Water

 Storage  Dam  in  the  Tempisque  Basin:  Scoping  for  

Environmental  Impact  Assessment  (EIA)  
2012  UF-­UCR  Joint  Program  in  Environmental  Law  
Saira  Fida  
Emily  Williams  
Grant  Weinkam  
Ivan  Rojas  
 
 
Introduction  and  Background  

Costa  Rica  has  a  unique  relationship  with  the  construction  of  dams  and  the  development  of  
the  country,  especially  when  considering  that  hydropower  allows  the  country  to  be  nearly  
self-­‐sufficient  for  its  power  needs.    Hydropower  dams  currently  provide  more  than  80%  of  
electricity  consumed  by  the  country’s  four  million  residents,  and  during  the  1990s  more  
than  thirty  new  dams  were  built  and  at  least  sixty  were  proposed.    Additional  dams  are  viewed  
as  one  mechanism  for  alleviating  pressures  which  will  be  placed  on  the  country  in  relation  to  
the  growing  population  and  tourism  industry.    Even  with  the  current  number  of  dams  
constructed  the  country  still  has  great  potential  for  increasing  power  supply,  and  increases  
in  total  numbers  may  be  necessary  with  electricity  needs  estimated  to  be  rising  at  more  
than  5%  per  year.1    
 
In  Costa  Rica  current  installed  capacity  of  hydropower  dams  (at  approximately  1300  
megawatts  (MW))  is  well  below  the  country’s  theoretical  hydroelectric  potential,  estimated  
at  25,500MW  and  practical  hydropower  potential,  estimated  at  10,000MW.  The  Costa  Rican  
Institute  of  Electricity  (ICE)  has  plans  to  almost  double  Costa  Rica’s  installed  hydropower  
generation  capacity  by  2016  through  nine  new  projects,  seven  of  which  are  scheduled  to  
begin  operation  by  2010.  The  Boruca-­‐Veraguas  hydropower  project  in  the  Grande  de  
Terraba  River  basin  is  the  largest  proposed  project  with  a  potential  installed  capacity  of  
622MW.  If  constructed  as  planned,  the  Boruca-­‐Veraguas  project  would  become  the  largest  
dam  in  Central  America.2  
 
The  Piedras  River  dam  project  that  is  discussed  in  this  paper  is  not  primarily  for  the  
purpose  of  hydropower  production,  but  rather  to  create  a  reservoir  to  meet  potable  water  
demands  for  future  development  projects  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  country.    The  project  is  
located  in  the  Tempisque  Valley  in  the  province  of  Guanacaste,  in  the  Bagaces  Canton  and  
Bagaces  Mogote  districts,  with  its  headwaters  located  in  the  foothills  of  the  Cordillera  de  
Guanacaste.    The  Piedras  River  flows  into  the  Rio  Blanco  near  the  town  of  Bebedero.  The  
Rio  Blanco  is  a  tributary  of  the  Rio  Tenorio,  which  joins  the  Tempisque  River  and  runs  
                                                                                                               
1  Elizabeth  P.  Anderson,  Catherine  M.  Pringle  and  Manrique  Rojas,  Transforming  tropical  rivers:  an  environmental  perspective  on  hydropower  development  in  Costa  
Rica,  16  Aquatic  Conservation:  Marine  and  Freshwater  Ecosystems  679,  680  (2006).  
2  Id.  at  680.  
through  the  Palo  Verde  National  Park,  home  to  a  RAMSAR  classified  wetland,  and  finally  
discharges  into  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya.    The  RAMSAR  designation  classifies  the  site  as  one  of  
“international  importance”  and  is  worthwhile  of  protection  through  “the  conservation  and  
wise  use  of  all  wetlands  through  local  and  national  actions  and  international  cooperation,  
as  a  contribution  towards  achieving  sustainable  development  throughout  the  world”.  3    The  
construction  of  the  dam  could  have  significant  impacts  on  the  amount  and  timing  of  
hydrologic  flows  into  the  wetland,  further  jeopardizing  the  health  of  the  ecosystem.  
The  watershed  basin  has  an  area  of  274.8  km2,  and  elevation  change  through  the  
watershed  ranges  from  800  to  20  meters,  with  an  average  elevation  of  151.7  m.    Its  
hypsometric  curve  has  steep  slopes  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  basin  until  it  reaches  the  
average  elevation  of  the  basin  and  gentle  slopes  in  the  lower  part.    The  reservoir  dam  site  
on  the  Piedras  River  is  located  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin  20  m  above  sea  level,  and  is  
predicted  to  flood  800  hectares  of  land.  This  land  is  mostly  used  for  livestock  farming  and  is  
not  inhabited  with  communities  or  infrastructure,  nor  is  the  soil  ideal  for  agriculture.4      
In  the  middle  and  lower  Piedras  River  basin  are  premontane  forests,  which  transition  to  
basal  and  tropical  dry  forest,  and  are  utilized  mainly  for  pasture  and  crops.    This  area  
accounts  for  slightly  over  91%  of  the  total  basin  area  and  is  characterized  by  rainfall  
between  1100  and  2200  mm  and  temperatures  between  17  and  27  °  C.  The  remaining  area  
in  the  upper  basin  ranges  from  tropical  rainforest  to  a  premontane  forest.    As  a  result,  the  
area  yields  a  higher  rainfall  between  1950  mm  and  3000  mm,  and  temperatures  between  
24  and  27  °  C.5  
Hydrology  and  Climate  in  the  area  
When  planning  to  construct  a  dam,  it  is  important  to  consider  the  timing  and  quantity  of  
flows  that  will  occur  in  the  area.    It  is  especially  important  for  civil  engineering  design  plans  
that  incorporate  the  total  size,  strength,  and  holding  capacity  of  the  structure.    These  flows  
will  vary  throughout  the  year  and  should  account  for  minimum,  average  and  maximum  
storm  event  precipitation,  and  factor  in  evaporation  rates  influenced  by  temperature  and  
humidity  of  the  region.  

