level of
dissolved solids, 250 mg/l of alkalinity, 120 mg/l of total hardness
and 90 mg/l of chloride. The pH of the water is neutral. It does
not contain any algae or colour.
95
SRAVANABELAGOLA
Temple location The Sri Gomateswara Jain Temple, Sravana-

belagola, is situated 12 km to the south of
Chennarayapatna Taluk of Hassan District
of Karnataka state. This town is located in
the midst of two hills. It is a holy place for
the Jains
Main deity Sri Gomateswara
Temple management Central Department of Archaeology and Jain
Mutt
History
According to inscriptions, the most important monument is the
image of Sri Gomateswara installed by Sri Chavundaraya, Minister
of the Ganga king Rachamalla Sathyavakya, in 988 A.D.
A pond by name Kalyani is situated in the middle of the
village with steps on all sides and surrounded by a wall with gates
surmounted by towers. There is a large pillared hall to the north
with an inscription on one of its many pillars stating that the
pond was built by Chikka Deva Rajendra. Gomatesvara Charita of
Anantakavi states that Chikka Deva, who ordered the construction
of the Kalyani at the request of Annayya, his mint-master, died
before its completion. Annayya completed the construction of the
pond during the rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I (1713-1731).
The image of Sri Gomateswara is nude and stands erect, facing
the north. The image is simple, gigantic and majestic. It is about
57 feet high. There is no other monolithic image of this height
in the whole world. In the opinion of Ferguson “Nothing grander
or more imposing exists anywhere out of Egypt and even then there
is no known statue that surpasses its height. The image standing
majestically atop the hill Indragiri, the gigantic statue of Gomateswara
can be seen from a distance of 25 km”.
Festivals
Mahamasthakabhisheka or the head anointing ceremony is a
spectacular festival connected with the image of Gomateswara. It
is celebrated once in 12 years, when the heavenly planets reach a
particular conjunction.
Sacred tank(s)
Kalyani Kulam

The tank is at the foothills of Indragiri. The water from the
Hemavathi canal is let into this pond and the outlet is connected
to a drainage line. The quality of water is very good. A fence has
been put in to prevent devotees entering the pond. The temple
authorities are maintaining this tank and desiltation is carried
out every year.
97
TALAKADU
Temple location The Vaidyanadeeshwara Temple, Talakadu,

is situated 25 kms from Mysore.
Main deity A group of five Shivalingas: Vaidyanadeeshwara,
Arkeshwara, Mallikarjuna, Marudeshwara and
Pathaleswara
Temple management Archaeological Survey of India and Government
of Karnataka
History
The Kirti Narayana temple at Talakadu was built by king
Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala dynasty in 1117 AD.
Mythology
Eashwara dwells in holy Talakadu in the form of the five Lingas.
There is also a holy watering place called Gokarna here. The practice
is to take a dip in Gokarna, worship Vaideeswara, take a dip in
Uttaravahini, worship Arkeshwara, take a dip in Paschimaavahini,
worship Mallikarjuneswara and finally take a dip in Dakshinavahini
and worship Srikanteshwara. If it is not possible to take a dip in
all the four tirthams, one can worship all the five Lingas in the
Vaideeswara temple.
It is believed that when the Sun enters thula rasi, the Ganga
comes from Kasi and joins the Kaveri at Talakadu. Thus it is an
important pilgrim centre.
Festivals
Panchalinga Darshana
At present, except Vaideeswara temple, all the other four temples
are submerged under the sand. It is believed that, on the full moon
day falling on Monday, in the month of Kartigai, when the moon is
in Scorpio, the temples will be freed of the sand cover. This festival
of Panchalinga Darshana is celebrated with pomp in Talakadu.
takes place only in khuha yoga and on the day of the Vishakha star.
This occasion with so many combinations is very rare. Sometimes
there will be a gap of 15 years between consecutive celebrations.
The Panchalinga Darshana took place in 1906, 1908, 1915, 1925,
1938, 1952, 1966, 1979, 1986 and again in 1993.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple Tank

The tank is located behind the Vaideeswara temple. It is in very
good condition and people are allowed to bathe in it. The river
Kaveri flows into this tank. Desiltation was carried out last in 1991.
The water is safe for drinking and free from pollutants.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water contains a slightly higher
level of dissolved solids, 400 mg/l of alkalinity, 450 mg/l of total
hardness, 400 mg/l of chloride and 120 mg/l of sulphate. The pH
of the water is neutral. It does not contain any algae or colour.
Special feature
The ancient city of Talakadu is now buried deep in silt carried in
by the river Kaveri. The Archaeological Survey of India and State
Forest Department have commenced renovation work and aim at
controlling sand accumulation by afforestation around the area.
99
TALAKAVERI
Temple location Talakaveri the birth place of the river Kaveri,

is located at the foot of the Brahmagiri hills
which are a part of the Western Ghats in
Kodagu District of Karnataka state. Talakaveri
is 39 km from Madikeri, the Headquarters
of Kodagu District.
Main deity Kaveri the gaurdian deity of the Kodavas,
the principal inhabitants of Kodagu nadu.
History
Around 14th Century A.D., King Bhodharupa Bhagawar of North
Malabar (in Kerala), through his chief Melpundi Kunniyarasa, who
was ruling this part of Kodagu, gave some important grants to the
temple. A stone inscription in this regard is found in the courtyard
of Sri Bhagandeshwara temple.
According to the available historical records it is known that
Maharaja Veera Rajendra Wodeyar, the king of Kodagu, renovated
the temple in 1785 A.D. after defeating Tippu Sultan, the king of
Mysore.
Mythology
Kaveri is the foster daughter of Sri Kavera Maharishi, obtained
from Lord Brahma after doing severe penance. Sage Agastya
Maharishi married Kaveri at the ashrama. She wanted to serve
humankind in the form of a river. Sage Agastya converted Kaveri
into water and filled her in his kamandala. He went to have his
bath. Since he did not return for a long time, Kaveri jumped
out of the Kamandala and taking the form of a river she flowed
across the land. Kaveri came to Bhagamandala where she was
met and joined by two other rivers called Kanika and Sujyothi.
Thus Triveni Sangama was formed and Bhagamandala became a
‘Sangama Kshetra’.
Festivals
Kaveri Thirthodbhava takes place every year at Talakaveri on Tula
Sankramana day in the month of October. Kaveri incarnated as a
river on Tula Sankramana Muhurtam at Brahmakundi in Talaikaveri.
Therefore, Tula Sankramana day is considered as the sacred birthday
of Kaveri and is popularly known as “Kaveri Sankranti”. The holy
occasion is celebrated as Kaveri Jatra. A grand fair is celebrated for a
period of one month with all religious and traditional rites at Talakaveri
and Bhagamandala. The Kaveri Jatra concludes on the Vrischika
Sankramana day in the middle of November called Kinjatra.
In Tamil Nadu, a festival known as Padinettam Perukku, is
celebrated in the month of Asadhas (July-August) on the banks
of the river.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahmakundi

The tank is the origin of the Kaveri river. The idol of Kaveri is
located on the banks of the tank and water flows beneath the idol.
Devotees bathe and perform rituals on the banks of the tank. The
water quality is good and the water from the outlet is let into the
forest area. Devotees are not allowed to wash their clothes.
Water quality
a very low level of dissolved solids, 80mg/l of alkalinity, 40mg/l
of total hardness and 70mg/l. of chloride. The pH of the water is
neutral. It does not contain any algae or colour.
Special feature
Lakhs of hectares of land in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have been
irrigated by the Kaveri river, the Ganges of the south. Numerous
Talakaveri 101
factories and business concerns function in the states of Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu on account of the perennial water resources of Kaveri.
Kaveri continues her journey from Balamuri and flows across
the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and enters the Bay of
Bengal at Poompukar in Tamil Nadu. The total length of the river
is 760 km.
102
UDIPI
Temple location The Krishna Temple in Udipi with ade-

quate train and bus service is 30 km from
Mangalore
Main deity Krishna
Goddesses Rukmini and Sathyabhama
Temple management The eight Mutts in Udipi manage the
temple on a rotation basis established by
Madhwacharya
History
Kanakadasa, a devotee of Lord Krishna, was a great poet and sang
many bhajans. Lord Krishna changed direction and gave darshan
to him through a window.
Mythology
Sri Madhwacharya was very upset as his guru Achyuta Prajna did
not allow him to go and take a dip in the holy Ganges. He heard
an unseen voice and the Ganges flowed into the temple tank. Even
today it is believed that once in 12 years, the Ganges flows into
this tank which is also called Madhwasarovar.
Festivals
Saptotsava commences 5 days prior to Makara Sankranti and 3
chariots are drawn on the sixth day. Vasanthotsava in Chaitra
(April-May) and Krishna Leelotsava in Sravana (August-September),
Kanaka Jayanthi in November and Laksha deepotsava in Kartika
(November-December) are celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Madhwa Tirtham
Udipi 103

The tank is in the southwest corner outside the temple. It has a
mandapa and Bhagirathi’s idol seated on a crocodile. The idol was
constructed by Sri Raghavendra Swamiji of Puthige Mutt in the
16th Century. The tank is maintained well and the devotees are
allowed to bathe (without using soap). The temple authorities have
installed water-cleaning equipment on the banks of the tank. The
outlet is connected to a drainage line.
Water quality
a very low level of dissolved solids,100mg/l of alkilinity, 120 mg/l
of total hardness and 80mg/l of chloride. The pH of the water is
slightly acidic.
104
UDIPI
Temple location The Kadiyali Mahishamardhini (Durga)

temple is in Udipi with adequate train and
bus service
Main deity Mahishamardhini
Temple management Kadiyali Temple management Trust Sri. K.
Anantarama Upadhyaya, Managing Trustee
History
The temple dates was probably earlier to 7th Century A.D. The
sculptures resemble the architecture of the Chalukyas of Badami.
The area was once a thick forest with a tank in the centre. Many
sages used to perform severe penance on the banks of this tank.
The present well inside the temple near the sanctum sanctorum is
believed to be this tank.
Sacred tank(s)
Padmasarovar

This rainfed temple tank is opposite the temple. Maintenance and
water quality is average and people are only allowed to sprinkle water
on their heads. The priest takes a bath in this tank before performing
pooja. In 1975, desiltation of the tank was carried out.
Part 3
Kerala
107
ADITYAPURAM
Temple location The Sun Temple, Adityapuram, is situated 3 km

away from Muttuchari on the Kaduthuruthy-
Kottayam Road.
Main deity Sun
Temple management Marangattu Manai family
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

Ambala Kulam is located outside the temple. Until a few years ago,
people were bathing in this tank. The outflow is still used for irrigating
paddy fields. The rapid growth of algae in the pond has made the
water unfit for bathing and other purposes. This tank was desilted
five years ago by the temple authorities. At present the water is in a
very bad condition and the people are afraid of bathing in it.
Water quality
The quality of the water is poor. The water contains a very low
level of dissolved solids. It contains algae and therefore the water
is coloured. The pH of the water is slightly acidic. The level of
alkalinity and total hardness are 40 mg/l and 30 mg/l. The level of
chloride is 50 mg/l.
Special feature
This is the only temple to the Sun in Kerala.
108
ALAPUZHA
Temple location The Mullakkal Devi Temple in Alapuzha

town is well connected with other parts of
Kerala by train and bus.
Main deity Mullakkal Devi
Temple management Tiruvananthapuram Devaswom
History
This temple has no roof over the sanctum sanctorum and the deity
is exposed to the sun and rain.
Festivals
The Aaraattu festival of the temple takes place in the month of
October on Vijayadasami day.
The temple is famous for its Chirappu, a 11-day festival starting
from Margasirsa (mid-December).
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

Ambala Kulam is located inside the temple. The water is used for
bathing. Unfortunately, two years back a person drowned while
bathing in it. Since then, the temple authorities have banned the
public from bathing in it. The quality of water is good.
Water quality
of dissolved solids. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are
160 mg/l and 130 mg/l respectively and the level of chloride is
150 mg/l. The pH of the water is neutral.It does not contain algae
and the water is clear.
109
ALAPUZHA
Temple location The Thondankulangara Shiva Temple is

situated in the heart of the busy town of
Alapuzha
Main deity Shiva
Temple management Varriyar Family Trust
Mythology
It is believed that on Prathosham day, Shiva bathes in this tank and
dances on its banks. Hence, the tank is called Thandavakulakarai
as thandavam is another word for ‘dance’.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

Ambala Kulam is located inside the temple. The local people use
the tank for bathing. The tank is fed by rainwater and canal water.
The quality of the water is good. The Aaraattu (ablution of the
deity) ceremony is conducted regularly in this tank in the month
of October. Lily plants are found growing in this tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. It contains a low level of dissolved
solids, but no algae and hence the water is clear. The pH of the
water is neutral. The level of alkalinity is 150 mg/l and total hardness
is 110 mg/l respectively. The level of chloride is 140 mg/l.
110
CHENGANOOR
Temple location The Bhagavathi Ambalam, Chenganoor, is

60 km by bus from Alapuzha and 35 km
from Kottayam by train.
Main deity Bhagavathi Amman
Temple management Travancore Devaswom
History
It is believed that the image of Bhagavathi is actually that of
Kannagi, who came to Chenkunnu in Kerala and did penance under
a tree. Kovalan appeared before her in a vimana and took her to
heaven. Chenguttavan, a Chera king, built a temple for Kannagi.
Thus Chenganoor finds mention in the Silappathikaram.
Mythology
The Sakthikunda Tirtham is outside the temple wall on the north.
It is said that when Parvathi attained puberty, this tank was created
for her purificatory bath. Even now the shrine is closed for three
days every month, and Parvathi is taken on a female elephant to
the river Pamba for bathing. This is called Tiruputtu Aaraattu.
Festivals
The Tiruputtu Aaraattu was perfomed in July 2000. Earlier the temple
used to be closed every month, now it is only occasionally closed.
Sacred tank(s)
Sakthikunda Tirtham
Ganga Tirtham
Present status of the Sacred tanks

Sakthikunda Tirtham
The tank is located on the northern side of the temple. Thirty
years back, the Sakthi Kulam tank was maintained well by the local
Chenganoor 111
people and the outflow from the tank was used for agricultural
purposes. At present, due to encroachments, the water is stagnant
and choked with litter and weeds.
Ganga Tirtham
This tank is located outside the temple on the western side. The tank
is in good condition and the public use the water for bathing.
Water quality
solids, but no algae and hence the water is clear. The pH of the
water is slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity is 60 mg/l, total
hardness is 70 mg/l and chloride is 80 mg/l. The level of total
hardness shows that the water is soft.
112
CHOTTANIKKARA
Temple location The Chottanikkara Bhagavathi Temple

or Rajarajeswari Ambalam is situated at
Chottanikkara and is accessible by bus
from Eranakulam. The nearest railway
station is Tripunithura, which is 7 km from
Chottanikkara.
Main deity Chottanikkara Bhagavathi
Temple management Cochin Devaswom
History
Sri Adi Sankaracharya (756-788 A.D.) visited the Devi temple at
Chottanikkara and perceived the divine presence over a wide area
of land, which he marked by digging four tanks along the four
boundaries of the temple. They are treated as sacred water bodies.
The present system of worship in the temple is based on the rituals
prescribed by Adi Sankara. Villumangalam, a devotee, while bathing
in the eastern tank, found an idol of the Goddess. The idol is now
placed in another temple within the same courtyard and is known
as Kizhukkavu Bhagavathi.
According to inscriptions found in the portico of the temple,
the sanctum sanctorum is 300 years old.
Mythology
Bhagavathi, to save her devotees from a terrible Yakshi, caught her
by the hair, cut off her head and threw it in the southern tank. As
a result the water turned red with blood. Thus, this tank is called
Raththa Kulam (raththa in Malayalam means ‘blood’).
Festivals
The annual festival of the temple takes place for 9 days in the
month of Magha (February-March). On all nine days the Aaraattu
ceremony is conducted in each of the four tanks, unlike in other
temples, where it is performed only on the last day.
Chottanikkara 113
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam
Raththa Kulam

Ambala Kulam
Ambala Kulam tank is located inside the temple. The water is used
exclusively for pooja purposes only. The main source of water is
rainwater and natural springs, and the quality of water is very good.
The annual Aaraattu ceremony is conducted in this tank.
Raththa Kulam
This tank is located half a kilometer from the temple on the
southern side. The quality of water is good and people bathe in
this tank. The outflow is used for watering the fields.
Water quality
Water contains very low level of dissolved solids. It contains algae
and the colour of the water is due to the presence of the algae.
The pH of the water is slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity and
total hardness are 40 mg/l and 30 mg/l respectively. The level of
chloride is 40 mg/l. The level of total hardness shows that the
water is soft and the quality of the water is good.
Special feature
Mentally disturbed women are believed to be benefited by being
present there continuously for four days. On Fridays, it is believed
that people are relieved of evil spirits.
114
ETTUMANUR
Temple location The Shiva Temple is situated at Ettumanur,

