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F1
My

Py

Pz O Px
F3 Mx

Mz x
z

Px AXIAL FORCE. This component measures the

pulling (or pushing) action perpendicular to the
section. It is often denoted by P.

Py, Pz SHEAR FORCES. These are the components of

the total resistance to sliding portion to one side
of the exploratory section past the other. The
resultant force is usually designated by V and its
Bar 1 Bar 2
components by Vy and Vz to identify their
directions. 10 mm2 1000 mm2

Mx TORQUE. This component measures the

resistance to twisting the member and is
commonly given the symbol T.
My, Mz BENDING MOMENTS. These components
measure the resistance to bending the member
500 N 5000 N
about y- or z- axis and are often denoted merely
by My or Mz.

The unit strength of a material is usually defined as the

The unit for stress are the units of force divided by the
stress in the material. Stress is expressed symbolically
units of area. In SI, force is measured in Newtons (N) and
as
P area is measured in square meters (m2). Thus, the units
σ= for stress are Newtons per square meter (N/m2).
A
Frequently, one Newton per square meter is referred to
as one Pascal (Pa).
where σ (Greek lowercase letter sigma) is the stress or
force per unit area, P is the applied load, and A is the In US Customary units, force is measured in pounds (lb).
cross-sectional area. With area measured in square inches (in2), the units for
stress are pounds per square inch (lb/in2), frequently
abbreviated as psi.

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Dividing load by area does not give the stress at all It does not follow, however, that positioning the load
points in the cross-sectional area; it merely determines through the centroid of the section always results in a
the average stress. A more precise definition of stress is uniform stress distribution.
obtained by dividing the differential load dP by the
differential area over which it acts:
dP
σ=
dA
The condition under which the stress is constant or
uniform is known as simple stress. A uniform stress
distribution can exist only if the resultant of the applied
loads passes through the centroid of the cross-section.

A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100mm A composite bar consists of an aluminium section rigidly
must carry a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the fastened between a bronze section and a steel section
outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 as shown below. Axial loads are applied at the positions
MPa. indicated. Determine the stress in each section.

Aluminum
Bronze A = 1.8 in2 Steel
A = 1.2 in2 A = 1.6 in2
4000 lb 9000 lb 7000 lb
2000 lb

1.3 ft 1.6 ft 1.7 ft

For the truss shown, determine the stress in members The block of weight W hangs from the pin at A. The bars
AC and BD. The cross-sectional area of each member is AB and AC are pinned to the support at B and C. The
900 mm2. areas are 800 mm2 for AB and 400 mm2 for AC.
Neglecting the weights of the bars, determine the
B D F maximum safe value of W if the stress in AB is limited to
110 MPa and that in AC to 120 MPa.
3m B C
A H
4m C 4m E 4m G 4m
40° A 60°

30 kN 70 kN

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Shearing stress differs from both tensile and

compressive stress in that it is caused by forces acting
along or parallel to the area resisting the forces, whereas
tensile and compressive stresses are caused by forces
perpendicular to the areas on which they act. For this
reason, tensile and compressive stresses are frequently
called normal stresses, whereas a shearing stress may
be called a tangential stress.

A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied

loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past
its adjacent section.

What force is required to punch a 20-mm diameter hole
in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350
MPa.
A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing
strength of 40 ksi. The compressive stress in the punch
is limited to 50 ksi. (a) Compute the maximum thickness
of plate from which a hole 2.5 in. in diameter can be
punched. (b) If the plate is 0.25 in thick, determine the
diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.

Compute the shearing stress in the pin at B for the
member supported as shown below. The pin diameter is
20 mm.
A rectangular piece of wood, 50 mm by 100 mm in cross
section, is used as a compression block as shown.
Determine the maximum axial force P that can be safely
applied to the block if the compressive stress in the
wood is limited to 20 MPa and the shearing stress
parallel to grain is limited to 5 MPa. The grain makes an
angle of 20° with the horizontal, as shown.

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The result of an excessive bearing stress is to cause
yielding of the plate or of the rivet, or both. The intensity
with which the rivet bears against the rivet hole is not
constant, but it actually varies from zero at the edges of
the hole to a maximum directly in back of the rivet. The
difficulty inherent in a variable stress distribution is
avoided by the common practice of assuming the
bearing stress σb to be uniformly distributed over a
reduced area equal to the projected area of the rivet
hole. Then the bearing load is expressed by
Pb Pb
σb = =
Ab dt
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Bearing stress differs from compressive stress in that the
latter is the internal stress caused by a compressive
force, whereas the former is a contact pressure between
separate bodies. Some examples of bearing stress are
the soil pressure beneath piers and the forces on
bearing plates.
The figure below shows a W 460x97 beam riveted to a
W610x215 girder by 100 x 90 x 10 mm angles with 19-mm
diameter rivets. There are two angles, one on either side
of the beam. For each rivet, assume τ = 80 MPa and σb =
170 MPa. The web of the girder is 11.9 mm thick, and the
web of the beam is 11.4 mm thick. Determine the
allowable end reaction.
A 20-mm diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110
mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for
bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of
the rivet. Determine the minimum thickness of each plate
and the largest average tensile stress in the plates.
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A cylindrical tank carrying a gas or fluid under a The stress in the longitudinal section that resists the
pressure p is subjected to tensile forces that resist the bursting force F is obtained by dividing it by the area of
bursting forces developed across longitudinal and the two cut surfaces. This gives:
transverse sections. A simple method of determining the  F pDL pD
bursting force F is indicated in the figure below. σ = A  σt =
2tL
σt =
2t
This stress is usually called the tangential stress
because it acts tangent to the surface of the cylinder;
other common names are circumferential stress, hoop
stress, and girth stress.

Consider a free-body diagram of a transverse section. Consider a free-body diagram of a transverse section.

The area of a transverse section is the wall thickness pD

Then we obtain, σ t =
multiplied by the mean circumference, or π(D+t)t; if t is 4t
small compared to D, it is closely approximated by πDt. where σl denotes what is called the longitudinal stress
because it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
cylinder.

The equation for solving the stress in the wall of a thin-
walled spherical pressure vessel is identical to that for
the longitudinal stress in a cylinder.
A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400mm in diameter
with a wall thickness of 20 mm is subjected to an internal
pressure of 4.5 MPa. (a) Calculate the tangential and
longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b) To what value may
the internal pressure be increased if the stress in the
steel is limited to 120 MPa?

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The wall thickness of a 4-ft diameter spherical tank is A water tank, 22 ft in diameter, is made from steel plates that
5/16 in. Calculate the allowable internal pressure if the are ½ in thick. Find the maximum height to which the tank
stress is limited to 8000psi. may be filled if the circumferential stress is limited to
6000psi. The specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.