The  Tempisque  Valley  is  characterized  by  a  rainy  season  that  starts  in  late  May  and  ends  in  
November.    The  driest  months  are  from  January  and  February  while  the  wettest  are  June,  
September  and  October.  The  average  annual  rainfall  varies  from  2600  mm  to  1400  mm  in  
the  bottom  of  the  basin,  yielding  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  1670  mm  basin.  

The  average  monthly  cumulative  evaporation  at  the  Bagaces  station  were  highest  in  March,  
with  rates  of  evaporation  equal  to  314.2  mm  /  month  and  lowest  in  October,  with  rates  
equal  to  125.4  mm  /  month.    Overall,  the  annual  average  monthly  evaporation  was  
recorded  was  194.2  mm  /  month.  

                                                                                                               
3  Convention  on  Wetlands  of  International  Importance  especially  as  Waterfowl  Habitat.  Ramsar  (Iran),  2  February  1971.  UN  Treaty  Series  No.  14583.  As  amended  by  
the  Paris  Protocol,  3  December  1982,  and  Regina  Amendments,  28  May  1987  www.ramsar.org.  
4  Nora  Pineda,  William  Murillo  Dams  Research  Summary.      
5  Rafael  Murillo,  Informe  Del  Estudio  Hidrologico  Informe_Hidrologico  Embalse  DRAT  Final  (2009).    
A  flow  gauge  that  is  particular  to  the  Piedras  River  does  not  exist;  therefore,  in  order  to  
determine  approximate  flows,  flow  information  from  a  nearby  station,  in  an  adjacent  basin,  
at  King  Ranch  Costa  Rican  Electricity  Institute  (ICE),  was  used.    This  information  from  the  
Tenorio  River  station,  about  11  km  east  of  the  dam  site,  allows  for  estimates  of  average  
monthly  and  daily  flows  on  the  Piedras  River.  

In  order  to  simulate  the  hypothetical  flows  in  the  river  basin,  and  flows  changes  resulting  
from  dam  completion,  hydrologic  computer  modeling  software  is  needed.    For  this  
particular  project  a  software  program  developed  by  the  United  States  Army  Corps  of  
Engineers  was  used,  HEC-­‐HMS  (Hydrologic  Engineering  Center's  Hydraulic  Modeling  
System).  The  model  predicts,  through  computer  simulations,  the  precipitation  amounts  and  
runoff  within  the  watershed.    This  occurs  through  the  representation  of  the  watershed  as  
an  interconnected  system  of  hydrologic  and  hydraulic  components.    Oftentimes  it  is  
challenging  to  accurately  model  the  exact  timing  and  location  of  flows  as  climate  and  
weather  can  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  predict  with  complete  certainty.    Therefore  when  
model  runs  are  conducted  different  conditions  are  simulated  to  determine  possible  
outcomes  for  various  climactic  events.    Three  examples  include  one  using  data  from  the  
typical  timing  of  the  San  Jose  station,  a  second  using  a  design  storm  from  the  dam  
feasibility  report  prepared  for  Rio  Piedras  in  1984,  and  a  third  by  precipitation  information  
from  a  storm  recorded  in  the  King  Ranch  Station  on  October  22,  1988,  which  corresponds  
to  the  passage  of  Hurricane  Joan.    Each  condition  can  have  very  different  timing  and  
distribution  of  the  rainfall  which  will  influence  flows  to  the  basin.    Specific  to  these  
different  scenarios,  in  the  first  condition  a  storm  may  last  5  hours  and  in  the  first  hour  and  
ten  minutes  81.3%  of  all  precipitation  falls.    In  comparison,  88%  of  the  rainfall  during  a  
storm  in  the  second  condition  falls  in  the  last  6  hours  which  implies  a  wet  soil  condition,  
which  will  heavily  influence  runoff  flow  patterns.6    These  climactic  and  hydrologic  factors  
are  critical  when  planning  for  dam  construction  and  for  accurately  predicting  resultant  
impacts  on  upstream  and  downstream  environments,  from  both  an  ecological  and  
anthropological  standpoint.  

Purpose  
Although  dams  can  be  operated  for  multi-­‐use  purposes,  such  as  storing  water,  generating  
power   and   flood   control,   the   Piedras   Dam   project   has   been   proposed   for   the   primary  
benefit   of   producing   a   reservoir   that   would   provide   drinking   water   to   development  
projects,  mostly  hotels  and  resorts,  along  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Costa  Rica.    Where  the  project  
may  be  beneficial  for  development  purposes  on  the  coast,  opposition  groups  argue  that  this  
dam  is  to  gather  water  to  sell  it  later  or  to  transform  the  area  into  a  “little  Hawaii”.7    Since  
the   majority   of   the   “sun   and   beach”   tourists   who   come   to   the   region   do   not   visit   the  
national  parks  there  may  be  less  concern  on  the  part  of  developers  in  maintaining  sufficient  
flows  to  regions  such  at  the  Palo  Verde  National  Park.8  
 

                                                                                                               
6  Informe_Hidrologico  Embalse  DRAT  Final  at  40.  
7  Dams  Research  Summary.  
8  Los  desafios  de  la  Region  Chorotega,  Estado  de  la  Nacion,  307.      
The   major   direct   environmental   impact   upstream   will   be   flooding   land,   which   does   not  
contain   towns   or   infrastructure,   and   is   mainly   used   for   livestock   farming.     Also,   the   soils  
where   the   dam   is   located   are   not   good   for   agriculture.     A   protected   area,   Lomas   de  
Barbudal,   will   be   flooded   as   a   result   and   is   not   seen   as   a   major   issue   because   there   are   two  
islets   within   the   dam   which   can   be   developed   into   areas   of   rich   biological   diversity.    
Sociological   direct   benefits   are   that   it   will   support   the   development   of   rural   aqueducts   and  
tourism,  and  Tempisque’s  lower  basin  will  be  provided  with  technical  support,  decreasing  
dependency  on  ICE.9  
 
Stakeholders  Analysis  
 
Issue:    Whether  or  not  the  proposed  Piedras  Dam  should  be  built.    
Context:  Parties  on  both  sides  of  the  issue  argue  for  the  benefits  or  drawbacks  of  the  
proposed  Piedras  Dam.    Where  the  construction  of  the  dam  may  allow  for  increased  
development  along  the  coast  is  this  beneficial  to  Costa  Rican  citizens,  from  sociological,  
economic,  and/or  environmental  perspectives?  
   
