Schools of Linguistics: Competition and Evaluation.

Hutchinson University Library, London 1980

By Geoffrey Sampson

Reviewed By Ayesha Bashir, Scholar of M.Phil

English Department, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan

Schools of linguistics, 284 pages book, analyzes the linguistic theories of the last 150 years. The
First chapter “Prelude: The 19th century” provides a background to the whole discussion on all
theories i.e. Saussure’s Language as a social fact, the descriptivists (includes the American
structural linguists from Boas to Bloomfield), the Prague school, TG grammar, generative
phonology, relational grammar and London school. The writer clearly declare that some of the
scholars/linguists don’t fit in well defined categories but since their tendencies of works seemed
to confirm to that particular essence of schools, hence, they have been placed in those categories.
Although, some of their works are so different that they can be placed in yet different group
altogether. This book particularly deals with the linguistics movement of Europe and American
than other parts of the world.

The writer particularly deals with ‘core’ linguistics. Only referring the branches such as
sociology, psychology etc when they seem relevant to the schools/theories discussed.

The writer put his opinion and beliefs in quite clear terms. His approach however to the
discussion of the theories and schools is descriptive. The book offers to the readers “reasoned
judgment” (to put in writer terms) with which they may agree or disagree.

Chapter one “Prelude: the nineteen century’ provides an overview of the development in
linguistics that took place in nineteen century that provides background to the revolutionary
work by Saussure. According to Sampson diachrony was the orientation of the 1900c linguistics
which later on shifted to synchrony. Sampson has drawn a sketch of intellectual trends which
caused linguistics of the nineteen century to be preoccupied with historical approach.
Romanticism had a great impact on diachronic approach to linguistics, rejecting classical
tradition and giving to indigenous and cultural roots. Similarly physics and Biological theory of
evolution have their impacts towards diachronic linguistics. Sampson went on reviewing the
development of linguistics and the influence it took from mechanistic physics and Grimm’s law
on one hand and the theory of evolution and family tree on the other hand.

Second Chapter; “Saussure: Language as a social fact” gives a comprehensive discussion on

Saussure’s dichotomies; langue and parole, syntagmentic and paradigmatic, synchronic and
diachronic. And then considering language/langue as a social fact in Durkheim sense, which is
contrasted with Chomsky’s competence--something in people’s head.

Third Chapter “Descriptivist’ discusses a great deal about Bloomfieldian linguistics. Franz Boas
has been introduced as a father of structuralism in America and particularly his linguistics
relativity is being expounded and criticized for his exaggerated stance. Bloomfieldian failure in
dealing meaning/ semantics is also being criticized.

Fourth chapter “Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis overviews the interconnectedness of language, thought

and reality, examining language as determiner of how we think and what we perceive with
ethnographic interpretation. The chapter is started as how this hypothesis is different from
Bloomfield while on the other hand fully sharing the relativism of Boas and other descriptivists.
Then Sampson goes on relating the work of Sapir and his view of linguistic drift, Whorf focus of
study and what ignited the thought in him, finally relating the criticism unleashed at his view by
Max Black Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Chapter 5 “Functional Linguistics: The Prague School provides a clear account of the school’s
functional orientation to language. The school has concern with paradigmatic relation—the
function of language items in the system. Second there is the function of linguistic units in a text.
Sampson starts with Mathesius categories of Theme and Rheme, then relating the function of text
in context, mentioning the Buhler’s classification of speech functions and then referring to the
school’s concerns with stylistics. Sampson moves on relating Jakobson’s contribution especially
his concept of universals.

In Chapter 6 “Noam Chomsky and Generative Grammar” Sampson discuss Chomsky in regard
of his TG grammar. Chomsky has been introduced as a revolutionary figure presenting a short
biography and discussing things in his life that influenced his theories. Further presenting the
essence of Chomsky’s approach to language that there are linguistics universals in the domain of
syntax, how his syntax differ from Saussure describing in terms of mathematical formulation.
Sampson criticizes that though Chomsky formulation of syntax as a finite system of rules
generating infinite set of sentences is an empirical approach to syntax, his rationalization of
intuition as the data take research from empiricism. Sampson disparaged the intolerant attitude of
his schools towards descriptive work and their explicit claim about descriptive linguistic work
that it has no right to exist.

Chapter 7 “Relational Grammar: Hjemslev, Lamb, Reich” deals with stratificational linguistics.
Hejemslev is being introduced first for giving background to the school, which is termed as “the
most interesting radical alternative on the contemporary linguistic scene to Chomsky’s theory of
language”. Hjemslev’s manifestation of form vs substance and context vs expression distinction
and the four strata out of theses, namely context substance, context form, expression form and the
expression substance and the relationship he has described have been termed as “highly abstruse
and airy-fairy”. However what seems interesting to Sampson in his work was the development it
receives from Sydney Lamb who has described common type of relationships that obtained
between units in a language such as alternation. His concept of Sememe has been criticized as
“naïve and crude”, and the notion of context-substance as highly questionable. Further Reich
development of Lamb in relational network has been expounded, finally setting out on the
advantages and disadvantages of stratification linguistics.

Chapter 8 “Generative Phonology” is started with discussion on Chomsky’s approach to

phonology. Sampson brings about the commonality between TG grammar and generative
phonology on the basis of their interest in “universals”. Jackobson’s distinctive features have
been introduced to generative phonology by Halle. Finally, Sampson is dealing with the criticism
at chomskyan and Hallean rules.

Chapter 9 “The London School” is started as giving background to what led the way to modern
study in Phonetics. Henry Sweet and Daniel Jones works in phonetics are being commented.
Then Firth and his contribution to the school have been introduced, moving on to the comparison
with Bloomfieldians. Sampson has also shed some light on Hallidey’s systemic grammar.

Chapter 10 “Conclusion rounds off the themes together which have recurred continually trough
the whole period Sampson has overviewed.

All in all, this is a well-written book, strongly recommended to be read by students/scholars and
teachers of linguistics.