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GENTIHGIIIIIT GOUN$ ]OR

WRITR IIPTRIT|IRS
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are
unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes
eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokatyotes such as
bacteria and certain algae. Viruses, though not strictly classed as
living organisms, are also studied. Microbiology is a broad term
which includes many branches like virology, Mycology,
parasitology and others.

Environmental Microbiology: The study of microorganisms

living in a variety of environments (air, soil, water, etc.) and their
pathogenic relationship to other organisms including man.

Water Microbiology: The study of those microorganisms that

are found in water.

Five Kingdoms of Living Organisms

3.Monera
4.Protista
5.Fungi
6.Plantae, and
T.Animalia.

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 Five Kingdoms of
Five Kingdoms of Living Organisms Living 0rganisms

3. Fungi - are a diverse group of

3.Monera - include single-celled bacteria and photosynthetic blue-
eukaryotes that are plant-like but
green algae. They differ from all other organisms in that their more
that cannot carry on
primitive cell structures lack a nuclear membrane as well as other
photosynthesis. They serve as
membrane-bound organelles. They are called prokaryotes'
decomposers, absorbing nutrients
from dead leaves or other organic
matter in soil and water. Fungi
produce spores during the
reproductive process. They consisl
of slime molds, such as the slimy
masses found on decaying leaves
and wood, and the true fungi, such
as molds, yeasts, mildew, and
mushrooms.

Five Kingdoms of Living

Five Kingdoms of Living Organisms Organisms

2. Protista - are known as protists. They are solitary, single- 4. Plantae (plant), and
celled eukaryotes (but some species form loose aggregations of cells 5, Animalia (animal) kingdoms
called colonies). Animal-like protists are the protozoa; they are consist of the multicellular and
generally larger than bacteria and are mobile. Plant-like protists
well-developed plants and animals
include several divisions of algae; these contain chlorophyll and carry
on photosynthesis,
we are all familiar with. Plant cells
contain photosynthetic pigments,
such as chlorophyll, and plants
carry out photosynthesis. Anirn"l

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by eating other organisms..

 BACTERIA
Five types of organisms which are potential Microscopic, single-celled organisms belonging to Kingdom Monera that
possess a prokaryotic type of cell structure, which means their cells are
Disease-causing organisms in drinking water:
noncompartmentalized, and their DNA (usually circular) can be found
,r sstd; 9, throughout the cytoplasm rather than within a membrane-bound nucleus
1. Bacteria -E ,{ a ...P, . They reproduce by fission or by forming spores. They can practically

2.Protozoa .;a
n

>w live everywhere. They can inhabit all kinds of environment, such as in

3, Worms
4. Viruses, and
5. Fungi.
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i(6(
s, Fl*a y''
soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, seawater, deep in the Earth's
crust, in stratosphere, and even in the bodies of other organisms.

Bacteria belong to Kingdom Monera, together with Cyanobacteria (

bluegreen algae), which are also prokaryotic. Bacteria may be
These organisms gain entry into water through a variety of sources.
classified based on their shape: spherical (cocci), rod-like (bacilli), spiral
fhey enter water from natural sources, surface drainage, and
(spirochetes), or comma-shaped (vibrios). Other ways of classifying
sewage. Many of the organisms in water are harmless' ln fact, they
them are based on whether or not they are: gram positive or gram
are extremely beneficial to man. Others have a mild nuisance value.
negative, aerobic or anaerobic, autotrophic or heterotrophic, efc.
And still others are a source of disease.

3 Main Shapes of Bacteria

10-3 lmm
Eukaryotes t" $phrenilca0 ([Eke a bafl[]
104

10-5 These are usually the simplest ones. Bacteria shaped

a Prokaryotes like this are called cocci).
0) 104 1pm
0) (MoNo) (DrPLo-) (STREPTO.)
E 10-i (STAPHYLO-)
Viruses

10+
Proteins r@-\
104 1nm
l@ @\
lo,@@l
i0-10,
Small molecules
Atoms
\-\.-#
@ ro/

The range of sizes shown by prokaryotes, relative to those of

SINGLY IN PAIRS IN CHAINS CLUSTER
other organisms and biomolecules
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3 Main Shapes of Bacteria
rnh4rd rcd

2. Rod sfioaperdl ir :- )._t

ii
i- r!-:_ t,.,
,!
,; il l.-

These are known as bacilli(singular bacillus). thpblcr.i rrninr t".l

viLrir
Ohh.l ftm
ErLr lrI
Some of the rod-shaped bacteria are curved; these are Brrllll
,;*--''*...*. i=---\
known as vibrio.
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rotrurrrirrur'
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rrtirrsr du! rEd
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HrhlirirFtd
ilrt r
VEGETATIVE WTH SPORES WITH FLAGELLAE
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srpblrrilli
Euddtng rnd rppend:oEd b:ct!rtr

Gb I ft;ph:

Bacterial Cell Structure

3 Main Shapes of Bacteria

I,$. $pirarl

These known are as spirilla (singular sptn//us).

lf their coil is very tight they are known as sprroche/es.

SPIRAL.SHAPED COMMA.SHAPED

lnternal Structure: Bacteria

have a very simple intemal
structure, and no
membrane.bound
organel!es.
 Stages sf bacterial growtBr
Bacterial Cell Structure Thir hEt0ipcl]5alrharidt (lmsims prcreiril proliG

lkba(irial crll aMir ohenilttrialedviihpithqeni( Under ideal conditions, the growth of a population of bacteria occurs in several
hcteda be$6eit5effii aJ i bltrisiEaiN phagq(0lit bf stages termed lag, log, stationary and death.
whlt( blod cel s.