Table  1:    Institutions  
Acronyms   Spanish   English  Translation  
ARESEP   Autoridad Reguladora de Public  Services  Regulator  (Price  of  water)  
Servicios Públicos  
AyA   Instituto  Costarricense  de   Costa  Rican  Institute  of  Aqueducts  and  Sewers  
Acueductos  y  
Alcantarillados  
CNE   Comisión  Nacional  de   National  Emergencies  Commission    
Emergencias   (Disaster  Management)  
FONAFIFO   Fondo  Nacional  De   National  Forestry  Trust    
Financiamiento  Forestal   (Payment  for  Environmental  Services)  
ICE   Instituto  Costarricense  de   Costa  Rican  Institute  of  Electricity  
Electricidad  
IMN   Instituto  Meteorológico   National  Meteorological  Institute    
Nacional   (Climate  Change)  
MAG   Ministeria  de  Agricultur   Ministry  of  Agriculture  (Drought)  
MINAET   Ministerio  de  Ambiente,   Ministry  of  Environment,  Energy,  and  
(DA)   Energia,  y   Telecommunications    
Telecomunicaciones   (Water  Department  of  MINAET)  
(Dirección  de  Aguas)  
MINSA   Ministerio  de  Salud  Pública   Ministry  of  Public  Health  (Pollution)  
SENARA   Servicio  Nacional  de  Aguas   National  Groundwater,  Irrigation  and  Drainage  
Subterráneas,  Riego  y   Service  
Avenamientos  
SETENA   Secretaria  Tecnica  Nacional   National  Environmental  Technical  Service  
                                                                                                               
9  Dams  Research  Summary.    
 Ambiental     (EIA)  
SINAC   Sistema  Nacional  de  Areas   National  System  of  Conservation  Areas  
de  Conservacion   (Protected  Areas)  
 
Stakeholders:     Costa   Rican   Government;   AyA;   ICE;   MINAET   (DA);   MINSA;   SENARA;  
SETENA;   MAG;   ARESEP;   IMN;   CNE;   SINAC;   FONAFIFO;   Municipalities;   private   investors  
specific   to   the   dam;   citizens   and   indigenous   groups;   tourism   industry;   developers;   future  
generations;   non-­‐government   organizations   (NGO’s);   Organization   of   Tropical   Services  
(OTS);  National  Park  Service  
 
Historically,   Costa   Rica   was   able   to   use   the   resources   of   development   banks   such   as   the  
World   Bank   and   the   Inter-­‐American   Development   Bank   in   order   to   develop   dams   in   the  
country;   however,   the   Costa   Rican   government   is   no   longer   able   to   receive   funding   from  
these   sources.     Currently   funds   are   derived   by   both   public   and   private   sources.     Ultimately,  
the  approval  for  construction  of  the  dam  will  be  from  the  local  government.10      
SENARA   is   the   most   interested   in   developing   the   dam   and   AyA   also   has   an   interest.     The  
dam   will   create   employment,   generate   revenue   and   provide   a   potable   water   source.     The  
Costa   Rican   government   has   not   shown   a   clear   national   political   interest   to   fund   the  
project,   so   SENARA   is   trying   to   find   private   clients   that   are   willing   to   fund   it;   the   cost   is  
projected  to  be  between  $70  and  $90  million.    SENARA  and  AyA  conducted  a  study  in  the  
Tempisque  Basin,  Incremento  en  la  disponibilidad  de  agua  en  la  Cuenca  media  del  Tempisque  
y   zona   Costera   de   Guanacaste,   which   focused   on   the   Dam’s   contributions   to   solving   the  
potable  water  issue  in  the  region.11      
There   is   also   an   aspect   of   social   resistance   to   the   project   which   is   based   on   opposition  
groups   believing   the   dam   will   be   used   to   generate   income   by   selling   the   water   gathered   by  
the  dam  or  otherwise  simply  used  to  generate  revenue.12    There  is  concern  that  the  major  
beneficiaries  of  the  project  may  be  foreign  investors.    Additional  concern  is  related  to  the  
quality  of  jobs  that  will  be  created.  The  debate  is  raised  regarding  the  quality  of  life  that  is  
generated  through  service  jobs  created  from  increased  resort  development  along  the  coast,  
versus  the  ranching  and  farming  occupations  currently  present  in  the  basin.  
The  National  Park  Service  and  the  Organization  for  Tropical  Studies  has  concerns  since  the  
implementation  of  dams  to  traditionally  free  flowing  rivers  in  Central  American  countries  
may  have  substantial  impacts  on  the  flora  and  fauna  downstream  and  upstream  of  the  dam  
construction.    As  a  result  of  large  dams  in  Costa  Rica,  community  structure  and  biotic  
interactions  may  be  substantially  impacted  given  the  loss  of  migratory  fish  and  shrimp,  and  
impacts  to  the  ecosystem  functional  processes  that  these  animals  play  an  important  role,  
such  as  organic  matter  decomposition.13    Changes  in  flows  will  have  direct  impacts  on  the  
sediment  transport  to  downstream  waters  and  substantially  impact  the  physical  
                                                                                                               
10  Personal  conversations  with  locals.      
11  Dams  Research  Summary.  
12  Dams  Research  Summary.  
13  Elizabeth  P.  Anderson,  Catherine  M.  Pringle  and  Manrique  Rojas,  Transforming  tropical  rivers:  an  environmental  perspective  on  hydropower  development  in  Costa  
Rica,  16  Aquatic  Conservation:  Marine  and  Freshwater  Ecosystems  679,  685  (2006).  
environment  below  the  dam  site.    Species  richness  and  complexity  will  all  be  altered  under  
these  conditions  allowing  for  possible  invasion  of  exotics  and  less  desirable  plant  and  
animal  communities.  
 
