Mechanized, Orbital

and Robot Welding

Basics and Quality

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
P a g e |1
P a g e |2
 Basics and Quality

EWF-IAB-348-13
Minimum Requirements for the Education,
Training, Examination and Qualification

International/European Mechanized, Orbital and

Robot Welding Personnel

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
P a g e |3
P a g e |4
Produced by:

Project Erasmus+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913

ASOCIAȚIA DE SUDURĂ DIN ROMÂNIA

ISTITUTO ITALIANO DELLA SALDATURA

EUROPEAN FEDERATION FOR WELDING JOINING

AND CUTTING

INSTITUTO DE SOLDADURA E QUALIDADE

INSTYTUT SPAWALNICTWA

www.futureweld.eu

Disclaimer
"The sole responsibility of this publication lies with the author. The
European Union is not responsible for any use that may be made of
the information contained therein“

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
P a g e |5
P a g e |6
Table of Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................. 11

1. BASICS OF MECHANIZED, ORBITAL AND ROBOT WELDING ......................... 13

1.1 Basics of education for mechanized, orbital and robot welding personnel ................................. 13
1.2 Mechanization and automation levels in welding ....................................................................... 16
1.2.1 General aspects on mechanization of welding processes.................................................... 16
1.2.2 Terminology related to welding .......................................................................................... 20
1.2.3 Fundamentals on applying welding processes .................................................................... 21
1.3 Basics of mechanized welding ..................................................................................................... 23
1.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 23
1.3.2 Advantages of welding mechanization ................................................................................ 24
1.4 Basics of orbital welding .............................................................................................................. 25
1.4.1 Fundamentals of orbital welding ......................................................................................... 25
1.4.2 Advantages of orbital welding ............................................................................................. 28
1.5 Basics of robot welding................................................................................................................ 28
1.5.1 Fundamentals of robot welding .......................................................................................... 28
1.5.2 Seam-tracking systems for robot ......................................................................................... 33
1.5.3 Other components in robot welding ................................................................................... 34
Chapter 1: Learning outcomes........................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 1: Examination ..................................................................................................................... 37

2. THE QUALITY ASSURANCE IN MECHANIZED, ORBITAL AND ROBOT WELDING 39

2.1 Introduction to quality assurance in welding .............................................................................. 39

2.1.1 The concept of quality and quality assurance advantages .................................................. 40
2.1.2 The implementation of a quality system ............................................................................. 42
2.2 Quality assurance and quality standards in welding .................................................................... 45
2.2.1 Quality standards in welding: EN ISO 3834, ISO 9001 ......................................................... 45
2.2.1.1 Quality standards in welding: ISO 9001 ............................................................................ 46
2.2.1.2 Quality standards in welding: ISO 3834 (series) ............................................................... 48
2.2.1.3 Other standards used for welding quality control ............................................................ 52
2.2.2 Quality control during manufacturing ................................................................................. 53
2.2.2.1 Weld Joints Quality levels ................................................................................................. 54
2.2.2.2 Inspection and Testing Plan – ITP ..................................................................................... 55
2.2.2.3 Welding sequence ............................................................................................................ 56
2.2.2.4 Welding coordination and inspection personnel .............................................................. 56

P a g e |7
 2.2.2.5 Welding Procedure Specification – WPS........................................................................... 58
2.2.2.6 Approval of Welding Procedures ...................................................................................... 60
2.2.3 Quality control in mechanized, orbital and robot welding .................................................. 60
2.3 Basics of productivity, quality and economy in welding .............................................................. 62
2.4 Qualification of mechanized, orbital and robot welding personnel ............................................ 71
2.4.1 ISO 14732 ............................................................................................................................ 72
2.4.2 Methods of monitoring, control and storage of fabrication data ........................................ 76
Chapter 2: Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................... 77
Chapter 2: Examination ..................................................................................................................... 77

P a g e |8
P a g e |9
P a g e | 10
Foreword

The present book has been developed in the scope of the project E+
2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913 – acronym: FUTUREWELD, which is a
project co-financed by the ERASMUS+ programme of the European
Commission.

It is the first of four books covering the educational materials,

dedicated to the training of personnel qualified according to the
EWF/IIW Guideline EWF-IAB-348-13 - Minimum Requirements for the
Education, Training, Examination and Qualification of European
Mechanised, Orbital and Robot Welding Personnel.

The FUTUREWELD project aims at improving the level of key

competences and skills, in the labour market, through the increasing
of the opportunities of cooperation between the world of education and
training and the world of work. Subsequently, FUTUREWELD will
improve the quality level of the training institutions through
transnational cooperation.

The targeted field is the welding process with three distinct directions:
mechanized process, orbital process and robotized process. This gives,
to the personnel involved in the welding fabrication, a large spectrum
of qualifications addressed by the project.

P a g e | 11
P a g e | 12
 1. BASICS OF MECHANIZED, ORBITAL
AND ROBOT WELDING

The goal of this chapter is to present the main aspects regarding the educational
system for Welding Personnel, in accordance to EWF/IIW International Guideline
and the conceptual basic elements of mechanized, orbital and robot welding. It
includes the basic information for mechanized, orbital and robot welding
personnel, the main concepts of mechanization and automation levels in welding;
a general description of the main concepts of mechanized, orbital and robotized
welding.

1.1 Basics of education for mechanized, orbital and robot

welding personnel

Basics of The European Federation for Welding, Joining and Cutting (EWF)
education for manages a harmonized system for training, qualification and
mechanized, certification of welding personnel. It is also responsible for the
orbital and robot
welding personnel
Certification System of companies using welding, in Quality,
Environment, Health and Safety. Founded in 1992, it currently has 30
European member countries and 2 observer members from outside
Europe, represented by their national welding societies. EWF has
licensed its Qualification System to the International Institute of
Welding in 2000 and since then a combined EWF/IIW System has been
offered in 45 countries worldwide.

The International Institute of Welding (IIW) was founded in 1948 by

the welding institutes/societies of 13 countries, who considered crucial
to achieve a more rapid scientific and technical progress, only possible
on a global level. Their vision was for the IIW to be the international
vehicle by which innovation and best joining practices could be
promoted, while providing an international platform for the exchange
and dissemination of evolving welding technologies and applications.
The IIW is today a universal reference, recognized as the largest
worldwide network for welding and allied joining technologies, boasting
a current membership of 56 countries from the five continents.

In 1998, IIW decided to implement at the international level the

principle for harmonization of the training, education and qualification
systems already used in Europe from the European federation of
welding institutes (namely the EWF – European Federation for Welding,
Joining and Cutting). The International Education, Training and
Qualification System for Welding Personnel is nowadays recognized
worldwide and supported by industry and by international training and
accreditation entities, opening the way towards one Global Education
and Qualification System for Welding Personnel (until the end of 2011,
more than 80.300 IIW diplomas have been awarded worldwide).

P a g e | 13
The IAB (International Authorisation Board) is the working entity in
IIW dealing with the development, maintenance, implementation and
control of the IIW guidelines for the education and training of
personnel; nationally, Authorised National Bodies (ANB) are involved
in the implementation of the guideline on a local basis.

The most recognized guideline in this European/International system

is the one for the qualification of personnel with responsibility for
welding coordination (European/International Welding Engineer,
Technologist, Specialist and Practitioner); in addition, EWF/IIW-IAB
continuously monitors the industrial needs, in order to introduce new
guidelines to cover these needs. This is the case of Guideline EWF-IAB-
348-13 “EWF/IIW Guideline for the education, training, examination
and qualification of European/International mechanized, orbital and
robot welding personnel”, which has been published in 2013. Section
1 of the guideline covers the minimum requirements for education and
training, which have been agreed upon by all EWF and IAB Authorized
National Bodies, in terms of objectives, scope, expected results and
teaching hours to be devoted to achieving them. It will be revised
periodically by EWF and IIW-IAB to take into account changes to reflect
the “state of the art”.

Fig. 1.1 EWF-IAB-348-13 Guideline

Students having successfully completed modules 1, 2, 3 and 7 of the

course and passed the relevant examination (minimum in mechanized,
orbital or robot welding or all together) will be expected to be capable
of applying the technology required at the “Basic” level in mechanized,
orbital or robot welding as covered by the guideline.

P a g e | 14
Students having successfully completed each module of this course of
education and passed the appropriate examinations (minimum in
mechanized, orbital or robot welding or all together) will be capable of
applying the technology required at the “Comprehensive” level in
mechanized, orbital and/or robot welding as covered by the guideline.

Table 1.1 reports the structure of the guideline and interaction between
the levels of qualification and the methods of application (mechanized,
robot, orbital).

Table 1.1 The structure of the guideline EWF-IAB-348-13

Teaching hours Qualification
Module
I/EMW I/EOW I/ERW I/EMORW Basic Comprehensive
1: basic of
mechanized,
8 8 8 8 X X
orbital and robot
welding
2: the quality
assurance in
mechanized, 8 8 8 8 X X
orbital and robot
welding
3: different
welding systems
12 8 24 44 X X
and their
programming
4: design and
economy of
mechanized, - - 16 16 - X
orbital and robot
welding systems
5: design of
welded
structures for
- - 24 24 - X
mechanized,
orbital and robot
welding
6: case study - - 16 16 - X
7: practical
education in
32 32 40
Basic and (40) X X
(4) (4) (32)
(Comprehensive)
level
Total for the
Basic and 80
60 56 (156)
(Comprehensive) (128)
level
M: mechanized; O: orbital; R: robot

P a g e | 15
 Fig. 1.2 Qualification paths

In addition to all above, the guideline includes requirements for the

training bodies involved in the course, as per teachers, equipment,
specimens, training material and all that is required to achieve an
appropriately harmonized education in the specific field.

1.2 Mechanization and automation levels in welding

1.2.1 General aspects on mechanization of welding processes

Mechanization and The methods of applying the various welding processes are categorized
automation levels according to the degree of operator involvement in the performance of
in welding
the welding operations.

In manual welding, defined as “welding with a torch, gun or electrode

holder held and manipulated by hand”, the welder performs the
welding function and maintains continuous control of the welding
operations by hand.

Semiautomatic welding (sometimes referred to also as partly

mechanized welding), is defined as: manual welding with equipment
that automatically controls one or more of the welding conditions; in
general the welder manipulates the welding gun to create the weld
while the electrode is automatically fed to the arc.

P a g e | 16
In both methods, the welder has the control of the welding pool and
may control the welding conditions while the process is running; this
allows a management of some small deviations in welding conditions
(e.g. bevel size and width, distortions, etc.). Manual skills are required
for the welder to manipulate the process.

Fig. 1.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Manual - the oldest welding process
(source: https://www.wikipedia.org/)

Mechanized welding is defined as: welding with equipment that

requires manual adjustment of the equipment controls, in response to
visual observation of welding, with a torch, gun or electrode holder
held by a mechanical device. In other words, the welder’s intervention
consists of adjusting the equipment controls in response to visual
observation of operations.

Fig. 1.4 Mechanized orbital pipe welding

(source: www.ogpe.com)

P a g e | 17
Automated welding is defined as: welding with equipment that requires
only occasional or no observation of the weld and no manual
adjustment of the equipment controls. The operator’s involvement is
limited to activating the machine to initiate the welding cycle and
observing the weld on an intermittent basis, if at all.

Fig. 1.5 Orbital welding is a typical setting of automated welding

(source: www.arcmachines.com and www.westermans.com)

Robot welding is defined as: welding that is performed and controlled

by robotic equipment; it entails no involvement on the part of the
welding operator in performing the weld, as the welding operations are
carried out and controlled by welding robots.

In both automated and robotic welding, however, the operator plays

an active role in quality control through the visual inspection of the
weld, in order to possibly identify weld imperfections and evaluate
them against relevant acceptability criteria. When inacceptable
imperfections (defects) are encountered, appropriate measures must
be taken, both on the weld itself and on maintenance or programming
personnel to correct deviations.

Adaptive control welding is defined as: welding with a process control

system that automatically determines changes in welding conditions
and directs the equipment to take appropriate action. This process
application relies on sensors to provide real-time data regarding
abnormalities to the computer controller. The controller then makes
the necessary changes in welding parameters to produce quality welds.
Thus, welding routines are performed and controlled without operator
intervention or supervision.