S,LAG PHASE: Growth is slow at first, while the "bugs" acclimate to the food and
IM,heniThi,lipid bihlrriJ lound inGEm ftgai!r
bdcterii ildisrhr sw(e olliprpo $rd\andr (US) inhe5e
nutrients in their new habitat.
ba(lerii. lPSiJ l0ia andtm on tkimmum Jtrlem &LbrI
MinGram MitiEbif,eria.
2. LOG PHASE: Once the metabolic machinery is running, they starl multiplying
exponentially, doubling in number every few minutes.
funD6ed ol pepil6rglFin (poltaaclEri diJ + flolei0), tir
(tllwall mrinuirottuNrallrlEprof i bl&d!l c.ll.The
trlet fi miryshrp.5 in bacr.ir arcrecu (ldrdol), 3. STATIONARY PHASE: As more and more bugs are competing for dwindling
b.dll6 (rod.ilEp.d) rd rpidllum lldnl). &l$"q,1[,.W"{( food and nutrients, booming growth stops and the number of bacteria stabilizes.
bified.irithEmcell will.ndtkreltre IEH m dtflnitr
,hiE.
4. DEATH PHASE: Toxic waste products build up, food is depleted and the bugs
,$-urfase-$_trusture: (iotshff,n)Ihl5 r€llulil(mpaffi eft i5lMdonli in thcle begin to die.
badilia$iihiw botlt in uer nembcE iM pla,fi a

Beg[mrufing from the mrmMatr ir.g. GnmmEilin bi(efia). lnlheiF!f ire

ruImer rMdherpr0trid titsllEh digslndmow
outermost structune and n!'rimt imodE (ell.

moviulg lmwand, bactenta

Ihir i5 i lipidbii tfi m(hlik.rE $orlalmii (pliimi)
have some or a[!of the n€mbErecldldcellr.llpre arenmercu fifie]tr
moliry vidin upfi tlti laFr t\it lrt pdlnaily
foltowiurg stnuetulnes: ruporuiblr
or

forri6gff 0iimi, nunienu and yraile a(fi,

tlEmembGm.

Faetons Affuctlng Eactenial Gnowthr

1. Food
Bacterial Cell Structure 2, Moisture
3. Warmth / Temperature
TlHe hdltr, hridik snmue5 illra of flilein i llff ba(ena l0 4. Time
,iBdrtootur crlls.Arprd.liledpil6,& !utilu,allms tR
5. pH Level
tnNlerlm ffi h(eiil c€lltotnfl hr. Pjli IJiq., dl6) il€ ils
alledfi mHii! hiq., If,Uhl.
6. Oxygen
7. Competition
Th Mpore oi ligrlh Iriq., lhgdluml i5 mdiliry. Fl.gdh irein[ Bacterial growth usually refers to an increase in the population size".
rpEndag$whirhroEthfr eaBdi "mot0l lmEdjtrt mder

lht ci,topli!micmrmbrift . 0adeia miyhveffi , a kK rmill Bacteria reproduce asexually using a process called binary fission.
fl ,!rlh ii dlleffi tpsirim mlhf (dl.

Binary fission involves cytokinesis which is an inward pinching of the cell

wall that separates it into two.

This process occurs after a cell has grown large enough to divide. Under
App,e-mdasee : Eaeteria moay
the right conditions some bacteria can reproduce in 15 to 20 minutes.
havc tfi'oe folBowuimg

appemdages: This means that one cell can become two in that time and those two will
then become four cells in about half an hour.

After6 hours, in idealconditions, one bacterialcellcan become 131,000

or more bacteria.
Factors A$ffeetfi mg Eaeterla[ Growth
Bacteria need nutrients, usually carbon (from organic sources or carbon
dioxide gas, for example) and minerals like sulfur, phosphorus,
potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and trace elements' Water, amino
acids and vitamins are also needed. Bacteria commonly use light to
convert nutrients to energy. However, there are also bacteria that can
use sulfur, hydrogen gas, ammonia or iron instead of light to do this
Factore Af$ectEng Bacterlal Gnowth
Many bacteria depend highly on oxygen and those are called aerobic
cells. Oxygen in aerobic cells is used to make energy which is important
for cell function and growth. There are, however, cells that don't need
oxygen and these are called anaerobic. Anaerobic cells would,
obviously, use means other than oxygen for their energy source.
Temperature is one of the most important factors for growth because
each species has an ideal growth temperature. The temperature range
for these bacteria is a range of approximately 30 degrees with their ideal
temp being somewhere in the middle. They tend to multiply better at the
higher temperatures than they do at the lower ones. There are, however,
cells that are opposite of this and would multiply better at lower
temperatures than they would at the higher ones.
Faetons AffectEng EacterBa[ GnoMFr
The pH level, which refers to the acidity or alkalinity level, is very
important to bacterial cells. The cytoplasm in most of them has a pH
level of 7.0 which is in the neutral range. This would make it important
for these cells to be in an environment with a similar level in order for
them to grow. There are cells that are more tolerant to lower acid levels
and can survive in them. However, the majority don't grow well in acidic
environments. ln the human body this is good news for the stomach.
The acid levels here would help deter disease and keep bacteria from
reaching other areas beyond the stomach.
Where there are a number of
different bacteria present in
food or water, they
the same
will
Faators Afrfeatfimg BastenfiaE Gnowth
For many bacterial cells the temperature, oxygen and pH levels are
perfect in the human bloodstream, for growth, and this can cause many
problems for the human body. When they multiply to high numbers on
things that we ingest it can cause waterborne diseases, food poisoning
and other serious and sometimes deadly diseases.