Power  of  the  Stakeholders  
 
MINAET,   AyA,   ICE   and   SENARA   are   the   core   institutions   which   are   responsible   for   Costa  
Rica’s   water   management.     MINAET   has   primary   authority   for   the   administration   and  
management   of   water   resources   under   the   1942   Water   Law,   Direccion   de   Aguas   (Water  
Authority).  
 
SENARA  was  created  by  Law  No.6877  in  1983  as  an  independent  public  entity  to  regulate  
irrigation,   national   groundwater   and   drainage   services   while   promoting   agricultural  
development.    SENARA  develops  designs  and  operates  systems  for  above-­‐mentioned  uses  
and  utilizes  partnerships  with  institutions  in  environmental  and  agricultural  sectors.14      
 
AyA  has  the  ability  to  suspend  potable  water  service  if  the  system  that  generates  drinking  
water  is  in  jeopardy.    AyA’s  duties  include  setting  the  technical  design  requirements  for  the  
systems,   issuing   final   authorization   for   all   the   systems   that   generate   drinking   water   in  
Costa  Rica,  and  performing  inspections  on  the  systems.15      
 
MINAET,   DA   (Water   Department   of   MINAET),   maintains   the   National   Water   Register,   the  
National   Water   Inventory,   issues   permits   and   concessions   for   water   use,   registers   and  
authorizes   the   construction   of   wells,   develops   and   implements   the   National   Water   Policy  
and   water   budge   and   collects   water   pollution   fees.     Under   AyA   regulations   operators   of  
drinking  water  or  sewage  systems  are  required  to  report  the  volume  of  the  water  used  or  
disposed  of  in  their  systems  to  the  DA.16      
 
The   DA   has   final   authorization   over   issuing   concessions,   but   must   consider   SENARA   and  
AyA  technical  criteria.    The  DA  requires  developers  to  perform  hydrogeological  analysis  to  
certify   that   an   environmental   impact   assessment   was   completed   successfully   to   ensure   a  
negative  impact  on  the  water  of  the  surrounding  communities  will  not  occur.17      
 
MINSA,   per   article   268   from   General   Health   Law   No.   5395,   has   the   authority   to   force   AyA   to  
take  action  in  safeguarding  water  quality  and  to  potentially  intervene  if  the  situation  shows  
sufficient  urgency  relative  to  impacts  on  the  country.    In  regards  to  wastewater  treatment,  
MINSA   is   the   leading   regulatory   authority,   but   AyA   and   MINAET   do   intervene.     MINSA’s  
duties   include   supervising   operations   and   ensuring   regulation   standards   are   met,  
administering  a  Water  Control  Program,  and  issuing  policies.18      
 
                                                                                                               
14  Programa  de  Gestion  Integrada  de  Recursos  Hidricos,  Informe  Principal,  18.    
15  Water  Quality  Legislations  and  Institutions  in  Costa  Rica,  1.      
16  Id.  at  2.  
17  Id.  at  6.  
18  Id.  at  2.  
SETENA   requires   an   environmental   impact   assessment,   which   determines   potential   severe  
or   irreversible   impacts   to   the   water   system   and   requires   developers   to   implement  
mitigation  measures  to  decrease  any  unavoidable  impacts  on  the  water  quality.19    
 
ICE  regulates  construction  and  operation  of  hydropower  and  issues  water  concessions  for  
hydropower   projects.     However,   private   developers   apply   directly   to   the   DA   for  
hydropower  concessions.20      
 
 
Relevant  Costa  Rican  Laws  and  Regulations  
 
In  1994  Article  50  of  the  Constitution  of  Costa  Rica  was  amended  to  provide  every  citizen  
with  the  right  to  a  healthy  and  ecologically  balanced  environment.    Alongside  Article  50  is  
Article   46,   which   makes   it   clear   that   there   is   a   government   obligation   to   ensure   protection.    
The  two  Articles  working  together  have  become  the  foundation  of  nearly  all  environmental  
legal  protection  in  the  country.21      
 
After  these  Articles  were  implemented,  Costa  Rica  continued  to  develop  its  environmental  
protection  laws  and  created  laws  which  regulate  the  waterways,  including  laws  to  control  
private   exploitation   of   the   water.     Costa   Rica’s   1942   water   laws   were   created   before   the  
population,  economic  and  development  boom  of  the  country  and  result  in  water  conflicts  
across  the  country.    A  popular  initiative  created  a  draft  bill  to  reform  the  water  laws,  but  
Costa   Rica   still   operates   under   the   laws   of   1942.     Water   Law   No.   276   declares   water   a  
public   good   under   national   ownership   with   the   hierarchy   of   uses   being   domestic,  
agricultural,  hydro  and  industrial.    Ordinary  indoor  and  outdoor  use  of  water  is  available  to  
everyone,   exempt   from   the   concession   or   consumptive   use   permits   under   the   existing  
laws.22    Permits  are  issued  by  ICE  and  MINAET  for  a  maximum  duration  of  30  years  and  the  
associated  fees  are  calculated  based  water  usage.23    When  required,  project  approval  may  
depend   on   an   environmental   impact   assessment,   which   is   submitted   to   and   approved   by  
SETENA,  the  National  Environmental  Technical  Secretariat.            
 