P a g e | 18
 Fig. 1.6 Typical layout of a robotized welding cell
(source: www.machineryautomation.com.au)

Fig. 1.7 Robot laser welding with laser scanner makes it adaptive
(source: www.industrial-lasers.com)

P a g e | 19
 These methods of application of welding processes are summarized in
Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Capabilities of the different welding application methods

Adaptive
Method of application Manual Semiautomatic Mechanized Automatic Robotic
control

Arc welding
elements/function

Starts and maintains Machine (with Machine

Welder Machine Machine Machine
the arc sensor) (robot)
Feed the electrode
Welder Machine Machine Machine Machine Machine
into the arc
Machine
Controls the heat for Machine (with
Welder Welder Machine Machine (robot with
proper penetration sensor)
sensor)
Moves the arc along Machine (with Machine
Welder Welder Machine Machine
the joint sensor) (robot)
Machine via Machine
Guides the arc along Machine (with
Welder Welder Operator prearranged (robot with
the joint sensor)
path sensor)
Manipulates the torch Machine (with Machine
Welder Welder Operator Machine
to direct the arc sensor) (robot)
Does not
Machine
Corrects the arc to correct; hence Machine (with
Welder Welder Operator (robot with
overcome deviations potential weld sensor)
sensor)
imperfections

As a further concept, the role of personnel involved in welding is

depending on the method of application of the process; this ranges
from the welder to the welding unit programmer; capabilities and
competence vary from manual skills to theoretical knowledge of
process, automation and programming. It is recognized that in order
to guarantee the appropriate quality of the weld, it is necessary that
the process is properly controlled; this shall result from the
combination of process monitoring through the control of welding
parameters and involvement of qualified personnel.

The goal of this book is to provide personnel involved in mechanized,

orbital and robot welding with basic information to support their
acquiring of skills in the management of the process.

1.2.2 Terminology related to welding

Mechanization and Welding is considered to be the most complex of all manufacturing
automation levels technologies. It is much more than an occupation requiring a high level
in welding
of manipulative skill. Welding is a technology based on the physical
laws of nature. It is an engineering speciality that embraces many
scientific disciplines. Some basic terminology may be therefore useful
to understand the theme. Welding is a materials-joining process that
produces a weld.

A weld is a localized coalescence of metals or non-metal produced

either by heating the materials to the welding temperature with or
without the use of pressure, or by application alone with or without the
use of the filler material.

P a g e | 20
 A weldment is an assembly whose components are joined by welding.
A weldment has many or few parts. The filler material is the metal to
be added when making a welded, brazed or soldered joint; it becomes
the weld. In some processes, the filler metal is carried across the heat
source and deposited in the weld. In others, the filler metal is not
carried across the heat source but is melted by the heat of the arc and
upon solidification becomes the weld metal. Base material is defined
as the material to be welded, soldered, brazed or cut.

1.2.3 Fundamentals on applying welding processes

Mechanization and The welding procedure specification provides the detailed methods
automation levels and practices, including joint design detail, materials and methods of
in welding
application of welding, that describe how a particular weld or
weldment is made.
Welding can be done in different positions, as follows:
 Flat: the welding position used to weld from the upper side of the
joint at a point where the weld axis is approximately horizontal and
the weld face lies in an horizontal plane;
 Horizontal (fillet weld): the weld is on the upper side of an
approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately
vertical surface
 Horizontal (butt weld): the weld face lies in an approximately
vertical plane and the weld axis at the point of welding is
approximately horizontal
 Overhead: the welding is performed from the underside of the joint
 Vertical welding position: the weld axis at the point of welding is
approximately vertical and the weld face lies in an approximately
vertical plane.

Fig. 1.8 Welding positions

(source: ISO 6947 “Welding and allied processes - Welding positions”)

Welding positions are generally reported with reference to a specific

standard; ISO 6947 “Welding and allied processes - Welding positions”
is the applicable International standard.

P a g e | 21
Table 1.3 Welding positions
Welding Position Symbol
Flat PA
Horizontal PC
Vertical Upwards Progression PF
Vertical Downwards Progression PG
Overhead PE
Pipe Fixed Horizontal, Upwards PH
Pipe Fixed Horizontal, Downwards PJ
Pipe Fixed at 45 degrees Upwards HL045
Pipe Fixed at 45 degrees Downwards JL045
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45 degrees) PA
Horizontal PB
Vertical Upwards Progression PF
Vertical Downwards Progression PG
Overhead PD
Pipe Fixed Horizontal PF

There are four basic types of joints for bringing two parts together by
welding:
 Butt joint: parts aligned in the same plane
 T-joint: two parts joined in a T shape, 90 degrees; this can be done
through full penetration, partial penetration and fillet weld.
 Lap joint: two overlapping parts in parallel planes
 Corner joint: two parts joined on their edges. Generally positioned
in square angles

Figure 1.9 illustrates a schematic drawing of the types of joints

mentioned above.

Fig. 1.9 Main types of welds

P a g e | 22
 Welding can be applied on different types of products (pipe, sheets,
forged parts, etc.) made of different materials. These ranges from
steels and cast irons to alloys of non-ferrous metals (such as
aluminium, copper, nickel, titanium, zirconium). Each material has
specific behaviour during welding; it may exhibit a good or bad
weldability, which defines the attitude to make a sound and reliable
weld. Welding procedures generally need to be adapted to the
materials welded, in order to ensure that the weld properties fit the
designer’s scope.

1.3 Basics of mechanized welding

1.3.1 Introduction
Basics of Mechanized welding is often selected and implemented to reduce
mechanized labour costs and improve quality. In mechanized welding, the welding
welding
operation is performed under the observation and control of a welding
operator. The mechanized welding equipment controls the following
variables:
 initiation and control of the heat source
 feeding the welding electrode wire into the heat source, if any
 control of movement and travel speed along the joint

Mechanized welding must allow sufficient time for the welding operator
to monitor and control the guidance aspects of the operation as well
as the welding process variables. To perform this task, the operator
must be positioned near the area being welded, to observe the
operation closely. The operator interacts continually with the
equipment to ensure the proper placement and quality of the weld
metal. Changes to process parameters may be required.

The travel speed of the carriage is an important welding variable, as

uniform speed and weld direction during operation are vital for quality
welds. Quality also depends on how rigidly the welding carriage is held
to the track, because excessive vibration or dimensional variation can
adversely affect the wire tip position.

Mechanized welding improves the efficiency of the process while

minimizing operator fatigue, thereby increasing the consistency and
quality of the welds. This application method is capable of yielding
uniform, consistent weld profiles when producing long linear or
circumferential welds.

A mechanized welding process reduces the likelihood of human setup

errors that may cause lower quality welds and production losses.
Mechanized welding requires fewer starts and stops compared to
manual welding, thus reducing the probability of various weld
discontinuities associated with breaking and restarting the welding arc.

P a g e | 23
 The system components used in a mechanized welding installation may
be (depending on the welding process):
 power supply and source;
 gas supply;
 wire holder;
 wire feeding mechanism;
 tracking system;
 travel device.

Many advantages come from the mechanization of welding processes.

Firstly, to obtain a higher productivity in the form of more welded
meters per time unit. The duty cycle is higher than in manual welding
and the travel speeds and deposition rates obtained are also greater.

Mechanization has more advantages than just a higher productivity.

These advantages are:
 Improved work conditions and safety. The physically
strenuous work is transferred to the machine and the welder
is in charge of setting and controlling the process, whilst
enjoying ergonomically improved conditions.
 The quality of the weld is often better and more consistent.
Optimal welding parameters are maintained throughout the
entire length of the weld; starts and stops – always potential
defects points – are avoided.
 Improved weld appearance. The appearance of, for example,
mechanized welded stainless steel welds can be so good that
architects have been known to utilize them as a cosmetic
features.

1.3.2 Advantages of welding mechanization

Basics of One of the most important advantage of welding mechanization is the
mechanized
welding
increase of productivity. The removal of human welders from the
immediate arc area permits to achieve a series of good features. The
removal of the person from the immediate welding operation will result
in increased arc “on time” or duty cycle. Also, the fumes, heat, muscle
fatigue, emission of UV and light radiation related to manual arc
welding are less likely to constitute a risk for the operator.

Mechanical equipment can carry out many works without fatigue and
use higher welding parameters, which provide more heat, thus more
deposition rate, more penetration and faster and uniform travel speeds.
Therefore, these features permit a huge reduction of the production
time.

In addition to those advantages, mechanized welding overcomes many

of the problems associated with individually controlled manual or semi-
automatic welding.

P a g e | 24
 The welding equipment is of two types:
 Standardized equipment for specific types of welds or joints
 Dedicated equipment for a specific welded product.

Both these types produce higher quality welds and improved

productivity compared to a manual application. Standardized
mechanized equipment is more expensive than semi-automatic
equipment and must be used continuously to be economically
acceptable – ROI (Return on Investment). Standardized welding
equipment must be kept occupied making the kinds of welds it is
designed to produce. Dedicated welding equipment is designed to weld
a specific product, and is economically advantageous when a large
number of identical parts are manufactured. But this welding system
has limited flexibility: when the product is changed, the equipment
must be replaced or redesigned. Also the dedicated welding equipment
cannot compensate variations in the components.

1.4 Basics of orbital welding

1.4.1 Fundamentals of orbital welding

Basics of orbital Orbital welding is an automated welding process, where all the
welding functions or steps are controlled or performed in sequence by
mechanical/electronic means. It can be also defined as fixed
automation, namely on automated equipment designed to perform a
function on a single assembly or a group of similar assemblies. Orbital
welding is a welding technique where one of the components to be
welded is moved in an orbital motion whilst the other is held stationary.

Fig. 1.10 Orbital TIG welding of stainless steel tube with open welding head
(source: www.gfnuovetecnologie.it)

P a g e | 25
The objective of an automated system is to reduce manufacturing costs
by increasing productivity and improving weld quality. Cost reduction
is made possible by reducing or eliminating the redundant manual
operations, associated with long production runs of identical parts or
series of batch runs of similar parts.

Automating a component’s welding operation often provides the

opportunity to perform multiple operations with one dedicated welding
system. Other benefits of automation typically includes the decrease
of floor space requirements, reduced in-progress inventory and
increase throughput. The integration of automation concepts into
production scheduling improves productivity, resulting in faster
deliveries to customers.

Automation can succeed or fail depending on the application. A

successful application requires careful planning; economic justification;
and the full cooperation and support of management, product
designers, manufacturing engineers, production workers and
maintenance personnel. To determine if automation is feasible, the
product, the process to be implemented, the available technology,
availability of a trainable work force and the total capital outlay for
plant equipment must be carefully considered.

Orbital welding is performed with equipment that manages an entire

welding operation without the need of real-time control adjustment by
the welding operator. Orbital welding incorporates the same basic
elements of mechanized welding, plus a mechanical and/or
electromechanical device that controls the welding cycle. The basics of
automated orbital welding include the continuous weld parameter
control and the heat source motion technology.

Orbital welding requires fixtures to hold the workpiece in position with

respect to each other. Welding fixtures are usually designed to hold
one specific assembly in place. Fixtures require that the workpiece to
be joined is prepared consistently and uniformly.

Therefore, upstream manufacturing operations such as press stamping

and forming must be able to support the close tolerances required by
orbital welding. The cost involved in upstream processing must be
considered.

Another requirement for orbital welding is detailed sequential planning

for each motion and operation. This includes the motions and operation
of the handling equipment, the welding head, wire feeders and power
sources.

P a g e | 26
 Fig. 1.11 Specific welding device for orbital welding
(Source: www.ottoarc.com)

Modern orbital-welding systems offer computer controls that store

welding procedures in memory. The skills of a certified welder are thus
built into the system, enabling the production of enormous numbers of
identical welds and leaving little room for errors and defects.

Orbital welding requires a greater accuracy of groove preparation and

fit-up than manual welding, where the welder can use his skill to
“patch-up” any shortcomings. In orbital welding, the machine only
does what it has been programmed to do, without compensating for
joint irregularities. As a result, the time spent on machining a joint
preparation with adequate precision often exceeds the actual welding
time.

Typical application for orbital welding are: aerospace, food/beverage

industry, pharmaceutical industry, nuclear piping, offshore applications,
tube/pipe fittings.

P a g e | 27
 1.4.2 Advantages of orbital welding
Basics of orbital Some advantages for using orbital welding equipment:
welding
 Productivity: orbital welding systems will drastically
outperform manual welders, often enabling the fabricator to
cost-justify the equipment in a single job;
 Quality and reliability: the quality and repeatability of welds
created by an orbital welding machine, driven by the correct
program, will be superior to that of manual welding. In some
cases, orbital welding is the only means to achieve the
required quality level.
 Flexibility: orbital welding equipment may be the only solution
for applications where the fabricator cannot rotate the tube or
pipe for welding. It also finds use where the access limits the
physical size of the welding device.