L11636 Fungl .Gral+oriti.ver

Sllmo moulds
Gmn nonsulfur baclsria
Acttnobactrria COLlFORMS
Algae
Plenclomyc€tss

Protorot Splrochaotss The name "coliform" is given to a whole group of bacteria which can
-J F$obectaria occur in water and indicate potential health problems. They are divided
Cmnarchmot -- l
Cyanobac'terla into two groups: TOTAL coliform (TC), which are all of the coliform
lJanmrchaeola' (bl6tBn algae)
bacteria, and FECAL coliforms (FC), which are a portion of the TC. Both
Euryarchasta lhomophllic
Eulhts{oduc6rE of these bacteria are closely related inside a large family of bacteria
Acldobacterla known as the ENTERICS. However, most of the enterics do belong to the
Proteobactr ria
TC group, but very few belong to the FC group, which is considered
PHYLOGENETIC TREE much more serious from the hygiene viewpoint.
showing the diversity of bacteria, compared to other
organisms. Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea
green and bacieria blue.

FECAL COLIFORMS

Fecal coliforms are pretty specialized types of bacteria and are

dominated by Escherichia coli. also known as E. coli. This bacterium
thrives in the healthy human intestine and passes out in high numbers
in the fecal material. These can be counted in water by using the fecal
coliform tests and the counts are usually given as FC cells in 100 mlof
water.

ln testing water for

potabitity,
{,
Ntw the presence of TC,
and more particularly FC,
spells trouble with a capital "T"!

E. Coli
Escherichia co/i is common in the human intestine, but it is not usually
harmful. (However, there are some strains which can cause infections.)
What is important to remember is that the presence of FC is the indicator
of the potential pollution of water with fecal material. lf that material is
present, then there is a much greater risk of infectious microorganisms
occurring in numbers large enough to cause an infection to break out if
the water is consumed. These organisms include viruses, other bacteria,
protozoa and a variety of worms.
TOTAL COLIFORMS
The total coliform (TC) group contains a wider variety of bacteria including
Escherichia coliand a broad spectrum of the enteric bacteria. These
enteric bacteria are able to grow frequently in the intestine, but can also
grow to a variable extent in the environment. ln consequence, the TC count
does not necessarily relate specifically to fecal pollution, but to the bacterial
loading of enterics within the water system. Since the count is dominated
by the bacteria which can occur in the intestine, it is used as a more broad
spectrum test for fecal pollution in a water system. Frequently, these
bacteria like to grow in muds, septic wastes and organic rich wastes which
can distort the numbers and findings.
HETEROTROPHIC PLATE COUNT
(HPC), formerly known as the Standard
Plate Count
The HPC is useful in judging the efficiency of
various treatment processes for both drinking
water and swimming pools, and for checking the
quality of finished water in a distribution system.
Some microorganisms will grow as biofilms on
A key aspect of biofilms is a conrlrhr.
surfaces like pipelines in contact with water and
they can cause nuisance through generation of
interaction among the constituor rl
microorganisms. A biofilm formr;
taste and odor or discoloration of drinking
when individual microorganisms
supplies. This is called regrowth. cease to exhibit individual, free
floating behavior, and begin to
It is typically reflected in measurement of associate with each other, and a
increasing HPC in water samples. These surface, and begin to act in concert
elevated HPC occurs especially in stagnant parts with each other. A biofilm grows by
both simple cell division, and by new
of the piped distribution systems, in the plumbing,
free floating microorganisms
in bottled water and the like and plumbed-in
associating with the developing
devices such as water softeners, carbon filters,
biofilm. Biofilms usually develop on
etc. solid surfaces immersed in a liquid.
H ETEROTROPHIC PLACE COUNT
(HPC), formerly known as the Standard
Plate Couni
The key value of plate counts was use in
assessing the efficacy of water treatment
processes, providing an "estimate ofthe general
hygienic quality of a wate/'and "a rising plate
count may give the earliest sign of pollution"
Water is presumed to be used for drinking, for
preparation of food and drinks, for washing and
body care, and for cleansing ofobjects that come
into contact with the human body. lt is not
allowed to contain pathogens at concentrations
that could endanger human health. The sanitary
water guidelines must be mei all the way to the
consumer's tap, the HPC can affect distribution
system materials, household POU or POE water
treatment equipment, bottled water, water
vending machines, beverages and water coolers,
 Overview of The protozoa are one-celled animals and the smallest of ;rll irrrrrrral,
Bacterial infections Most of them can only be seen under a microscope. They rI r ll r,;ril rr,
,-EyE lnloctiona
. move, and reproduce like multicelled animals. They live ir1 1iy;11r,1 r,r ;rr
Sf'dirft )4ococd#$ ri$rcuJ
- Sd'rdplofscr{rs pnaurnontae - iJei,gecria gs\tr*grfioeee least where it is damp. Animals in this group include the piu;urr,., ,,,,',
' Nei'*serir lrerttrtB,tx*s - Cii'ii",D$rJ iracJ]omsti5
- llaeriDphlss m fl uao z&8, euglena and the amoeba.
. Strr+pl$c+ec1,ti sf f f n c,fr sf, Sinuritir
p ne 1irl'lon t€ B
- liJlfr€ rn0fl oc)4o8Bne$ ' Srep(p$pccu*
- Hearnopftr1us ffiuonros Some protozoans are harmful to man as they can cause s()ltotr',
OtirirmedisJ diseases. Others are helpful because they eat harmful bactorr,r ,u t ;r*
' stJ$Ftooocfl ls f,nauorolrl o€ Llppor ro*Hritory hct
inftelion food for fish and other animals.
. slm#E+OC4uSF/00end$
Pn6umonie
- Hacrnopffius inftranzac
CofimuHy.fqqulred:
- Srcplococans pn6 ura{n isG
. Hndft Spfirlq'$ rtllo c ilraf
Ga*trilir
. tlaioohaala{ pyM \/ \!
- Strp@coccus ereus
Atr'Picsl' Food poieoning
- Ulrxplssntr pfl Ptfitonisf . Cf i'rpy'p$6 rlarJdfirrll -T[,"-
- Cifdntydr€ pnssvnonid0 - Sa/mqnafla
- l' egwe.[a p,teunqplriia . Sfirgolh
- CJm*ndilnt
IuberEdc€'6
. Slsphyfurtccrr$
8{r,etJf
^*t
- Epifil,nrh,,tt mli
SGxt&illy traflrmittad
dil+lret UrlrEryl]EEl lntmttotE
- Slaphy,bmarssureus - Esdron-r*uo coji
- C.h lsfl ?Idla koc{!o,,na ilrs
. slruploi4ccds Blr{snc.r . i&btsfio
sonorifid(rse ' ffih-er Entsmbs{,Yrn, cesi
- Fgeudoar*nas aarugmtlss - Slaptflococcu+
- Lrepoaarna pe,ltdum
- UmlaFlds',H unesfrf.cuit slp/oplll.th$
- llsenrcpfuTcro dusrryi -.Pseudornonas aenrghose
 A few well-known Protozoa Phylum Ciliophora: These critters are called Ciliates and have hundreds of
0 50 prn tiny cilia which beat in unison to propel the protists through the water.
Itchonymphe liva
in lh6 gut o{ iemite

