CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY - UNIVERSITY

N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

FINAL REPORT

ECE301A – P1

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
RECTIFIERS

TREYES, ROBERT B.
BSME-4
Student

ENGR. JEZIEL C. SUNIEL

Instructor
A. HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

I. OBJECTIVES
 To be able to use semiconductor diodes in half-wave rectifier circuit using
a typical half-wave rectifier and to verify the results with an oscilloscope
and a multi-meter.
 To be able to utilize a diode operating curve to test a diode by using a
typical diode circuit and verify the results with a multi-meter.

II. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

 F. A. C. E. T. Base Unit
 Semiconductor Devices Circuit Board
 Multi-meter
 Oscilloscope, dual trace
 Generator, sine wave

MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES

Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this unit.
Measured values differ from nominal due to normal circuit and instrument variations.
The measurements in the following exercises will be acceptable if the power voltages
and circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from nominal unless otherwise
noted in a procedure step:

External power source settings: +15 Vdc = ± 3 percent

-15 Vdc = ± 3 percent
POSITIVE SUPPLY and NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value ± 0.2 Vdc
Multi-meter voltage and current measurements: ± 8 percent
Multi-meter resistance measurements: ± 20 percent
Frequency/Phase shift/Amplitude (as measured by the oscilloscope): ± 8 percent

III. THEORY

INTRODUCTION/ HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS

The simplest method for converting an alternating current into a pulsating direct
current is through half-wave rectification. A half-wave rectifier circuit requires only a
diode and a load resistance, as shown in Figure 2-9 (a).
A half-wave rectifier can produce either a positive or a negative pulsating dc
output, depending on how the diode is connected in the circuit. Figure 2-9 (a) shows a
positive half-wave rectification with respect to circuit common, and Figure 2-9 (b) shows
a negative half-wave rectification circuit.
 In Figure 2-10 (a), the anode of the diode (point A of the drawing) is positive with
respect to the cathode during positive alternations of the ac input waveform, so current
flows. The current flow through CR1 results in a voltage drop across the series-
connected load resistor, R1. This conduction period is indicated by the shaded portions
of the VIN and VOUT waveforms of Figure 2-10 (a). During negative alternations, no
current flows because the anode is negative with respect to the cathode.
If the diode is reversed, as shown in Figure 2-10 (b), the diode conducts during
negative alternations of the ac input. The resulting output is negative with respect to
common, as shown by the shaded areas of the waveforms in Figure 2-10 (b).
The output from wither circuit is no longer an ac voltage, but rather a pulsating dc
voltage. The process whereby the diode conducts during one alternation of the input
cycle and blocks current flow during the other is called rectification. For half-wave
rectifiers, the diode will conduct for about one-half of every complete ac cycle. This
conduction occurs during either the positive or negative alternation, depending on the
direction in which the diode is connected into the circuit.
An ideal diode would have no forward voltage drop or reverse leakage current.
Practical diodes have leakage currents that are small enough to be ignored. However,
when a diode is fully conducting, electrons are present in the P type material and
positive charges are present in the N type material. When the voltage across the diode
switches suddenly from the forward to the reverse bias direction, these charges must be
swept from the diode before conduction stops. Just as a check valve will allow a small
slug of fluid to move in the reverse direction before the check ball seals, a pulse of
current flows in the reverse direction through a diode until the stored charges are
removed from the semiconductor. The time required to remove these stored charges is
called reverse recovery time (tRR).
 The amount of stored charges depends on the size of the diode, the doping
material and doping level, and several other factors. Reverse recovery time limits the
operation of the general purpose rectifier diodes to relatively low frequencies (less than
1 kHz) because the pulses of current allowed in the reverse direction become significant
at higher frequencies. Some diodes are designed to limit the effect of stored charges;
these diodes are called high speed or fast recovery diodes.
Forward voltage drop (VF) is another diode characteristic that can cause
significant losses, especially if applied voltages are small. During the forward biasing
alternation of the input signal, no current flows until the input voltage exceeds VF. When
that point is overcome, the diode starts to conduct, and voltage appears across the load
resistor. You can estimate the peak output circuit voltage (V OPEAK) by simply subtracting
the diode forward voltage drop (about 0.7 V for silicon diodes) from the peak input
voltage (VIPEAK).
For example, VIPEAK is equal to 2.0 V in Figure 2-11. The rectified circuit output
voltage is calculated as follows:

Figure 2-11 illustrates this relationship between input and output peak waveforms
for a positive half-wave rectifier. Notice that the output waveform contains a positive
pulsation that is only a portion of the positive alternation of the input waveform. During
the negative alternation of the input signal, no current flows because the diode is
reversed biased. Also notice that the starting point of the VOUT pulsation begins when
the input voltage reaches 0.7 V, the point at which the diode barrier voltage is
overcome.
The VOUT waveform of Figure 2-11 shows that the output pulsation is less than
the input alternation by 0.7 volts at every point. When you use an oscilloscope to
measure the input and output voltages of the half-wave rectifier, you can observe and
compare both signals together. You may measure the 0.7 Vdc forward voltage drop of
the diode by dc coupling both channels.
Oscilloscope readings are peak-to-peak for ac (input) waveforms and peak for
rectified (output) waveforms. By using the conversion factors which follow, you can
convert the values measured in the oscilloscope to approximate rms or average values.
These conversion factors apply only to half-wave rectifiers and only when the rectifiers
are supplied with ac sine wave inputs. Note that the diode forward voltage drop is
accounted for when you view the peak output voltage on the oscilloscope.
 Half-wave rectifier voltage conversion factors:
rms output voltage = 0.5 × peak output voltage
average output voltage = 0.318 × peak output voltage

Figure 2-12 illustrates the relationship between peak, rms, and average values
as they apply to a half-wave rectifier circuit.

In Figure 2-12, a voltage is developed across load resistor RL. As a result, current
must flow through the load. When the voltage and load resistance are known, you can
calculate the approximate current through the load by using the following formula and
conversion factors.

Half-wave rectifier circuit relationships:

IPEAK = VOPEAK / RL
IRMS = 0.5 × IPEAK
IAVG = 0.318 × IPEAK

The variations in the pulsating dc output of a rectifier are referred to as ripple.

The higher the ripple frequency, the more effective the circuit. The frequency of an ac
waveform is defined as the number of complete cycles in one second. An alternating
current of 60 Hz has 60 positive and 60 negative alternations in one second. In a half-
wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is the same as the input voltage frequency because
only the negative or the positive alternations (depending on how the diode is connected
in the rectifier circuit) are allowed to pass. Figure 2-13 shows the ripple frequency of 50
and 60 Hz.
IV. PROCEDURE

The dc power sources of the base unit were adjusted to +15 Vdc and -15Vdc.
The power sources were turned off. The Semiconductor Devices circuit board was
inserted into the base unit and the power sources were then turned on. The Diodes and
½ Wave Rectification circuit block was located and the circuit was connected as shown
in Figure 2-14.

The sine wave generator signal leads were connected to the 50-ohm output of
the generator. In the experiment, since the generator output impedance was not 50
ohms, the Generator Buffer was inserted into the Semiconductor Devices circuit board,
between the generator and the circuit. The buffer output terminals were connected to
the generator terminals on the Diodes and ½ Wave Rectification circuit block. The
generator frequency controls were then set to 1000 Hz and the output level to zero.

The X10 probes were connected to both channels of the oscilloscope. The input
controls for both channels were set to ground and the vertical centering controls for both
channels were adjusted to align both traces exactly on the center horizontal line of the
scope graticule. The input controls for both channels were switched to dc coupling and
the calibrated oscilloscope controls of channels 1 and 2 were set to 50 mV/cm
sensitivity. The horizontal sweep controls were set to a sweep rate of 0.1 ms/cm. The
sweep on channel 1 was triggered and adjusted to positive sync level.

The oscilloscope channel 1 was connected to the circuit to observe the ac input.
The output level of the sine wave generator was adjusted to 2 VPK-PK. Then, the multi-
meter was set to read the ac voltage. The multi-meter was temporarily connected to the
circuit input and the voltage reading was recorded to be about 0.707 VAC. The rms and
average voltage values were calculated at the circuit input. It was noted that the peak
input voltage was one-half of the peak-to-peak value. It was seen that the measured
and calculated values of input voltage coincide.

The oscilloscope channel 2 was connected across the load resistor R2 and the
CR2 output waveform was observed to have positive pulsations of amplitude 0.6 VPK.
The input and output signals on channels 1 and 2, respectively, were observed using
the oscilloscope CHOP method. It was seen that the ripple frequency was the same as
the input frequency, that is about 1000 Hz. The peak voltage displayed on each
oscilloscope channel was measured and the difference between the voltages was about
the amount of the diode voltage drop.