1.5 Basics of robot welding

1.5.1 Fundamentals of robot welding

Basics of robot The term robot is defined by the Robotic Industries Association (RIA)
welding as “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable multipurpose
manipulator programmable in three axes ore more which may be either
fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications”.
Industrial welding robots incorporate many forms of multiaxis, servo-
controlled manipulators that are equipped with software to allow them
to perform complex, continuous welding processes. The welding
program can be changed to handle new workpieces, a variation in the
existing workpieces or to make changes to the weld seam only.

Fig. 1.12 MIG/MAG Robot welding cell

(source: www.fabtech.com)

P a g e | 28
Nowadays robotic welding systems are becoming increasingly popular
and tend to substitute more and more mechanized and automated
welding. Robotic welding equipment can be programmed for different
weldments.

Fig. 1.13 Annual trend of the usage of robot in welding

(source: www.landmarkfa.wordpress.com)

Robotic welding programs can be stored in memory and, by using

different holding fixtures, many different weldments can be produced
with the same robot. In this way, small production batches can be run
efficiently. Quick changeover time from one weldment to another will
keep the equipment busy the majority of the time. This provides rapid
payback and meets economics justification requirements.

A typical robotic welding system may be composed of the following ten

primary components (depending on the welding process and
application):
 manipulator
 arc welding power source, torches and accessories
 LASER head
 resistance welding gun
 dereeling system
 welding interface
 shielding gas delivery system
 welding electrode feeding system
 welding circuit
 auxiliary circuits (cooling, pressure, etc.)
 communication control wiring

P a g e | 29
Robot arc welding systems include a variety of peripheral equipment.
The type and the amount of peripheral equipment depends on the
application and the budget available. Additional axes of motion are
sometimes required and would involve positioners, robot tracks or a
movable gantry. Computer intelligence in the form of seam finders and
seam trackers is sometimes required to handle workpiece movement
and poor fit-up.

Robotic welding systems typically have controls and associated

fixturing and safety systems. The robot system usually possesses a
programmable logic controller (PLC), which ensures that all operations
occur safely in the correct sequence. The fixturing can consist of
manual, pneumatic or electromechanical clamping. The safety system
employed depends entirely on the type of application. Torch safety
mounts, light curtains, safety mats and enclosures are some of the
features designed to ensure a safe system. Safe practices require that
the final installation of equipment conform to current published safety
regulations.

The two most common types of robots are articulated and Cartesian.
Articulated robots, which typically have six axis, can be used for arc
welding, when fitted with the correct process-specific hardware and
software. Because of their versatility and cost-to-performance ratio,
articulated robots represent more than 90% of the robots sold for arc
welding. Cartesian robots, which typically have fewer than six axis and
limited torch orientation capacity, are used more in specific
applications, such as in large gantry systems for shipyards.

The primary type of robot used for arc welding is the six axis articulated
arm robot (Fig. 1.15), where six degrees of freedom function in a
manner similar to the human arm. This robot offers maximum
flexibility for weld torch positioning and orientation. When planning a
work cell, the workpiece must be located comfortably within the
envelope.

Fig. 1.14 Design of a six-axis welding robot

(source: www.robots.com)

P a g e | 30
Typically Cartesian robots are suitable for the production of large parts,
e.g. ship-building. Generally, this type of robots are based on a three
axis Cartesian system and moved by electrical motors and servo-
actuator (fig. 1.15).

Fig. 1.15 Typical layout of a Cartesian Gantry welding robot

(source: www.used-robots.com)

Arc and LASER welding robots typically have an end-of-arm load

capacity of 3 to 16 Kg. In case of resistance welding, a higher load
capacity may be required, typically 100 kg. Robots also have a payload
capability at other arm locations that allows mounting of peripheral
equipment such as wire feeders and wire spools.

The typical repeatability for arc welding robots is rated above ±0.1 mm.
In other words, the welding torch returns to 0.1 mm of the same point
after each program is executed. One of the most dramatic
improvements in robot performance in recent years is their higher
accuracy.

Accuracy is defined as the ability of a robot to move a predetermined

distance and direction and the ability to follow a path precisely between
programmed points. This is difficult to quantify, and it typically varies
depending on the location in the robot’s work envelope. The increased
use of off-line programming has increased the importance of accuracy.
In off-line programming, the points are not oriented to the actual
workpiece. Instead, they are entered as numeric locations in the
robot’s workspace. With greater robot accuracy, less adjustment is
required before the production of the program generated off-line.

Under the correct conditions, robots can offer a great return on

investment, see Figure 1.16. The breakeven point usually occurs
between the first and the third year depending on labour wages,
production volume per year and the cost of the robotic cells.

P a g e | 31
In the late 2000s the cost of a conventional cell for assembly-line arc
welding station ranged between 80000€ and 150000€.

Fig. 1.16 Positive cash flow over course of robotic system’s service life
(http://www.robotics.org/)

Productivity gains are achieved because robots produce quality welds

with great consistency at high travel speeds. Manual welding typically
operates at rate of 0.08 mm/s to 1.9 mm/s whereas robotic welding
may operate at more than 6 m/min, process permitting.

Greater consistency permits the weld size and shape to be closer to

design specifications. For example, when an operator manually arc
welds a 3.0 mm fillet weld 60 mm long in a workpiece, the weld
typically becomes a 4mm to 5mm fillet that is 65 mm to 70 mm long.
However, when the same operation is performed by a welding robot, a
3.0 mm to 3.5 mm weld can be produced consistently over the entire
60 mm. Consequently, robots dramatically reduce the occurrence of
oversized welds, thus saving consumables.

Industrial robots are highly reliable. They are typically designed to last
from 8 to 10 years, with a minimum mean time between failures
(MTBF) of 20,000 hours.

Robots themselves are relatively maintenance free, requiring only

periodical lubrication. Most robotic components that are susceptible to
failure are designed to permit quick replacement in the production
environment. The welding equipment incorporated into a robotic weld
system is also very reliable, given proper preventive maintenance.

P a g e | 32
 1.5.2 Seam-tracking systems for robot
Basics of robot One of the challenges in performing an automated arc and laser
welding
welding operation is to position the welding gun or torch properly with
respect to the weld joint so that welds are produced with consistent
geometry and quality. Dimensional tolerances of the components,
variations in edge preparation and fit-up and other dimensional
variables can affect the exact position and uniformity of the weld joints
from one assembly to the next. Consequently, some adjustment of the
welding gun or torch position may be required as welding proceeds
along a joint.

Several systems are available to guide a welding gun or torch along

the joint. The simplest consist of a mechanical seam follower system,
which utilizes spring loaded probes or some other mechanism to
physically centre the torch in the joint and follow vertical and horizontal
workpiece contours. Of course, these systems are limited to weld joints
with features of sufficient height or width to support the mechanical
follower.

Other tracking system utilize lightweight electronic probes, which

operate motorized slides that adjust the torch position to follow the
joint. As these devices have the ability to follow much smaller joint
features and operate at higher speeds than mechanical systems, they
constitute significant improvement over mechanical seam follower
system. They are limited in their ability to trace multiple-pass and
square groove welds and are normally used with non-robotic
automation.

Still other seam-tracking systems are available with arc sensing

capability. The simplest form, an arc voltage control, is used with the
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and plasma arc welding (PAW)
processes. This control maintains consistent torch position above the
work by utilizing voltage feedback directly from the arc.

Several optical tracking systems are also available. The most

sophisticated seam-tracking system is fully adaptive to compensate for
volume changes in weld joints by varying process parameters (travel
speed, wire feed speed) while tracking the joint.

The single-pass or real-time system previews the operating arc and

provides feedback for correction of the torch path and welding
variables. Real-time system have difficulty with sharp corners and
highly reflective surfaces. In addition, they can be influenced by smoke
and arc heat.

P a g e | 33
 Fig. 1.17 Laser Seam-tracking system
(source: blog.robotiq.com)

In the two-pass system, a camera or a laser scan is moved along the

nominal weld path with the arc off. On the first pass, the system
performs analysis and weld pass correction. Then, with the arc on, a
second pass is made to weld the joint. This system lacks the ability to
correct for any distortion that occurs during welding.

1.5.3 Other components in robot welding

Basics of robot All devices in the system are subordinate to the welding system
welding
controller, the primary element of an automated welding system by
which each device executes its function. When required, each device
can provide status feedback to the controller. The controller then
compares the feedback data to the planned data. If a variation is
encountered, the controller calculates the required adjustment and
alters the operation accordingly.

The welding interface coordinates the functions of the power source

and the feeder while accepting signals from the system controller
(Figure 1.18).

When welding is performed with filler metals (e.g. arc and laser
welding), robotic systems require a reliable, high-speed wire feeder,
which is connected to the system controller and to the welding power
source. The feeders allows for variable control of wire-feed rates to
meet specific welding requirements. Occasional calibration of the wire
feeder may be required to ensure proper performance and reliability.

P a g e | 34
 Fig. 1.18 Teaching pendant, a type of welding interface in robot welding
(source: www.fabricatingandmetalworking.com)

Wire consumption rate are typically higher in mechanized, orbital and

robotic arc welding than manual welding and the percentage of arc-on
time is usually two or three times that used in semi-automatic welding.
Due to these high production rates, the wire conduit liners and guides
frequently become clogged with debris and residual lubricants from
wire surface. Therefore, inspection and cleaning should be performed
on a regular basis.

In Table 1.4 are listed, for further comprehension, the applicability of

sensors in arc and laser welding.

Table 1.4 Applicability of sensors in arc and laser welding

Arc Voltage LASER Contact
Feature TAST
Control sensors sensors
Joint positioning NO NO YES YES
Seam tracking YES YES YES NO
Suitable for adaptive
YES NO YES LIMITED
control
ALL, except ALL, except Overlap,
Joint types buttjoint ALL buttjoint corner, with
without gap without gap preparation
no high
Applicability to metals ALL ALL reflective ALL
metals
Minimum thickness 2mm 4mm 8mm 2mm
Additional time cycle none none 1s > ~ 1,5s
Programmability (1 to 5) 4 3 4 2
Maintainability (1 to 5) 4 3 3 1
GTAW,
Processes suitability GMAW, SAW ALL ALL
PAW, SAW

P a g e | 35
Chapter 1: Learning outcomes

• The student will understand and will be acquainted with

terms, abbreviations, definitions and terminology in welding
technology and welding automation
• Explain the terminology and definitions which are used in this
course
• Outline the basics of the education
• Outline different routes to qualifications
• Outline basics of terminology related to welding
• The student will understand the different mechanization and
automation levels from hand welding to adaptive welding,
from the lowest level to the highest with adaptive
environment.
• Student will understand the most appropriate application for each
level of automation
• Explain the different mechanization and automation levels
• Outline where each level is appropriate and why
• The student will understand the meaning of mechanization
in welding and how it helps welder’s work. Student will also
understand different kind of mechanization systems and the
most used welding processes
• Outline the meaning of mechanization in welding
• Outline the meaning and selection of mechanization technologies
• The student will understand the meaning of orbital welding,
recognize equipment for orbital welding and know the
principles of different systems for orbital welding
• Outline orbital welding technology
• Outline orbital welding principles
• Outline where to use orbital welding
• The student will understand the meaning of robot welding,
recognize the structure of a typical welding robot and know
the principles for using robots in welding
• Outline robot welding technology
• Outline basics of robot structure and welding robots
• Outline basics of robot welding systems and programming of robots

P a g e | 36
Chapter 1: Examination

Q 1.1 On what categories are the various welding processes

defined?
a. on the name itself of the process
b. on the degree of operator involvement during the welding
operations
c. on the knowledge of the process by the operator
d. on the filler material

Q 1.2 How is the filler metal introduced into the weld?

a. the filler metal can only be carried across the heat source and
deposited in the weld
b. the filler metal cannot be carried across the heat source
c. the filler is not present
d. the filler metal can both be carried across the heat source or not
(heated by the arc and melted)

Q 1.3 How can weldability be alternatively defined?

a. the skill of the operator
b. the knowledge of the operator
c. the tendency of a material to be successfully welded
d. the welding procedure specification

Q 1.4 What does the operator have to monitor during

mechanized welding?
a. the equipment
b. the process variables
c. the placement of the weld
d. all the above

Q 1.5 The increase of the duty cycle leads to:

a. reduction of welding fumes
b. decrease in the welding risks for welders
c. decrease of welding electric parameters that lead to lowest costs
d. usage of standards in welding

Q 1.6 What is the principal feature of orbital welding?

a. the requirements of fixture equipment
b. very good and sound joint preparation
c. both of the above
d. the total absence of electrical control

P a g e | 37
 Q 1.7 Can articulated robots be directly used in welding?
a. Yes, as they are sold with the welding equipment (torch, gas supply,
etc.)
b. Yes, but they usually need a retrofitting to be integrated with robot
control and welding power source
c. No, they need extra equipment
d. No, it’s not permitted

Q 1.8 Is the reduction of consumables waste a typical

advantage of the robotized welding?
a. No, the gas used is very high, because of the high speeds
b. Yes, oversized welding are usually reduced
c. Yes, the wire feeding set up is very reliable
d. No, welds performed in robotized welding are generally over
designed

Q 1.9 Which are the fundamental elements of a robotized

welding system?
a. Controller, interface and wire feeding supply
b. Interface (teach pendant)
c. Welding database and solid acquisition system
d. Controller, interface and wire feeding supply

Q 1.10 Which of the two macros has been realized with the
greatest value to stick out?
a. B respect to A
b. A respect to B
c. missing information to answer
d. must specify the value of the current intensity

A B

P a g e | 38
 2. THE QUALITY ASSURANCE IN
MECHANIZED, ORBITAL AND ROBOT
WELDING

The goal of this chapter is to present the main aspects regarding

quality assurance when applied to mechanized, orbital and robot
welding.
The chapter is sub-divided in four sub-chapters, which will present:
 The concept of quality;
 The quality “systems” evolution;
 The most common standards used to implement quality
assurance in welding manufacturing;
 The main items that influence the welding quality and the
implementation of the quality systems;
 Some basic information about productivity, economy and
quality concerning welding;
The methods used for the qualification of welding processes used in
mechanized, orbital and robot welding

2.1 Introduction to quality assurance in welding

Introduction to Welding is a manufacturing process widely used. It can be applied in

quality assurance
in welding
all major manufacturing areas, such as pressure vessels, industrial
equipment, chemical and petrochemical industries, equipment for
agriculture, machinery, cranes, structures, piping and so on.