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Phylum Mastigophora: These protists move with a whip like extension.called a

flagella. The flagella is a long fibril that is spirally wound and beats or rotates in
Phylum Sarcodina: The amoebas. They are a blob of protoplasm formed in a
the water to move the protozoan about.
single cell. By flowing their protoplasm forward into a "foot" then bringing the rest
of their body into the foot, they can slither along. Some Sarcodina have flrm axial

WM ffi W
rods instead of pseudopods. They move by motion in these rods.

ffiffiffi@ Aclinosphaenum amoebaproleus

w]t
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chlamldomonas suglena

N@
closeuo ofaxial rods

ml
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gonium
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ll
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diflugia
top and side

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Multicellular animals: These critters don't belong to the Kingdom Protista but Ameba Splitting ln Half During Fission
rather the Kingdom Anamalia. Some, like the rotifers look like protists and even
have crlia but they are made of many cells and have organs like other animals.

m
)

M
llw'll
lll
t.+#l
n-
cyclops
11
@M
rypirs daphnia
,)

M ffit
6M MI The amoeba reproduces by splitting in half. This is called fission. The amoeba's
nucleus or center splits in half and goes to opposite ends of the cell. Then the cell
narrows and splits in half.

ul WII P€ ? M
hydra
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ll
l.#l
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robfers

PAMMECIUM
AMOEBA

'The paramecium is larger than the amoeba. lt can be found in ponds with scum or1
them. lt looks like the bottom of a shoe. lt is covered with tiny hairs that help it movc.
called cilia; it is able to move in all directions with its cilia.

One of the simplest of the protozoa. Found in ponds
surface of the leaves of water plants. lt looks like a
microscope. lts shape is constantly changing as il
One characteristic of the ameba is its false feet, that
The false feet extend out and then the rest of the
along. The ameba eats little animals and plants. lt
sunound the plant or animal and then pops it right
The amoeba has tiny sacs in its body called vacuoles
have food in them. Others collect water and squeeze
Oxygen enters the ameba through its thin covering
'The paramecium eats tiny algae, plants, etc. The cilia propels the food into a tiny
mouth opening of the paramecium; then shoved down a little tube called a gullot tlrirl
leads to the protoplasm or stuffing of the cell. The food is held in little cells called
vacuoles. lt has two other vacuoles at either end of its body to get rid of excess
water and wastes. As with the amoeba, oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through llrl
cell membrane of the paramecium.
'The paramecium has two nuclei, a big and small one. The big one operates as llrn
director of the cell's activities, rather like a little brain. The smaller one is used for
reproduction. The paramecium splits in half (fission)just as the amoeba does, Iltr .it
the I ;
the smaller nucleus splits in half and each half goes to either end of I
,
,

carbon dioxide leaves the ameba through the cell paramecium. Then the bigger nucleus splits and the whole paramecium sp{tsffit
The amoeba avoids light but swims faster in warmer Occasionally two paramecium exchange material and form , ,.* q{
prrr^g.gitff-
is called coniugation. 'fl f' ,t l
 @@
Diseases Caused by Protozoa To Human

Disease Transmission
Cau5al Agent 0rgans Afferted
EUGLENA Ye[tor
Amoebiarii Entamoeba Intestine, Liver Witer, Food
plant and also
' The euglena is unique because it is sort of like a
a flagellum that allowr Primary Amoebic
histolytica

Naegleria fowleri
is pearihaped. lt has a whippy tail called Brain, Lungs Water
meningoencephalitis
through the water. Giardiasis
c Giardia Lamblia Intestine Water, Contact
' ihe e"uglena is different than other protozoans because it has Trichomoniasis Trichomonas
own food' The e Urogenital 0rgans ,Sexual Contact
the subitance that plants contain to make their
vaginalis
a plant when it is in the sunlight'!
able to make its own food like African Sleeping Sirkness Trypanosoma Blood, Brain Tsetse fly ( Glossina)
lt takes in tin'
darkness, however, it can get food like an animal' brucei

animals much like the amoeba and paramecium' Leichmaniasis ( Kala - azar) Leishmania White Blood Cells,Skin, sand fly (