11 km to the southeast of Kottayam town.
The temple is close to the bus stand
Main deity Shiva
History
It is noted from an inscription on the base of the central shrine,
that the repair work commenced in the year 1542.
A valiavilakku (a celebrated lamp) of unusual size installed in
1545 A.D. is still in use, burning bright with five wicks.
Mythology
According to legend, Lomaharsha, disciple of Vyasa Maharishi, visited
this temple. While bathing in the temple tank, he slipped and fell
down. The onlookers burst out laughing. The sage grew angry and
cursed the temple saying that it would turn desolate. Hence, only
a thick forest remained in the place for a thousand years.
Festivals
The annual festival at Ettumanur is in the Malayalam month of
Magha (February-March). It lasts for 10 days and the Aaraattu festival
is on the last day corresponding to the Thiruvathira asterism.
Sacred tank(s)
Villu Kulam

This tank is located inside the temple compound. Since the shape of
the tank is like a bow it is called villu (meaning bow) kulam. The
Ettumanur 115
local people bathe in this water. The tank receives water from rain
and was under renovation during my visit. Owing to development
and construction of houses, the width of the outlet from the tank
has reduced considerably.
116
EVOOR
Temple location The Krishna Temple, Evoor, is located near

Haripad.
Main deity Krishna
History
Sri Moolam Tirunal Rama Varma (1885-1924) built this temple
in the 19th Century.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam (Elephant Tank)

This tank is otherwise called Elephant Tank as elephants used
to bathe in this tank in ancient times, and is located on the
eastern side of the temple. The water is in good condition and
the outflow is used for agricultural purposes. People bathe in
this tank. During festivals, the banks of the tank are littered with
garbage and waste.
117
GURUVAYUR
Temple location The Guruvayurappan Temple, Guruvayur,

is one of the most sacred and popular
pilgrim centres in India and lies 31 km
from Thrissur. It is in the heart of the town,
near the bus stand and railway station and
is easily accessible.
Main deity Krishna
Temple management Guruvayur Devaswom
History
There are no inscriptions, but it is said that a Pandya king built
the temple.
One of the most popular offerings is the thulabharam - a
ceremony in which the devotee is weighed against bananas, sugar,
jaggery, coconuts, etc. The weighed item is then gifted to the temple.
The devotees perform annaprasanam - feeding rice to infants for
the first time before the deity.
Mythology
Before leaving the earth for his heavenly abode, Krishna told
Uddhava, his foremost disciple, that he had installed the image
of Vishnu in the temple at Dwaraka and it was to be installed
in another place decided by Guru Brihaspati. When Dwaraka
was submerged, Guru Brihaspati recovered the idol from the sea.
Vayu, the wind, assisted Guru Brihaspati in finding a holy place
for installing the idol. When they reached Kerala, Parashurama
showed a lake full of lotus flowers which belonged to Shiva and
Parvathi. However, they willingly moved to Mammiyoor where a
temple was built later. Guru Brihaspati and Vayu placed the idol
in the temple built by Viswakarma. As Guru and Vayu founded
the temple together, the place came to be called ‘Guruvayupura’
in accordance with Shiva’s wish. Later the name was shortened
to Guruvayur.
Festivals
Guruvayur Ekadasi falling in the month of Kartika (November)
is a very important day and Mandalam festival starting from the
first of Vrichika is celebrated for 41 days.
Sacred tank(s)
Rudra Tirtham

This sacred tank is situated at the northern side of the temple.
Devotees are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes (but not to
use soap). The tank is mainly rain-fed. It is well maintained by
the temple authorities and a treatment plant to clean the water
has been installed.
Water quality
solids. The presence of algae makes the water slightly coloured.
The pH of the water is neutral. The level of alkalinity and total
hardness are 160 mg/l and 140 mg/l respectively and that of
119
HARIPAD
Temple location The Subramanya Swamy Temple, Haripad, is

situated on the Quilon - Alleppey Road and
is very close to the Chenganoor Temple
Main deity Subramanya
History
This temple probably belongs to the 18th Century. In 1921 A.D. the
temple was destroyed in a fire and was rebuilt in the same year.
Kavadiyattam, a dance carrying a kavadi, is the most important
offering here. A kavadi is a bow shaped wooden structure decorated
with tapestry and peacock feathers and carried on the shoulders
as an offering to Subrahmanya.
Festivals
Several annual festivals are celebrated. The Avani Utsavam in Sravana
(August-September), Margazhi Utsavam in Margasirsa (December-
January), Chitra Utsavam in Chaitra (April-May), Kartika in Kartika
(November-December) and Thai Puyam (January -February) are
very important.
The boat festival of the Paipad river is observed as a national
festival in this area.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

The Ambala Kulam (big tank) at Haripad is located outside the
temple. Local people use the water for bathing. The quality of
the water is good. Desiltation of this tank is, however, not carried
out regularly.
Water quality
The water contains slightly higher level of dissolved solids. It does
not contain algae and the water is clear. The pH of the water is
neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 160 mg/l
and 220 mg/l respectively. The level of chloride is 180 mg/l. The
level of total hardness shows that the water is soft. The quality of
the water is good.
121
IRINJALAKUDA
Temple location The Koodalmanikam Temple is situated at

Irinjalakuda, about 22 km south of Thrissur
on the Thrissur – Ernakulam railway line.
Main deity Koodalmanikam (Bharata)
Temple management Koodalmanikam Devaswom
Mythology
The word Irinjalakuda means ‘Land in the middle of two rivers’
as in the ancient days it was located at the confluence or sangam
of the two rivers - Chalakkudi and Kurumali which have since
changed their course.
There was a period of adversity. Nature was hostile, drought,
excess rain, raging wind and bad weather were the order of
the day. Sage Kulpini along with his saintly friends reached this
spot. They performed many yagnas here (3 different ‘homakundams’,
the holy hearth where ghee, grains, etc. are burnt to please God,
can be seen here). During the culmination of the yagna, Yagnadeva
(the god of sacrifice) appeared before the sages from the middle
homakundam.
He was ready to grant them any boon as he was pleased with
them. The sages pleaded for his permanent presence and blessing
by taking up abode there. On his command the holy rivers Ganga,
Yamuna and Saraswathi filled the homakundam and became a lake.
The Sages performed avabhrita snanam (holy bath for salvation).
This lake came to be known as Kulpini Tirtham.
Festivals
The Aaraattu festival (on the final day of the annual festival) is
held for 11 days from Uttiram to Tiruvonam asterisms in Chaitra
(April-May). The festival takes place on the banks of the Chalakkudi
river and the Kurumali river on alternate years, thereby indicating
the previous connection of the deity with these rivers.
Sacred tank(s)
Kulpini Tirtham
Kuttan Kulam

Kulpini Tirtham
This sacred tank is located on the northern side of the temple. The
water is used only for pooja purposes and not even the priest is
allowed to bathe in it. As the tank receives water from rain and
natural springs, the quality of the tank water is always very good.
Eight years back the temple authorities renovated this tank. Though
this tank contains plenty of fish, which are held to be sacred, there
are no creatures like water snakes, frogs, etc. that are commonly
found in most tanks. This water has medicinal value.
Kulpini tirtham is abundant with fish, which are held to be sacred.
Meenuttu or feeding the fish is a ritual believed to confer special
merit. Meenuttu is regarded to be a cure for lung ailments.
Kuttan Kulam
This sacred tank is situated in front of the main temple. It is
surrounded by houses on two sides and by a metal road on the
other two sides. It is in very bad condition. The flow of water has
stopped due to continuous alterations to the inlet/outlet tank over
the past twenty years. It has led to stagnation of water, covered
by salvinia weed.
Water quality
The water contains a low level of dissolved solids. It contains algae
and the colour of the water is due to the presence of algae. The pH
of the water is neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness
are 50 mg/l and 60 mg/l respectively. The level of chloride is 60
mg/l. The level of total hardness shows that the water is soft. The
quality of the water is good.
Irinjalakuda 123
Special features
There are certain distinctive features about the Koodalmanikam
temple. It is the only temple dedicated to Bharata (Rama’s younger
brother) in the whole of India. Even today, it is believed that Hanuman
lives in the temple kitchen. Brinjal naivedyam is another important
offering made to Bharata. It is considered to be a prime medicine
to cure stomach ailments.
124
KADUTHURUTHY
Temple location The Shiva Ambalam, Kaduthuruthy, is located

between Vaikom and Ettumanur.
Main deity Shiva
Sacred tank(s)
Thali Kulam

The tank is located outside the temple on the southern side. The
public uses this water for bathing and washing. The Devaswom
pumps the tank water to the toilets. The excess water is connected
to the nearby canal. The tank is fairly well maintained. Desiltation
has not been carried out for the past five years.
Water quality
The quality of the water is poor. The water is clear as it contains
a low level of dissolved solids and no algae. The pH of the water
is slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 40
mg/l and 30 mg/l respectively and that of chloride is 40 mg/l. The
125
KODUNGALLUR
Temple location The Kannagi Temple, Kodungallur, is 40

km southwest of Thrissur in central Kerala.
Situated at the junction of the Kodungala river
and the Arabian sea, it is almost an island
bounded by the Arabian sea in the west, by
the river mouth of Chettuvai and Azhikode
on the north and south respectively.
Main deity Bhagavathi (Kannagi)
Temple management Cochin Devaswom and Kotta Kovilkam
family
History
Kodungallur is of great historical importance having been the seat
of the Chera Kings. It was a great seaport and visited by Romans,
Greeks, Chinese and Arab traders. The Tamil classic Silappadhikaram
mentions the installation of an idol of Kannagi, the heroine of
the classic, at the capital Vanji (Kodungallur). The Chera king,
Chenguttavan, believed that she was an incarnation of Durga. The
period of this installation is believed to be during 113–125 A.D.
Mythology
It is believed that the pond was formed in the hollow created where
Bhagavathi picked up a handful of soil. Ganesha’s idol is placed in
the middle of the pond.
The uniqueness of this temple is the small secret chamber which
is covered on all sides. No one is allowed to enter the chamber.
People are afraid of entering the chamber and it is also believed
that Adi Sankara installed the Mahameru Sree Chakra inside the
secret chamber.
Festivals
The month-long Bharani festival begins on the Bharani asterism
of the month of Magha (February-March). It is the one temple in
Kerala where low caste Hindus were allowed entry to the festival, long
before the temple entry legislation became effective in Kerala.
Sacred tank(s)
Vatta Kulam

This sacred tank is located on the northern side of the temple.
The public use the water for bathing. There is no inlet or outlet
to this tank which receives water from rain. Lily plants are seen
growing in it. The condition of the water is average. The temple
authorities clean the tank every year.
Previously, the Primary Heath Centre dumped their hospital wastes
on the banks of the tank. The local people took necessary steps to
prevent such illegal dumping with the help of local NGOs.
Water quality
Water contains low level of dissolved solids. It contains algae and
the colour of the water is due to the presence of algae. The pH
of the water is neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness
are 70 mg/l and 80 mg/l respectively. The level of chloride is 80
mg/l. The level of total hardness shows that the water is soft. The
quality of the water is poor.
127
KOTTAYAM
Temple location The Tirunakkara Mahadeva Temple is a famous

Shiva temple situated on the Tirunakkara
hill, in the heart of Kottayam Town. It is
connected by rail and road with major cities
in South India.
Main deity Mahadeva
Temple management Travancore Devaswom and Temple management
Local Committee
History
The Royal family of Thekkumkur built this temple in the 15th
Century.
This temple has fine wood carvings of artistic excellence. There
are several paintings over the outer walls of the temple.
Festivals
The grandest annual festival here is the Aaraattu Utsavam lasting
for 10 days from 1st to 10th of Phalguna (March). Lakhs of people
visit the temple during this festival which offers many cultural
programmes and entertainment. Many devotees visit this temple
on their way to Sabarimala.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

This tank is located away from the temple site. Locally this tank is
called Thirunakkarachiru. The public and Sabrimala pilgrims use
the water for bathing. As the tank receives water from rain and
natural springs, the quality of the water is very good. The local
municipal authorities desilt the tank every year.
The local people feel that the tank gets polluted mainly between
November and mid-January by Sabarimala devotees who drop plastic
covers, oil bottles, shampoo sachets, etc. into the tank.
Water quality
of dissolved solids and more algae. Hence the water is coloured.
The pH of the water is slightly acidic, the level of alkalinity and
total hardness are 70 mg/l and 40 mg/l and the level of chloride
is 80 mg/l.
129
KUMARANALLUR
Temple location The Subrahmanya and Parvathi Devi Temples,

Kumaranallur, is near Kottayam.
Main deity Subramanya and Parvathi Devi
Temple management Madurai Namboothiri Family Trust
History
The Pandya king Cheraman Perumal built this temple.
This temple resembles the Madurai Meenakshi temple. The image
of Devi is made of anjalakal - antimony sulphate - rather than
stone as in other temples.
Festivals
The temple celebrates Tirukarthika festival in the month of Kartika
(November-December). On this day, it is believed that the Devi
took her Karthika bath and performed several rituals on the banks
of this tank (Ambala Kulam) with great devotion.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam
Kunnattu Kulam

Ambala Kulam
The Ambala Kulam tank is located in front of the temple. People
use this water for bathing. As the tank is fed by rainwater, the
quality of the water is very good. The temple authorities desilt the
tank regularly.
Kunnattu Kulam
This tank is situated on the southern side in the residential area.
Since the water is polluted, the local people do not bathe in the
tank. Trees and shrubs cover the tank bunds leading to water
stagnation, and the tank is filled with leaves, branches and uprooted
trees. The water channels are closed due to encroachments. Owing
to mismanagement by the temple authorities and the public, the
sacred tank is in a bad condition.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good in the Ambala Kulam. The water
is clear as it contains a low level of dissolved solids and no algae.
The pH of the water is slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity and
total hardness are 30 mg/l and 30 mg/l respectively and that of
chloride is 50 mg/l. The level of total hardness shows that the
water is soft.
131
MANNARSALA
Temple location The Nagarajan Temple (temple for serpents),

Mannarsala, has a snake shrine called
Sarpakavu. It is a small beautiful village
about 3 km to the northwest of the famous
Sree Subrahmanya temple at Haripad.
Main deity Nagarajan (snake king)
Temple management Nambiathy Family Trust
History
The temple is situated in the midst of a sacred grove of 16 acres.
Nobody is allowed to enter the underground shrine for the Snake
King, except the old priestess.
Mythology
A unique offering of an uruli, a small bell metal vessel, is made
here by childless couples, in order to be blessed with children.
Festivals
The annual Utsavam at this temple is celebrated in Asvini (October-
November).
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam (inside the temple)
Ambala Kulam (outside the temple)

The Ambala Kulam inside is located on the western side of the
temple. The priestess - the eldest female of the family, vowed to
chastity - has a bath in the tank and uses the water for pooja
purposes only. The public are not allowed to see or use the tank
water. The local people use the tank located outside the temple on
the eastern side of the temple for bathing.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. It is clear as it contains a low level
of dissolved solids and no algae. The pH of the water is neutral.
mg/l respectively while that of chloride is 140 mg/l.
133
PANACHIKADU
Temple location The Saraswathi Temple, Panachikadu, is 12

km southeast of Kottayam town. Buses are
available upto Alliyalakuzhi, from where the
temple is 6 km distant.
Main deity Saraswathi
Temple management Kizhupuram family is managing this temple
History
For the past 600 years, Kizhupuram family priests are maintaining
the temple and performing pooja in this temple. Presently Sri
Damodharan Namboodiri is performing the pooja.
Mythology
The Kizhupuram family priest used to visit Devi Mookambika
temple at Kollur, Karnataka. When he became old, he was very
worried that he could not go to Kollur again. He left his umbrella
and went to have a dip in the nearby tank. On returning he found
that his umbrella could not be removed. As instructed in a dream,
he brought an idol of Mookambika from the neighouring forest
and kept it in the same place. A temple was later built over it.
Festivals
Navarathari and Vijayadhasami festivals are celebrated every year.
This is the only temple dedicated to Goddess Saraswati in Kerala.
Sacred tank(s)
Kulam
Ambala Kulam