The welding processes and the way they are applied have a major
influence on the final result, meaning on the weldment final quality and
costs. It will also influence the performance when it is put into service.
Welding is a manufacturing process that, in terms of quality systems,
is defined as a “special process”. The definition is given at ISO 9000,
which states:

“A process where the conformity (fulfilment of a requirement) of the

resulting product (the result of a process) cannot be readily or
economically verified is frequently referred to as a “special process”.

In manufacturing, when a special process is used - like welding - the

“product quality” cannot be verified at the end of the production with
just testing, examination or inspection. That is why it is very common
to say that quality in special processes must be incorporated during
the manufacturing process.

Hence, there is an important need to implement a quality assurance

program in special processes such as welding.

P a g e | 39
 2.1.1 The concept of quality and quality assurance advantages
Introduction to Quality can be defined in several ways. Using ISO 9000, the definition
quality assurance for “quality” is:
in welding

“Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics (distinguishing

feature) fulfils requirements (need or expectation that is stated,
generally implied or obligatory)”

You will find in all major literature regarding quality systems thousands
of ways to define quality - below you can see several examples:

“To comply with the client specifications or requirements, which are

defined in the purchase order.”

“Fulfilling the client’s expectations in what concerns the product or

service.”

“Manufacturing with zero repair or scrap.”

When a company implements a quality assurance system, it will have

advantages such as:
 Production costs are reduced, by reducing the amount of scrap
and repairs;
 A better use of the manufacturing hardware, due to the fact
that production processes will be under control;
 Products will be conform the orders, delivered in due time and
complying with the client’s specifications;
 Sells will increase because clients will become aware of the
manufacturer products “quality”, which will be recognized.

To implement a quality assurance system, the manufacturer must be

aware that at least three major items must be dealt with. These items
are the following:
 The company top management must be engaged on the
system process development;
 The company employees at all levels must be engaged on the
system development;
 The development of a quality system.

The evolution of the methods that have been used to verify the
products/services quality is shown below:
 Inspection and testing (during 1920 and 1930);
 Quality control (during 1940 and 1970);
 Quality Systems (after 1980).

Inspection, according to ISO 9000, is the evaluation by observation

and judgement accompanied, as appropriate, by measurement, testing
or gauging.

P a g e | 40
Testing, according to ISO 9000, is the determination of one or more
characteristics according to a procedure.

Inspection and Testing aims to verify if a certain product fulfils

specifications. Usually it is performed at the end of the manufacturing
of a product. The issue of inspection and testing is that it doesn’t add
any value to the manufacturing process and only checks if the “end
product” complies or not with the client’s specifications. As an example,
if inspection and testing is performed only at the end of a weldment,
this will only give the information that the weldment is sound, but does
not assure that after being in service the weldment will perform at the
level it is expected to.

According to ISO 9000, the Quality Control is a part of quality

management and it is focused on fulfilling the quality requirements
defined by the client’s specification.

The Quality Control is a set of activities, operations or actions that

aim to assure the quality levels that have been specified by the client
for the product or service. It also applies inspection and testing, but in
a different way.

The implementation of Quality Control is based on:

 The definition of the manufacturing critical points, where the
inspection and testing will be performed;
 The feedback of the inspection status;
 The review of the inspection and test results.

One of the key aspects of the Quality Control is the proper definition
of the critical points where the inspection and test will be done. When
the manufacturing process used is welding, it is very common to divide
the quality control in three major key areas, which are: Before, During
and After welding. This implies that the critical points should cover the
previous mentioned three major areas.

Having in mind that it is important to divide the inspection and testing

in critical points instead of only performing it at the end of the
production, it is also important to get the feedback and review of the
inspection and testing results to the production department. The aim
is to understand why certain non-compliance has been raised (for
example, why there is the need for a certain welding repair). This will
give a full understanding of how manufacturing processes are being
implemented, enforcing process robustness and control, and also
product control at the level it is needed.

The awareness of the production sector about production deviations

will give them the opportunity to design better approaches in order to
avoid non-conformities during production.

P a g e | 41
 Quality System, or Quality Management System according to ISO
9001 is a management system (which consists of a set of interrelated
or interacting elements with the aim to establish policy and objectives
and to achieve those objectives) to direct and control an organization
with regard to quality (degree to which a set of inherent characteristics
fulfil requirements).

A Quality System:
 Is a system properly planned and under control;
 Is described in a quality manual or Quality Plan;
 Allows to have all the relevant manufacturing processes under
control;
 Ensures the production and/or service is/are carried out
according to the client’s specifications.

In the metalworking field, there are at least two major standards that
define the methods to implement a quality system to ensure the
products’ quality is at the needed level. These standards are:
 ISO 9001 – Quality management systems requirements;
 ISO 3834 (series) - Quality requirements for fusion welding of
metallic materials (from part 1 to 6, the last part is a technical
report).

ISO 9001 will give the company the opportunity to implement a Quality
Management System and the ISO 3834 is considered to be a standard
that allows the implementation of a Quality Control System. Both
standards can work by themselves or together, but it is advisable for
metalworking companies to implement both.

2.1.2 The implementation of a quality system

Introduction to To implement a quality system, the company must be aware that
quality assurance
in welding
several factors must be taken into consideration, some of which are:
 To have personnel with the proper level of knowledge,
competence and skills, meaning properly qualified and/or
certified;
 Personnel must have a training plan answering to the
productions’ challenges;
 Manufacturing processes under control, which implies, in the
case of welding, the approval of the welding processes - the
so called “qualification of processes”;
 Manufacturing hardware under a proper maintenance plan, to
ensure the equipment will work properly;
 Ensure all the manufacturing hardware is suitable for the
production aimed;
 Development of a set of procedures and working instructions
that will cover the major quality requirements for the
construction aimed.

P a g e | 42
When implementing a quality system, the organisation must develop a
so-called Quality Manual - when applied to the full organisation quality
management – or, if only applied to a specific project, this can be called
a Quality Plan.

According to ISO 9000, a Quality Manual is a set of documents

specifying the quality management system of an organization.

According to ISO 9000, a Quality Plan is a set of documents specifying

the procedures and associated resources that shall be applied, by
whom and when, to a specific project, product, process or contract.
The structure of a quality manual is presented in Figure 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 The structure of a quality manual

The Quality Manual is divided in three levels, as shown above.

The Management System Manual is the first level of the Quality Manual,
as it aims to answer how the organisation is going to comply with the
requirements that are mentioned on the relevant standard - either the
ISO 9001, ISO 3834 or both.

The second level of the Quality Manual - the procedures manual - will
have all the documented procedures that are referred in the quality
management system manual and each procedure will explain in detail
how the “process” or activity will be performed, developed and carried
on, giving information of who, how, when, where and so on.

The third level of the Quality Manual has all the necessary forms that
the quality systems requires to use, the working instructions needed
to implement a certain procedure, and other important documents for
the product/service quality, like standards, client and company
specifications, and so on.

P a g e | 43
The content of a Quality Plan is defined in standard ISO 10005. It shall
make reference to, at least:
 how the communication/relations, in terms of “quality”, will be
managed between the manufacturer and the client for a
specific project;
 the type of records/forms that shall be used during the specific
project;
 how the project documentation control will be managed;
 the welded product acceptance criteria;
 how the Quality Plan is linked with the manufacturer’s Quality
Manual;
 how the archive is done, how documental traceability his
achieved and the structure of the final production file;
 the quality level that must be achieved during the
manufacturing of the product;
 the manufacturing hardware and software that must be used
during the construction (human resources and equipment),
and the level of capability for equipment and competence for
the human resources.

Inspection and testing is always an activity that will be developed

during the welded product fabrication. But the inspection and testing
will not be performed by itself, when it is used as a tool in the quality
system; it will be a part of the quality control system of the quality
management system.

Like for any activity, the inspection and testing must be performed by
personnel with the proper competence, knowledge and skills level. This
is another factor that the quality system must be able to manage,
verify and control.

In what regards the EWF qualification system for personnel, the system
covers the most important qualification levels, meaning the EWF
qualification system was designed in a way that for each needed
welding job function, it is possible to find a specific EWF qualification.

The core of the EWF system is the training and qualification of

personnel who will develop activities as welding coordinators. The four
levels (engineer, technologist, specialist and practitioner) cover the
most important levels that are defined on the standard ISO 14731 –
welding coordinators tasks and responsibilities. EWF system has also
specific qualifications for the welders and also welding operators for
mechanized, orbital and robot welding. In what regards inspection,
EWF has a specific qualification for welding inspectors, although the
EWF system does not have any qualification covering the non-
destructive qualification/certification of operators.

P a g e | 44
 2.2 Quality assurance and quality standards in welding

2.2.1 Quality standards in welding: EN ISO 3834, ISO 9001

Quality assurance In companies where welding is one of the most important
and quality manufacturing processes, like it was stated above, the need to ensure
standards in
welding
the proper quality level of the products can only be achieve if the
organization implements a quality system.

For metalworking companies there are several ways to implement a

quality system, most often using the standards ISO 9001 and ISO 3834
(series). The manufacturer can implement only one of the standards
or both.

The major differences between the standards are their goals: ISO 9001
defines the minimum requirements for the implementation of a Quality
Assurance Management System and ISO 3834 (series) defines the
minimum requirements for the implementation of a Quality Assurance
Control System.

ISO 9001 was designed with the aim to ensure the company will have
a quality system that deals with the overall quality of the product or
service. That is why this standard can be applied by any type of
company developing activities in any field, either manufacturing or
services.

ISO 3834 (series) was designed to ensure that welding, as a

manufacturing process, will be under control, to comply with the
quality level defined by the client.

Both standards have been designed to be as generic as possible and

are planned to be applicable to all types of companies, independent of
the activity field, size and product or service provided, and taking into
consideration that ISO 3834 (series) has only the goal to control the
welding manufacturing and not the Quality of the product in general,
like ISO 9001.

For the implementation of both standards, the company will develop,

establish, document, implement and maintain a quality system (by
developing and implementing a Quality Manual) and, in the specific
case of ISO 9001, the system shall also be developed with the goal of
continually improving its effectiveness (the so called quality continuous
improvement of the system) in accordance with the requirements
defined in the ISO 9001.

P a g e | 45
 The implementation of the requirements defined on both standards
specifies the minimum requirements either for a Quality Management
System (ISO 9001) or a Quality Control System (ISO 3834 [series],
where the manufacturer:
1) needs to evidence/show its capability and reliability to provide a
product that will meet the client’s demand, including all the
applicable statutory and regulatory requirements;
and
2) aims to improve the client’s satisfaction through the effective
implementation and application of a quality system;
and (only for ISO 9001)
3) ensures a continuous improvement of the quality system and the
assurance of conformity to the client’s order and applicable
statutory and regulatory requirements.