All  electricity  generated  through  hydroelectric  power  production  must  be  sold  to  the  state  
energy   regulatory   body,   the   Costa   Rican   Institute   of   Electricity   (ICE),   which   maintains   a  
monopoly  over  the  distribution  of  electricity  and  allows  the  government  to  determine  the  
price  consumers  will  pay  for  energy.24      
 

                                                                                                               
19  Id.  at  4.  
20  Franklin  Paniagua,  Power  Point  Presentation.      
21  R.  Victoria  Lindo,  Hydroelectric  Power  Production  in  Costa  Rica  and  the  Threat  of  Environmental  Disaster  Through  CAFTA,  29  B.C.  Int’l  &  Comp.  L.  Rev.  296,  301  
(2006).      
22  Id.  
23   Cover-­‐Ruiz,   Reilly-­‐Brown,   Saavedra,   El   Pais   Verde   &   the   Sunshine   State,   A   Comparative   Analysis,   Conclusions,   and   Recommendations   for   Costa   Rica   Water  
Allocation  Reform,  1,  6  (2009).      
24  Hydroelectric  Power  Production  in  Costa  Rica  and  the  Threat  of  Environmental  Disaster  Through  CAFTA  at  301.      
The  companies  who  are  able  to  proceed  with  a  dam  project  must  abide  by  legal  restrictions  
regarding   environmental   conservation.     The   rivers   must   be   used   rationally,   efficiently,  
abide   by   the   limits   regarding   the   degree   of   alterations   to   the   quality   and   quantity   of   the  
water,   actively   protect   and   maintain   the   equilibrium   and   to   take   adequate   remedial  
measures  ensuring  limiting  and  correcting  any  contamination.    A  fine  will  be  assessed  if  the  
companies   fail   to   follow   these   restrictions.25     However,   the   laws   are   not   sufficient   for  
protecting  the  environment.    The  Surface  Body  Classification  Decree  No.  33903-­‐MIAE-­‐S  is  
important   for   regulating   water   quality   as   it   establishes   criteria   to   assess   and   classify   water  
bodies   in   the   country   and   then   sets   forth   potential   authorized   and   non-­‐authorized   uses  
according  to  those  classes.    However,  due  to  lack  of  financial  resources,  the  water  authority  
does  not  enforce  the  regulation  and  based  on  development  studies  it  is  not  likely  to  begin  
until  at  least  2014  even  though  the  laws  were  created  in  2007.26    
 
Costa  Rica  is  that  the  laws  of  Costa  Rica  do  not  limit  the  amount  of  dams  per  watersheds  
and   restrict   the   amount   of   electricity   each   dam   is   allowed   to   produce.     Also,   there   is   not  
strict   enforcement   of   the   environmental   laws,   which   do   exist.     SETENA   often   approves  
projects   that   should   have   been   rejected   when   considering   the   environmental   damages,  
which  gives  cause  to  speculate  about  corruption  in  the  system.27  
 
Scoping  Procedures  for  the  Environmental  Impact  Assessment  
in  Costa  Rica,  the  United  States,  and  Internationally  
 
One   of   the   most   important   environmental   management   tools   to   be   adopted   across   the  
globe   is   the   environmental   impact   assessment,   which   calls   for   an   in-­‐depth   study   of  
environmental   impacts   of   proposed   projects.   The   first   step   towards   conducting   an   EIA   is  
beginning  the  scoping  process.  Scoping  is  used  to  determine  the  extent  of  and  the  approach  
to   an   EIA.   It   generally   involves   including   the   relevant   authorities   and   affected   groups,  
identifying  relevant  issues  that  need  to  be  examined,  identifying  possible  alternatives,  and  
creating  terms  of  reference  for  further  study.  The  main  purposes  of  scoping  are  to  provide  
an   opportunity   for   stakeholders   to   exchange   information   and   express   their   views   and  
concerns  regarding  a  project  before  an  EIA  is  undertaken  and  to  focus  on  alternatives  and  
issues   so   that   the   resulting   EIA   is   efficient   and   thorough.28   Scoping   saves   time   and  
resources  while  reducing  the  risk  of  costly  delays.    
Scoping  Process  in  Costa  Rica  
The   scoping   process   in   Costa   Rica   is   a   fairly   recent   one.   In   1995,   Organic   Environmental  
Law  No.  7554  established  the  National  Environmental  Technical  Service  (SETENA)  as  the  
agency   charged   with   developing   and   implementing   EIA   regulations   and   evaluating   EIAs  

                                                                                                               
25  Id.  at  302.      
26  Water  Quality  Legislations  and  Institutions  in  Costa  Rica  at  6.  
27  Hydroelectric  Power  Production  in  Costa  Rica  and  the  Threat  of  Environmental  Disaster  Through  CAFTA  at  307,  308.    
28  Dep’t  of  Electricity  Development,  Manual  for  Preparing  Scoping  Document  for  Environmental  Impact  Assessment  (EIA)  of  Hydropower  Projects  4  (Private  Sector  
Hydropower  Development  Project,  2001).  
when  they  are  required  under  the  applicable  regulations.29  SETENA  is  a  sub-­‐agency  of  the  
Ministry   of   Environment,   Energy,   and   Telecommunications   (MINAET).   In   1997,   SETENA  
published   its   Manual   for   Procedure,   setting   out   its   guidelines   and   procedures   for  
environmental   impact   studies.   This   publication   defines   the   obligations   of   project  
developers,   consultants,   and   SETENA,   as   well   as   SETENA’s   internal   organization   and  
competence.   In   2004,   Executive   Decree   No.   31849   further   developed   and   amplified   Costa  
Rica’s   EIA   laws,   including   the   scoping   process,   and   these   remain   the   procedures   in   use  
today.      