The main deity of the temple is in a well inside the temple and
this water is connected to the sacred tanks, one within the temple
and one outside the temple. The tank within the temple is used
for pooja purposes only and the public are allowed to bathe and
wash their clothes in the tank outside the temple. The outflow is
let out to the paddy fields. The water is good and the tanks are
maintained properly.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good.The water is clear as it contains a
low level of dissolved solids and no algae. The pH of the water is
slightly acidic. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 50 mg/l
and 30 mg/l respectively, while that of of chloride is 60 mg/l.
135
RAMAPURAM
Temple location The Ramaswami Temple is situated at

Ramapuram near Palai, located about 40 km
from Kottayam in Kottayam district and is
well connected by bus.
Main deity Rama
Temple management Temple Trust of 3 families on rotation, viz.
Amanakara, Kunnour and Karanattu Mana.
Mythology
The temple has been built at the place where Rama rested on his
way to Sri Lanka.
Festivals
The Aaraattu festival is observed in the month of April for 8 days.
Sacred tank(s)
Ambala Kulam

This sacred tank is located on the northern side of the temple. The
water is used for bathing. The tank is rain fed and the water is very
good. The temple tank was renovated 20 years back. The overflow
from the tank is used by the farmers for agricultural purposes.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water is clear as it contains
is neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 40 mg/l
and 30 mg/l respectively while that of chloride is 60 mg/l. The
136
SABARIMALA
Temple location The Ayyappan Temple, Sabarimala, is situated

at a distance of 150 km from Kottayam. The
temple is built on top of the Sabari Hills
which is part of the Western Ghats. Pilgrims
reach Pampa by bus or car and walk barefoot
for a distance of 40 km
Main deity Ayyappan
Temple management Sabarimala Devaswom
Festivals
The pilgrims have to follow several restrictions or vrata for 41 days
before embarking on their pilgrimage to Sabarimala.
The eighteen steps (pathinettampadi) leading to the sanctum
sanctorum are very important and those who have observed vrata
for 41 days and carry an irumudi are permitted to climb these
steps. The temple doors and Sabarimala are open to all irrespective
of caste, religion and social status.
Sacred tank(s)
Bhasma Kulam

This tank is located a little away from the temple and the source of
water is the Pamba river and small waterfalls. The quality of water
is good. The devotees bathe in this tank which is being maintained
well by the Devaswom. The old tank was closed in order to increase
the plinth area and the Devaswom has constructed a new tank.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good.The water is clear as it contains
Sabarimala 137

and 70 mg/l respectively while that of chloride is 70 mg/l. The
138
THRISSUR
Temple location The Vadakkunnathan Temple is on a beautiful

hillock at the centre of Thrissur. Thrissur is
an important railway junction of the Southern
Railway. It is connected by road with all the
major towns in South India. The nearest
airport is at Kochi, 80 km from here.
Main deity Vadakkunnathan
Temple management Cochin Devaswom and Yogathiri family
History
Adi Sankaracharya (778-820) visited this temple and installed a
Mutt.
Ghee from cow’s milk is used for abhisheka of Vadakkunatha.
The Lingam is not visible as it is covered with a thick layer of
ghee. In Ayurveda, old ghee is associated with medicinal value.
Hence the ghee coating on the Lingam is used by Vaidyas as a
cure for many diseases.
Mythology
A deep well is in the middle of the sacred tank and it is believed
that bathing in this pond has as much sanctity as bathing in the
Holy Ganga.
Festivals
There are no annual utsavams or other celebrations here except
Shivarathri.
Sacred tank(s)
Padinjare Chira
Thrissur 139

This tank is located some distance away from the temple. The
Bramaswami Mutt established by Sri Adi Sankaracharya maintains
the tank, and the public use this water for bathing. The main water
source for this tank is rainwater and small springs. The quality of
the water is good. There are encroachments blocking the inlet. A
deep well is found in the middle of the tank. The excess water flows
into the drainage canal constructed by the township authorities.
Two years ago the Mutt carried out desiltation work.
Water quality
and 80 mg/l respectively and that of chloride is 50 mg/l. The level
of total hardness shows that the water is soft.
140
TIRUVALLA
Temple location The Vallabha Temple, Tiruvalla, lies 15 km

from Chengannur, the famous temple town
of Kerala, accessible by bus.
Main deity Vallabha (Vishnu)
Goddess Vatsalya Valli
Temple management Tiruvalla Devaswom
Sacred tank(s)
Jalavanthi (Ghantakarna Tirtha)
Puthen Kulam
Mythology
Within the space of a single night a new tank called Puthen Kulam
was dug in the 17th Century by the Diwan of King Marthanda
Varma, as the king was not allowed to bathe in the Ghantakarna
Tirtha situated inside the temple.
Vibuthi is given as prasada only in the Sri Sudharsana
Chakrathalwar shrine of the Vallabha temple. However, the priests
are prohibited from applying it on their forehead.

Jalavanthi
The sacred tank is located within the temple on the northern side
where the priests bathe and fetch water for the pooja. The water
is of good quality.
Puthen Kulam
The tank is away from the temple on the eastern side and is used
by the public for bathing. Until five years back the outflow was
diverted to the paddy field and this has since been blocked due
to construction of houses.
Tiruvalla 141
Water quality
The quality of the water is good.The water is clear as it contains
and 180 mg/l respectively while that of chloride is 140 mg/l.
142
TIRUVANANTHAPURAM
Temple location The Padmanabha Temple is in Tiruvanan-

thapuram, the busy capital of Kerala state. It
is built on seven low coastal hills and faces
the sea coast washed by the waves of the
Arabian sea. The temple is located near the
bus stand at East Fort.
Main deity Padmanabha (Vishnu)
History
The historical evidence dates back to 1729 A.D. the reign of Maharaja
Marthanda Varma. This place is mentioned in Nammalwar’s
poems which means that this temple probably belongs to the 10th
Century.
The Kulasekhara Mandapa, in particular, is a storehouse of
some of the best pieces of sculpture and contains representations
of various deities.
Festivals
There are two main annual utsavams in the months of Phalguna
(March-April) and Bhadra (September-October). Both extend
over 10 days. On the 10th day of the Aaraattu, the deities are
ritually bathed in the sea (Arabian Sea) after performing the
appropriate poojas. A procession escorts the purified images back
to the temple.
On Laksha Deepam, the festival of a hundred - thousand lights
on the auspicious day of Makara Sankranti (mid January), a myriad
lamps light up the entire gopuram and temple tank presenting a
spectacular appearance.
Sacred tank(s)
Padmanabha Tirtham
Tiruvananthapuram 143

The main source of water is the adjacent canal from a nearby
river. This tank is located outside the temple. People are allowed
to bathe and wash their clothes in it. The water is good and the
authorities are maintaining it properly. Twenty years ago, this tank
was connected to another tank on the western side. Due to the
construction of buildings, the tank has been completely closed.
Water quality
and 120 mg/l respectively and that of chloride is 140 mg/l.
144
TIRUVANANTHAPURAM
Temple location The Varahamurthy Temple is located

1 km south of the Padmanabha Temple at
Tiruvananthapuram.
Main deity Lakshmi Varaha Murthy
Sacred tank(s)
Varaha Ambala Kulam
Present Status of the sacred tank

This tank is situated outside the temple. The inlet is completely
blocked by buildings and the outlet is connected to a canal leading
to the river. People are allowed to bathe in this temple and the
quality of water is fair. The major pollutants are algae, weeds,
plastics, etc. The desiltation work was carried out five years ago
by the temple authorities.
Water quality
The quality of the water is poor. The water is clear as it contains
a low level of dissolved solids and no algae.The pH of the water
and 100 mg/l respectively and that of chloride is 140 mg/l.
145
VAIKOM
Temple location The Vaikathappan Temple is situated in

Vaikom, 33 km south of Ernakulam and 40
km northwest of Kottayam. It can be reached
by bus or rail.
Main deity Vaikathappan (Annadana Prabhu)
History
Sri. K.V. Soundara Rajan reveals that the temple at Vaikom is datable
to the 11th or 12th Century. The Vaikom Temple Entry Movement
(1924–25) brought about a social revolution in Kerala.
Mythology
Ganga Prapatha Tirtham
Parasurama came to worship Shiva and found that the people and
animals were suffering because of lack of water. He praised the Lord
and told him of their sorrows. The Lord appeared in front of him
and asked what boon he wanted. Parasurama asked for the grant of a
tirtham which the devotees could drink, bathe in and offer tharpanam
to their ancestors. The Lord made a tirtham appear there by allowing
Ganga, wound in his matted hair, to come down. At once Devas,
Kinnaras and Gandharvas came and touched the holy pond. This is
believed to be the pond we see on the northern side of the temple.
It is duly called ‘Ganga Prapatha Tirtham’ or ‘Valiyachira’.
Shivananda Tirtham
Once Maharishi Nidagha came to Vyaghrapada Maharishi. He
begged the Maharishi to accept him as a disciple. Vyaghrapada
Maharishi taught him Shaiva Manthra Vidya and Upasana Yoga
and blessed him by saying that all success and mukti could be
achieved by chanting Shiva bhajans. Nidagha performed Sivopasana
with much devotion.
Pleased with their devotion, the Lord of Kailas appeared in the

northeast corner and performed Ananda Thandava. At that time a
few drops of water fell down from His matted hair. Shiva blessed
it and named it ‘Shivananda Tirtha’. Vyaghrapada Maharishi and
Nidagha Maharishi took the water and sprinkled it on their bodies
and also drank it.
This tirtham in the northeastern corner has now become a well
and its water is used only for poojas in the temple.
Arathihara Tirtham
Shankara and Mukunda, two learned young Brahmins, from
Kanyakumari, well versed in the sastras, reached Vaikom on their way
to Kashi. While enjoying the bhajans and meals of Vaikkathappan,
Mukunda left for Kasi without Shankara. The thought of being
unable to bathe in the Ganga and separation from Mukunda made
Shankara heart-broken and soon he was afflicted by severe fever.
One day he was in a deep sleep after a sincere prayer to Shiva
when, in a dream, the Lord asked him to bathe in the eastern
pond, assuring him of the fulfillment of his desires. As per the
order, Shankara rose early in the morning and bathed in the pond,
reciting mantras. Shankara was joyous to note that he was really in
the Ganga Tirtha when he rose from the pond. He praised Shiva.
At the same moment Vyaghrapada Maharishi arrived there and
assured him that his friend would return in eighteen months and
would take him back to attain Shiva Sayujya. The same tirtha in
the east is known as Arathihara Tirtha or Aarthi Vinasana Tirtha. It
is believed that bathing and offering tharpanam here is equivalent
to performing the same in the Ganga.
Festivals
The annual festival of the temple and the most important event of
the year is Ashtami in the month of Kartika (November-December).
It is a 13-day festival when the Aaraattu the holy bath for the deity,
takes place on the 13th Koodi Pooja in the Aaraattu Kulam. In this
function, the Lord of Udayanapuram (Subramanya, son of Shiva)
comes to Vaikom. After the Aaraattu a pooja takes place for both
Vaikom 147
father and son in the sanctum. This ritual is again unique and not
seen in any other temple in Kerala.
Sacred tank(s)
Ganga Prapatha Tirtham
Shivananda Tirtham
Arathihara Tank

Ganga Prapatha Tirtha
The local people use the water for bathing. Namboothiris have
been allotted an exclusive bathing area, where others are not
allowed to bathe. Thirty years back this tank was connected to the
Vembanadu Lake and was later closed due to the development of
Vaikom town.
Shivananda Tirtham
This tank is situated in the northeast corner of the temple. But at
present it has shrunk to the size of a well and the water is being
used exclusively for pooja in the temple.
Water quality
a low level of dissolved solids and no algae.The pH of the water
and 90 mg/l and that of chloride is 90 mg/l.
148
VARKALA
Temple location The Janardana Temple, Varkala, lies about 2

km west of Varkala railway station on the
Tiruvananthapuram - Quilon line.
Main deity Janardana (Vishnu)
Mythology
Krishna is said to have brought the holy Ganga here with the help
of the ‘sudarasana chakra’. The water is now known as Chakra
Tirtham and is used for the temple.
This tirtham became famous on account of many miracles like
curing of diseases,etc.
Festivals
The annual Aaraattu festival is a ten-day event commencing with
the kodiyettam or flag-hoisting ceremony on Kartika day and ending
with Aaraattu on Uttiram day in Phalguna (March-April).
Sacred tank(s)
Chakra Tirtham

This tank is situated outside the temple. The water source is the foot
of the main deity in the temple. People are allowed to bathe in the
temple tank. The outflow is let into the Arabian Sea through irrigation
canals. The water is good and desiltation was carried out 6 years ago.
The main pollutant is detergent, used for washing clothes.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. The water is clear as it contains a
low level of dissolved solids and no algae. The pH of the water is
Varkala 149
neutral. The level of alkalinity and total hardness are 80 mg/l and
70 mg/l respectively and that of chloride is 100 mg/l. The level of
total hardness shows that the water is soft.
Special features
Varkala is also famous for the Papanasam holy spring, a health
resort. Sree Narayana Guru, the great social reformer, built the
Sarada Mutt at Sivagiri, which attracts innumerable devotees.
Part 4
Pondicherry
Pondicherry Map
153
TIRUNALLAR
Temple location The Saneeswarar Temple, Tirunallar, is at

a distance of 5 km from Karaikal by bus.
It is also on the Kumbakonam-Mayavaram
train route.
Main deity Dharparanyeswarar and Saneeswarar
Goddess Parameswari
Temple management Government of Tamilnadu
History
As per inscriptions found in the temple, King Ninraseer Nedumara
Pandiyan had renovated the temple and tank during the 7th
Century.
Mythology
The Brahma Tirtham was created by Brahma for the holy bath of
Shiva. It is believed that if the water turns red at any time, it is a
premonition of a calamity. Devotees have to arrange special prayers to
appease the Lord, when the water would become normal again.
Saraswathi Tirtham
It is believed that even a dumb person can recite poetry after
bathing for a mandalam (48 days) in this tank.
Nala Tirtham
Shiva brought the Ganges here for the sake of King Nala who after
bathing in this tank was cured of his depression and released from
Saneeswaran’s curse.
Festivals
Sani Peyarchi (transition of Saturn to other planetary positions
of the zodiac) once in 2½ years and an 18-day festival in Vaigasi
(May-June) with flag hoisting on Uthirattadhi asterism and Visaka

Tirtham day are very important festivals here.
Sacred tank(s)
Nala Tirtham
Brahma Tirtham
Saraswathi Tirtham
Vaaniya Tirtham

Brahma Tirtham
It is situated on the eastern side of the temple. Water from Noolaru
river accumulates in this tank and the water from the outlet goes to
the agricultural fields. The water quality is average. Many shops have
sprung up on the banks of the tank. People bathe in this tank.
Saraswathi Tirtham or Vani Tirtham

This tank is adjacent to the temple and gets water from Noolaru
river canal. The water is in very good condition and the outlet is
connected to a drainage line. People bathe in the tank.
Nala Tirtham
This tank is outside the temple at a distance of 1 km. It also receives
water through the Noolaru river canal. People are permitted to
bathe in the tank but not wash their clothes. However, the water
is polluted as they anoint themselves with oil before bathing, drop
the shampoo sachets and also leave behind the clothes they were
wearing to rid themselves of Sani Dosham [the influence of Sani
(Saturn)]. Fish breeding is practiced in the tank.
Vaaniya Kulam
This tank is outside the temple at a distance of ½ km. Fish breeding
is practiced in the tank and is the main source of income for the
Tirunallar 155
temple. Water comes from the Noolaru river canal and water from
the outlet is let into the agricultural fields.
Water quality
It contains more algae and showed little eutrophication. The water
contains a high level of dissolved solids. The pH of the water is
neutral and it contains 470 mg/l of alkalinity. The dissolved oxygen
level is low and that of ammonia is high.
Part 6
Tamilnadu
160
ANNAMALAI NAGAR (TIRUVATKALAM)
Temple location The Pasupathanathar Temple, Annamalai

Nagar, is near Chidambaram Town and is
44 km from Cuddalore. It is also accessible
by rail or road from any part of the state.
Main deity Pasupathanathar
Goddess Nalla Nayaki or Sargunambal
Temple management Nagarathar Family Trust and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
This temple probably earlier to the 17th Century A.D., Inscriptions
of Nayaka period (16th Century A.D.) are found in this temple.
Festivals
Vaikasi Visakam commemorating the divine birth of Muruga is
celebrated in the month of Vaisakha (May-June).
Sacred tank(s)
Kirupa Tirtham