Both standards can be used by internal and external parties, including

certification or notified bodies, to assess the companies’ capability and
reliability to meet the client’s technical demands, including statutory
and regulatory requirements applicable to the product, and the
companies’ own requirements.

2.2.1.1 Quality standards in welding: ISO 9001

Quality assurance As it was mentioned above, ISO 9001 defines a set of minimum
and quality
standards in
requirements for the implementation of a Quality Assurance
welding Management System.

The goal of this standard is to define a structured and documented

system to control the quality of a product or service.

The Standard specifies that an organization shall define its major

“Processes” that will affect in any way the quality of the product or
service. After the company’s definition of its major Processes, the
company will define how the processes will be implemented and what
will be the requirements that must be fulfilled to achieve a proper
implementation of each Process.

The next figure shows a model of a process-based Quality Management

System, the source of which is ISO 9001.

P a g e | 46
 Fig. 2.2 Model of a process-based quality management system

The standard defines the following requirements:

 Quality Management System - documentation, quality manual,
control of documents, control of records;
 Management Responsibility - management commitment,
customer focus, quality policy, planning, responsibility,
authority and communication, management review;
 Resource Management - provision resources, human
resources, infrastructure, work environment;
 Product Realization - planning of product realization, customer
related processes, design and development, purchasing,
product and service provision, control of monitoring of
measurement equipment, resource;
 Measurement, Analysis and Improvement - monitoring and
measurement, control of non-conformity product, analysis
data, improvement.

P a g e | 47
 2.2.1.2 Quality standards in welding: ISO 3834 (series)
Quality assurance As mentioned above, ISO 3834 (series) defines a set of minimum
and quality
standards in
requirements for the implementation of Quality Assurance Control
welding System.

The goal of this standard is to control the quality of a weldment, no

matter in what type of equipment the weldment is placed.

Next, a diagram will show what type of measures shall be taken in a

welding product, to achieve the proper product quality level. This
diagram was taken from the ISO/TR 3834 and was developed
considering Welding as one of the “processes” under a quality
management system.

Fig. 2.3 Measures to be taken in a welding product to achieve the proper product
quality level, according to ISO/TR 3834

P a g e | 48
ISO 3834 is divided in five parts, plus one technical report.
 ISO 3834 -1: Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic
materials — Part 1: Criteria for the selection of the appropriate
level of quality requirements
 ISO 3834 - 2: Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic
materials — Part 2: Comprehensive quality requirements
 ISO 3834 - 3: Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic
materials — Part 3: Standard quality requirements
 ISO 3834 - 4: Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic
materials — Part 4: Elementary quality requirements
 ISO 3834 - 5: Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic
materials — Part 5: Documents with which it is necessary to
conform to claim conformity to the quality requirements of ISO
3834-2, ISO 3834-3 or ISO 3834-4
 ISO/TR 3834 - 6: Quality requirements for fusion welding of
metallic materials — Part 6: Guidelines on implementing ISO 3834.

Part 1 has the goal of giving general information about this standard,
in what regards the scope of application and some hints on how to
select the appropriate level of quality requirements that will be defined
in Parts 2, 3 and 4.

As referred previously, quality in welding cannot be achieved with

product inspections and testing alone. It has to be built during the
manufacturing process. Even when the most extensive and
sophisticated non-destructive testing is applied, this does not ensure
that the product quality will be improved and achieved.

For welded products to be free from serious problems in production

and in service, it is necessary to implement a quality control system,
which will include controls from the design phase, through material
selection, into manufacture and subsequent inspection.

As examples that only inspection and testing are not enough to reach
the product quality, it can be pointed out:
 A poor design may create serious and costly difficulties in the
workshop, on site, or in service;
 A bad choice of base material or filler material may result in
problems such as cracking in welded joints;

To ensure sound and effective manufacturing, the company

management needs to understand and to know the possible sources of
potential problems and to implement the proper manufacturing
procedures for the product (weld) quality control.

As stated in the ISO 3834–1, the standard provides a method to

demonstrate the capability of a manufacturer to produce welded
products according to the client’s purchase level of quality demand.

P a g e | 49
The standard was developed in a way that:
 it is independent of the type of welded construction
manufactured;
 it defines quality minimum requirements for welding in
workshops and/or on site;
 it provides guidance for describing a manufacturer's capability
and reliability to produce welded constructions to meet the
client specified requirements, including the statutory and
regulatory requirements;
 it provides a basis for assessing a manufacturer’s welding
capability.

ISO 3834-1 gives some hints on how a company should choose the
level of quality requirements that it wants to implement. There are
three levels: the comprehensive, the standard and the basic level. The
company should select it based on the following criteria related to
products:
 the extent and significance of safety-critical products;
 the complexity of manufacture;
 the range of products manufactured;
 the range of different materials used;
 the extent to which metallurgical problems may occur;
 the extent to which manufacturing imperfections - e.g.
misalignment, distortion or weld imperfection - affect the
product performance.

There is a quick approach to define the quality requirements level,

which is:
 if the weldment will be under fatigue stresses, high or low
temperatures or under pressure, than the quality
requirements level to be chosen is the Comprehensive level
(ISO 3834-2);
 if the weldment will be under low fatigue stresses and it was
designed like for static stresses taking into account some
fatigue at a low level, and if the weldment work at “room”
temperature, with no pressure, than the quality requirements
to be chosen should be Standard level (ISO 3834-3);
 if the weldment will be under static stresses at “room”
temperature and without pressure than the quality
requirements to be chosen should be Basic level (ISO 3834-
4).

P a g e | 50
Table 2.1 Analysis made by ISO 3834-2, 3, 4

P a g e | 51
 Of course, when this approach is used, it should be done with special
caution. ISO 3834-1 also makes reference that this is a standard which
aims at the development of a Quality Control System and, therefore,
advices the organizations that want to implement it that they should
complement the quality control system with some new requirements
coming from ISO 9001. The most important is the control of documents
and records. Other requirements from ISO 9001 could also be
implemented.

Finally, it compares the three levels of quality requirements and gives

a summary on how to comply with each requirement (Table 2.1).
ISO 3834-2, -3 and -4 define, for each quality requirement level, the
types of requirements and the corresponding quality level.
ISO 3834 – 5 gives information about the ISO standards that can be
used by the company to comply with the requirements that are defined
on Parts 2, 3 and 4.
ISO/TR 3834-6 has the aim to give guidance on how a company should
develop the quality control system with the goal to comply with the
Parts 2, 3 and 4.

2.2.1.3 Other standards used for welding quality control

Quality assurance When manufacturing welded products, the metalworking companies
and quality
standards in
should also use other standards to ensure the quality of the welded
welding products. These standards are an addition on to the quality system and
can be divided in two different groups, which are:
 Standards related to products fabrication. These standards
define the requirements that must be followed by the
manufacturer to ensure the final quality of that specific type
of welded product;
 Standards related to transversal activities, like how to approve
welders, approval of welding procedures, the content of a
welding procedure specification, acceptance criteria for welds,
non-destructive and destructive methods to perform them,
and so on.

Examples of the first ones:

 American Construction codes, like: ASME IX, API 1104, API
650, AWS D1.1, AWS D1.8, and so on;
 European Fabrication standards: Metallic Structures (EN 1090),
Piping (EN 13480, EN 12732), Boilers, Pressure Vessels (EN
286, EN 13445), Railway Equipment (EN 15085), etc.

P a g e | 52
 Examples of the second ones:
 European/International Standards, like Welding Coordination
(ISO 14731), Approval of welders and welding operators (ISO
9606 [series], ISO 14732, EN 13067, EN 13133, etc.),
Approval of welding procedures (ISO 15610 to 15614 [series],
EN 13134, EN 14373, etc.), Welds acceptance criteria (ISO
5817, ISO 10042, ISO 13919, etc.), non-destructive methods
(ISO 17637, ISO 3452, ISO 17638, ISO 17636, ISO 17640,
etc.) Destructive tests (ISO 5173, ISO 9015, ISO 17641, ISO
9017, ISO 9016, ISO 4136, etc.)

2.2.2 Quality control during manufacturing

Quality assurance When implementing a Quality Control during manufacturing, the
and quality
standards in
company has the goal to minimize as much as possible the risks due
welding to flaws that can happen during the welding process manufacturing
and/or due to wrong decisions that can affect the weldment
performance, when it is in service.

The Quality Control is the set of activities and/or operations/tasks that

the company will implement to achieve the aimed quality level for a
certain weldment. The quality level is defined by the manufacturer’s
customer.

The level of the Quality Control that shall be implemented takes into
account the quality level of the welded construction, meaning,
depending on the type of welded product, the quality control will be
more or less comprehensive.

The definition of this level is usually made by the customer, who tends
to require that the welded product shall be manufactured according to
a certain set of rules. These manufacturing rules are usually defined in
construction codes (as an example, we can point out the American
codes, like ASME for pressure vessels, or AWS D1.1 for metallic
structures) or fabrication standards (as example: the European
product standards, like EN 1090 for metallic structures or EN 13445
for unfired pressure vessels).

Some of the main aspects that should be taken into consideration to

achieve a proper quality control are presented in the following sub-
sections.

P a g e | 53
 2.2.2.1 Weld Joints Quality levels
Quality assurance In any welded construction, it is always defined for each weld at least
and quality
standards in
two parameters that characterize the weld joint quality level. These
welding parameters are:
 Weld acceptance criteria;
 Weld joint efficiencies.

The weld joint’s quality is related to the acceptance criteria for the weld
imperfections/defects that are detected in the weld joint.
These imperfections are characterised in two major ISO Standards,
which are:
 ISO 6520-1 - Welding and allied processes — Classification of
geometric imperfections in metallic materials — Part 1: Fusion
welding;
 ISO 6520-2 - Welding and allied processes — Classification of
geometric imperfections in metallic materials — Part 2: Welding
with pressure.

The main goal of these standards is to create a grouping system for

the imperfections, and also, for each type of imperfections, an
identification code. They also contain definitions and sketches showing
the imperfections. It is also defined what is a welding imperfection and
a defect. Below an example, like it is in the ISO 6520-1. The grouping
system for imperfections given in these standards, divides the
imperfections in:
 cracks;
 cavities;
 solid inclusions;
 lack of fusion and penetration;
 imperfect shape and dimension;
 miscellaneous imperfections.

Fig. 2.4 Extras of ISO6520-1 as example

The weld acceptance criteria defines the maximum dimensions,

amount and type of imperfections that can be accepted. As an example
of this, there is the ISO 5817 – Welding — Fusion-welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) — Quality
levels for Imperfections. This standard defines three levels of
acceptance - B, C and D - from the more restrictive level of acceptance
(level B) to a lower level of acceptance (level D).

P a g e | 54
 The weld joint efficiency is normally linked to the weld category (this
category is defined by the designer) and it is a ratio concerning the
expected joint strength related to the base material strength,
meaning: a joint efficiency depends only on the type of joint and on
the degree of examination of the joint and does not depend on the
degree of examination of any other joint. The common range of weld
joint efficiency is normally from 1 until 0,45, as an example of this it is
ASME VIII, Div. 1.

In some product fabrication standards, like in EN 1090 – Execution of

steel structures and aluminium structures - Part 2: Technical
requirements for steel structures, it is not defined the weld joint
efficiency; it is defined the weld joint acceptance level and the amount
of NDT (Non Destructive Tests) to be applied after welding.

2.2.2.2 Inspection and Testing Plan – ITP

Quality assurance As it was mentioned on the previous sub-chapters, the implementation
and quality
standards in
by the company of a Quality Control must be achieved by either
welding implementing and developing a Quality Management System (ISO
9001), or by a Quality Control System (ISO 3834) or by implementing
both.

In any construction code and/or product fabrication standard, and

independently of the implementation of the two above standards, there
are some basic actions that must be taken, like the development of an
inspection and testing plan – ITP. The ITPs are a tool that supports the
implementation of a quality control during the welding manufacturing.

The supporting documents that are used to develop an ITP are:

a) Construction codes or product fabrication standards;
b) Client’s specifications and/or contract requirements;
c) National, Regional or International statutory and regulatory
requirements.

The basic content of an ITP defines, at least:

a) acceptance criteria for the item under inspection or testing;
b) type of test or inspection to be performed and the method(s)
to be applied;
c) the amount of test or inspection;
d) when, how, where the inspection or test will be performed;
e) who will do it and the level of competences, qualification or
certification needed.

P a g e | 55
 2.2.2.3 Welding sequence
Quality assurance The welding sequence is one key factor that should be taken into
and quality
standards in
consideration in all welding applications.
welding
When we are talking about welding sequence, we cannot forget that
the welding sequence should be analysed in two different aspects: one
is the construction welding sequence and another is the weld joint
sequence.