First,   all   projects   undergo   a   preliminary   assessment.   The   law   divides   these   projects   into  
two  categories:  (1)  activities  for  which  there  is  a  specific  law  mandating  an  EIA  (Annex  1  of  
DE-­‐31849),   and   (2)   other   activities   not   contained   in   Annex   1   (Annex   2   of   DE-­‐31849).  
SETENA   places   Annex   2   projects   into   one   of   three   categories   of   potential   environmental  
impact:   A   (high   potential   environmental   impact),   B   (moderate   potential   environmental  
impact)),  and  C  (low  potential  environmental  impact).  Category  B  is  further  divided  into  B1  
(moderately  high)  and  B2  (moderately  low).  30  

Then,   the   developer   must   apply   for   a   Request   of   Environmental   Feasibility   (Solicitud   de  
Viabilidad  Ambiental)  by  submitting  a  fee  and  either  a  D1  or  a  D2  form,  depending  on  the  
size   of   the   project   and   its   potential   environmental   impacts.31   A   D1   form   is   required   for  
activities  in  categories  A  and  B1  and  sometimes  B2,  1000m2  or  more  in  size.  A  D2  form  is  
used   for   category   B2   and   C   projects   that   are   500-­‐999m2.   D2   activities   are   considered   to  
have  generally  low  environmental  impacts,  and  the  Request  of  Environmental  Feasibility  is  
granted  if  SETENA  determines  that  the  D2  form  is  free  of  errors.    D1  projects  are  subject  to  
a   more   in-­‐depth   process.   Once   again,   SETENA   determines   the   level   of   potential  
environmental   impact   and   requires   a   Declaration   of   Environmental   Commitments,   an  
Environmental  Management  Plan,  or  an  Environmental  Impact  Study  (EIS).      
The  scoping  process  is  part  of  the  EIS  required  for  high-­‐impact  projects.  The  developer  of  
the   project   must   employ   an   inter-­‐   and   multi-­‐disciplinary   team   of   environmental   and  
technical   professionals   approved   by   SETENA   to   prepare   the   EIS.   The   developer   is   also  
required  to  communicate  with  society  and  the  local  authorities  by  presenting  the  project  to  
the  community  and  local  authorities  and  surveying  members  of  local  communities  that  will  
be  impacted  by  the  project.  Thus,  the  scoping  process  is  a  joint  effort  between  the  project  
developer   and   the   SETENA-­‐approved   environmental   consultants.   The   consultants   will  
provide   Terms   of   Reference,   environmental   impact   data   needed   for   the   EIA,   and   project  
alternatives.   The   developer   will   engage   the   local   communities   and   can   help   bring  
awareness   to   significant   issues   that   should   be   addressed   in   the   EIA.   The   public   can  
participate   at   any   time   during   the   process   through   private   hearings,   public   hearings,   and  
written  opinions  that  may  be  submitted  to  SETENA.  32  

 
                                                                                                               
29  Joanna  Reilly-­‐Brown,  Institutional  and  Legal  Framework  for  Water  Management  in  the  Tempisque  River  Watershed,  Costa  Rica  16.  
30  Joanna  Reilly-­‐Brown,  Summary  of  Executive  Decree  No.  31849:  Costa  Rica’s  General  Regulation  for  Environmental  Impact  Assessment  Procedures  225-­‐227.  
31  Id.  
32  Anne  Axelsson  and  Stina  Lundstrom,  Public  Participation  in  EIA,  245-­‐253.  
 Scoping  Process  in  the  United  States  
In   the   United   States,   the   National   Environmental   Policy   Act   of   1969   (NEPA)   sets   out  
procedural  guidelines  for  all  federal  agencies  for  actions  “significantly  affecting  the  quality  
of  the  human  environment.”33  Agencies  first  prepare  an  Environmental  Assessment  (EA).  If  
the   action   is   found   to   significantly   affect   the   environment,   the   agency   must   conduct   a   more  
detailed  Environmental  Impact  Statement  (EIS).  The  scoping  process  takes  place  during  the  
preparation   of   the   EA,   to   an   extent,   and   also   in   the   EIS.   This   practice   differs   from   Costa  
Rica’s  scoping  process  because  scoping  is  an  integral  part  of  all  actions,  not  just  those  found  
to   be   high-­‐impact.   The   proponent   agency   must   discuss   the   purpose   and   need   for   the  
proposal,   list   possible   alternatives,   list   human   environmental   impacts   resulting   from   the  
proposal   and   the   alternatives,   and   list   all   agencies   and   stakeholders   consulted   to   reach  
these   conclusions.   The   President’s   Council   on   Environmental   Quality   (CEQ)   is   the   agency  
charged   with   overseeing   federal   agency   implementation   of   this   process.   Federal   law   (40  
CFR  1502)  dictates  that  the  EIS  “be  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  scope  decided  upon  in  
the  scoping  process.”  “Scope”  consists  of  the  “range  of  actions,  alternatives,  and  impacts  to  
be  considered  in  an  EIS.”34  The  regulations  go  on  to  state  that  “there  shall  be  an  early  and  
open   process   for   determining   the   scope   of   issues   to   be   addressed   and   for   identifying   the  
significant  issues  related  to  a  proposed  action.”  Before  scoping,  the  agency  must  submit  a  
notice  of  intent  to  be  published  in  the  Federal  Register.  Then,  the  agency  must  complete  the  
following  steps  to  complete  the  scoping  process:    

1. Invite   the   participation   of   affected   Federal,   State,   and   local   agencies,   any   affected  
Indian   tribe,   the   proponent   of   the   action,   and   other   interested   persons   (including  
those  who  might  not  be  in  accord  with  the  action  on  environmental  grounds)  
2. Determine   the   scope   and   the   significant   issues   to   be   analyzed   in   depth   in   the  
environmental  impact  statement.  
3. Identify   and   eliminate   from   detailed   study   the   issues   which   are   not   significant   or  
which  have  been  covered  by  prior  environmental  review,  narrowing  the  discussion  
of  these  issues  in  the  statement  to  a  brief  presentation  of  why  they  will  not  have  a  
significant   effect   on   the   human   environment   or   providing   a   reference   to   their  
coverage  elsewhere.  
4. Allocate  assignments  for  preparation  of  the  environmental  impact  statement  among  
the  lead  and  cooperating  agencies,  with  the  lead  agency  retaining  responsibility  for  
the  statement.  
5. Indicate   any   public   environmental   assessments   and   other   environmental   impact  
statements  that  are  being  or  will  be  prepared  that  are  related  to  but  are  not  part  of  
the  scope  of  the  impact  statement  under  consideration.  
6. Identify   other   environmental   review   and   consultation   requirements   so   the   lead   and  
cooperating  agencies  may  prepare  other  required  analyses  and  studies  concurrently  
with,  and  integrated  with,  the  environmental  impact  statement  as  provided  in  Sec.  
1502.25.35  