The oscilloscope time base was set to 50 µs/cm. Both input channel selector
switches were set to GND position. The vertical position controls for both channels were
adjusted so that both traces lay along the center horizontal grid line of the oscilloscope
graticule. The volts/division control for channel 2 was set to 20 mV/cm and both input
channel selector switches were set to the dc coupling position.
 Both traces of the oscilloscope channels were observed in the CHOP sweep
mode and the display was compared with Figure 2-15. The oscilloscope controls were
adjusted to match the figure.

It was observed that conduction begins at point A and ends at point B, both on
the illustration and in the oscilloscope display. From this, it was implied that the voltage
before point A and after point B was not sufficient to overcome the diode barrier voltage.
In order to make the peak amplitudes of the input and output waveforms unequal, a
voltage about the amount of the diode voltage drop would have to be subtracted from
the input peak amplitude.

The oscilloscope time base was adjusted to 0.2 ms/cm. Channel 1 was set to 50
mV/cm and channel 2 to 20 mV/cm. The oscilloscope display waveform was adjusted to
match Figure 2-16.

It was apparent from the appearance of the oscilloscope waveforms that the half-
wave rectifier circuit was a positive half-wave rectifier. The oscilloscope channel 2 input
was connected to the top of R1. It was seen now that the circuit conducted during the
negative half of the cycle of the input signal. It was also observed that the same
input/output relationships apply to both the positive and the negative half-wave
rectifiers. During the negative portions of the output waveform, diode CR1 was
conducting.

In another part, when CM switch 7 was placed in the ON position, the output
appeared to be an AC signal. The purpose of CM switch 7 was to cause diode CR1 to
simulate a defective diode with insufficient reverse resistance. CM switch 7 was turned
off.
 The sine wave generator was adjusted to a 4 V PK-PK input signal on oscilloscope
channel. The dc output voltage across R1 was measured using the dc volts function of
the multi-meter. The expected average output voltage was calculated based on a 2 VPK
output using the formula: averaged output = 0.318 × peak output voltage. The
calculated average voltage was 0.676 VDC. In comparison, the value displayed in the
multi-meter was slightly lower than the calculated value because the measurement
calibrations/systems of the multi-meter and the oscilloscope are different. The multi-
meter was disconnected.

The frequency of the generator was increased to 10 kHz. The input selector
switches for both channels were set to the GND position. The vertical position controls
were adjusted to align the channel 1 trace along the second grid line from the top of the
screen, as well as to align the channel 2 trace along the second grid line from the
bottom. Both channels were set to 0.2 V/cm. and both input selector switches were set
to dc coupling. Channel 2 of the oscilloscope was connected to the top of R1. The
sweep speed of the oscilloscope was set to 0.1 ms/cm. As observed in the screen,
positive peaks on the channel 2 trace appeared because of the diode’s reverse
recovery time. The sine wave generator frequency was increased to 100 kHz and the
oscilloscope speed to 10 µs/cm. It was seen that the channel 2 waveform was no longer
a pulsating dc. The power sources and the generator were turned off. All circuit board
connections were removed.

V. DISCUSSION

Half wave rectification. A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating

Current (AC) input power into a Direct Current (DC) output power. The power diode in
a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine wave of the AC
supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Rectification is the conversion
of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This involves a device that only allows
one-way flow of electrons. It consist of one or more semiconductor devices or vacuum
tubes. Diodes are widely used as a rectifier. Rectification is a process converting and
alternating current into direct current by using a diode. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, a
load resistance is connected in series with the PN junction diode. Alternating current is
the input of the half wave rectifier. A step down transformer takes input voltage and the
resulting output of the transformer is given to the load resistor and to the diode. The
half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications because of their major
disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the input amplitude, there is no
output during the negative half cycle so half the power is wasted and the output
is pulsed DC resulting in excessive ripple.

VI. CONCLUSION

If the positive half cycle is allowed then the negative half cycle is blocked and
vice versa. However, a half wave rectifier will not allow both + and – half cycles at the
same time. When the input voltage is going through its positive cycle, output voltage is
almost the same as the input voltage and during the negative half cycle no voltage is
available across the load. This explains the unidirectional pulsating dc waveform
obtained as output. The process of removing one half the input signal to establish a dc
level is aptly called half wave rectification.
B. FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

I. OBJECTIVE
 To be able to demonstrate rectification using a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
and to verify the results with an oscilloscope.

II. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

 F. A. C. E. T. Base Unit
 Semiconductor Devices Circuit Board
 Power supply, 15 Vdc (2 required)
 Multi-meter
 Oscilloscope, dual trace
 Generator, sine wave

MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES
Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this unit.
Measured values will differ from nominal value due to normal circuit and instrument
variations. The measurements in the following exercise will be acceptable if the power
voltages and circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from nominal unless
otherwise noted in a procedure step:
External power source settings: +15 Vdc = ± 3 percent
-15 Vdc = ± 3 percent
POSITIVE SUPPLY and NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value ± 0.2 Vdc
Multi-meter voltage and current measurements: ± 8 percent
Multi-meter resistance measurements: ± 20 percent
Frequency/Phase shift/Amplitude (as measured by the oscilloscope): ± 8 percent

III. THEORY
AC current is simpler and more economical to generate and transmit than dc
current. For this reason, electric utility companies generate and distribute ac power. But
typical electronic circuits require a dc source of power. A rectifier circuit can be used to
convert ac into pulsating dc.
To convert ac to dc, the rectifier circuit must be capable of passing current in one
direction (forward biased) and blocking current in the reverse direction. The diode, with
its unidirectional (one way) current characteristic, is well suited for rectification. Diodes
may be configured in three basic ways to perform rectification.
The first part of this experiment let us observe how a single diode is able to
perform half-wave rectification on low current applications. Groups of diodes allow a
circuit to perform full-wave rectification, a more efficient process. Figure 3-7 illustrates
the two circuit configurations that provide for full-wave rectification.
 Circuit operation is nearly identical for both configurations. Figure 3-7 (a) shows a
center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit. Figure 3-7 (b) shows a full-wave bridge rectifier
circuit. Due to design considerations and transformer efficiencies, the circuit
configuration of Figure 3-7 (b) is generally preferred.
Rectification is a process in which a diode conducts during one alternation of the
input cycle (half-wave rectification). The full-wave bridge rectifier makes possible the
rectification of both alternations of the input cycle.
Figure 3-8 shows a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with four diodes (01, 02, 03,
and 04). The bridge has two input terminals and two output terminals.

The input terminals are marked with a symbol (~) that indicates the ac sides of
the bridge. The output terminals are marked with plus (+) and minus (-) symbols that
indicate the positive and negative dc output sides of the bridge. When the bridge is in
operation, a pair of diodes at a time conducts. The diode pairs are D1 and D3, and D2
and D4. Because of the diode pairing, both alternations of the input ac signal are
converted to pulsating dc, resulting in full-wave rectification.
Figure 3-9 shows the condition of the bridge for each ac alternation. In Figure 3-9
(a), the positive alternation causes diodes D1 and D3 to be forward biased. As a result,
current flows through D3 and the loads resistor, then back to the transformer through
D1. Because diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased at this time, they perform no
function in the circuit, and so they are not shown.
 In Figure 3-9 (b), the negative alternation causes diodes D2 and D4 to be forward
biased. As a result, current flows through D2 and the load resistor, then back to the
transformer through D4. During this alternation, diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased
and so are not shown.
Notice that both the positive and negative alternations of the input ac voltage are
converted to pulsating dc. Figure 3-9 (c) shows the resulting rectified voltage wave
shape. In addition, the diode pairs steer the pulsating dc output so that the current flows
through the same direction during both input voltage alternations. Because there are
two pulses for one complete cycle of the input waveform, as Figure 3-9 (c) indicates, the
output pulse frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency. Therefore,
the ripple frequency of the output is equal to two times the input, or line frequency.
The relationship between peak, rms, and average voltages of a full-wave rectifier
are shown in Figure 3-10. In general, the average value is twice that of a half-wave
configuration. The rms value increases to 0.707.
IV. PROCEDURE
The dc power sources of the base unit were adjusted to +15 Vdc and -15 Vdc.
The power sources were turned off. The Semiconductor Devices circuit board was
inserted into the base unit. The power sources were not turned on at this time. The Full
Wave Rectification with Power Supply Filter circuit block was located and the circuit was
connected as shown in Figure 3-11. The Generator Buffer was also installed as shown
in the figure.