The tank is opposite the temple and is used by the public for
washing clothes. They do not bathe in this tank. Thirty years back,
inlet and outlet channels were in good condition. At present, they
are obstructed and the water is stagnant. Owing to encroachments
(houses on the banks of the tank) the tank is in a bad condition.
Hence the float festival is not celebrated in the temple because of
the water quality.
Special feature
This temple and tank are located in the Annamalai University
campus.
161
AVINASI
Temple location The Lingeswara Temple, Avinasi, is at a

distance of 43 km from Coimbatore.
Main deity Lingeswara
Goddess Perumkarunai Nayaki
History
This temple is very old, probably built by early Cholas. Inscriptions
reveal that the Cholas, Pandyas and the Hoysalas have made
extensive endowments.
Mythology
Saint Sundarar used his divine powers to give life to a child swallowed
by a crocodile in the Thamarai Kulam near the temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple and is protected by an iron fence.
It dries up in the summer months as both inlet and outlet are
obstructed by buildings.
162
CHENNIMALAI
Temple location The Subramanyaswami Temple, Chennimalai,

is on a hill, about 420 metres above sea level.
It is between Salem and Virudhachalam on
the rail route.
Main deity Chennimalainathan
Goddessess Valli and Deivayanai
History
This temple was probably built in the 12th Century A.D.
Festivals
On Thai Poosam day (January-February), a float festival is
celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Subramanya Swamy Tank
Thirumanjana Tirtham
Mamanga Tirtham

Subramanya Swamy Tank
The tank is at the foot of the hill and water from the hillock
drains into it. The outflow is let out into the agricultural field. The
temple authorities also use the tank water for gardening. The tank
is maintained well and is fenced. Devotees are not allowed to use
the water for any purpose. The quality of the water is good.
Thirumanjana Tirtham
This tank is outside the temple at the foot of the hills and the
water is used only for pooja purposes. The water quality is good.
Chennimalai 163
Mamanga Tirtham
This tank is away from the main temple and is at the foot of the
hill. It is believed that the water overflows once in twelve years.
Hence, it is called Mamanga Tirtham and this incident last occurred
in 1994. The water quality is very good.
164
CHIDAMBARAM
Temple location The Natarajar Temple, Chidambaram, is

mid-way between Chennai and Tiruchira-
palli and is connected by bus and train.
Main deity Nataraja
Goddess Sivagamasundari
Temple management Deekshithar Community of Chidambaram
History
Epigraphic records show that Parantaka Chola (907–951 A.D.)
renovated the Chit Sabha in this temple and Kulothunga III
(1178–1216 A.D.) had built the gopuram of the temple.
Mythology
Chidambaram is a very important centre for Hindus. It is said that
Nataraja danced and blessed his devotees Patanjali and Vyagrapada
here. The five steps leading to the hall signify the five sacred letters
of Panchakshara Mantram. In ancient days, Simhavarma of North
India bathed in the tank within the temple and found that he had
a golden appearance. Hence, he was known as Hiranyavarma or
the gold-armoured. It is also said that the gold recovered from a
well near the Chit Sabha (dancing hall) was utilised for covering
the roof of the temple.
Festivals
Thiruvathirai Thiruvizha in the month of Margasira (December-
January), Ani Uthiram (June-July), Shivarathri and Magha Magam
in the month of Magha (February-March), Tamil New Year and
the annual Theppam festival in the month of Chaitra (April-May)
are the main festivals celebrated in this temple.
Chidambaram 165
Sacred tank(s)
Sivaganga Tirtham

The sacred tank is inside the temple opposite to the shrine of
Sivagamasundari. People are allowed to bathe in the tank which
is maintained well. There are 10 wells inside the tank. The tank
is linked to the Brahma Tirtham in Tirukalancheri (northwest of
Chidambaram temple).
Water quality
of dissolved solids and 2.76 mg/l of ammonia. The colour of the
water seems to be green due to the presence of algae. The water is
neutral and the level of dissolved oxygen is 6.40 mg/l. The level of
alkalinity and total hardness are 40 mg/l and 40 mg/l respectively
and that of chloride is 40 mg/l.
166
GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM
Temple location The Peri Udayar Kovil, Gangaikonda Cholis-

varam, is 10 km east of the village. The easiest
approach is by bus from Kumbakonam which
is at a distance of 30 km.
Main deity Shiva
Temple management Government of Tamilnadu and Archaeological
Survey of India
History
Rajendra Chola (1012–1044 A.D.) built this temple to commemorate
his victory in the north, which earned him the title “Gangaikonda
Cholan”. He also brought water from the Ganges and poured it
in a well. He built this big temple around the well and named it
Gangaikonda Cholisvaram.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is located opposite the temple. People use the water
for bathing and washing clothes. Water from the Ponneri river
is diverted to the tank and the outflow is led into a small canal
called Karuvaattu Odai. The quality of water is very poor and the
tank is also not maintained properly. A number of huts have been
erected on the banks.
Special features
The well has the figure of a lion carved at the top, it is called
the ‘well of the lion’ or Singakeni. Such wells can be seen in
Tiruvidaimarudur and Virinchipuram.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram 167
The main deity, a monolithic Linga, is 16 ft tall. The vimana of

the temple is similar to that of the Tanjavur Brihadeeswara temple,
rising upto 180 ft. This ten tiered tower is so constructed that the
shadow of the topmost tier falls within the base of the tower.
There is a famous monolithic stone carving of the Chariot of
the Sun. It is drawn by seven horses with Aruna as the charioteer,
Surya (sun god) seated in padmasana posture in the centre, and
the remaining eight planets stationed in a circle.
168
HOSUR
Temple location The Chandra Choodeswarar Temple is in

Hosur town on top of a hillock. It lies 330
km from Chennai and 40 km from Bangalore
and can be reached by road.
Main deity Chandra Choodeswarar
Goddess Maragathamman
Temple management Government of Tamil Nadu
History
This temple probably belongs to the 13th Century A.D.
Mythology
The tank was created by Vishnu to quench the thirst of his sister
Maragathamman and is hence called Maragatha Tirtham.
Festivals
The annual float festival is held in the month of Phalguna (March
-April).
Sacred tank(s)
Maragatha Tirtham
Temple tank

Maragatha tirtham
The tank is at the foot of the hill. Water from a nearby yeri (lake)
is let into this tank. People are allowed to bathe and wash their
clothes in the tank. The main pollutant is garbage dumped by
residents living around the tank. The water quality is average.
Hosur 169
Temple tank
This tank is near the temple. Rainwater accumulates in the tank
and people are allowed to bathe in it. The temple authorities
renovated the tank recently.
170
KAALAIYAR KOIL
Temple location The Kaleeswarar Temple, Kaalaiyar Koil, is at

a distance of 30 km from Sivaganga. The old
name of this village is Tirukkanapperyiyal.
Main deity Kaleeswarar
Goddess Kaleeswara Swarnavalli
History
This temple was built by Maravarma Sundra Pandian in the 7th
Century A.D.
Mythology
It is believed that Indra’s elephant Iravatham took a dip in the
Gaja Pushkarini and worshipped the Lord to get rid of Nandi’s
curse. (gaja in Sanskrit means ‘elephant’).
Sacred tank(s)
Gaja Pushkarini
Gowri Tirtham
Sivaganga Kali Tirtham

Gaja Pushkarini
It is situated outside the temple and resembles the Madurai Vandiyur
Theppa Kulam. Devotees are allowed to bathe in the tank which
is maintained well. A canal supplies this tank and the outflow or
excess is supplied to three other tanks that are nearby.
Gowri Tirtham
Kaalaiyar Koil 171
This is within the temple premises. Since the water is stagnant,

nobody uses it.
Sivaganga Kali Tirtham

It is quite far from the temple and is located near the burial
ground of the Marudhupandiyar brothers (warriors of Sivaganga).
The tank and the water are in good condition and the water from
the outlet is let into the agricultural fields. People are allowed to
bathe in this tank. There are two wells inside the tank.
172
KUDAVASAL
Temple location The Koneswarar Temple at Kudavasal is near

Mayavaram
Main deity Koneswarar
History
Kochenga Cholan built this temple in the Sangam period.
Festivals
A grand festival is celebrated in the month of Masi (February-
March) every year.
Sacred tank(s)
Amirtha Pushkarini

The tank is just opposite the temple. Water from a nearby canal
accumulates in this tank. The outlet which is connected to a
drainage line is obstructed by buildings. Earlier, the overflow was
led into Karungulam. The water quality is average and fish breeding
is practiced. Under the Tourism Developement Scheme, desiltation
of the tank was carried out in 1999.
173
KUMBAKONAM
Temple location The Kumbeswarar Temple at Kumbakonam

is near Mayavaram
Main deity Kumbeswarar
Goddess Mangalambigai
Temple management Tiruvavaduthurai Adheenam and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
According to inscriptions, the Nayakars renovated the tank in the
16th Century.
Mythology
Shiva broke the sacred pot in which amirtham was kept by Brahma,
and it collected in a tank called Mahamaga Kulam. It is believed
that the Ganga and other holy rivers come to Mahamaga Kulam
once in twelve years, at which time it is very sacred to take a dip
in this tank.
Festivals
The Mahamagam festival in the month of Magha (February-March)
is celebrated once in 12 years, when lakhs of people gather to take a
holy dip in this tank. The last Mahamagam was observed in 1994. The
float festival takes place in the month of Phalguna (March-April).
Sacred tank(s)
Mahamaga Kulam

The tank is opposite the temple and has an area of 15 acres. There
are 16 small mandapams on the banks of the tank and 20 sacred
wells inside the tank. The inlet is connected to a nearby canal

from the river Kaveri and the outlet is connected to a drainage
system. Even though people are allowed to bathe and wash clothes,
the water quality is good. The Tourism Department is operating
boats for tourists.
175
KUNDRAKKUDI
Temple location The Murugan Temple, Kundrakkudi, is on a

hillock at a distance of 12 km from Karaikudi
as well as Thirupathur and is accessible by
train and bus.
Main deity Kumaran
Goddesses Valli and Deivayanai
Temple management Kundrakkudi Aadheenam and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
Inscriptions of Raja Raja Chola I (985–1015 A.D.), Kulothunga
Chola I (1070–1120 A.D.), Sadayavarman Sri Pallava Thevan (1115
–1137 A.D.) and Kulothunga Chola III (1178–1218 A.D.) are found
in this temple.
Mythology
According to the Puranas, Shanmuga established the Saravana Poigai
to please his peacock or vahana (vehicle).
Festivals
Thai Poosam in Pausha (January-February), Panguni Uthiram in
Phalguna (March-April), Chitra Paal Perukku Vizha (April-May) and
Visaka Visakam (May-June) to commemorate the legend of Shiva
carrying sand in exchange for some food (Pittukku mann sumandha
puranam) as observed at Madurai. The Aadheenam carries out
desiltation and temple renovation work by involving the public. They
are provided food and pittu (made from rice flour) as prasadam.
Sacred tank(s)
Saravana Poigai
Marudhapuri Tank
Melavaiyapuri Tank

Saravana Poigai
The tank is at the foot of the hill. Water from the hillock drains
into this tank. The quality of the water is good and is used by the
villagers for drinking. The outlet is linked to another sacred tank.
The Aadheenam is maintaining the tank well, keeping it free of
pollutants and encroachments.
Marudhapuri tank
It is on the southern side of the hillock. It was built by the Marudhu
brothers of Sivaganga as they were cured of cancer after praying
to Muruga at this temple. People use the water for bathing and
washing and the water from the outlet is let into a nearby coconut
farm belonging to the temple. The Aadheenam and Agricultural
Engineering Department, Government of Tamilnadu, desilted the
tank in 1973 and again in 1996.
Melavaiyapuri tank
Mulaiyur Thandavaraya Pillai, Minister of King Rajapuli Muthu
Vaduganathar Periya Udayan, built this tank in 1754 A.D. The tank
is in good condition. Lilies and lotuses are grown in the tank and
used for pooja purpose.
177
LALGUDI
Temple location The Sapthagiriswarar Temple, Lalgudi, is 19

km from Trichy and is easily accessible by
bus or train.
Main deity Sapthagiriswarar
Goddess Shrimathi or Perunthiru Piratiyar
Mythology
It is believed that the water in the tank has medicinal properties and
a king was cured of a form of leprosy when he bathed in it for 48
days. People believe that they are relieved of Navagraha Dosham if
they take a dip in the tank and worship Sapthagiriswarar. Children
suffering from high fever are brought here to perform abhishekam
with sandalwood paste for Jeerageswarar, another deity within the
main temple, to get cured.
Sacred tank(s)
Sivaganga Tirtham

The temple tank is inside the temple premises and water comes
from the Ayyan Vaikkal (tributary of Kollidam canal). The outlet is
connected to an adjacent canal. The water quality and maintenance
is average. Devotees are allowed to bathe in the tank but are not
allowed to wash their clothes.
178
MADURAI
Temple location The Meenakshi Temple is in Madurai, an

important town in Tamilnadu
Main deity Meenakshi Sundaresvarar
History
Kulasekara Pandiyan built this temple. The earliest record is from
the Mahavamsa, which mentions that Vijaya, the first king of Ceylon
(500 B.C.), was the son-in-law of the Pandiya king. The buildings
were cconstructed during the Nayak period.
Mythology
Shiva appeared in the court of King Shenbaga Pandiyan to challenge
poet Nakkeerar, who had argued the meaning of a verse given by
Shiva to another poet Tharumi. In order to show Nakkeerar who
he was, Shiva turned the heat of his third eye on him. Nakkeerar
immersed himself in the Golden Lily tank to escape from the heat,
until Shiva eventually forgave him. It is said that Sage Tiruvalluvar
recited the Tirukural from this tank.
Festivals
Many festivals are celebrated in this temple. There is at least one
important festival for each Tamil month, though six festivals -
ChitraVizha, Adi Mulaikkottu, Avani Mulam, Tirukkarthigai, Theppam
and Magha Mandalam - are classified as major festivals.
The Theppam festival in Pausha lasts for 12 days. On the 12th
day - Tirumalai Nayakan’s birthday - the idols of Meenakshi and
Sundareswarar are placed on a float (theppam) that is pulled around
the large tank built by the king at Mariamman or Vandiyur Theppa
Kulam situated away from the temple, before they are placed in
the mandapam built in the middle of the tank.
Madurai 179
Sacred tank(s)
Portramarai Kulam (Golden Lily tank)

The tank is within the temple and is maintained properly. Water is
pumped into the tank and the water from the outlet is connected to
a drainage line. Twenty years back, inlet and outlet were both free
of encroachments. A devotee from Malaysia has donated equipment
to clean the water in the tank. Devotees are not allowed to bathe
or even take a dip in the tank. They are merely allowed to touch
the water and wash their feet.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good.The water contains a low level
of dissolved solids, ammonia, algae and dissolved oxygen.The pH
of water is neutral.
Special features
At the eastern end of the town is the big Theppa Kulam, also called
the Mariamman Tank. It is as big as the Meenakshi temple. The
pit was formed by digging out clay for making bricks to build the
Thirumalai Nayakan palace This became the tank, and it is fed by
a canal from the river Vaigai. The huge Ganapathi idol present in
the Meenakshi temple was found here.
180
MANNARGUDI
Temple location The Raja Gopala Swamy Temple, Manargudi,

lies at about 55 km from Tanjavur and is
accessible by bus.
Main deity Rajagopala
Goddesses Rukmini and Satyabhama
Festivals
Brahmothsavam observed for 18 days in the month of Phalguna
(March-April), Theppotsavam celebrated for 10 days in the month
of Jeshta (June-July) and Golden Garuda Seva are important festivals
observed here.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank (away from the temple)
Temple tank (at the entrance to the temple)
There are as many as 10 sacred tanks in the vicinity of the temple:
Rukmini Sarovar, Chakra Tirtham, Krishna Tirtham, Durvasa Tirtham,
Haridranavi Tirtham, Tiruppar Kadal, Bamini Tirtham, etc.
Present status of the Sacred Tank

Temple tank
This tank is 3 km away from the temple on an area of 25 acres
with good water. River Bamini and Vaduvoor Yeri supply water to
this tank. The outlet is connected to a nearby canal. People are
allowed to bathe and wash clothes in the tank. Fish breeding is
also carried out in this tank.
Temple tank
This tank at the entrance of the temple is in a bad condition and
the water is stagnant. Both inlet and outlet are blocked and the
Mannargudi 181
banks of the tank are littered with garbage and refuse. The water
is not used for any purpose.
Special feature
The temple and the tank are among the biggest Vaishnava temples
and tanks in Tamilnadu.
182
MAYAVARAM
Temple location The Mayuranathaswami Temple in Mayavaram

is located on the National Highway between
Tanjavur and Chidambaram.
Main deity Mayuranathar
Goddess Abhayambal
Temple management Tiruvavaduthurai Aadheenam
History
According to inscriptions, King Rajakesari Varma (10th–11th
Century) had undertaken renovation of this temple.
Festivals
Thula Kaveri Snanam in the month of Asadhas (October-November)
is very sacred.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham

The tank is inside the temple. The water is of good quality even
though people are allowed to bathe in it. Water from Nallatrukudi
canal which is fed by the Kaveri reaches this tank.
183
NAGERCOIL
Temple location The Nagaraja Temple in Nagercoil is well

connected by train and bus
Main deity Nagaraja
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple ten years ago, water used to flow
into the tank from a nearby canal, but today the inlet and outlet
are both blocked by encroachments and rainwater is the main
source. The water is stagnant and of poor quality.
Water quality
The quality of the water is good. It contains a slightly higher
level of dissolved solids and ammonia and low level of algae and
dissolved oxygen. The pH of the water is neutral.
Special feature
The present Nagercoil bus-stand and the Anna Sports Pavilion used
to be temple tanks in the ancient days. These sites are under dispute
between the temple authorities and the Municipality.
184
Narthamalai
Temple location The Muthu Mariamman Temple, Narthamalai,

is 17 km from Pudukottai town with good
transport facilities. It is 37 km from Trichy
on the Trichy - Pudukottai route.
Main deity Muthu Mariamman
History
Narthamalai has one of the oldest structural stone temples, built by
the Mutharaiyars. A 9th century Pallava Cava temple dedicated to
Lord Shiva lies to the South, and infront of this is the Vijayalaya
Choliswaran temple and it is in a circular in shape and was built
by Vijayala Chola. Many archaeologists and research scholars visit
this area to study the pre-historic burial grounds present here.
Malaiammal, daughter of Zamindar of Vetavalem, is involved in
the renovation of this temple.
Festivals
The annual Poochorial (decking the deity with flowers) festival is
celebrated for ten days in Chaitra (April – May), drawing lakhs
of devotees.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple and is fed by a nearby lake. People
drink this water. The water from the outlet flows into a small
tank in the same area. The quality of water is good and the tank
is maintained well.
Water quality
The quality of water is good and it is even potable. The water
contains a low level of dissolved solids and ammonia. The water
Narthamalai 185
is neutral with a high level of dissolved oxygen and little of algae.