In what regards the construction welding sequence, this should be

defined in the so-called “welding plan” - the document that defines the
full construction sequence. The definition of the construction welding
sequence is import to prevent distortion and/or excessively high
inherent stresses. A proper welding sequence will optimize the weld
build up, minimizing the problems previously mentioned.

The sequence of assembly and welding shall be carried out in such a

way that all the welds can be tested and examined in accordance with
the client’s requirements. Any weld which becomes hidden in the
course of the fabrication process shall be checked according to the
inspection testing plan before becoming hidden by other components.

When we are talking about the weld joint layer sequence, this will be
defined and stated on the weld joint specific welding procedure
specification. The welding process, base material properties, filler
material and operating requirements all have to be taken into account.
In the case of multi-layer welding, it is very common to dress the
surfaces of the preceding run in such a way that satisfactory quality in
the subsequent run is possible (for example by removing edge notches
in the faying surfaces and/or slag on the surface and so on). Welding
over cracks, surface pores, slag inclusions and lack of fusion without
previous correction is not permitted.

2.2.2.4 Welding coordination and inspection personnel

Quality assurance Welding coordination

and quality
standards in
Welding Coordination according to ISO 14731 are all the activities that
welding are related to the final quality of a weldment. Typically, this personnel
is in charge of the welding management and execution of welding
production and technical activities needed to achieve a proper level of
quality of the welded construction.

Welding coordination is normally developed by more than one person,

and at different levels. This implies that manufacturers cannot
nominate for welding coordination only the “common” welding related
personnel. But also thinking that there are other personnel on the
company whose activities and actions will influence the final quality
level of the weldment.

P a g e | 56
An example of what is stated above is the warehouse foreman: usually,
he is not seen as a welding coordinator, but he/she is normally
responsible for the approval of materials after they have been delivered
to the company and he/she is the one who gives the “green light” that
the material is suitable for the construction.

This means he/she has a very specific activity, but if it is not well
performed, the final weldment quality will not be achieved because a
wrong base material or filler material was used during the construction.

The ISO/TR 3834-6, on section 10.3 – Welding Coordination, gives

some information about who should be engaged on the welding
coordination. The text below is an extract from the standard:
a) Large organizations performing extensive and complex welding
activities will usually employ a number of persons who deal
exclusively with the control of welding. Those persons can have
titles such as welding engineer or welding technologist and are
normally recognized as full-time welding coordinators.
b) In small organizations, similar duties may be allocated to persons
having other titles (e.g. production manager, foreman) and
performing other tasks in addition to welding coordination (part-
time welding coordinators).
c) Some welding coordination activities, typically related to the
storage and handling of consumables, and maintenance and
calibration of equipment, can be allocated to persons having titles
that bear little connection to welding. Such people are generally
qualified for only a few specialized welding coordination tasks.
d) Some manufacturers allocate the responsibility for some of the
detailed planning to welders or welding operators. In such cases,
the manufacturer should ensure that the welders and welding
operators have the necessary knowledge and competence.
e) Control of inspection and testing activities that are also welding
coordination activities are usually performed by persons bearing
titles such as welding inspector, NDT engineer or quality manager.
f) However, in smaller organizations, such activities may be allocated
to foremen or other personnel.

Welding Inspection Personnel

The welding inspection personnel, like the welding coordinator, are also
key factors to achieve a weldment with the proper quality level.

Inspection personnel is normally divided in two different types,

according to their activity: the welding inspectors, responsible for the
inspection management and inspection activities, and the non-
destructive technicians, who are responsible to perform the non –
destructive tests – NDT, like radiographic, ultrasound, magnetic
particles and dye penetrant, as examples. These personnel must have
specific competences and skills, which is why it is mandatory that they
are certified according to the ISO 9712.

P a g e | 57
 ISO 9712 standard divides the NDT personnel certification in three
levels, which are:
a) Level 1 – technician able to perform the test according to
written instructions and report the results under the
supervision of a Level 2 or 3 technician, but cannot evaluate
the test results;
b) Level 2 – technician able to perform the tests, do the test
result evaluation and decide in face of the results. This
technician can also prepare procedures to apply the NDT
method if the procedure is based on a standard;
c) Level 3 – technician able to do the same as level 2 plus they
can develop special procedures for special applications, not
based in any standard.

Visual inspection can be performed by technicians without any

certification according to ISO 9712, except if visual inspection is
performed using borescopes, fibre optic cables or cameras - in this
case, these inspectors should be certified according to ISO 9712.

2.2.2.5 Welding Procedure Specification – WPS

Quality assurance Welding procedure specification (WPS) is the main document that is
and quality
standards in
used by the manufacturer to express how a weld will be performed.
welding The WPS describes the main welding variables and other information
needed to ensure the weld quality.

A WPS used in a certain welding job is normally based on an approved

welding procedure. This means that before welding tasks start in a
specific project, the manufacturer must be certain that the conditions
that the welding process will apply during the fabrication will assure
the level of the weld strength and soundness required for the weld
quality, defined by the designer for that specific welded product.

Welding procedure specifications shall always cover a certain range of

base material thickness, a range of parent materials types and a range
of welding consumables (filler materials, gases, fluxes).

Additionally to the WPS, the majority of the manufacturers usually

prefer to develop work instructions for each specific weld job (this is
because it is easier for the welder or welding operator to read and
understand). The working instruction will be a part of the production
planning. For each type of welding processes group, such as arc
welding, resistance welding, stud welding, Laser and Electron Beam,
there are specific standards that give the necessary information to
develop a WPS. You can find below a table where it can be seen the
structure of the ISO standards related to the WPS development. The
table source is the ISO 15607.

P a g e | 58
Table 2.2 ISO 15607 and rules related to WPS
Welding Arc Gas Electron Laser Resistance Stud Friction
Process welding welding Beam Beam welding welding welding
welding welding

General
ISO 15607
rules
WPS ISO ISO ISO ISO ISO ISO
ISO 15609-1
15609-1 15609-2 15609-3 15609-4 14555 15620

The ISO 15607 - Specification and qualification of welding procedures

for metallic materials - General rules provides the general information
about how a manufacturer shall handle the development of WPS and
also how to approve a welding procedure. Below is shown, as an
example, the typical form used to develop a WPS according to the ISO
15609-1.

Fig. 2.5 Model of WPS

P a g e | 59
 2.2.2.6 Approval of Welding Procedures
Quality assurance As it was mentioned on the previous sub-chapter, the WPS used during
and quality
standards in
the fabrications - that was developed by the manufacturers - is based
welding on an approved welding procedure.
The ISO 15607 also gives the information on how a manufacturer shall
approve a welding procedure. Below is presented a table (taken from
ISO 15607) where this information is given.

Table 2.3 Methods of a manufacturer to approve a welding procedure

Electron Laser Friction
Welding Arc Gas Resistance Stud
Beam Beam welding
Process welding welding welding welding
welding welding
General rules ISO 15607
ISO ISO ISO ISO ISO ISO
WPS ISO 15609-1
15609-1 15609-2 15609-3 15609-4 14555 15620
Methods to approve the welding procedures
Tested
ISO 15610 Not applied
consumables
ISO ISO
Previous
15611 15611
welding ISO 15611
ISO ISO
experience
14555 15620
Standard
ISO 15612 Not applied
procedure
ISO ISO
Pre-production 15613 15613
ISO 15613
test ISO ISO
14555 15620
ISO 15614 ISO 15614 ISO 15614 ISO ISO
Welding ISO 15614
Part 1 to Part 1, 3, 6 Part 12 and 14555 15620
procedure test Part 7 and 11
10 and 7 13

Each approval method used for the welding procedure approval, will
always define the so called main variables and their range of approval.
As example: the type of base material, thickness, type of joint, type of
filler material, gas or flux, pre-heat temperatures, etc.

Each type of method also defines how the welded test coupon will be
tested and inspected, including the acceptance criteria.

2.2.3 Quality control in mechanized, orbital and robot welding

Quality assurance To achieve a proper level of quality control during the welding
and quality manufacturing, as it was previously mentioned on the earlier chapters,
standards in
welding
the quality must be built during the manufacturing, which usually
implies that the quality control is divided in three (3) major areas,
which are:
a) Before welding;
b) During welding;
c) After welding.

The division of these three major areas of quality control helps the
manufacturer when developing a proper ITP, and also the necessary
documents that support the Quality Control System and/or the Quality
Management System (as example the quality manual or quality plan).

P a g e | 60
Before Welding
To achieve the desired weld quality, the most common activities that
shall be developed before welding are, at least, the following ones:
 checking the base material and filler materials, in terms of
quality and if they are suitable to be used;
 approval of welding procedures, according to a certain standard;
 approval of heat treatment procedures (if applicable on the
construction);
 development of welding procedure specifications – WPS -
according to a certain standard, and working instructions, based
on an approved welding procedure;
 approval of the welders, welding operators and tack welders,
according to a certain standard;
 checking the manufacturing equipment (maintenance and
capability tests);
 calibration and validation of all testing, inspection and
measuring equipment used during manufacturing;
 checking if the “inspection” personnel has the required
certification to perform non-destructive tests;
 checking if the edges that will be welded have been properly cut
(surface - roughness, free of flaws, and dimensions) and
according to the manufacturing drawings;
 checking if the weld joints have been properly fit up according
to the manufacturing drawings;
 checking if pre-heat has been properly applied according to the
WPS information (if applicable).

When properly developed and implemented, the above-mentioned

items will ensure that before welding all the care has been put in
avoiding any kind of mistakes that will influence the quality of the final
weldment.

During Welding
To achieve the desired weld product quality, the most common
activities that shall be developed during welding are, at least, the
following ones:
 checking the welding parameters (current, voltage, speed, weld
width, depth, etc.) against the WPS information;
 checking if pre-heat have been properly applied according to the
WPS information(if applicable);
 checking the inter pass temperature according to the WPS
information;
 checking the weld root penetration geometry and dimensions (if
applicable);
 checking the weld runs morphology and soundness;
 checking flaws between runs and on each run;
 checking root gauging surface (cleanness, soundness,
geometry): if it is adequate for the weld back run (if applicable);

P a g e | 61
  checking the welding sequence (number of runs and layers, runs
sequence);
 cleanness between weld runs and layers.

The above mentioned items, when properly developed and

implemented, will ensure that during welding, all measures have been
taken aiming the desired weldment quality level that will ensure the
quality expected for the final weldment.

After Welding
The most common activities that shall be developed after welding, with
the aim to achieve the desired weld product quality, are at least the
following ones:
 checking the cooling rate (if applicable);
 checking post-heat, according to the WPS;
 checking the post heat treatments, according to the WPS and
heat treatment approved procedure;
 checking the weld cap and root runs morphology, soundness;
 perform the non-destructive tests according to the ITP
information;
 checking the deformation/distortion, including the control of
dimensions;
 perform the final tests like hydrostatic and leakage tests.

The above mentioned items, when properly developed and

implemented, will ensure that after welding all measures have been
taken aiming the weldment quality level, that will ensure the quality
expected for the final weldment.

2.3 Basics of productivity, quality and economy in welding

Basics of Many welding-oriented companies claim – and rightfully so – that,

productivity,
quality and
“People are our most important asset.” When it comes to welding,
economy in people (labourers) also constitute the single largest welding cost
welding variable.

Fig. 2.6 Main costs related to welding process

Source SAIW – South African Institute of Welding

P a g e | 62
The vast majority of manual and semi-automatic welding costs come
from labour, according to a variety of different industry sources.

However, if people are so important, why do so many companies spend

an inordinate amount of effort on less important issues (equipment and
consumable prices) while ignoring the most important component
(maximizing labour efficiency)? The answer can only be that these
companies have not measured, tracked, analysed and improved upon
the variables that affect their welding cost. In addition, if you don’t
measure something, you can’t manage it.

Reasons for Determining Welding Costs

The reasons for calculating the costs related to a welding process could
be organized in:
 Knowing which factors affect welding costs can enable a
company to focus its energies on changes that will reduce
costs, enabling the business to improve its competitiveness
and profitability.
 An accurate cost model can allow comparisons of
manufacturing options (for example, comparing the effect of
a change of welding processes on overall costs or comparing
manual welding to a mechanized or robotized welding).
 An adequate cost model will allow the estimation of savings
that will be increased with automation, so that the projected
savings can be used to justify the automation capital
investment.
 Evaluation of the type and amount of repairs will give the
necessary information to introduce new solutions that will
prevent the repairs and this will save manufacturing costs.