                                                                                                               
33  National  Environmental  Policy  Act  §  101,  42  U.S.C.A.  §  4331  (1969).  
34  40  CFR  §  1508.25  (1997).  
35  40  CFR  §  1501.7  
 7. Indicate   the   relationship   between   the   timing   of   the   preparation   of   environmental  
analyses  and  the  agency's  tentative  planning  and  decision-­‐making  schedule.  
Comparative  International  Law  
Internationally   accepted   procedures   for   scoping   are   similar   to   those   adopted   by   Costa   Rica  
and   the   United   States,   but   less   specific.   The   United   Nations   Environmental   Programme’s  
Principles   of   Environmental   Impact   Assessment   was   published   in   1987   and   provides   a  
mandatory   EIA   framework   for   member   states;   “States   should   not   undertake   or   authorize  
activities   without   prior   consideration,   at   an   early   stage,   of   their   environmental   effects.”36  
Although  the  document  does  not  explicitly  make  mention  of  the  scoping  process,  it  does  set  
forth   that   “In   the   EIA   process   the   relevant   significant   environmental   issues   should   be  
identified   and   studied.   Where   appropriate   all   efforts   should   be   made   to   identify   these  
issues  at  an  early  stage  in  the  process.”  At  the  Earth  Summit  in  1992,  UNEP  was  asked  to  
further   work   on   the   development   of   a   framework   for   the   implementation   of   EIAs.   In  
response,  they  published  several  training  manuals,  including  one  specifically  on  the  topic  of  
scoping.   Although   these   procedures   are   not   binding,   they   provide   countries   with  
acceptable  guidelines  for  conducting  the  scoping  process  for  trans-­‐boundary  projects  with  
significant   environmental   impacts.   The   manual   begins   by   setting   out   the   purposes   of  
scoping,   namely,   identifying:   (1)   the   important   issues   to   be   considered   in   an   EIA;   (2)   the  
appropriate   time   and   space   boundaries   of   the   EIA;   (3)   the   information   necessary   for  
decision-­‐making;   and   (4)   the   significant   effects   and   factors   to   be   studied   in   detail.  
Additionally,  it  specifies  that  another  purpose,  identifying  feasible  alternatives  to  an  action,  
is  becoming  accepted  internationally  as  an  EIA  “good  practice.”  Next,  the  manual  provides  a  
list  of  scoping  activities.  37  
Table  2:  Scoping  Activities  in  the  UNEP  training  manual  
Getting  ready  
1. Prepare  a  preliminary  or  outline  scope  with  headings  such  as:  
• Objectives  and  description  of  the  proposal  
• The  policy  context  and  environmental  setting  
• Data  and  information  sources,  constraints  etc.  
• Alternatives  to  the  proposal  
• Concerns,  issues  and  effects  identified  to  date  
• Provision  for  public  involvement  
• Timetable  for  scoping,  EIA  and  decision  making  
2. Develop  the  outline  scope  by  informal  consultation  and  by  assembling  
available  information,  identifying  information  gaps,  etc.    
3. Make  the  provisional  scope  and  supporting  information  available  to  the  
public  
Undertaking  scoping  
4. List  the  range  of  issues  and  concerns  
5. Evaluate  relative  importance  and  significance  to  derive  a  short  list  of  key  

                                                                                                               
36  UNEP  Principles  of  Environmental  Impact  Assessment  (1987).  
37  UNEP,  EIA  Training  Resource  Manual:  Scoping,  225-­‐245  (2002).  
 issues  
6. Organize  key  issues  into  the  impact  categories  to  be  studied  
Completion  and  continuity  
7. Amend  the  outline  scope  to  progressively  incorporate  the  information  from  
each  stage.    
8. Establish  the  Terms  of  Reference  (ToR)  for  the  EIA,  including  information  
requirements,  study  guidelines,  methodology  and  protocols  for  revising  
work.    
9. Monitor  progress  against  the  ToR,  making  adjustments  as  needed  and  
provide  feedback  to  the  stakeholders  and  the  public.    
In   addition,   the   manual   suggests   public   involvement   in   the   scoping   process   through  
notification/invitation  for  public  comment  and  written  submissions,  consultations  with  the  
stakeholders,   public   and   community   meetings,   and   issues   workshops   and   facilitated  
discussion  –  “involving  the  public  in  scoping  helps  to  build  confidence  in  the  EIA  process.”    

UNEP’s  five  components  to  effectively  integrate  public  participation  into  the  scoping  
process:    
1. Identification   of   groups/individuals   interested   in   or   affected   by   the   proposed  
development  
2. Provision  of  accurate,  understandable,  pertinent  and  timely  information  
3. Dialogue  between  those  responsible  for  the  decisions  and  those  affected  by  them    
4. Assimilation  of  what  the  public  says  in  the  decisions  
5. Feedback  about  actions  taken  and  how  the  public  influenced  the  decisions.    
 