The level of total hardness and alkalinity are 40 mg/l and 30 mg/l
respectively while that of chloride is 30 mg/l. The level of total
hardness shows that the water is soft.
Special features
This is a cave temple. In olden days, Jainism flourished in this area.
It is also mentioned that in the 9th and 10th Century, several traders
jointly built many temples and tanks and involved themselves in
the development of the town.
186
NATTARASAN KOTTAI
Temple location The Kannudaya Nayaki Temple, Natarasan

Kottai, is 30 km from Sivaganga town
Main deity Kannudaya Nayaki
Temple management Nagarathar Community and Government of
Tamilnadu
History
The Nagarathar community probably built this temple and the
tank in the 18th Century.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple and people use the water for
drinking. A wasteland extending over 20 acres has been kept vacant
for harvesting rainwater and this water is led into the tank. The
tank is maintained well and people are not allowed to bathe in
the tank. The temple authorities desilt the tank every year. The
Nagarathar community is actively involved in the renovation of
the temple and the tank.
Special feature
A unique feature is that an entire community is involved in the
maintenance of the temple tank.
187
PERUR
Temple location The Patteeswarar Temple, Perur, is 7 km

west of Coimbatore city and is accessible
by bus
Main deity Patteeswarar
Goddess Pachai Nayaki
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam
History
Karikala Cholan built this temple’s garbagriha in the early Christian
era. Perur dates back to the Roman period, as a treasure trove of
Roman coins was discovered here. During the Vijayanagara period,
this tank was built by Mathaiyan, Minister to Sikkaraya Wodeyar
(1489–1517), as mentioned in an inscription.

The tank is located outside but adjacent to the temple. Water from
a borewell is pumped into this tank. Initially, Kangeya Samuthra
Kulam’s water flowed into this tank. The inlet is in the shape of a
lion’s face, but at present, both the inlet and outlet are blocked by
houses. The annual Theppam festival is observed. The tank has an
unusual architecture with symmetrical steps placed at 12 different
angles around the tank, which is in the shape of a square. The
water quality and maintenance is average.
Special features
The soil at Vibuthi Medu near the temple is used for making
vibuthi and the temple administration has taken steps to preserve
the soil.
188
PILLAIYARPATTI
Temple location The Karpaga Vinayagar Temple, Pillaiyarpatti,

is at a distance of 15 km from Tirupathur
on the Karaikudi - Tirupathur bus route
Main deity Karpaga Vinayagar
Temple management Nagarathar Community Trust and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
As per inscriptions found here, this cave temple was built during
the reign of King Vathapi Kondan (615-630 A.D.) son of King
Mahendra Pallava.
Festivals
Vinayaga Chathurthi in the month of Sravana (August-September)
is very famous.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple and is in a good condition. The
temple authorities are maintaining the tank well and the water
quality is also good. It is mainly used for watering the plants
maintained by the authorities around the tank. Water from the
Kaattu canal near Kongu Nachiamman pours into this tank and
the outlet is connected to Pillaiyar canal.
189
PULLAMBADI
Temple location The Easwaran Temple, Pullambadi, is near

Lalgudi and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Easwaran
Goddess Parvathi
Festivals
Panguni Uthiram in the month of Phalguna (March-April) is
observed.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple. People are allowed to bathe and
wash clothes. Alapiratti Yeri supplies water to this tank and water
from the outlet is let into the Kaattu Odai.
190
PUSHPAVANAM
Temple location The Sugantha Easwarar Temple, Pushpavanam,

is near Vedaranyam and 55 km away from
Nagapattinam by train.
Main deity Sugantha Easwarar
Goddess Madhurabashini
Festivals
Tirthavari (immersion of the deity in water) is celebrated in this
temple in Margasira (December-January)
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

This temple tank is outside the temple and is used for irrigation,
bathing and washing. The District Rural Development Agency
(DRDA) undertook its desiltation in 1998.
191
RAMESWARAM
Temple location The Ramanathaswami Temple, Rameswaram,

is on the island of Rameswaram, which is
separated from the mainland by a narrow
arm of the sea. A rail and road bridge across
the sea connect Pamban to Mandapam on
the mainland.
Main deity Ramanathaswamy
Goddess Parvathavardhini
History
Tirunavukkarasar and Gnanasambandar wrote many verses regarding
the religious significance of this holy place.
The existing records show that in the 12th Century, Parakrama
Bahu, king of Ceylon constructed the sanctum sanctorum around the
Moolalinga (Sri Ramanathaswamy). Udayan Sethupathi, Tirumalai
Sethupathi and Dalavai Sethupathi of Ramnad, renovated the temple
in 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries respectively.
Mythology
It is believed that Lakshmi blesses the devotees who bathe in the
Sethu Madhava Tirtham. It is also believed that Balarama (Krishna’s
brother) got rid of Brahmahaththi (sin of killing another) by bathing
in the tank here. Sri Rama constructed a bridge to cross the sea at
Rameswaram to go across to Ceylon and fight Ravana.
Festivals
The major festivals are Mahashivarathri (February-March), Ani
Ramalinga Pratishtha (June-July) and Adi-Tirukalyanam (July-
August). The annual float festival on Thai Poosam night (January-
February) is conducted in the Lakshmana Tirtham, a tank on the
western side of the temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Sethu Madhava Tirtham
Lakshmana Tirtham
Hanuma Gunda Tirtham

Sethu Madhava Tirtham
The tank is inside the temple in the third corridor. People are
allowed to bathe in it. The tank is well maintained and the quality
of water is good.
Lakshmana Tirtham
This tank is located outside the temple on the Rameswaram -
Pamban road. The public use the water for bathing and washing. The
quality of water is not good and the maintenance is average.
Hanuma Gunda Tirtham

The tank is located near the Bhadrakali temple. The tank is in very
bad condition with weeds growing inside.
Special features
Rameswaram, a well-known pilgrim center, is not only connected
with the history of the great epic, Ramayana, but also remains a
symbol of national integration.
Poet Kambar has sung about Sethubandham in his great epic
Kamba Ramayanam.
193
SANKARANKOIL
Temple location The Sankaranarayanan Temple, Sankarankoil,

is 55 km from Tirunelveli and is accessible
by bus.
Main deity Sankaranarayanan
Goddess Gomathi Ambal
History
Inscriptions mention that King Ukkira Pandya built this temple
in the 10th Century.
Festivals
Theppa Utsavam is observed in the Aavudaya Poigai at a distance
of 2 km from the temple, on the last Friday in the month of
Pausha (January-February). Chitra Tiruvizha (April-May) and Adi
Thavasu (July-August) are also celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple. Fifteen years back, water for the
tank came from an adjacent yeri, but this has since ceased. People
are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes in it, and hence water
quality is average. The flower vendors around the tank dump
wastes into the tank and pollute it. The four wells - Surya Tirtham,
Sankarar Tirtham, Vairavar Tirtham and Gowri Tirtham - inside
the temple are charged by this tank. The well water is used for
pooja purposes only.
Special feature
The sun’s rays fall on the idol of Sankara Narayana during
Uttarayana and Dakshinayana positions of the earth’s journey
around the sun.
195
SEERKAZHI
Temple location The Sattainathar Temple, Seerkazhi, is at a

distance of 30 km from Chidambaram and
is accessible by train and bus.
Main deity Sattainathar
Goddess Perianayaki
History
As per inscriptions found in the temple, Kings Kulothunga, I, II
and III, Vikrama Chola and King Krishna Devaraya had renovated
the temple and the tank.
Mythology
There is a belief that Parvathi gave milk to Saint Thirugnana
Sambandar when he was a small boy in this temple.
Festivals
Chitra Peruvizha (April-May) in association with sacred milk given
by Parvathi to Saint Tirugnana Sambandhar is celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham

The tank is inside the temple and is maintained properly. People are
permitted to bathe and wash their clothes in the tank and the water
is very good. Water from Thamarai Kulam, at a distance of ½ km,
reaches this tank. Desiltation was carried out four years back.
Water quality
The water contains a low level of dissolved solids and has a slightly
high level of ammonia and a low level of algae. The pH of water
is neutral and contains 6.60 mg/l of dissolved oxygen, 60 mg/l
of total hardness, 70 mg/l of alkalinity are and respectively and
40 mg/l of chloride.
Special feature
Tirugnana Sambandhar was born here.
197
SEMBANARKOIL
Temple location The Swarnapuriswarar Temple, Sembanarkoil,

is 20 km from Mayavaram and is accessible
by train and bus.
Main deity Swarnapuriswarar
Goddess Kuzhaliamman
History
Archaeologists have excavated about six inscriptions from this
temple. Raja Kesari Varman and Aditya Chola I undertook some
renovation work in this temple between 879 and 907 A.D.
Mythology
It is believed that Indra built this tank to worship Shiva and obtain
the vajrayudham to kill Virithra (a demon king). This place is also
known as Indrapuri.
Festivals
In the month of Chaitra (April-May), an annual car festival is
celebrated from the 7th to 12th day, during which the sun’s rays
fall on the deities.
Sacred tank(s)
Surya Tirtham

The tank is opposite the temple and devotees bathe in it. Water
from Sathyavana canal comes into this tank. The water quality is
average and tank renovation work was carried out in 1993 under
the Jawahar Rural Employment Scheme.
198
SHOLINGUR
Temple location The Yoga Narasimha Temple, Sholingur

(Tirukadigai), lies 3 km from Sholingur town
in Vellore district and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Yoga Narasimha, Anjaneya
Goddess Amirthavalli Thayar
Mythology
It is believed that Rama and Seetha visited this temple and bathed
in the Rama Tirtham.
Festivals
On the day of Pongal in Pausha (January-February), devotees
perform giri prathakshinam (circumambulation of the hill on which
the temple is located) after bathing in the sacred tanks.
Sacred tank(s)
Thakkan Kulam (Narasimha Tirtham)
Chakra Tirtham
Rama Tirtham

Thakkan Kulam
It is located at the foot of a big hill. Devotees are allowed to

bathe in the tank and perform rituals on the banks. The main
source of water is rainwater and natural springs from the hillock.
M/s. TVS Clayton is maintaining this temple tank and the water
quality is very good.
Sholingur 199
Chakra Tirtham
This tank is at the foot of a small hill. Devotees are allowed to
bathe and wash their clothes. The tank is well-maintained and the
water quality is average.
Rama Tirtham
The tank is located above the small hill with a temple for
Anjaneyaswami. The main water source is natural springs and
rainwater. The water quality is good and the tank is maintained
properly. Fish breeding is carried out in the tank.
Special features
The Yoga Anjaneyaswami temple is on the small hill and the Yoga
Narasimha temple is on the big hill.
200
SINGAMUNERI
Temple location The Sevagapperumal Temple, Singamuneri,

near Sivaganga is accessible by bus via the
Sivagangai – Piranmalai road.
Main deity Sevagapperumal (Ayyanar)
Goddess Singa Pidari
History
The temple was probably built during the reign of the Pandya king
Sundara Pandian in the 13th Century.
Festivals
Vaikasi Visakam in the month of Vaisakha (May-June) is the main
festival.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple and gets water from the Vannivandhan
canal which is at a distance of 1 km. Water from the outlet goes to
a nearby lake. People are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes
in this tank.
201
SIVAGANGA
Temple location The Raja Rajeswari AmmanTemple is in the

town of Sivaganga.
Main deity Raja Rajeswari (family deity of Sivaganga
Zamindar family)
Temple management Sivaganga Devasthanam Board
History
The temple was probably built in the 19th Century.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is outside the temple and canal water accumulates in it.
The outflow is led into a drainage line. People are allowed to bathe
in this tank and the quality of the water is average. The tank has
been renovated by the M.P.’s Constituency Development Fund.
Special feature
The Sivaganga Zamindar’s Palace is situated near the tank.
202
SRIMUSHNAM
Temple location The Srimushnam Temple, Srimushnam, is near

Kattumannarkoil in Cuddalore district
Main deity Bhuvarahaswami
Goddesses Sridevi and Bhoodevi
History
Varaha Purana mentions this temple and its tank. According
to inscriptions, King Vijayakrishnappa Nayakar (15th Century)
renovated this temple and the tank.
Mythology
According to the Varaha Purana, this tirtham is an ideal place for
gifting a cow, rice and gold, to worship Varaha and to chant the
Vedas. It is believed that the one who reads the Bhagavad Gita, and
worships the Lord after bathing in this tirtham will attain heaven.
Festivals
The annual Theppam festival in the month of Chaitra (April-May)
and Magha Maha Brahmothsavam in the month of Magha (February
-March) are important festivals celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Nithya Pushkarini

The tank is opposite the temple. People are allowed to bathe in it
and the water quality is average. There are four wells inside the
tank. Both the inlet and outlet are obstructed by agricultural lands.
Rainwater is the main source of water for this tank and the water
from the outlet is let into the fields. The temple authorities desilted
the tank four years ago.
203
SRIRANGAM
Temple location The Ranganathar Temple, Srirangam, is on a

small island in the river Kaveri near Trichy,
with good transport facilities
Main deity Ranganathar
Goddess Ranganayaki
History
The temple is referred to in the Silappathikaram. Major construction
work was carried out during the Vijayanagar period.
Mythology
It is believed that Chandran (the moon) came to earth and observed
a severe penance in the Chandra Pushkarini by which he obtained
God’s blessings.
Festivals
All festivals observed by Vaishnavites are celebrated here. The main
festivals are the annual Brahmotsavam and Theppotsavam (in the
Theppa Kulam) in the month of Magha (February-March), Athi
Brahmotsavam and Panguni Uthiram in Phalguna (March-April)
and Thirupalliezhuchi and Vaikunta Ekadasi in the month of
Margasira (December-January).
Sacred tank(s)
Chandra Pushkarini
Surya Pushkarini
Theppa Kulam