Fig. 2.7 Relation between costs and quality of the welding process

P a g e | 63
Fixed or ‘hard goods’ costs
The main fixed costs are the following:
 Labour rate
 Overhead cost
 Cost of filler metal (includes deposition efficiency)
 Cost for shielding gas or fluxes (if used)
 Cost for other consumables (grinding wheels, anti-spatter
compound, backing bars, etc.)
 Cost for electricity or fuel
 Cost for raw materials (per part, if applicable)
 Material cost related to reject rates (significant when working
with highly alloyed or exotic metals)

Time-based costs ([labour rate + overhead rate] x man-hours)

The costs related to the time dedicated to the welding process are:
 Prepare the metal for welding (e.g., shot blasting, degreasing,
etc.)
 Prepare the joint (e.g., cutting, bevelling, grinding [if
applicable])
 Assemble components (e.g., place in fixtures, jigs, etc.)
 Apply anti-spatter compound, if used
 Pre-heat time, if required
 Tack weld components, if required
 Position/re-position weld, if required
 Arc-on time
 “Air time’ (moving between welds)
 Inter-pass cooling time, if applicable

To find waste in a system, ask yourself this key question:

Is Step B in your process true preparation for Step C, or is it
compensation for the inefficiency of Step A?

If you spend time on activities such as grinding spatter, chipping slag,

grinding welds down to final size or reworking/repairing parts, you are
not preparing the part for the next step. You are compensating for the
inefficiency of the welding system, which will potentially add thousands
of extra Euros in welding costs.

Estimating & comparing weld metal costs:

Estimating the costs of depositing weld metal can be a difficult task
because of the many variables involved.

Design engineers must specify the type and size of weld joint to
withstand the loads that the weld must bear. The welding engineer
must select the welding process and type of filler metal that will provide
the required welds at the least possible cost. With wages and the cost
of operations rising, selection of the process that deposits weld metal
most expediently must be carefully considered.

P a g e | 64
Labour and overhead account for approximately 80-85% of the total
welding cost. The cost of actually depositing the weld metal varies
considerably with the filler metal and welding process selected. This
cost element is influenced by the user’s labour and overhead rates,
deposition rate and efficiency of the filler metal, operating factor, and
cost of materials and power.

Large firms will frequently conduct their own deposition tests and time
studies to determine welding costs, but many smaller shops do not
know the actual cost of depositing weld metal. Filler material
manufacturers will usually supply the deposition efficiency data you
need through their Technical Services Department, if it is not already
published in their literature.

Definition of factors for cost formulas Labour and Overhead

(€/hour)
The following may be considered jointly in your calculations:
 Labour is the welder’s hourly rate of pay including wages and
benefits.
 Overhead includes allocated portions of plant operating and
maintenance costs.
 Weld shops normally have established labour and overhead
rates for each department.
 Labour and overhead rates can vary greatly from plant to plant,
and also with location.

Deposition Rate (kg/hour)

The deposition rate is the rate at which the weld metal can be deposited
by a given electrode or welding wire, expressed in kg/hr.

It is based on continuous operation, not allowing time for stops and

starts caused by inserting a new electrode, cleaning slag, termination
of the weld or other reasons. The deposition rate will increase as the
welding current increases.

Operating Factor
The operating time consists of the percentage of a welder’s working
day that is actually spent for welding. It is the arc time in hours worked.
Any time the welder's arc is not struck represents time that the joining
process is not progressing. Since the total hours worked is always
higher than the total hours spent welding, the ratio of hours spent
welding to total hours worked is called the Operating Factor - OF. As
the basis of any cost formula, it must be determined accurately.

Since arc time is always divided by a larger number, the ratio is always
less than 1,0, and therefore a decimal. For convenience, in referring to
operating factors, the ratio is multiplied by 100 and expressed as a
percentage. Thus, one hears references to operating factors of 30, 40
or 50 percent.

P a g e | 65
When using an operating factor in a cost formula, however, it must be
given in the decimal format, so that a 40% operating factor would be
expressed as 0,40 in a cost formula.

A 45% (0,45) operating factor means that only 45% of the welder’s
day is actually spent welding. Meaning that 55% (0,55) of time is spent
installing a new electrode or wire, cleaning slag, positioning the weld,
cleaning spatter from the welding gun, and other stuff besides welding.
When using coated electrodes (MMA-111) or TIG (141, 142, 143, 145),
the OF can range from 15% to 40% depending on the material handling,
fixtures and welder skills.

When using MIG/MAG (131/135), Flux or Metal Cored Arc Welding

(FCAW/MCAW - 114, 136, 138), the OF can range from 40% to 65%
(in case of FCAW, the operating factor should be reduced by 5%
comparing to MAG due to slag removal) depending on the material
handling, fixtures and welder skills.

When using mechanized, orbital or robot welding, the OF can range

from 65% and above, depending on the material handling, fixtures and
operator dexterity.

Three Basic Approaches to calculate welding costs:

Welding costs can be estimated using one of three basic approaches:
 Cost per unit.
 Cost per length.
 Cost per weight.

The application will determine which approach is most appropriate.

It is critical that the variables used result in an equation that is
dimensionally correct.

Cost Per Unit

The cost per unit method is most effective when the application
involves pieces that move through a workstation. The types and sizes
of the welds are not relevant with this method — fillet welds, groove
welds, plug welds, etc., can all be omitted when the cost per unit is
determined, since time (the most costly aspect of welding) is measured
directly.

Cost Per Length

This method, appropriate for estimating the cost of long welds, is best
applied to single pass welds of a prescribed size. The values
determined by this method will differ for welds of different sizes. The
important variable of time is captured through measurement of travel
speed (m/unit of time). Though good for single pass welds, the method
is harder to use for multipass welds.

P a g e | 66
Cost per weight
Calculating the cost per weight is the easiest cost estimating method,
regardless of the welding process. Probably for that reason, it is
overused and misapplied. It is best used in applications in which
significant volumes of weld metal must be deposited, such as multipass
applications. Hardfacing and overlay welding are ideal applications. The
variable of time is captured by measuring deposition rate (kilograms
of deposit per hour).

This method is best for estimating the cost of large, multipass welds.
Cost per weight is good for evaluating changes in groove joint details.
It is not accurate when applied to single pass, small, short welds, and
it does not account for overwelding.
Deposition Efficiency
Relation between the weight of the weld metal deposited and the
weight of the electrode (or wire) consumed in making a weld. It can
be accurately determined only by making a test weld, and carefully
weighing the weld and the electrode or wire, before and after welding.
The efficiency can then be calculated with the formula:

Weight of Weld Metal (kg)

Deposition_efficiency =
Weight of Electrode Used (kg)

for welding using electrodes (MMA-111) or rods (TIG-141,143, 145)

or
Deposition Rate (kg/hr)
Deposition_efficiency =
Burn_off Rate (kg/hr)

for MIG/MAG (131/135), FCAW (114, 136), MCAW (138), SAW (121)

The deposition efficiency tells us how many kilograms of weld metal

can be expected from a given weight of the electrode or welding wire
purchased.

As an example, 100 kg of a flux-cored electrode with an efficiency of

85%, will produce approximately 85 kg of weld metal, while 100 kg of
coated electrode with an efficiency of 65%, will produce approximately
65 kg of weld metal (loss greater due to stub ends in the electrode
holder).

The formula for the MMA (111) efficiency including stub loss is
important, and must always be used when estimating the cost of
depositing weld metal by the MMA welding process.

(electrode length − stub length) × deposition efficiency

Efficiency minus stub loss =
Electrode Length

For the other arc welding processes, because the filler metal is a
continuous wire or a rod, it is assumed an efficiency of around 80% to
90%.

P a g e | 67
Cost of Electrodes, Wires, Gases and Flux (€/kg)
You must secure the current cost per kg of the electrode or welding
wire, plus the cost of the shielding gas or flux, if applicable, from the
supplier. The shielding gas flow rate varies slightly with the type of gas
used.

Cost of Power (€/kWh)

Cost of electrical power is a very small part of the cost of depositing
weld metal and in some cases is less than 1% of the total. It will be
necessary for you to know the power cost expressed in Euro per
kilowatt- hour (€/kWh) if required for a total cost estimate.

Estimating & comparing weld metal costs

A welded joint will require a given quantity of weld metal, irrespective
of the process whereby the weld metal is deposited. It is therefore
simpler to determine the cost of 1 kg of deposited weld metal, and
then to calculate the weight of weld metal required to determine the
total cost.

The cost of a weld can be calculated as the sum of the following

contributing factors:
 The filler metal.
 The shielding gas (or flux in SAW)
 The welding labour.
 The “overheads” attributable to the welding labour, which include
rent, electricity, depreciation of equipment, protective clothing,
pension, medical aid, leave, as well as contributions towards profits.
These costs are at least 200% of the welding labour cost for the
manual and semi-automatic welding processes.
 The cleaning labour (spatter removal, bead dressing, etc.)
 Overheads associated with cleaning labour

Equation used for the calculations of costs

a. The cost of the filler metal:
Electrode or wire cost (€/kg)
Cost_wire =
Electrode efficiency (kg weld metal consumable)

b. The cost of the shielding gas (€/kg of weld metal)

Cost_gas = gas cost (€/kg) × kg gas used

the above equation can also be used to calculate the cost of a flux in
SAW)
Litres used × gas density (kg/m3 )
Cost_gas = Unit cost for gas (€/kg) x
1000 l/m3

flow rate (l/min) × gas density (kg/m3 )

Cost_gas = Unit cost for gas (€/kg) × arc time (min) ×
1000 l/m3

P a g e | 68
 1kg weld metal × 60 (min ∕ arc_hr)
Cost_gas = Unit cost for gas (€/kg) ×
Deposition rate (kg/arc_hr)
flow rate × gas density
×
1000 l/m3

Gas cost (€/kg) × flow rate (l/min) × gas density (kg/m3 ) × 0.06
Cost_gas =
Deposition rate (kg/hr)

c. Examples of ways to calculate Labour cost:

Cost_labour = Welding time (hr) × labour rate (€/hr)

Arc time (arc_hrs) × labour rate (€/hr)

Cost_labour =
Process arc_on time (arc_hrs/hr)

1kg weld metal × labour rate (€/hr)

Cost_labour =
Deposition rate (kg/arc_hr) × process arc_on time (arc_hrs/hr)

Labour Rate (€/hr)

Cost_labour =
Deposition rate (kg/hr) × process arc_on time (hr)

d. Overhead costs amount to at least twice the welding labour cost,

and apply to manual and semi-automatic processes.
Overhead costs = (at least) 2 x labour cost (€/hr) [c]

e. Cleaning Costs

It varies significantly depending on the nature of the operation, the

number of passes used to complete the joint, and the type of material
being joined.

In the absence of cleaning time information, a fairly accurate estimate

can be made by taking the ratio of the number of persons performing
the cleaning the so called fettlers to that of the welders, and then
estimating the portion of the total time the fettlers spend removing
spatter.

P a g e | 69
Weld Cost for 1 kg weld metal

Filler Cost 0.06 Gas cost × (flow rate × ρ) Labour rate × (1 + Y)

Cost_1kg weld = + +
Efficiency Deposition rate Dep. rate × arc_on time
+ Cleaning labour rate (1 + Y) × Cleaning time

where:
 Filler cost = electrode or wire cost in €/kg
 Efficiency = kg weld metal / kg of electrodes or wire or rod
o ~ 0,93 – 0,98 for MAG/MIG or TIG or MCAW (depending on
parameters, stick-out and gas type)
o ~ 0,93 for MAG (CO2 shielding)
o ~ 0,84 for self – shielded FCAW
 Gas Cost = shielding gas price in €/kg
 Flow Rate = shielding gas flow rate in litres/minute
 ρ = shielding gas density in kg/m3
 Deposition rate = Process deposition rate in kg weld metal/arc-hr
 Labour rate = Welding labour rate in €/hr
 Operator factor = Arc-on time as a fraction of real time
 Y = overheads as a function of labour cost (typically at least = 2)

Operator Factor:
This can be determined as follow:

Actual kg welded
O. F. =
Theoretically possible kg welded

Actual kg welded
O. F. =
Deposition rate (kg/hr) × total time available (hr)

Example of calculation of operating factor

Taken over 1 month:
- Wire consumption = 50 spools x 15 kg = 750 kg
- The deposition rate, at 300 A of Ø1.2 mm wire is: 5 kg/hr.
- The total time

Total_time = 3 welders x 40hours/week x 4.33 week/month = 519,6 man-hours

750kg
O. F. = = 0,289
5 kg/hr × 519.6 hr

Another preferred example of the calculation of labour cost per kg of

weld metal deposited:

Labour rate (€/hr) + overhead rate (€/hr)

Labour_cost (€/kg) =
Deposition rate (kg/hr) × OF

P a g e | 70
 We therefore have calculated the cost per kg of deposited weld metal
(€/kg). We must then calculate cost per unit length (€/m).