' inu .ugt.nu has a bright red eyespot which is sensitive to light donovani Intestine Phlemotomus)
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii Blood, Eyes Domestic cats, Food
euglena flnd light.
. int .ugl.n, rlproduces by fission, splitting lengthwise in two'
The flagellum tlalaria Plasmodium spp, Liver, Red Blood Colls lYlosquito ( anopheles)

gou, *ith one part and the other part grows a new flagellum Babesiosis Babesia microti Red Blood Cells Iick ( Txode)

. iVn.n it is too hot or cold for a eugleni, it forms a

protective casing called a cyst Pn6umocytosis ( PCP) Pneumocyitis Iungt Droplets
cerinii
arounditsbodythatprotectsituntilconditionsoutsidethecystbecomebetter.

have unequal
Dinoflagellates have a surprising morphology; the two flagella
lengths'Th-elargeroneiscontainedwithinagroovecalled'cingulum.(orgirdle)
is perpendicular to the first one
wr,icn encirctes ihe cell body and the smallest
runningfromthecentertoposteriorendofcell.Thetwoarefixedatapointcalled
the middle of the
in. irtr.,,distinguished by a slight depression, located near
they are thin and constantly moving,
cell. Flagella are d'ifficult to see because
cause the cell to turn when moving'
Concurr-ent actions of the two flagella

E6dorl6sn{c
rc6sJlum

NodaG
Po{Uo
N'Jd0oh6
Co[ ffill
Cr{ membrsm

Yla&r@olo
Sldags vmdo
Coirlolos
 Worms

3.Nematoda
4.Trematoda
5.Cestoda

PARASITE . WORMS Worms

Parasite is an organism that lives on or in other organisms from wtrich it obtains
N ematOdeS I common roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides), hookworms,
nutrients to live and causes harm in the process'
whipworms, pinworms, heart worms, Strongyloides, Stercoralis, Ancylostoma,
caninum, toxocara worm and trichinosis. Size can vary from .2 to 35 centimeters.
Most parasites require some host to complete their life cycle. Animals can also
serve as the host. The parasite will vary in size from one-thousandth of one
Significance in drinking-water
micron to whale tapeworms one hundred feet long.

Large numbers of nematodes are not normally found in well-maintained,

Parasites and worms can invade your bodies through food and water intake,
piped drinking water systems.
through transmitting agents (like mosquito), sexual conduct or through the nose
and siin. Once established, they will eat the same foods you eat or they will eat
ln some circumstances, when the water contains a high nutrient or
y0u.
organic content and the ambient temperatures are appropriate, it may be possible
and for freeJiving nematodes to feed on microbial growth in the biofilms or slimes in
They are responsible for many health problems because they secrete toxins
treatment processes or in water mains and thus multiply within the system.
steat tne vitai nutrients from our bodies. They can irritate or exaggerate other
health problems you may be experiencing. Everyone is at risk and under their
This is true particularly if drinking water sources have not been
mercy during parasitic infections.
adequately protected, treatment systems are not adequate or not operated and
maintained properly, the distribution system is leaking, or there are many stagnant
or'dead zones' in the dishibution system. lt may be feasible to assume that lf lnroc
numbers of nematodes (live and dead) are detected in drinking water.
Worms

Trematodes (Flukes); Flatworms, bladder, blood, liver, lung, kidney and

in excess of 250
intestinal flukes. Human infections of flukes (schistosomes) are
severe disease of the gastrointestinal tract'
million worldwide. They can cause
blood cells. Size varies from 1 to 2.5 centimeters in
OtrOO.r, liver and destioy
length (1/2 to 3 inches long).

of the
Trematode infections are usually acquired after ingesting one
by (1) drinking infected water,
infective forms. Most fluke infections are acquired
transmission from wet hands to
(ziswarrowing infected water while swimming;
(3) infected aquatic vegetation, or (4) eating infected
*ortn o, nosi, etc., eating
fish)'
raw meat or raw intermediate hosts (snails, shellfish, crustaceans'

Worms VIRUSES

Cestodes (Tapeworms); bladder worms,
pork tapeworms, broad fish, dog tapeworms' dwarf
and rat tapeworms. Broad fish tapeworms may grow
to 35 feet long and live ten years inside the persons
intestines. Some tapeworms can lay as many as one
million eggs per day. Their bodies are in separate
segments with hooks and suction cups on their skull'
Tapeworms or cestodes, are ribbon'shaped
segmented worms which inhabit the intestinaltract of
many vertebrates (including humans). Some
tapeworms have been known to live up to 20 years
and exceed 10 meters in length.
You can get infected by accidentally
ingesting tapeworm eggs. This can happen by
ingesting fecally contaminated foods and water, by
touching your mouth with contaminated fingers, or by
ingesting contaminated soil.
Viruses are not plants, animals, or bacteria, but they are
the quintessential parasites of the living kingdoms. Bacteriophago $trucfu re
Although they may seem like living organisms because of
their prodigious reproductive abilities, viruses are not living
organisms in the strict sense of the word.
Viruses consist of two or three parts: all viruses have
genes made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that
carry genetic information; all have a protein coat that
protects these genes; and some have an envelope of lipids
that surrounds them when they are outside a cell.
Without a host cell, viruses cannot carry out their life-
sustaining functions or reproduce. They cannot synthesize
proteins, because they lack ribosomes and must use the
ribosomes of their host cells to translate viral messenger
RNA into viral proteins. Viruses cannot generate or store
energy in the form ofadenosine triphosphate (ATP), but
have to derive their energy, and all other metabolic
functions, from the host cell. They also parasitize the cell
for basic building materials, such as amino acids,
nucleotides, and lipids (fats).
Viral populations do not grow through cell
division, because they are acellular; instead,
they use the machinery and metabolism of a *s! t^.l
host cell to produce multiple copies of I!!
themselves, and they assernb/e in the cell.
l' _Y:
En@phalllirl-- t. iii-.
mnlnglll3
I ..tc vim
Common Gold
- Rhhoviru*s
. Herp6 Simpler vi6 i1
rr i*ii
I .Measts -Paminllus@vitos . Cyiotugalolirus
i -t-curim -Repkatotysyncylial
- ArboliruS virus
Pnlumonlr
| - n.ui". .lniueM viG,
| -. - -.-.-.,.,-,/ Ginolvottom.lhl.- Types A aid B
- Prhinfl(@8
vitus
. R6phatoty
syf,cytial virus
- Adenqids
- SARS o@vids