Recommendation  

Of  the  methods  discussed  in  Costa  Rica,  the  United  States,  and  internationally,  the  approach  
best   suited   for   the   project   in   the   Tempisque   Basin   is   one   which   requires   a   cumulative  
social,   environmental   and   economic   impact   statement   for   all   significant   projects   that  
discusses   alternatives   when   appropriate.     The   methods   used   in   the   United   States   best  
outline  this  process.    The  Costa  Rican  process  isn’t  always  able  to  be  cumulative  because  of  
the   lack   of   inter-­‐institution   communication.     The   SETENA   staff   is   not   always   aware   of   all  
on-­‐going   projects   to   make   an   informed   decision   regarding   the   cumulative   impacts.    
Likewise,   the   United   Nations   guidelines   are   lacking   because   they   do   not   include  
alternatives   as   an   integral   part   of   the   process.     Similarly,   the   method   in   the   United   States   is  
not  perfect  either  because  it  only  applies  to  federal  actions.    All  of  the  methods  use  a  system  
for  weeding  out  the  projects  where  the  benefits  of  an  assessment  would  not  outweigh  the  
costs   of   performing   one   and   actively   inviting   public   participation.   Offering   the   public  
opportunities   to   be   heard   helps   improve   the   relations   between   the   stakeholders   and   can  
lead  to  a  smoother  planning  process,  which  in  turn  can  reduce  local  opposition  and  aid  in  
avoiding   costly   public   inquiries.   Additionally,   including   the   public   in   the   scoping   process  
can  help  to  ensure  the  quality,  comprehensiveness,  and  effectiveness  of  the  EIA.      
 
 
 Terms  of  Reference  Summary  
*See  Appendix  1  for  the  detailed  impact  analysis.      
The  terms  of  reference  (ToR)  document  defines  all  aspects  of  how  a  team  will  conduct  an  
evaluation,  or  in  this  case  an  environment  impact  assessment  for  the  construction  of  a  dam  on  
the  Piedras  River.  It  defines  the  objectives  and  scope  of  the  evaluation,  the  responsibilities  of  
the  team,  and  a  description  of  the  resources  available  to  conduct  the  study.  The  evaluation  ToR  
document  serves  as  the  basis  for  a  contractual  arrangement  with  one  or  more  evaluators  and  
sets  the  parameters  against  which  the  success  of  the  assignment  can  be  measured.38  

In  this  ToR,  information  is  compiled  regarding  two  stages  of  the  dam  project:  first,  the  
construction  phase,  and  second,  the  operation  phase.    For  each  phase  actions  have  been  
separated  and  identified  based  on:  (1)  the  particular  action  that  will  take  place  to  complete  or  
maintain  the  project,  (2)  the  environmental  factor  being  considered  (i.e.  water,  air,  soil,  human  
etc.)  and  for  what  purpose,  (3)  the  level  of  importance  or  characterization  of  the  action  on  the  
environmental  factor  (high,  medium,  low),  (4)  the  necessary  study  required  to  determine  the  
impact,  (5)  the  professional  required  to  conduct  the  study,  and  (6)  justification  for  the  
necessity  of  the  study.      

In  the  construction  phase  of  the  project  this  would  include  minor  considerations,  such  as,  noise,  
lighting,  and  air  emissions  from  the  construction  site,  to  more  disruptive  activities  such  as  the  
erosion  of  soils  into  water  bodies  and  how  will  water,  supplies,  and  electricity  be  supplied  to  
the  project  area.    Aside  from  the  specifics  of  how  will  the  project  be  completed  from  an  
engineering  standpoint,  analyses  will  also  be  needed  to  answer  questions  about  the  project’s  
impacts  on  the  flora  and  fauna  in  the  area  and  the  social  implications  of  its  completion.  In  order  
to  fulfill  all  investigations  professionals  from  a  wide  variety  of  fields  would  be  needed,  
including:  biologists,  ecologists,  anthropologists,  psychologists,  sociologists,  environment  
scientists,  civil,  electrical,  chemical,  and  industrial  engineers.    

Once  the  project  has  been  completed  then  considerations  need  to  be  taken  for  how  the  project  
will  affect  the  community  in  its  “operation  phase”.    These  analyses  will  incorporate  how  will  
electricity,  potable  water,  and  security  be  maintained  at  the  dam,  and  how  will  waste  materials  
be  removed  from  the  area  in  a  safe  and  healthy  manner.    Follow  up  studies  on  the  predicted  
impacts  on  flora  and  fauna  and  local  communities  should  also  be  conducted.  

Conclusions  and  Recommendations  

 
Since  the  cost  of  the  proposed  project  ranges  from  70-­‐90  million  dollars,  and  investment  of  
international   organizations   are   waning   for   dam   projects   throughout   the   world   the   viability  
of  this  particular  project  is  low.    The  main  beneficiaries,  if  the  project  were  to  be  completed,  
would   most   likely   be   American   and   European   developers   which   have   the   available  
resources   to   construct   large   resorts   along   the   coast   and   therefore   the   project   is   not   viewed  
as  a  high  priority  by  the  Costa  Rican  government,  nor  by  the  people  of  Costa  Rica.    The  jobs  
that  would  be  brought  to  the  region  would  include  service  jobs  typical  of  resorts  and  hotels  
and  indicate  that  long-­‐term  advancement  and  wage  increase  potential  is  minimal.  
                                                                                                               
38  Independent  Evaluation  Group:  The  World  Bank  Group.  Writing  Terms  of  Reference  for  an  Evaluation:  A  How-­‐to  Guide.  1,  32  www.Worldbank.org.  Washington  
D.C.  2011  (terms  of  reference  definition).    
  
If  the  developers  interested  in  constructing  resorts  along  the  coast  have  increased  interest  
in   the   need   for   potable   water   in   the   future   alternative   options   may   include   the   damming   of  
smaller  rivers  to  meet  needs,  or  the  construction  of  a  series  of  small  dams  throughout  the  
region.     Costs   for   the   construction   of   aqueducts   and   pipelines   throughout   the   region   would  
still  be  high,  and  disruptions  to  the  natural  landscape  would  be  expected  to  be  significant  
dependent  upon  the  scale  and  number  of  projects.  
 
Given  these  considerations,  this  particular  project  is  unlikely  to  be  undertaken  unless  the  
finances   become   available   or   employment   needs   of   the   region   shift   substantially   in   the  
future.