Chandra Pushkarini
This tank is inside the temple in the 4th prakaram. The water
from the tank is used only for pooja purposes and its quality is
average.
Surya Pushkarini
This tank is also inside the temple and the water is used for
pooja purposes. The tank was last desilted in 1964 and is in a bad
condition now.
Theppa Kulam
It is 3 km away from the temple. Water from the Kollidam river
reaches this tank and the outflow is let into the agricultural fields.
The water quality is good and the people are allowed to bathe and
wash clothes in this tank. Fish breeding is practiced and the annual
float festival is observed in this tank. Sewage from the surrounding
houses enters the outlet.
Water quality
The quality of water is good and even potable. It contains a low
level of dissolved solids and ammonia. The pH of water is neutral
and it contains a very low level of dissolved oxygen. The level of
total hardness and alkalinity are 110 mg/l and 80 mg/l respectively
and that of chloride is 40 mg/l.
Special feature
The city is within the temple and the Rajagopuram of the temple is
the tallest in Asia. There is a shrine for Dhanvanthiri (great scholar
of Ayurveda) in the temple. It is believed that Kambar recited his
Kamba Ramayanam at this temple and hence the mandapam is
called as Kambar Mandapam.
205
SRIVILLIPUTHUR
Temple location The Aandal Temple, Srivilliputhur, is at a

distance of 70 km from Madurai on the
Thenkasi-Viridhunagar train route and is
also accessible by bus.
Main deity Vatapatrasayi or Rangamannar
Goddess Aandal
History
Inscriptions of various kings such as Pandiya and Chola dating
from 8th century A.D. are found in this temple. It underwent
major renovations during the Madurai Nayak period.
Mythology
It is said that the holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswathi
came together and formed a holy tirtham in order to serve
Chakkarathalwar (one of the 12 Alwars who are Vaishnava Saints)
for his holy turmeric bath. Kannadi Tirtham is a well with crystal
clear water, which according to legend was used by Aandal to see
her face after dressing.
Sacred tank(s)
Thirumu Kulam
Chakra Tirtham
Vasanthamandapa Tirtham
Kannadi Tirtham (well)

Thirumu Kulam
It is at a distance of 2 km from the temple and is used by the
public for bathing and washing. Water from Shenbagathoppu,
situated 10 km away, reaches the tank and is used for conducting

Theppotsavam.
Chakra Tirtham
This tank is opposite the temple and is in a bad condition. Both
inlet and outlet are blocked by buildings. The residents dump
wastes and garbage near the tank.
Vasanthamandapa Tirtham
The tank is 1 km away from the temple and is in a bad condition.
The water is stagnant and unfit for any use. Both inlet and outlet
are blocked.
Festivals
Adi Utsavam (July-August), Aandal Ennaikkappu Utsavam in
Margasira (December-January), Aandal Tirukalyanam in Phalguna
(March-April) and Theppotsavam in Magha (February-March) are
celebrated.
Special feature
Aandal was born and brought up here by Perialwar who has written
many Mangalasasanams in praise of Vishnu. This is one of the
108 sacred Vaishnava temples. The Government of Tamilnadu has
adopted the temple gopuram as its emblem.
207
SUCHINDRAM
Temple location The Thanumalaya Perumal Temple, Suchindram,

is at a distance of 70 km from Madurai on
the Thenkasi - Viridhunagar train route and
is accessible by bus.
Main deity Thanumalaya Perumal and Anjaneya
History
Inscriptions of the 9th Century A.D., are found in this temple. Veera
Rama Veera Marthanda Kulasekara Perumal started the practice of
celebrating the annual Theppa Utsavam in the tank in 1471 A.D.
Festivals
King Swathi Tirunal’s birthday celebrations in Asadhas (July-
August), Chitra Vizha for 10 days including the Theppa Utsavam
in Chaitra (April-May) and Margazhi Tiruvizha in Margasira
(December-January) are celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The tank is opposite the temple and has an area of 4 acres. It is in
a good condition and gets water from Pazhaiyaru. Devotees bathe
in the tank. The annual Theppa Utsavam is celebrated in this tank.
Water from the outlet is connected to an adjacent drainage canal.
Desiltation work was last carried out in 1988.
Water quality
The water contains a low level of dissolved solids and ammonia. It
contains a high level of algae and appears green in colour. The pH of
water is neutral and it contains a low level of dissolved oxygen.
Special feature
There are many special features here. Thanumalaya, an incarnation
of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, a 23 ft. Anjaneya idol, a shrine for
Pancha Pandavas and a 2,300 years old Konrai (Cassia fistula) tree
are all found here.
209
TANJAVUR
Temple location The Brihadeeswara Temple, Tanjavur, is at a

distance of 30 km from Kumbakonam with
good transport facilities.
Main deity Aavudayar
Goddess Perianayaki
Survey of India
History
Raja Raja Chola I built this temple between 985 A.D. and 1014
A.D.
Mythology
It is belived that a king who was suffering from leprosy was cured
after bathing in the temple tank.
Festivals
Kartika Deepam in the month of Kartika (November-December)
and a festival observed in the month of Vaisakha (May-June) in
memory of King Raja Raja Chola are celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Sivaganga Tank

The tank is at a distance of ½ km from the temple and is under the
control of the Town Municipality. The tank is used as a swimming
pool and the water is used for watering the gardens. A nearby canal
supplies water to this tank. The quality of the water is good.
Special features
The Brihadeeswara Lingam is the biggest in the country.
210
TENKASI
Temple location The Viswanatha Temple, Tenkasi, is near

Tirunelveli and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Viswanathar
Goddess Ulagammai
History
Inscriptions saying that King Parakrama Pandya performed the
kumbabhishekam in 1456 A.D. are found in this temple.
Festivals
Avani Moola Theppam (August-September), Magha Magam
(February-March) and Aippasi Uthira Tirukalyanam (October-
November) are celebrated.
Mythology
It is believed that the Ganges poured into this tank at Shiva’s
request.
Sacred tank(s)
Ananda Tirtham

The tank is outside the temple. People bathe in this tank. Water
from Seevalaperi Kulam feeds this tank, but the flow of water has
reduced considerably in the past 15 years. The newly created outlet
is connected to a drainage line, as the old path is obstructed. Fish
breeding is carried on in this tank.
211
TIRUAADANUR
Temple location The Aadanur Perumal Temple, Tiruaadanur,

lies about 6 km from Swamimalai. Transport
is not very convenient.
Main deity Aandu Alakku Ayyan
Goddess Ranganayaki Nachiyar
Temple management Sri Ahobila Mutt and Government of
Tamilnadu
History
Vikrama Cholan and Kulothungan II had probably built and
renovated this temple during 11th–12th Century.
Festivals
20 years back, Tirthavari was performed in the month of Vaisakha
(May-June) at the Suriya Pushkarini.
Sacred tank(s)
Suriya Pushkarini
Paal Kulam
Brahma Tirtham

Suriya Pushkarini
A tributary of river Kaveri brings water to this tank. The outlet
has been blocked by agricultural lands for the past five years.
The water is unfit for bathing as it is stagnant. Fish breeding is
practiced in this tank.
Paal Kulam
The tank is located outside the temple and water from a nearby
canal enters it. People are allowed to bathe and wash clothes in
this tank. The water quality is average as it is stagnant.
Brahma Tirtham
It is at a distance of 1 km from the temple. Water from a canal
(tributary of Kaveri) pours into this tank and the water quality
is average. The outlet is blocked by encroachments. People bathe
in this tank.
213
TIRUCHENDUR
Temple location The Murugan Temple, Tiruchendur, lies 50

km from Tirunelveli.
Main deity Senthil Aandavar
History
Inscriptions of King Ukkira Pandian and other kings are available in
this temple. Nakkeerar’s Tirumurugatruppadai and Arunagirinathar’s
Tiruppugazh are based on the Muruga here.
Mythology
Muruga killed Surapadman, a demon, in this place. Soorasamharam,
an enactment of the deed, is performed here and Skanda Sashti
is also celebrated in commemoration of the same. Using his spear
Muruga created the Naazhi Kinaru.
Festivals
Brahmothsavam in the month of Magha (February-March),
Vasanthothsavam for 10 days in Chaitra (April-May), Visaka Visakam
for 12 days in Vaisakha (May-June) and Skandha Sashti in Asvini
(October-November) are celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Naazhi Kinaru (sacred well)

This sacred well is outside the temple at a distance of 100 m south
of the temple. Devotees are allowed to bathe by scooping out the
water with a vessel and the water in the well never dries up. Despite
the temple being on the seashore, the water is not salty.
214
TIRUCHIRAPALLI
Temple location The Utchi Pillayar Temple or Malaikkottai

Pillaiyar Temple is on top of the rock-hill
and the Thayumanaswami Temple is in the
middle of the same. The rock is in the main
city which has good transport facilities.
Main deity Utchi Pillayar, Thayumanavar
Goddess Mattuvarkuzhali Amman
History
The Pallava King Mahendravarma built this temple during the
6th Century.
Mythology
It is believed that Thayumanavar safeguards pregnant women during
the birth of their child. There is a legend that he came as a midwife
to save a woman and her child. Hence, pregnant women pray to
Thayumanavar for safe delivery. Thai in Tamil means ‘mother’.
Festivals
Vinayaga Chaturthi in the month of Sravana (August-September)
is observed at the Utchi Pillaiyar temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam

The tank is at the foot of the hill and the Uyyakondan canal used
to supply water to this tank 20 years back. The outlet is connected
to Chinthamani canal. As the inlet and outlet are both blocked by
Tiruchirapalli 215
buildings, water from a borewell is pumped into the tank and the
outlet is connected to a drainage line. The tank is totally fenced to
prevent access to the water. The water quality is good.
Water quality
The quality of water is good. It contains a low level of dissolved
solids, algae, dissolved oxygen and ammonia. The pH of water is
neutral.
Special feature
The Thayumanavar temple is a cave temple with artistic paintings
on the ceilings and walls of the temple.
216
TIRUCHIRUPULIYUR
Temple location The Kripa Samudhra Perumal Temple,

Tiruch-irupuliyur, lies very near the Mangudi
railway station. It is about 2 km from
Mayavaram.
Main deity Kripa Samudhra Perumal
Goddess Tirumagal
History
Tirumangai Alwar worshipped here and offered Mangalasasanam.
Sacred tank(s)
Manasa Pushkarini

The tank is located outside the temple and is used by the public
for bathing and washing. Water from Nattar canal flows into this
tank and water from the outlet goes to the agricultural fields. The
water quality is good.
217
TIRUCHUZHIAL
Temple location The Bhoominathar Temple, Tiruchuzhial

is near Virudhunagar and is accessible by
bus.
Main deity Bhoominathar
Goddess Sagayavalli
History
Inscriptions belonging to King Parakrama Pandya are found in
this temple. Bhagavan Ramana Maharishi was born here. Swami
Vivekananda came here to worship in 1892.
Mythology
It is believed that Bhooma Devi (Mother Earth) built this tank to
worship Shiva.
Festivals
Adi Utsavam for 10 days with Theppam festival (July-August) and
Panguni Utsavam (March-April) are celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Kavvaikkadal

The tank within the temple premises is connected to Brahma
Tirtham, a well just outside the temple wall. The water comes
from a nearby canal (off Jeevakarunya river). People are allowed
to bathe in the tank and the water quality is average. Water from
the outlet is linked to a drainage canal.
218
TIRUKARUGAVUR
Temple location The Mullaivananathar Temple, Tirukaru-

gavur, is situated on the riverbed of the
Vettaru - a branch of the Kaveri - 20 km
northeast of Tanjavur and 20 km southwest
of Kumbakonam.
Main deity Mullaivananathar
Goddess Garbha Rakshambigai
History
The temple could date back to the time of Aditya Chola. Inscriptions
from Raja Raja Cholas period as well as those from Parantaka
Chola period (early 10th century) are seen here.
Mythology
Kamadhenu (sacred cow) created the tank called Ksheera tank
(ksheera means “milk”) in order to provide milk for Naindhruvan,
the child born to sage Nithuruvar and Vedhegai. The tank was
blessed by Garbha Rakshambigai.
Childless couples pray to Garbha Rakshambigai for conception
and safe delivery.
Sacred tank(s)
Ksheera Tank

The tank is opposite the temple. Water from the Vettaru river canal
reaches this tank and the outflow is let into the agricultural fields.
Encroachments are slowly appearing on the banks of the tank. The
water quality is quite good, even though devotees are allowed to
bathe and wash their clothes in the tank.
219
TIRUKAZHUKUNDRAM
Temple location The Vedagiriswarar Temple, Tirukazhu-

kundram, lies 40 km from Chennai and enjoys
all transport facilities between Kancheepuram
and Mahabalipuram. There are two temples
here dedicated to Shiva: one on the hill and
another at the foot of the hill.
Main deity Vedagiriswarar
Goddess Tripurasundari
History
Inscriptions belonging to the Pallava period are found in this cave
temple.
Festivals
The Laksha Deepam festival is celebrated once in twelve years when
a conch inside the Sanku Tirtam floats up. On this occasion one
lakh lamps are lit in both temples.
Sacred tank(s)
Sanku Tirtham
Nandiswara Tirtham
Pakshi Tirtham

Sanku Tirtham
Water from the hillock pours into this tank. The water quality is
good, even though people use it for bathing and washing. Once in 12
years, a sanku (conch) floats to the top of the water from underneath
and hence it is called Sanku Tirtham. The tank was renovated in
1998 under the M.P.’s Constituency Development Fund.
Nandi Tirtham
Water draining off the hillock finds its way into the tank. People
use the water for bathing and washing. The water quality is average
as the water is contaminated with seage.
Pakshi Tirtham
This is located on the top of the hill.
Special feature
Until a few years back, two eagles used to regularly visit the hill
and eat the prasadam offered to Shiva at 12.00 noon. Many visitors
have witnessed this sight.
221
TIRUKKURUNGUDI
Temple location The Nambi Temple, Tirukkunrungudi, is

at a distance of 10 km from Srivaikuntam
station in Tirunelveli district and is accessible
by bus.
Main deity Nambi (Vishnu)
Goddess Kurungudi Valli Nachiyar
Temple management Government of Tamilnadu and Jeer Mutt
History
The history of the temple can be traced as far back as the Chera
dynasty of the 3rd Century.
Festivals
All Vaishnava festivals are celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam
Krishna Tirtham

Theppa Kulam
It is also called Panchathurai and is located opposite the temple.

Rainwater and water from an adjacent canal pour into this tank.
The outflow accumulates in the Nambi Kulam (3 km away from
this tank). People are allowed to bathe in the tank. Lilies grow in
the tank and are used for pooja purposes. The water quality and
maintenance is average.
Krishna Tirtham
The tank is situated behind the sanctum sanctorum within the

temple. The water quality is very bad. It is believed that both
the temple tanks are interlinked. M/s. TVS renovated the temple
tanks in 1993 in collaboration with the Department of Agriculture
Engineering, Government of Tamilnadu.
223
TIRUKOKARNAM
Temple location The Kokarneswarar Temple, Tirukokaranam

lies near Pudukkottai town and is accessible
by bus.
Main deity Kokarneswarar
Goddess Bragadambal
History
It was probably built during the Pandya period.
Festivals
The annual Theppam festival used to be performed in this tank
twenty years ago, but it has now been stopped due to poor
maintenance of the tank and water quality.
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam
Mangalam Kulam

Theppa Kulam
It is at a distance of ½ kilometer from the temple. A canal is
linked to this tank. People use the water for bathing and washing.
Quality of water is average and the excess of water used to flow
into Pannam Kulam 10 years back.
Mangalam Kulam
This tank is adjacent to the temple. The quality of water is very bad
and the tank is not maintained. Water is totally unfit for any use.
Rainwater collects in the tank and as there is no inlet or outlet, the
water is stagnant. Tirthavari (immersion of the deity) is performed

in this tank. It is believed that the idol of goddess Mangalanayaki
is inside the temple tank and hence it is called Mangalam Kulam.
The tank is full of garbage and plastic bags thrown by devotees.
225
TIRUKOODAL
Temple location The Koodal Azhagar Temple,Tirukoodal, is

18 km northeast of Madurai and is accessible
by bus.
Main deity Soundararaja Perumal or Azhagar
Goddess Maduravalli Thayar
History
There is a mention about this temple in the Paripadal, written in
the Sangam period dating back to 2000 years.
Festivals
The Meenakshi Kalyanam on the day of the full moon in the
month of Phalguna (March-April), Theppotsavam in Magha and
Therottam in Vaisakha are celebrated.
Sacred tank(s)
Chakra Tirtham

The tank is at the foot of the hill, at a distance of ½ km from
the temple. The main water source is rainwater, flowing from
the hillock and the outflow is let into the forest area. People are
allowed to bathe and wash their clothes in it and the quality of
water is average.
Special features
It is one of the 108-Divya desams (sacred Vaishnava sites). The
vimana or tower above the sanctum sanctorum of this temple is
the biggest in the country.
226
TIRUKOVILUR
Temple location The Trivikramaswamy Temple, Tirukovilur,

lies 35 km from Tiruvannamalai. It is one of
the most famous temples in Tamilnadu and
is accessible by bus from several towns. It is
on the Katpadi - Villupuram train line.
Main deity Sri Trivikrama - Ulagalantha Perumal (fifth
incarnation of Mahavishnu)
Goddess Poonkoval Nachiyaar
Temple management Government of Tamil Nadu and a nearby
Vaishnava Math
History
This temple may have been built during the Pallava Dynasty.
Festivals
The annual float festival is observed in the month of Phalguna
(March-April). People consider it sacred to take a dip on Chitra
Pournami day (full moon day in April-May).
Sacred tank(s)
Chakra Tirtham
Mythology
When Ulagalantha Perumal (Vishnu) measured Brahmalokam,
Brahma washed his feet with water from his kamandala. This water
became the Chakra Tirtham and is considered very sacred.