i rypos A B, C, D, E

j srin m*t-.- Gt6tDntarlll

zBB viru8
. vsiidlh
. Ademvltu,
| . Hmn hrydrusI . Rotavic
! . smttpo,
NooiG
I - udt*- .nt.gi*.
.
grru.lly b!66lu.d
I .HffiFafillomaYlNs
i . p.ms 8t9 dlsraGr . Cmavirut
. nuu"r,"
. Horp.r.lhdq typ6 2
ii.k*g . Humn papilmevlrug PancE{itit i Some bacteriophages inject theit
. HIV - cors.lde B virur
i g.nortt irto hacterial cells
OveMew of Viral lnfection

The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six bash
stages in the life cYcle of viruses: ALGAE
proteins and specific
3,Attachment - is a speciflc binding between viral capsid
range of a 'Most algae are found in freshwater and marine environments; a few grow in
receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host
tenestrial habitats.
virus. .The algae are not a single, closely related taxonomic group but, instead, are a
receptor
4.Penetration follows attachment; viruses enter the host cell through
viral entry. diverse assemblage of unicellular, colonial, and multicellular eucaryotic organisms.
mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. This is often called
viral enzymes or 'Although algae can be autotrophic or heterotrophic, most are photoautotrophs.
S.Uncoatrng is a process in which the viral capsid is degraded by
They store carbon in a variety of forms, including starch, oils, and various sugars.
host enzymes thus releasing the viral genomic nucleic acid'
(mRNA) for viruses except 'The body of an algae is called the thallus. Algal thalli range from small solitary
o.Replicatron involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA
of viral proteins cells to large, complex multicellular structures.
positive sense RNA viruses, viral protein synthesis and assembly
.Algae reproduce asexually and sexually.
and viral genome rePlication.
'Algae divisions include)
T.Followin'gthe assembly of the virus particles, postkanslational modification of the
a. Chlonoph$a (green algae),
viral proteins often occurs,
b" Charophyta (stoneworts/brittleworts),
LViruses are releasrdfrom the host cell by lysis-a process that kills the cell
by
the viral genome is also c. Euglerrophyta(euglenoids),
bursting its membrane. whenever the host divides,
point, d. Chrysophyta (golden-brown and yellow-green algae; diatoms),
replicaLd. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host, however, at some
the provirus or prophlge may give rise to active viruses, which lyse their hosl cells. e. Phaeophyta (brown algae),

Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by budding.
f. Rhodophtya (red algae), and
piece of the g. Pynhophyta (dinoflagellates).
During this process the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified
host's plasma membrane
Chlorophyt? (green algae)
Euglenophyta (euglenoids),
unicells or simple filarnents
Over 5,000 species of green algae are known, mostly
but there are diverse green algae in tropical marine habitats. Euglenophyta, small phylum (division) of the kingdom Protista, consisting of mostly
from fresh water,
unicellular aquatic algae. Most live in freshwater; many have flagella and are
amylopectin) and have
Like land plants, the greens store starch (amylose or .. . motile. The outer part of the cell consists of a firm but flexible layer called a
pigments carotenes' lutein' zeaxanthin'
rnf.rpf,lyif a and b ai well as secondary : pellicle, or periplast, which cannot properly be considered a cell wall. Some
(so*. ci.,rorophyta also have siphonoxanthin.)The chloroplast endoplasmic - euglenoids contain chloroplasts that contain the photosynthetic pigments
are often composed of
ieticulum is absent in green algae, and t heir cell walls chlorophyll a and b, as in the phylum Chlorophyta; others are heterotrophic and
glycosides, xylans, mannans or sometimes calcium can ingest or absorb theirfood. Food is stored as a polysaccharide, paramylon.
cellulose, hydroxproline,
carbonate. Reproduction occurs by longitudinal cell division. The most characteristic genus is
Euglena, common in ponds and pools, especially when the water has been
polluted by runoff from fields or lawns on which fertilizers have been used. There
are approximately 1,000 species of euglenoids.

Charophyta (stonewo rts/b rittl eworts)

