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3 Electromagnetic Theory and Light
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B
c E dl A t dS , (3.1)
E
c B dl 0 0 A t dS , (3.2)
A E dS 0, (3.3)
B dS 0
A
(3.4)
where 0 and 0 are the permeability and the electric permittivity of free space,
respectively.
It should be noted that except for a multiplicative scalar, the electric and magnetic
fields appears in above equations with a remarkable symmetry. The mathematical
symmetry implies a good deal of physical symmetry.
Maxwell’s equations tell us that a time-varying magnetic field generates an
electric field and a time-varying electric field generates a magnetic field.
Maxwell’s equations above can be written in differential form by using following
two theorems from vector calculus.
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Gauss divergence theorem
F dS F dV
A V
(3.5)
and Stocke theorem
F dl F dS
C A
(3.6)
By applying theorem (3.5) to Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) and applying theorem (3.6) to Eqs
(3.3) and (3.4), we obtain the following differential equations
B
E ( 3 .7 )
t
E
B 0 0 ( 3 .8 )
t
E 0 ( 3 .9 )
B 0 ( 3 . 10 )
i j k
E (3.11)
x y z
Ex Ey Ez
E E E
E x y z (3.12)
x y Z
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The consequent equations for free space are in detail as follows:
E z E y B
x, (i )
y z t
E x E z B
y, (ii ) (3.13)
z x t
E y E x B
z, (iii )
x y t
Bz B y E
0 0 x , (i )
y z t
Bx Bz E
0 0 y , (ii ) (3.14)
z x t
B y Bx E
0 0 z , (iii )
x y t
E x E y E z
0, (3.15)
x y z
Bx B y Bz
0, (3.16)
x y z
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3.2 Electromagnetic waves
Maxwell’s equations for free space can be manipulated into the form of two vector
expressions:
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The Laplacian, , operates on each component of E and B , so that the two vector
2
equations (3.18) and (3.19) actually represent a total of 6 scalar equations. One of
these expressions, in Cartesian coordinates, is
2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex
0 0 2 (3.20)
x 2 y 2 z 2 t
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The experimentally verified transverse character of light should be explained within the
context of the electromagnetic theory. To that end, consider the fairly
simple case of a
plane wave propagating in the positive x-direction and write as E E ( x, t ) . Eq. (3.15) is
reduced to
E x
0 (3.23)
x
For a progressive wave, the solution of (3.23) is Ex=0. So the electric component
must be perpendicular to the propagation direction, x. Let’s orient the coordinate axes
so that the electric field is parallel to the y-axis: E E ( x, t ) j . From Eq. (3.13
y
III), it follows that
E y Bz
. (3.24)
x t
This implies that the time-dependent B-field
can only have a component in the z-direction.
Clearly then, in free space, the plane
electromagnetic wave is indeed transverse, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. Now let’s write
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The associated magnetic field can be
found by directly integrating Eq. (3.25), that
is,
E y
Bz dt
x
E 0 y
c sin[ ( t x c ) ]dt
1
E 0 y cos[ ( t x c ) ]
c
E
y. (3.26)
c
Fig. 3.2 Orthogonal harmonic E-field
and B_field.
Clearly, E and Bz have the same time
y
dependence, E jE y ( x, t ) and B kˆBz ( x, t ) are in phase at all points inspace.
ˆ
Moreover, E and B are mutually perpendicular, and their cross-product, E B,
points in the propagation direction, as shown in Fig.3.2.
It should be noted that plane waves are not only solutions to Maxwell’s
equations. As we saw in the previous chapter, the differential wave equation allows
many solutions including spherical waves.
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3.3 Energy
Energy density, u , which is the radiant energy per unit volume, is given by
u 0E 2 (3.27) 1 2
or u B . (3.28)
From Eqs. (3.27) and (3.28), we have
0
1
u EB (3.29)
0 c
The amount of energy transported during a unit time and through a unit area
perpendicular to the transport direction is (suppose the wave travels through an area
of A and with a speed of c and with a time duration of t )
u ( c t A) 1
S uc EB (3.30)
t A 0
The corresponding vector is called Poynting vector:
1
S E B. (3.31)
0
2
It’s along the wave propagation direction. Its SI unit is watt per square meter (W m ).
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E and B are so closely coupled to each other that we need to deal with only one of
them. Using B E c from Eq. 3.26, we can rewrite Eq. 3.30 as
1 2
S E 0cE 2 (3.32)
c0
The time-averaged value of the magnitude of the Poynting vector, symbolized by
S , is a measure of the significant quantity known as the irradiance, I .
1
I S 0c E 2 0cE02 (3.33)
2
Where E0 is the peak magnitude of E. Within a linear, homogeneous, isotropic
medium, the expression for the irradiance becomes
1
I v E 2 vE02 (3.34)
2
2
For a point light source, its irradiance is proportional to 1 r . This is well-known
inverse-square law. Fig. 3.3 shows that a point source emits electromagnetic
waves uniformly in all directions. Let us assume that the energy of the waves is
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conserved as they spread from the source. Let
us also center an imaginary sphere of radius r
on the source, as shown in Fig. 3.3. If the power
of the source is Ps , the irradiance I at the
sphere must then be
Ps
I 2
. (3.35)
4r
Fig. 3.3 A point source emits light
isotropically.
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3.4 Electromagnetic-photon spectrum
Although all forms of electromagnetic radiation propagate with the same speed in
vacuum, they differ in frequency and wavelength. Fig. 3.4 plots the vast electromagnetic
spectrum. The frequency range for whole electromagnetic spectrum is from a few Hz to
1022 Hz. The corresponding wavelength range is from many kilometers to 10-14 m.
Radiofrequency waves: a few Hz to 109 Hz
Microwaves: 109 Hz to about 3 x 1011 Hz.
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Fig. 3.4 Electromagnetic-photon spectrum.
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Ultraviolet: 8 x 1014 Hz to 3.4 x 1016 Hz.
X-rays: 2.4 x 1016 Hz to 5 x 1019 Hz.
Gamma rays: 5 x 1019 Hz to 2.5 x 1033 Hz.
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120
GaInP2
100
60
40
20
0
590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 3.5 Spectra of sunlight and the light from Fig. 3.6 Emission spectrum of GaInP2
a tungsten lamp. semiconductor under excitation of a He-
Cd laser..
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3.5 Light in matter
3.5.1 Dispersion
In a homogeneous, isotropic dielectric, the phase velocity of light propagation becomes
v 1 . (3.37)
The ratio of the speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum to that in matter is known as
the absolute index of refraction n and is given by
c
n . (3.38)
v 0 0
n / 0 . (3.39)
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