Cost per unit length (€/m) of weld

= Cost of deposited weld metal (€/kg)
× volume of weld metal per unit length (kg/m)

(calculate or get from standard charts)

Cost of welding (€) for the entire weld = Cost per unit length (€/m) × total weld length (m)

or
We therefore have calculated the cost per kg of deposited weld metal
(€/kg), we can then calculate cost for total mass deposited.

Cost (€) of total weld metal deposited

= Cost of deposited weld metal (€/kg)
× volume of weld metal (m3 ) (calculate or get from standard charts)
× weld metal density (kg/m3 )

2.4 Qualification of mechanized, orbital and robot welding personnel

Qualification of As mentioned before, to ensure the quality level of the welded product,
mechanized,
orbital and robot
the manufacturer must implement a quality system.
welding personnel
The quality system has the goal to have the welding processes under
control. To achieve this, at least two major key factors must be
implemented: one is the approval of the welding process and another
is the approval of the welder (for manual welding processes) or the
welding operator (for mechanized, orbital and robot welding).

On this sub chapter the goal of the welding operator approval (or
sometimes also called qualification) will be discussed, as well as how it
shall be done. First, it is important to define what the differences
between a welder and a welding operator are.

Welder
He is responsible for the setting/tuning of welding parameters and the
manual displacement of the heat source along weld joint.

Welding Operator
He may or not be responsible for the setting/tuning of welding
parameters, is responsible for overseeing the execution of the welded
joint without movement of the heat source and may make position
adjustments of the heat source during the welding, or not.

P a g e | 71
 The main goal for the approval of welders or welding operators can be
summarised as: ”to ensure that the welder/operator has the correct
competence and skills to use the welding process manually or
mechanized / automated / robotized under the specific conditions
defined by the WPS, ensuring the quality levels (the weld soundness
and morphology) specified for welded joints”.

Like for the approval of welding procedures, the welder/operator

approval is based on essential variables and non-essential variables.
Essential variables for a welder/operator can be defined as: ”all the
welding process variables that, when are changed during fabrication,
will originate changes on welding operational techniques and/or skills
and will imply a new test for the welder/operator approval”. Examples
of essential variables for a welding operator are:
 Type of Automation/Mechanisation/Robot;
 Welding Process;
 Sensor systems or not;
 Single or Multiple Layer/Run.

Non-Essential variables for a welder/operator can be defined as: “any

variable that when is changed does NOT imply any change on the
welding operational techniques and/or skills and will not influence the
end result (weld free of flaws), therefore it will NOT imply a new test
for the approval of the welder/operator”. Examples of non-essential
variables for a welding operator are:
 Way of setting/tuning the parameters;
 Way of fixing the weld joint;
 Type of current, Polarity.

2.4.1 ISO 14732

Qualification of To approve a welding operator, there are several methods. In Europe,
mechanized,
orbital and robot
the most common is to apply the standard ISO 14732 - Welding
welding personnel personnel — Qualification testing of welding operators and weld setters
for mechanized and automatic welding of metallic materials.

The scope of the above mentioned standard says that the standard was
developed, with the aim to:
 Specify the requirements for qualification of welding operators
and also weld setters for mechanized and automatic welding.
 Define when shall be applicable the approval of welding
operators and weld setters, when it is required by the contract
or by the fabrication standard.
 Clear out what is not applicable for personnel exclusively
performing loading or unloading of the automatic welding unit,
neither for stud welding operators.
 Define how the tests coupons for approval shall be performed,
witnessed and evaluated, the range of approval, and how
revalidation can be done.

P a g e | 72
The section 3 of the standard gives a set of definitions, for example:
3.1 automatic welding:
welding in which all operations are performed without welding operator
intervention during the process; for example, robot welding.
3.2 mechanized welding:
welding where the required welding conditions are maintained by
mechanical or electronic means but may be manually varied during the
process; as example, SAW applications, orbital welding.
3.10 welding unit:
welding installation including auxiliary apparatus such as jigs and
fixtures, robot, manipulators and rotating devices.

The section 4 of the standard, gives the necessary information about

the methods that can be used for the approval of the welding operators.

The standard defines four different methods, which are:

a) qualification based on a welding procedure test in accordance with
the relevant part of ISO 15614;
b) qualification based on a pre-production welding test in accordance
with ISO 15613;
c) qualification based on a test piece in accordance with the relevant
part of ISO 9606;
d) qualification based on a production test or production sample test.

It also refers that any method used can only be performed if the
welding operator follows a welding procedure specification – WPS. It
also mentions that the welder approval implies the execution of a test
coupon according to the above mentioned methods a) to d) and it is
mandatory to perform also a test of the functional knowledge
appropriate to the welding unit the welding operator is going to use
during the fabrication. The supplemented test content is defined on the
Annex A of the standard.

It also mentions that the welder approval test can be supplemented

with a specific test to verify his knowledge related to welding
technology. The test content is defined in the Annex B of the standard,
but it is not mandatory to be performed by the welding operator. It is
also mentioned for each above-mentioned method a) to d) the
acceptance criteria and the tests that must be performed to evaluate
the test coupon done by the welding operator.

The range of approval for a certain welding operator qualification test,

as defined above, is based on:
 The welder operator ability to perform the welding test
following an approved (qualified) WPS. The welding operator
range of approval has the same range of approval of the
qualified WPS that was used during the test;

and

P a g e | 73
  Specific range for the essential variables related to automatic
welding

or
 Specific range for the essential variables related to
mechanized welding

For automatic welding, the following changes on the below essential

variables will require re-qualification:
 change of the welding process (except variants within welding
process 13X as defined in ISO 4063);
 welding with or without arc sensor and/or joint sensor;
 change from single-run-per-side technique to multi-run-per-
side technique (but not vice versa);
 change of type of welding unit (including change in the robot
control system);
 change from welding with arc sensor and/or joint sensor to
welding without arc sensor and/or joint sensor (but not vice
versa).

For mechanized welding the following changes on the below essential

variables will require requalification:
 change of the welding process (except variants within welding
process 13X as defined in ISO 4063);
 change from direct visual control to remote visual control and
vice versa;
 deletion of automatic arc length control;
 deletion of automatic joint tracking;
 addition of welding positions other than those already qualified
in accordance with ISO 9606-1;
 change from single-run-per-side technique to multi-run-per-
side technique (but not vice versa);
 deletion of backing;
 deletion of consumable inserts (only applied for TIG or Plasma
welding).
In section 5, the standard defines the validity period of the welding
operator qualification and how the validity can be kept during this
period, how the qualification can be revalidated and how it can be
revoked. In what regards the revalidation, the standard gives three
options to perform the revalidation of the welding operator qualification.

P a g e | 74
 a.

b.
Fig. 2.8 Recommended form for a welding operator qualification test certificate given
by the Standard in the Annex C.

P a g e | 75
 2.4.2 Methods of monitoring, control and storage of
fabrication data
Qualification of The goal for monitoring, control and storage of fabrication data can be
mechanized,
orbital and robot
divided in two aspects: the way the manufacturer has to control the
welding personnel welding processes and related activities and to have the necessary
evidences that allow the manufacturer to confirm that he complies with
the client’s purchase order requirements and also to have evidences
that allow the traceability of the weld joints.

The kind of records or monitoring that will be needed:

 the welding parameters, the post weld heat treatments; this
is achieved by using calibrated measuring instruments or
software (acquisition data systems) that will give records in
paper or electronic format.
 reports/certificates – concerning the tests, inspections, base
materials, consumables, welding procedures approvals,
welding procedure specifications, working instructions,
welders and welding operators, all these records can be in
paper or electronic format.
Data storage and archive:
 should be either in paper or electronic format, shall allow a
clear understanding of what and how has been performed
during the fabrication of the welded product; this will help the
welded construction traceability.
 The use of codes to identify the weld joints, raw material, filler
material and so on, is an important feature that should be
implemented.

P a g e | 76
Chapter 2: Learning Outcomes

 Understand the principles of quality assurance and quality

control in welding fabrication
 Outline the principles of quality assurance, quality control and
inspection systems and usage for welding fabrication
 Outline basic factors related to personnel and equipment, which
influence the quality in welding fabrication
 Recognise the related standards and their application to
welded fabrication as a special process
 Interpret appropriate standards for welding quality control
 Outline the reason why welding is considered to be a special
process and the need for standards for quality control
 Understand in detail the requirements and function of
quality control during manufacturing
 Outline the purpose of a WPS
 Recognise the main variables for a certain WPS qualification
 Outline the advantages to the quality of the welded construction
 Understand the meaning of quality control before welding,
during welding and after welding
 Understand also what is most important in quality control
before welding
 Outline the purpose of quality control before, during and after
welding
 Recognise what is most important in quality control before
welding
 Understand the relationship between productivity and
economy in welding
 Identify principles of productivity in welding
 Identify principles of economy in welding
 Explain the standards related to welders/operators and
welding procedure qualification including traceability, need
for calibration and monitoring of welding parameters
 Explain the main purpose of a welding operator qualification and
main advantages to the quality of welding fabrication
 Interpret the standard for a welding operator qualification
 Determine the main variables for a particular welding operator
qualification and its range of qualification

P a g e | 77
Chapter 2: Examination

Q 2.1 The differences between Inspection and Testing to

Quality Control is:
a. Inspection and testing are performed at the end of the
manufacturing.
b. Quality Control uses inspection and testing but they are
performed in critical points during the manufacturing process.
c. There is no difference, they are the same thing.
d. Answers a) and b) are correct.

Q 2.2 To implement a quality system, it is necessary to:

a. Ensure that personnel engaged in manufacturing shall have a
proper level of knowledge and skills and the manufacturing
hardware is suitable for the production work and is able to
perform it.
b. Only implement inspection and testing.
c. Follow the client’s purchase order requirements.
d. To check and verify if the company’s staff understand the
purchase order requirements.

Q 2.3 What is the major difference between ISO 9001 and ISO
3834?
a. ISO 9001 gives the possibility to the organisation to implement a
quality management system and ISO 3834 is about a quality
control system.
b. ISO 9001 has the aim to control the product quality and ISO 3834
has the aim to control the welding manufacturing process.
c. There is no difference between the two standards; both have the
aim to control the product quality.
d. Answer a) and b) are correct.

Q 2.4 What is required to implement ISO 9001 and ISO 3834?

a. The organisation only needs to implement an inspection and
testing system.
b. The development and implementation of a quality manual that
shall be able to evidence that the company complies with each
standard requirements.
c. To develop and implement a system that only checks the
customer’s purchase requirements.
d. None of the above answers is correct.

P a g e | 78
Q 2.5 What is the ISO 9001 quality management system based
on?
a. The development of working instructions only.
b. The definition of what are the goals of the company, in terms of
profit.
c. The definition of the company’s key processes that will have
influence on the product quality.
d. The development and implementation of a structured inspection
and testing plan.

Q 2.6 The weld joints quality levels can be defined based on:
a. Only the weld joints efficiencies.
b. Weld acceptance criteria and weld joint efficiencies.
c. The definition of weld tests to be performed.
d. The definition of the types of welding processes.

Q 2.7 The content of an inspection and test plan should have,

at least:
a. The weld acceptance criteria; type of test or inspections that shall
be performed; the needed amount of tests; and the level of
competences of the personnel who will perform the tests or
inspection.
b. The amount of tests, the type of tests, and how to approve the
welding procedure.
c. Acceptance criteria, the type of tests, the welders working
instructions and the welding operators’ method of approval.
d. None of the above answers is correct.

Q 2.8 An inspection and test plan is developed taking into

consideration:
a. The fabrication standard or construction code.
b. The client’s specifications and contract requirements.
c. National, Regional and International statutory and regulatory
requirements.
d. All answers above are correct.

Q 2.9 The welding inspection personnel that perform non-

destructive testing shall be:
a. Qualified and Certified according to ISO 14732, if is performing
visual testing.
b. Qualified and Certified according to ISO 9712, at the required
level.
c. Only qualified according to companies specific rules.
d. Free of any pressure and shall not be company employee.

P a g e | 79
Q 2.10 A welding procedure specification is important
because:
a. It describes the main variables and other information needed to
ensure the weld quality.
b. It is a document that is never used on the shop floor. It is only
used to be shown to the client.
c. It is a way to confirm that the company is concerned with the
level of skills of the welders and welding operators.
d. It can be used to find where the weld is going to be done.

P a g e | 80
P a g e | 81
P a g e | 82