Chrysophyta (golden-brown and yellow-green algae;
Thecharophytaareadivisionofgreenalgae,includingtheclosestrelativesof diatoms),
they
tn" .rUwo'pt Vte plants. Because they exclude the embryophytes' lqkt 1
Charales
prirpnyr&i. gioup (though they are occasionally restricted to simply the Chrysophyta , phylum (division)of unicellular marine or freshwater organisms of
or stoneworti, which are monopnytti.;. ln some groups such as conjugating
the kingdom Protista consisting of the diatoms (class Bacillariophyceae), the
engage.in sexual
tr..n atga., flagellate cells do not occur' The latter group does golden, or golden-brown, algae (class Chrysophyceae), and the yellow-green
are totally lacking.
i.pioou.tion, but motility does not involve flagella, which algae (class Xanthophyceae). ln many chrysophytes the cell walls are composed
in thu foim of sperm are found in stoneworts
(scientific name
itagettate ,.i1,
group with the scientific name coleochaetales (there is no
chirales) and in the
common name).
Phaeophyto (brown algae),
Pyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates).
brown algae - the largest
The largest of the chromists are the Phaeophyta, the
in length" Almost all phaeophytes are
brown ilgae may reach over 30 meters The dinoflagellates, are a large group of flagellate protists M0iil rlE
rnrrrrrr,
marine. plankton, but they are common in fresh water habitats as
woll. I lr,rr !r4rrrlarr,rre
are distributed depending on temperature, salinity, or depth. About
traditionally been classified
hirll.l all
Phaeophytes, like most photosynthetic protists, have dinoflagellates are photosynthetic, and these make up the rargest group,r
to land plants; their cells
as ptants. However, phaeophytls are not closely related eukaryotic algae aside from the diatoms. Being primary produiershakos
lhnnr a,
contain different pigments, ,rih chlorophyll c and fucoxanthin. They also lack
,. important part of the aquatic food chain. some speciei, called zooxanthollno,
ur.
theplasmodesmataandstarchproductionoflandplantsandtheirrelatives. endosymbionts of marine animals and protozoa, and play an important pa(
ln iho
biology of coral reefs. Other dinoflagellates are colorless predators on
oiher
prolozoa, and a few forms are parasitic see for example oodinium, pfiesteria.

Dinoflagellates

Rhodophtya (red algae)

Human lllness Associated with HarmfulAlgae
Theredalgaeformadistinctgroupcharacterizedbythefollowingattributes:
starch as food
eukaryotiiells without flagelli and centrioles, using floridean 'Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASp)
(giving them their red color),
;#., with phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments
reticulum and containing
'Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP)
anJ witn cnloioflasts lacking external endoplasmic
'Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSp)
thylakoids. Mostied algae are also multicellular, macroscopic, marine, .Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSp)
unstacked
and have sexual reProduction 'Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (pSp)
 FUNGI

Asexual reproduction

B u,:l'i u rIt E:tii c r t k t y'casls

ln its simplest form asexual reproduction is by budding or binary fission. The onset
of the cellular events is accompanied by the nuclear events of mitosis.

ol ditin rynlho!&d.r@nd Ns bud lor@d oul tom

aea whse bud ull o(rud9. plasti,j*d cdl wll.

The initial events of budding can be seen as the development of a ring of chitin
around the point where the bud is about to appear, This reinforces and stabilizes
the cell wall. Enzymatic activity and turgor pressure the act to weaken and extrude
the cell wall. New cell wall material is incorporated during this phase. Cell contents
are forced into the progeny cell, and as the final phase of mitosis ends a cell plate,
the point at which a new cell wall will grow inwards from, forms.

FUNGI FUNGI

The Fungi are classified as a kingdom that is Sexual reproduction

iparate from plants, animals and bacteria'
Sexual reproduction introduces the possibility of variation into a population, and
have this is why most fungi have a sexual phase. To achieve sexual reproduction it is
One major difference is that fungal cells
cellwalls thal contain chitin' unlike
the cellwalls necessary to have two mating type haploid nuclei (n + n), or a diploid (2n)
of plants' which contain cellulose' nucleus. ln the case of the two hapioid nuclei they must fuse to form a diploid first,
but once fused the nuclei undergo meiosis, which is the reduction division that
the fungi form a single group of related potentially brings about variation in the progeny. These event are followed by the
These and other differences show that
a
;;ffi;; ffied the Eumvcota (true fungior Eumycefes)' that share formation of spores, which in most cases are resting spores that can withstand
ancestor (a monophyteilc group)' adverse conditions.
.o]**on
.-?---=------f Th€ two roling type nycleiaiign
similar slime molds
This fungal group is distinct from the structurally oo dlfferenl plenes lor mitosis.

ihe discipline of biology devoted .

(myxomycetes) anO water motOs loomycetes)' A5 milosis takes plae. lhe Plane

rno; as *ytotogy' *nitn is often regarded as a branch of 0l lhe se6nd nudeus's division for@s
to the study of fungi is a bleb oulfiom lhe ellMll.
shown that fungi are more closely
botany, even ttrougn genetic studies hav-e
The clamp wall9106 unlll it rels
related to animals than to Plants' -1+--\
-J-----:3-, w6 lhe subapimt hyphalgtl.

-_ar----.-a--
E I
J L'ilhikir +.:ij;-:'.
One the nucteus has
ioined lh€ subapial mmpaimoill
lh€dampsealsoll
_,.a^
I c .tffi.ffieryffi)
 filaments, called hyphae. ln
Molds are fungithat grow in the form of multicellular
cells are called yeasts'
contrast microsJopic fungi that grow as single
hyphae has multiple, genetically
A connected network of these tubular branching
organism, referred to as a colony or in
ioenticar nuclei and is considered a single
more technical terms a mYcelium'
phylogenetic grouping' but can be found
Molds do not form a specific taxonomic or
Ascomy cota'
iif'u Oiritiont Zy go my cota, D e uteromy cota and
n your skin simply from inhaling the fumes from the mold.
Some molds also produce mycotoxins that
can pose serious health risks to humans
and animals. Some studies claim that
exposure to high levels of mycotoxins can
lead to neurological problems and in some
cases death.
Prolonged exposure, e.g. daily workplace
exposure, may be particularly harmful'
The term "toxic mold" refers to molds that
produce mYcotoxins, such as
'stacfrybotrys
chartarum, and not to all
molds in general.
Sinee fungido not have chlorophyli, fungi musi absorb food frorn othar*, f ,lirr.r,
they don't use light to make food, fungi can live in damp ernd dark plecon Furrgl
neat"
ane supposed to things when they are dead buli sonretinras thuy stnrl r,ailrr1
wiren ttre organism is stillalive.
Symptoms of Household Mold Exposure
4.A skin rash: Although you may think that the skin can only become inflamorl hy
direct contact with the mold this isn't always the case. You can develop rednoss irr
5.Eye irritation: Mold can cause both redness and watering of the eyes. During
the cold months, many people associate this with seasonal allergies when in
actuality the cause is the mold within their home or office.
6.Headaches: Breathing in mold can cause headaches in some people. This is
especially true of people who suffer with migraines. They are very sensitive to
certain stimulants and mold can be one of them.
T.Feeling tired: Feeling tired for several days in a row, even when you are getting
adequate sleep can be a symptom of mold exposure.
8.Sore throafi Experiencing a raw feeling when swallowing, or hoarseness when
speaking, are both indicative of mold exposure. Spores can become lodged in the
throat and irritate the sensitive membranes.
9.Shortness of breath: Breathing in mold spores can cause respiratory
difficulties in some people. This is especially prevalent in those with allergies.