The tank is located at a distance of ½ km from the temple. Many
people have settled on the banks of the tank and dump garbage
Tirukovilur 227
in it. People use the water for bathing and washing and the water
quality is hence not good. Water from the Tirukovilur lake is led
into this tank and the outflow is let into a drainage canal.
Special feature
This temple is situated on the southern bank of the Pennai river.
This temple was originally a brick and mortar structure in the
period of Parantaka Chola I (early 9th century). It was patronized
by the great Chola rulers Raja Raja I and Raja II. Rajendra Deva
in the 10th century rebuilt it of granite.
228
TIRUKUVALAI
Temple location The Kolilinathar Temple, Tirukuvalai, is at

a distance of 5 km from Tiruvarur and is
accessible by bus.
Main deity Kolilinathar
Goddess Vandamar Poonguzhali
Temple management Dharmapura Aadheenam and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
The temple was probably built in the 12th Century, based on the
inscriptions of Kulasekara Pandiyan and Rajathi Rajan.
Festivals
Annual Brahmothsavam and Nel Mahothsavam in Magha (February-
March) are observed.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham
Chandra Tirtham

Brahma Tirtham
The tank is situated opposite to the temple and is used by the
public for bathing and washing. Water from Vellai Aru Kattalai
canal reaches this tank and no outlet is present. Hence the water is
stagnant and its quality is average. The water is used for watering
the plants in the garden surrounding the temple tank.
Chandra Tirtham
This is present inside the temple and groundwater is recharged
through the tank. Fish breeding is practiced in this tank.
229
TIRUMAYAM
Temple location The Sathyamurthi Temple, Thirumayam is at

about 20 km from Pudukottai on the Trichy
- Karaikudi road.
Main deity Satyamurthi
Goddess Uuyyavanda Nachiar
Survey of India
History
This temple dates back to the period of Mahendra Varma Pallavan
(600-638 A.D.).
Festivals
Chitra Pournami (April-May), Visaka Vasantha Vizha (May-June),
Vaikunta Ekadasi (December-January) and Sri Vuyyavandhal
Nachiar’s Tirthavari on Maattu Pongal day in the month of Pausha
(January) are observed in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Satya Pushkarani

Satyagiri Tirtham
This tank is inside the Perumal temple. Though people are allowed
to bathe and wash their clothes in it, the water quality is good.
Rainwater is the main source of water and the water from the outlet
is let into the nearby agricultural fields. The tank never dries up
and it is believed that a Shivalingam is deep inside the tank.
Special feature
The tank is unique as it has an octagonal shape. This temple is a
cave temple.
230
TIRUMOGOOR
Temple location The Kalamegha Perumal temple, Tirumogoor,

is 10 km from Madurai and is accessible by
road
Main deity Kalamegha Perumal
Goddess Meghavalli Nachiar
Festivals
The annual car festival celebrated in Vaisakha (May-June) lures
huge crowds.
Sacred tank(s)
Pushkarini

The tank is adjacent to the temple. Water from Thamarai canal
(at a distance of ½ km) reaches this tank. The outflow is led into
the agricultural fields. The water quality and maintenance is very
good. The devotees are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes
in this temple tank.
231
TIRUMURUGANPOONDI
Temple location T h e Mu r u g a n a t h a Sw a m i Te m p l e ,
Tirumuruganpoondi, is at a distance of 8 km
from Tiruppur and is connected by bus
Main deity Muruganatha Swami
History
Inscriptions belonging to the era of Kongu Chola are found in
this temple.
Mythology
Muruga created this tank for performing abhishekam for his father
Shiva, in order to get rid of the sin of killing Surapadman. Many
mentally ill people stay here and bathe in the Muruga Tirtham for
one mandala (48 days) to get cured.
Festivals
Thai Poosam during Pausha (January-February) and Masi Magam
(February-March) are the main festivals celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham
Muruga Tirtham
Gnana Ttirtham

Brahma Tirtham
The tank is outside the temple and people use the water for bathing.
No inlet or outlet is present. The main source of water is from
river Noyyal which passes nearby and also rainwater.
Muruga Tirtham
This tank is inside the temple and in good condition. Devotees
use the water for bathing.
Gnana Tirtham
This is also located outside the temple and is not used for any
purpose as the water quality is poor.
233
TIRUNELVELI
Temple location The Kandhimathi Samedha Nellaippar Temple,

is in the town of Tirunelveli.
Main deity Venuvananathar or Nellaiappar
Goddess Kandhimathi
History
The temple dates back to 700 A.D. and has been sung by the
Gnana Sambandar. For shiva and this consort temples were built
by the Pandiya Kings in the 13th century, but entirely remodeled
and extended in 17th - 18th century A.D. There are inscriptions
dating back to 950 A.D. in this temple.
Mythology
Due to a curse pronounced by Sage Durwasar, King Indrathyumna’s
face changed to that of an elephant. After bathing in the Karumari
Kulam he regained his original form.
Festivals
Ani Thiruvizha for 10 days in Jeshta (June-July), Thai Poosam
and Theppa Utsavam for 12 days in Pausha (January-February)
are celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam
Portramarai Kulam
Karumari Kulam

Theppa Kulam
It is situated outside the temple. The water condition is average
and unfit for bathing. Thirty years back, the people used the water
for drinking. The water from the outlet goes to the agricultural
fields. The main pollutants present in the tank are plastic bags.
Thirunavukkarasu Nayanar Theppam Vizha is celebrated in this
tank on Magha Magam day (February-March). This tank was
once linked to the Portramarai Kulam located inside the temple,
but due to constructions and other encroachments the link does
not exist anymore.
Portramarai Kulam
This tank is inside the temple, north of the Oonjal Mandapam.
People are not allowed to bathe in it but are allowed to sprinkle
some water on their head. The water quality is very good. Initially,
the inlet was in good condition bringing water from Mela Ratha
Veedhi (temple car path). At present rainwater accumulates in this
tank as the inlet is blocked.
Karumari Kulam
It is inside the temple but in a bad condition. Both the inlet and
outlet are obstructed by encroachments, leaving the water stagnant
and unfit for any use.
Water quality
The quality of the water is not good. It contains a low level of
dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen but contains a high level of
algae and ammonia. The colour of water seems to be green in
colour due to the presence of the algae.
235
TIRUPPARANKUNRAM
Temple location The Murugan Temple, Tirupparankunram,

8 km south of Madurai city is a renowned
and ancient shrine.
Main deity Subramanya
Goddess Deivayanai
History
Paripadal mentions this temple which is also associated with Nakkeerar

of the Sangam period. Ganapathi, army chief of Paranthaka Pandiyan,
renovated this temple and tank as mentioned in the inscriptions. The
present Lakshmi Tirtham was called Sree Thadagam.
Mythology
According to the Puranas, the Saravana Poigai, is said to have been

created by Muruga with the help of his vel or spear.
Festivals
The annual float festival called Thai Krithigai Thiruvizha is

conducted for 10 days in the month of Pausha (January-February),
Panguni Peruvizha (March-April) for 14 days, Chitirai festival
(April-May), Visaka Visakam (May-June) and Skanda Shasti Vratam
festival (October-November) are celebrated here.
Sacred tank(s)
Saravana Poigai
Lakshmi Tirtham
Saravana Poigai
This tirtham is situated at the foot of the hill, at a distance of ½

km from the temple. It is very big, being about 4 acres in area.
People bathe and wash their clothes in this tank. Twenty years
back, water from the Vaigai canal used to enter the tank. At present
water from the hillock drains into the tank. The inlet is shaped
like a peacock but is blocked by encroachments. Water from the
outlet is let into the agricultural fields.
Lakshmi Tirtham
The tank is inside the temple and devotees are allowed to bathe in
it. Water from the Chettiar Kulam (1 km away from the temple)
flows into this tank. The quality of water is average. Fish breeding
is carried out in the tank.
Special features
There is an image of Nakkeerar, the greatest poet of the Sangam

period. This temple is located on the side of a hill and several
flights of steps and mandapams have to be traversed to reach the
sanctum sanctorum. The temple is one of the finest specimens of
Pandya art and architecture.
237
TIRUTHURAIPOONDI
Temple location The Bhavaoushadha Easwara Temple is near

Tiruvarur on the Mayavaram - Karaikudi
train route and is also accessible by bus.
Main deity Bhavaoushadha Easwara Swami
Goddess Perianayaki
Mythology
It is believed that Brahma created one of the tanks here and hence
it is known by his name.
Festivals
Chitirai vizha (April-May) is celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham
Amirtha Tirtham

Brahma Tirtham
It is outside the temple and receives water from the Mettur Dam
and Mullai river through a canal. People are allowed to bathe and
wash their clothes and the water quality is good. Tiruthuraipoondi
Chamber of Commerce has adopted this tank for maintenance for a
period of 5 years. The Chamber approached the Endowment Board
to extend the lease period, but was denied. As such the temple
authorities are not maintaining the tank properly. Fish breeding
is practiced in this tank.
Amirtha Tirtham
It is inside the temple premises and is fed by rainwater. The water

is used mainly for gardening. Women bathe in this temple and
perform Tirumangalya Pooja on the banks of the tank.
Special feature
A rare instrument, Pancha Mukhavadhyam, is played in this
temple.
239
TIRUVANAIKKAVAL
Temple location The Akhilandeswari Temple, Tiruvanaikkaval,

is to the east of Srirangam railway station
at a distance of about 1 km from it. It is
accessible by bus from Trichy.
Main deity Jambukeswarar
Goddess Akhilandeswari
History
According to inscriptions, Kochengannan a Chola King, built
this temple and it was of special significance to the Chola Kings.
Kochengannan is praised by tamil literature for having built more than
70 temples - and he is historically placed in the sangam period.
Mythology
Sri Rama consecrated Ramanathaswamy in Rameswaram to get rid
of the sin of killing Ravana and Kumbakarna. But still the stigma of
the sin persisted until he came to Tiruvanaikkaval and worshipped
Sri Jambukeswarar. It is said that he dug a tank, Rama Tirtham,
after which he built a temple on the Western bank of the tank
and performed pooja to the Shivalingam called Karumal Eswaran.
Tiruvanaikkaval is known as the Appusthala, the place where Shiva
manifests himself as the element of water.
The popular belief is that Goddess Parvathi offers workship to the
Lingam everyday. At noon, the priest of the day, who performs the
pooja to Akilandeswari, wears a sari and with a crown on his head
goes to the sanctum sanctorum of the Lord and worships him.
Sacred tank(s)
Indra Tirtham
Agni Tirtham

Indra Tirtham
The tank is just opposite the temple. Earlier, water used to flow
into the tank from the Kollidam canal. Today, water is pumped into
this tank. Due to construction of houses, the inlet and outlet are
blocked. As sewage entered the tank, the temple authorities closed
the inlet. The water quality is bad and unfit for any use.
Agni Tirtham
This is actually a well and is located inside the temple. Desiltation

work was carried out in 1970 and again in 1982. The well is not
well maintained and the water is not used.
Special features
This temple is built at an elevated position to prevent elephants
entering and is called Mada Koil.
241
TIRUVANNAMALAI
Temple location The Tiruvannamalai Temple stands in

Tiruvannamalai town, which is on the
Villupuram – Katpadi rail route at a distance
of 225 km from Chennai. The town itself is
80 m above sea level.
Main deity Annamalai
Godddess Unnamalai Amman
History
The history of this temple dates back to the 7th Century or Pallava
period. Rajendra Chola I renovated the temple in the 11th Century.
Krishna Deva Raya built the 1000 pillared mandapam and the Sivaganga
tank to celebrate Vasantha Vizha. He also created a lake which would
be the source of water for the Sivganga tank. Saint Manikavasagar
has sung in praise of this temple in the Thiruvasagam.
Festivals
The festival of Deepa Darsanam is celebrated for 13 days and on
the 10th day, the Thiru Kartika is celebrated. This is the most
important festival of the temple. On Thiru Kartika day, devotees
throng the temple to see the Barani Deepam in the morning,
take a dip in the Brahma Tirtham in the afternoon and see the
Annamalai Deepam in the evening.
Sacred tank(s)
Sivaganga tank
Brahma Tirtham
Chakra Tirtham
Esani Kulam
Singa Kulam
Madhu Tirtham

Sivaganga Tank
It is situated south of Kambaththu Ilayanar Mandapam and has
an enclosed corridor. Devotees bathe before performing rituals and
the water quality is good. The tank is also maintained properly.
According to inscriptions, the water used to come from a canal called
Tiruvannamalai Amman Devi Samuthram. At present, rainwater is
the main source of water for the tank.
Brahma Tirtham
It is located inside the temple in front of Kalabhairava Sannidhi.
Even though devotees are allowed to bathe, the tank is maintained
well. Fish breeding is also carried out.
Chakra Tirtham
It is opposite the temple and is surrounded by shops that use it
as a dumping ground.
Esani Kulam
It is on the path of the giri pradhakshinam outside the temple. The
water quality is very bad with a foul odour and the maintenance
is very poor.
Singa Kulam
It is also along the path of the giri valam (the path used by devotees
for giri pradhakshinam) outside the temple. Water from the hillock
drains into the tank and even though the public use it for bathing,
the quality is average. The name Singa Kulam has been acquired
from the statue of the lion present at the entrance to the tank.
Madhu Tirtham
It is on the giri valam way near the Adi Annamalai temple. The
tank is also fed by water draining from the hill. The outflow is let
into the agricultural fields.
Tiruvannamalai 243
Water quality
Though the colour of the water is slightly green, due to the
presence of algae, the overall quality is good. The water contains
a low level of dissolved solids and ammonia. It is neutral and the
level of dissolved oxygen is 8.40 mg/l. The level of total hardness
and alkalinity are 90 mg/l and 80 mg/l respectively and that of
Special features
Every month, on full moon day, lakhs of devotees gather to perform
giri pradhakshinam of the hill and worship the god.
244
TIRUVARUR
Temple location The Tyagarajar Temple, Tiruvarur, is an ancient

temple, situated 25 km west of Nagapattinam
on the Mayavaram – Arantangi Railway line
in Tanjavur District.
Main deity Sri Tyagarajar
Goddess Kamalambigai
History
The temple was probably built about 1200 years back. The three great
composers of Carnatic music Sri Tyagaraja Swamigal, Sri Muthuswamy
Dikshitar and Sri Shyama Sastrigal were born at Tiruvarur.
Mythology
Sundaramurthy Swamigal was blessed with a gold coin at
Virudhachalam. Fearing attack by thieves, he dropped it in the
river Manimuthar and prayed to God. He then collected the same
coin at the Kamalalayam tank. It is also said that Dhandi Adigalar,
one of the 63 Nayanmars, had the tank desilted.
Festivals
Adi Poora Vizha or Theppam festival is celebrated on Panguni
Uthiram (March-April). It is considered auspicious to take a dip
in the tank on this day. The Tiruvarur Azhi Ther (car) festival
celebrated in the month of Phalguna (March-April) is very
important, as this big car is drawn by about 8000 people along
the streets of Tiruvarur.
Sacred tank(s)
Kamalalayam
Tiruvarur 245

The tank is situated on the western side of the temple and has an
area of 18 acres. As in Kasi, there are 64 holy Tirtha Ghats on the
banks of the tank. There is a temple in the middle of the tank for
Naganathar. The water is considered to be as pure as that of the
Holy Ganga. Water from the river Odam Pokki reaches the tank
and the water from the outlet is connected to an underground
canal. People are allowed to bathe and wash their clothes in this
tank. Desiltation of the tank was carried out in 2000. Many wells
inside the temple are linked to this tank.
Water quality
solids, algae and ammonia. The pH of the water is neutral and it
contains 6.20 mg/l of dissolved oxygen. The level of total hardness
and alkalinity are 100 mg/l and 120 mg/l respectively while that
of chloride is 60 mg/l.
Special feature
Pancha Mukhavadyam (a unique percussion instrument which can
be struck on five faces) is played only in this temple. A Maragatha
Lingam (emerald lingam) is in this temple. The area of the temple and
the tank are 30 acres, which is unique to Tiruvarur. Senkazhuneerpoo
(a sacred flower) is grown in the Senkazhuneer Odai on the eastern
side of the temple and is offered to Tyagarajar.
246
TIRUVADAVUR
Temple location The Shiva Temple, Tiruvathanur lies 23 km

from Madurai and is accessible by road.
Main deity Vedhanathan
Goddess Vedhanayaki
History
The temple was probably built about 1000 years ago. Saint
Manikavasagar was born here.
Sacred tank(s)
Brahma Tirtham
Agni Tirtham