The resistor R1 was used as the load in the circuit. Using the X10 probes, the
oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 were set to 0.5 V/cm. Each input was set to dc coupling
and the time base to 1 ms/cm. Positive level triggering was used and the oscilloscope
on channel 1 was synced. The channel 1 of the oscilloscope was connected to the
output terminals of the Generator Buffer while channel 2 was connected across the
secondary terminals of T1.
The secondary voltage of the transformer was measured and the generator was
adjusted to a 20 VPK-PK 100 Hz sine wave. The secondary voltage was compared to the
primary voltage displayed on channel 1 of the oscilloscope. Based on the voltage
readings, the transformer was found out to have a step-up primary-to-secondary voltage
relationship (from 20 VPK-PK to 25 VPK-PK).
The channel 2 of the oscilloscope was moved to the output side of the bridge
(CR1) circuit. The common side of the test probe was placed on the negative point of
the bridge. Both alternations of the input waveform were displayed at the output. The
frequency of the output pulsations of the full-wave rectifier circuit was measured to be
263 Hz while the input was about 125 Hz. Channel 2 was set to 2 V/cm. The output
waveform was drawn on the graph of Figure 3-12. The peak output voltage was seen to
be 12 V.

The dc average output voltage was calculated using the formula: VAVG = VPK ×
0.636. The value recorded from the previous measurement was used for this
calculation. The value was recorded to be 7.632 V. The multi-meter was set to dc volts
and the circuit output voltage was measured to be 6.140 V. The calculated and
measured readings were about the same within measurement tolerances. The peak
output secondary voltage of the transformer was 10 V PK while the peak output of the
rectifier circuit was 9 VPK. The difference of readings was due to the forward drop of the
diodes. The channel 2 oscilloscope probe was moved to the top terminal of the
transformer secondary. It was ensured that the common lead of the test probe was at
the negative terminal of the bridge circuit. The proper circuit measurement points were
referred from Figure 3-13.

Using an X10 probe, channel 2 was set to 0.2 V/cm. Channel 1 of the
oscilloscope was monitored and the output of the external sine wave generator was
adjusted to a 10 VPK-PK signal. The test waveform was positioned as indicated in Figure
3-14.

Referring to the oscilloscope display, it was seen that the diode under test was
forward biased during the positive alternation of the input voltage. By measuring the
drop from the channel 2 reference line on Figure 3-14, the approximate forward bias
voltage drop of the diode was measured to be 0.4 V. Referring to the test voltages
displayed on the oscilloscope, the test diode was seen to be forward biased during the
positive alternation of the input voltage.
The channel 2 reference line was moved to the middle line of the oscilloscope
graticule. The common lead of the channel 2 probe was moved from the negative side
of the bridge to the positive side of the bridge. Referring to the displayed test voltages,
the diode was now conducting during the negative alternation of the input voltage. The
diode forward voltage was about the same as when the diode was conducting during
the positive alternations (0.4 V). Figure 3-15 shows a full-wave rectifier circuit in a non-
bridge configuration. Based on the test results, when D1 was forward biased, the diode
D3 was also conducting. The F. A. C. E. T. setup was reviewed by the instructor.
V. DISCUSSION

Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating

DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a
center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source
(including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Full wave rectifier is a type
of rectifier which converts alternating current voltage into pulsating direct current voltage
during both half cycles of applied input voltage. ... In this rectifier, full wave
rectification can be achieved by using two crystal diodes which conduct current
alternatively. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of
the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing
a smoother output waveform. In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used,
one for each half of the cycle. A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or
more diodes that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). A diode is like
a one-way valve that allows an electrical current to flow in only one direction. This
process is called rectification.

VI. CONCLUSION

Half wave rectifiers only allows either positive or a negative half cycle of
the input AC signal and the remaining half cycle of the inut AC signal is blocked. As a
result, a large amount of power is wasted. We can easily overcome this by using the
other rectifier which is the full wave rectifier. The full wave rectifier has some basic
advantage over the half wave rectifier. The average DC output voltage produced by the
full wave rectifier is higher than the half wave rectifier. Furthermore, the DC output
signal of the full wave rectifier has fewer ripples than the half wave rectifier. As a result,
we get a smoother output DC voltage.