in the kingdom Fungi, with

Yeasts are eukaryotic miooorganisms classified
they dominate fungal diversity in the
about 1 ,500 speciei cunently des-cribed;rrl
by budding' although a few do so by SOME DISEASES CAUSEE BY FUNGUS
o.run.. Most reproduce aserually
although some species with yeast forms may
binary fission. Yeasts are unicellujar,
of a string of connected budding cells
become multicellular tnrough the formation
molds'BlYeast size can
t nourn,, pseudohyphae, or false hyphaeas seen in most Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus Lungs, Spinal Cord Air
measuring 3-4 pm in diameter'
uury gr.ttiy Otp.nOing on the species, typically neoformans
40 pm'
although some yeasts can reach over Candidiasis, Candida alblcans Intestine, Air,Sexual Contact

The most common mode of vegetative .A.-----o - Vaginitis, Thrush, Vagina,Skin, Mouth
by -./ q \
growth in yeastis asexual reproduction \ Onychia

buddins. @1 ;,9 \
t*4q-,e-@-.*\-*@
Pedis
tinea
Captis
Tinea
Trichoohvton
Microsporum
Suo. Skin
Sop, Skin
Contact
Contact

.Here a smallbud, ordaughter cell, is Tinea Epidermophyton Skin Contact

o Corporis,Tinea spp.

:?H'ffii:['.1inJl,1l,*"spritsinto,,ro<o
the I T " $l Barhae

Histoplasmosis Histoplasma Other

daughter nucleus and migrates into @i ;,
-\&']. @+W/ capsulatum
Lungs, Air

/S Organs

:ff:[fl::k',ues to grow untir it . t -:: Il

Blastomycosis Blastomyces Lungs, Other Air

separates from the parent cell' forming a i

it', v'"J *tL ilr rv.t.,
dermatitidis Organs

new cerr' l
u.llfll'n.-
Coccidiodomvcosis Coccidiodes
Aspergillosis Aspergillus
immitis Lunss.
Lungs,
Ears
f,ars
Air
Air
3. Spore
 DISHSES RELATED TO WATER 3. WATER-EASED &[$GASES: are found in water that
[. WATER..BOR,NE DISEASES provides the habitat for intermediate host organisms in which
sorne spocifio some parasites past part of the life cycle (e.g.:schistosomiasis)
a. MUCR@BEAL DESEASES -oausedby
organisnns, like:

l) BACTERIA - Salmonellq
Eoherichia Coli, Vibro
Cholerae, Yersinia
Bnteroeolitiea &
ffiW Cercariae maflre

CarnpYlobacter Fetus. Maturr fluket

,ettle ih human gut
Legionella PrrerlnroPhila
(soil baeterium) rraY be
eonhactcd bY inhalation
e)posure to bacteria in water'
Enieroto;titr
Bio'terroristn b?tr:Lqrttr(lVrilrrzn, itaptrylr'rcco'ral
B, C. Boiurlinutn, etc') iilso be irifrcrclucecli'o vt"vLu't'
'ioLilcl

2.wATER.wAsHEoEI$EASES:Causedbyscarci$and 4. WA'f,ER-RELATED DISEASES: are found in water that

penonal
inaccessibility of water makes washing and
may provlde a habltat for water-related insect vector of
cleanliness iliflicult and infrequent
diseases. Mosquitoes breed in water and the adult mosquitoes
may trensmit Mqlafia, Filafiosis and virus infcctions such as
DengugJapanese Enceptalities and others.

Malaria
Scabies Parasite

Eye Infection Skin Infection

 lYrYl' iJ Jti C')iU\ ii l) lS &\S I S

'
PIPf,S
CONTA.
NERS,T4

and
Standard Methods of Detection
Values for Microbiological Quali$
and value3 tor Microbiohgidl Quslity
'l J. standsrd ilethods of Detstion

Units of Por* ol Conqtaoce

Meti/onof Va!@'
Parsmtets DeleniElioo MffiffiNt
lvlPN/ 1w mL . Seflicereseflolrs
Total colrlorm Mullple I uDe . Watertrertrnent
Fermentrtion
Y/orks
Technique(lvfim) . Consumer'sTEP!
. RefillingStatioc
unr0mogenrc
subslrate test
' WaterHEU|eIS
. WEterVendinq
(Prcsen ce-Abs en eI <1.1 lvlPN/100 mL
Mnchines

hlembrine Filier (ldFl 1 Total coliform I

Technique coloni*/100m1 |

o{ W't'snd WdeNEEI' 20EEditEn' 1998

Sl.nosd lEliod! torthe Esmme60n
iinour t" r.,t"t"o by Oeps4eniof hBth
"nO "DpEVed