Brahma Tirtham
The tank is opposite the temple and the devotees bathe in the tank.
The quality of water is good and the tank is maintained properly.
Water from a nearby canal flows into the tank and the outflow is
let into the agricultural fields.
Agni Tirtham
It is a well within the temple premises. The water quality is good
and used for pooja purposes.
247
TIRUVAVADUTHURAI
Temple location The Gomathiswarar Temple, Tiruvavaduthurai,

is near Mayavaram
Main deity Gomathiswarar
Goddess Oppilimulai Amman
Temple management Tiruvavaduthurai Aadheenam and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
According to inscriptions, King Paranthaka I built this temple in
the 10th Century A.D. Saint Tirumoolar wrote Tirumandhiram in
praise of Gomathiswarar.
Festivals
Tirthavari is performed in the sacred tank in the month of Asadhas
(July-August).
Sacred tank(s)
Gomathi Tirtham

The tank is opposite the temple. Water from the Tiruvangadu
canal pours into this tank. The outlet is connected to the drainage
system. People are allowed to bathe in this tank and the quality
of water is good.
248
TIRUVENGADU
Temple location The Agora Veerabadhraswami Temple,

Tiruvengadu, is at a distance of 3 km from
Poompuhar and is accessible by bus from
Seerkazhi and Mayavaram.
Main deity Agora Veerabadhraswami
Goddess Brahma Vidya Ambikai
History
Inscriptions from the time of Aditya Chola I (870-907 A.D.),
Raja Raja I (985 - 1014 A.D.) and his descendants speaking of
endowments made by the Chola rulers to this temple are found
here. Vikrama Chola built the Vikrama Cholan Tirumandapam
(1118 - 1135 A.D.).
Mythology
While Shiva was dancing in response to Parvathi’s request, three
droplets of sweat fell down to form the three tanks that are found
here.
Festivals
Indra Vizha is celebrated in the month of Magha (February-March)
with Tirthavari being observed on the 10th day and the float festival
on the 11th day.
Sacred tank(s)
Surya Tirtham
Agni Tirtham
Chandra Tirtham
Tiruvengadu 249

Surya Tirtham
It is situated inside the temple and gets water from the river Kaveri
through a canal. The tank is used by the public for bathing and
washing. As the outlet is obstructed by encroachments, the water
is stagnant and its quality is average.
Agni Tirtham
This tank is also within the temple premises, and gets water from
the river Kaveri through a canal. It is linked with Chandra Tirtham
which is also inside the temple. People use the water for bathing
and washing clothes.
Chandra Tirtham
It is inside the temple and gets water from Agni Tirtham which
is opposite to the Budhan (Mercury) shrine.
Special feature
This temple is mentioned in Valmiki Ramayana, as a shrine for
Budhan (Mercury).
250
TIRUVIDAIMARUDUR
Temple location The Mahalingeswarar Temple is in

Tiruvidaimarudur, a fertile village in Tanjavur
district near Kumbakonam with transport
facilities.
Main deity Mahalinga Eswarar
Goddess Perumalammulai Ammai
Temple management Government of Tamilnadu and Thiruvidai
Marudhur Mutt
History
The inscription on the temple walls records the reign of Kulothunga
I. Many Shaiva saints have visited the temple and sung the praises
of Mahalingeswarar. They are Appar, Sundarar, Manickavasagar
and others like Karur Thevar and Pattinathar. Renovation work
was carried out during the rule of Varagunapandian in the 7th
Century.
Festival related to the temple

Tirthavari is performed on Thai Poosam (January-February) day
and many devotees visit the temple to offer their prayers.
Sacred tank(s)
Karunya Amirtha Tirtham

The tank extends over an acre of land. It is located outside the
temple and people bathe and wash their clothes in the tank. The
quality of water is average. Singaneer Kinaru (lion shaped well)
within the temple premises is connected to the tank. It is believed
that mentally retarded people are cured if they bathe in this tank
for several days. The outlet is obstructed by buildings. Fish breeding
is carried out in the tank.
251
UTHIRAKOSAMANGAI
Temple location The Mangaleswara Temple, Uthirakosamangai,

is to the Southwest of Ramanathapuram city
and is accessible by bus.
Main deity Mangaleswara
Goddess Mangalanayaki
Temple management Ramanthapuram Samasthana Devasthanam
Mythology
Many sages gathered at Uthirakosamangai to perform a penance to
please Shiva, who then appeared before them and entrusted the Veda
Aagamas in their care till he returned from Sri Lanka. He was going
to bless Mandothari (Ravana’s wife) who was undergoing a severe
penance to please him. He mentioned that he would appear in the
tank as a jothi (column of fire) if Ravana should touch him.
Shiva appeared before Mandothari as a child and Ravana
affectionately touched him. Immediately, the jothi sprang up in
the tirtham, which has since been called the Agni Tirtham. Except
for one sage, all the others fell into the column of fire. Shiva later
appeared and transformed them into Shivalingams. He blessed
the only surviving sage for keeping the sacred texts safe and bade
him be born as Manikkavasagar to spread the fame of Tamil and
Shaivism. A small temple for Manikkavasagar is found on the
banks of the tank. Shiva transformed himself to a Sahasra Lingam
near the tank.
Festivals
Tirthavari in the month of Chaitra (April-May) is very important.
Sacred tank(s)
Agni Tirtham
Brahma Tirtham
Gowmara Tirtham

Agni Tirtham
This tank is inside the temple managed by the Devasthanam.
People are allowed to bathe in it. Rainwater and water from
Uthirakosamangai Yeri flow into this tank. It is connected to Brahma
Tirtham and another nearby lake. Even though the inlet and outlet
are encroached by the residents, the water quality is still good.
Brahma Tirtham
It is in front of the temple but is in a bad condition as it is
surrounded by houses and roads. The residents and shopkeepers
dump garbage into the tank. Since both inlet and outlet are
completely blocked, the water is stagnant and contaminated, making
it unfit for any use.
Gowmara Tirtham
The tank is situated near the temple and associated with the
local deity Varahi Amman. It is in a good condition and supports
local irrigation. As the tank is filled with weeds, the water-storing
capacity has diminished.
Special feature
The idol of Shiva is made of a green emerald and is worshipped
only on Arudra Darsanam in Margasira (December-January).
253
VAALIKANDAPURAM
Temple location The Brahmapureeswarar Temple or Valleswarar

Temple, Vaalikandapuram lies 15 km from
Perambalur town on the National Highway
connecting Trichy to Chennai.
Main deity Brahmapureeswarar
Goddess Brahmanayaki
Temple management Archeological Survey of India (ASI) and
Government of Tamilnadu
History
Stone inscriptions belonging to the Chera, Chola, Pandiya and
Vijayanagar kings (10th–18th Century) are found in this temple.
Another Vijayagar stone inscription (1389 A.D.) mentions that
Chakravarthi of Kalpadi village built the temple tank. It is also
evident that a Jain temple existed in this area.
Mythology
Vaali, the monkey king, meditated and worshipped Shiva here.
Sacred tank(s)
Saravana Tirtham

The tank is opposite the temple and rainwater is the main source
of water. The water quality and maintenance are average. People
are not using the water from the tank for any purpose.
254
VAITHEESWARANKOIL
Temple location The Vaithyanathaswami Temple in Vaithees-

warankoil, near Sirkazhi is mid-way on the
Chidambaram - Mayavaram train route and
is connected by bus also.
Main deity Vaitheeswaran or Vaithyanathaswami
Goddess Thaiyalnayaki
History
Inscriptions from the period of Vikrama Chola (1117 A.D.) the
Nayakas (16th century) and the Marathy (18th century) are seen
in this temple. Renovation of the tank was carried out in 1770
A.D.
Mythology
There are 18 temple tanks within this temple. Siddha Amirtha
Kulam is the most prominent. This tank is situated opposite the
Thaiyalnayaki shrine. The legend goes that when siddhas in the
Kaliyuga offered ‘Devamirtham’ to the lord, a part dropped into the
tank and hence it is called Siddha Amirtha Kulam. Angaraka (Mars)
was relieved of red leprosy when he bathed in this tirtham.
Festivals
Thai Poosam (January-February), Panguni Uthiram and Theppotsavam
(March-April) and Skanda Sashti (October-November) are celebrated
here.
Sacred tank(s)
Siddha Amirtha Kulam
Vaitheeswarankoil 255

The tank is inside the temple and extends over an area of 1.5 acres
and is maintained properly. People are permitted to bathe in the
temple and the water is very good. Water from the Vadapokki Kulam
situated at a distance of 1.5 km pours into this tank and the outlet
which is connected to Thamarai Kulam or Agrahara Kulam is slowly
getting blocked. Many devotees have drowned in this tank.
Water quality
Water contains low quantity of algae. It contains low level of
dissolved solids and ammonia. The pH of water is neutral and it
contains low level of dissolved oxygen. The level of total hardness
and alkalinity are 140 mg/l and 180 mg/l respectively. The level of
chloride is 90 mg/l. The quality of the water is reasonably good.
Special feature
There is a separate shrine for Angaraka (Mars) in this temple.
Thiruchaandhu Urundai prepared by the temple authorities is given
as prasadam to the devotees to cure diseases.
256
VELLORE
Temple location The Jalakanteswarar Temple in Vellore is

near Katpadi Railway Junction with good
transport facilities.
Main deity Shiva or Jalakanteswarar
Godddess Akilandeswari
Temple management Archeological Survey of India and Government
of Tamilnadu
History
King Bommi Reddy built this temple in the 16th Century, in the
Vijayanagar style of architecture.
Mythology
A well situated in the northeast corner of the inner prakaram is
called Sree Tirtham. Prior to the reinstallation of the Shivalinga
idol, the well was closed without any trace. The well with many
steps was rediscovered. It is believed that if you pour coins into
the well and if they fall on the steps, your desire would be fulfilled.
The well is also connected to an underground passage.
Sacred tank(s)
Temple tank

The temple tank is inside the temple and maintained by the
Archeological Survey of India (ASI). Devotees are not allowed to
bathe, as the tank is fenced with iron bars. Rainwater is the main
source of water to the tank.
Vellore 257
Special feature
This temple has been in existence inside the fort for many
years without a main deity. In 1981, the Collector, Gangappa,
I.A.S., installed the present deity kept in the temple, performed
kumbabhishekam and opened up the temple for public worship.
258
VIRALIMALAI
Temple location The Murugan Temple, Vilaimalai, lies 28 km

away from Trichy on the way to Madurai
and is accessible by bus and train.
Main deity Muruga
History
Inscriptions found in the temple mention that Adithya Chola had
renovated this temple. This temple has been the recipient of the
Nayakas and local Chieftains and the Pudukkottai Thondaiman
(18th century A.D.). This temple is mentioned in the Thirupugazh
written by Arunagiri Nathar.
Festivals
Skanda Shasti in the month of Aipasi (October-November), Thai
Poosam (January-February) and Visaka Visakam (May-June) are
celebrated in this temple.
Sacred tank(s)
Saravana Poigai
Thirukani Tirtham

Saravana Poigai
It is situated outside the temple at the foot of the hill. People

bathe in the tank and the maintenance is average. Tonsuring
of the head (as an offering to Muruga) is performed on the
banks of this tank. Water from the Kaveri is connected to this
tank by a canal and the outflow is connected to a drainage line.
Viralimalai 259
Renovation work was carried out in 1994 under the District

Collector’s influence.
Thirukani Tirtham
This tank lies at a distance of less than 1/2 km from the temple.
People used to drink the water until ten years ago. The water
quality deteriorated due to pollution and people do not use the
water any more.
Special feature
There is a sanctuary for peacocks on this hill.
260
VRIDHACHALAM
Temple location The Vridhagiriswarar Temple, on the banks of

Manimuthar, is dedicated to Shiva and is in
the heart of Vridhachalam town, Cuddalore
district with good transport facilities.
Main deity Vridhagiriswarar
Goddess Vridambigai or Balambigai
History
Sembiyan Mahadevi the Chola Queen reconstructed the temple
of stone in the 10th century A.D. Inscriptions belonging to
Kandarathithan, Raja Raja I, Rajendra I, Rajathirajan, Vikramachola,
Raja Raja II, Kulothungan III and other kings of the Pandiya, Pallava
and Vijayanagara, rulers are found in this temple.
Mythology
It is believed that Vishnu created a tank here with his chakram
(wheel) and hence it is called Chakra Kulam.
Festivals
The annual Theppam festival is conducted in the month of Magha
(February-March).
Sacred tank(s)
Theppa Kulam
Chakra Kulam

Theppa Kulam
The tank is outside the temple at a distance of 1.5 km. Upto 1960,
water from Kandayan Kuppam was flowing into the tank through the
Vridhachalam 261
inlet. The outflow is connected to the Manimuthar river. Owing to

encroachments (shops and houses), the path of the inlet is blocked.
The kulam has shrunk to the size of a kuttai (small pond). The
residents dump their garbage in this tank. There were five wells
inside the tank and they are now completely closed. The water
is not used for any purpose and only the annual float festival is
celebrated in the tank after pumping water into this tank.
Chakra Kulam
The tank is inside the temple and Vivekananda Sevai Maiyam,
a local NGO has renovated it. The water is used for performing
poojas for the deities.
Special feature
A British Collector donated a long chain to draw the temple
chariot.

Sacred Tanks of South India

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SACRED TANKS

No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre

Price: Rs. 250/-

This book has been printed on tree-free paper

Hydrogeology of Sacred Tanks and its Significance in the

Sacred Tanks of India............................................................................14

Sacred Tanks of Tamilnadu...................................................................17

Sacred Tanks: Glimpses from Epigraphy...............................................25

Irrigation Tanks - How Sacred are they?..............................................36

PART 1 ANDHRA PRADESH...............................................................41

Annamalai Nagar (Tiruvatkalam)..........................................................160

The lack of perpetual snow-fed rivers in South India led to the

and culturally important species and sacred tanks to maintain

Sacred tanks have different names in each state

tanks were also used for irrigation, particularly to cultivate temple

The visual survey and recording of information was accompanied, in

HYDROGEOLOGY OF SACRED TANKS

Dr. K.R. Srinivasan*

The temple and Pushkarani were well maintained by the temple

*Water Resources Specialist, Chennai

view of the ongoing rapid population growth, urbanization and

Physiography and Drainage

close proxmity to the sea, some deep aquifers record a mixture of

Status of sacred tanks in the hydrogeological regime

Summary of mechanisms in respect of fluctuation

Particulars Unconfined Man Climatic

Sacred tanks - Hydrogeological environmental regime

pollutants can enter groundwater flow-systems and develop reliable

Geological and Hydrological

Place Lithology and Groundwater availability

Place Lithology and Groundwater availability

Place Lithology and Groundwater availability

SACRED TANKS OF INDIA

Dr. N.V. Pundarikanthan*

The Oxford Dictionary defines “sacred” as something exclusively

*Professor Emeritus, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, Chennai

this tank during this period, it is equivalent to bathing in all the

The temple tanks are sacred and worshipped. The festivals

SACRED TANKS OF TAMILNADU

Prof. K.V. Raman*

The scope of this paper is limited to the tanks associated with

*Former Head of the Department of Archeology, University of Madras

Objectives of the temple tanks

of the annual Brahmotsava. The deity is given a ceremonial bath. All

Sacredness of the tanks

Association with holy rivers

(at Kanchi and Chidambaram) area, were already cited. The

Association with the divinities and celestials

Association with sages and saints

instances of the Kings, noble merchants, village committees giving

*Professor and Head, Department of Plant Science, Bharathidasan University,

of the temple complex or were topographically proximal to the

Sacred tanks fulfilled four requirements:

A detailed analysis of epigraphical data reveals that different

Name of the Temple No. of flowers Reference

Decorating the houses of temple servants with lotus / water lily

Mr. K.Ganesan, M.A., M.L.I.S.,

Temple tanks - Shapes and structure

like a mandap is found and it is called Neerazhi Mandap meaning

Construction and design

Water source for sacred tanks

Ekambaranathar temple and in Chidambaram Thillai Natarajar

Sacredness or holiness attached to our sacred tanks

*Water Resources Specialist, Chennai

*Professor and Head, Department of Plant Science, Bharathidasan University,