EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

IN DEVELOPMENT
Basic Concepts, Theories, and Knowhow
Revised Edition
EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION
IN DEVELOPMENT
Basic Concepts, Principles, Theories, and Knowhow
Revised Edition

Maria Celeste Habito Cadiz

College of Development Communication

University of the Philippines Los Baños

4031 College, Laguna, Philippines

iii
Copyright 1991 by the College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines Los Baños
College, Laguna, Philippines

ISBN 971-8778-00-4

All rights reserved. This book cannot be reproduced through any method or form, in whole
or as an entire chapter or chapters, without the written permission of the publisher.

Published by the Publications Office

College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines Los Baños
College, Laguna, Philippines

1991 (First Printing)

2003 (Revised Printing)
2007 (Second Revised Printing)

iv
 Foreword
In the early 70s, the University of the Philippines Los Baños College of
Agriculture (UPLB CA) nurtured and gave birth to Development
Communication as an academic discipline, pioneering the Master of Science
(1973) followed by a Bachelor of Science in Development Communication
(1974) and later, a PhD program (1976). Pioneering scholars led by Dr. Nora
C. Quebral (1971), Dr. Juan F. Jamias (1975) and Dr. Ely D. Gomez (1975)
asserted an innovative social science and academic program set to turn out a
new breed of communication professionals who could address the peculiar
needs and realities in developing countries like the Philippines.

Educational communication in the late 70s and 80s then became the newest
domain of Development Communication, and available Western textbooks in
educational technology, conceptualized in the context of formal education in a
more advanced setting, did not provide the exact requirements for teaching
edcom in the BSDC curriculum. This textbook was an answer to that felt need.

Today, UPLB’s recognition as pioneer of devcom teaching and currently most

productive in devcom education the world over is asserted in international fora,
such as the World Congress in Communication for Development held at the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations headquarters on 25-
27 October 2006 in Rome, Italy. Of the four major fields of the devcom
program in Los Baños, Educational Communication has become the most
popular among undergraduates.

The third printing of this textbook is a response to its high demand as a

reference not only in UPLB’s BSDC program, but also in development
communication curricula in 15 or so other schools and universities throughout
the Philippines. This is made while the author and her colleagues at the
Educational Communication Department of UPLB CDC is working on a much-
needed updated version – something to watch out for.

Candida B. Adalla, PhD Cleofe S. Torres, PhD

Dean Dean
College of Agriculture College of Development Communication

Luis Rey I. Velasco, PhD

Chancellor
University of the Philippines Los Baños

i
 Preface
In the 1990s, discussions in international conferences in Southeast Asia that I
had attended tended to sidestep development communication if not explicitly
state that it was passé. But in this new century, meetings with a more global
perspective have not only revisited development communication; fellow
scholars are asserting its relevance even in the context of developed countries
like the US and in Europe, albeit coining a new, longer label reflective of its
people-oriented perspective, ‘communication for social change’ (CFSC). On
one hand, other international colleagues use a more generic label
‘communication for development’ inclusive of its earlier diffusionist slant along
with the participatory, socio-cultural, and other emerging perspectives.

Worldwide, development communication as a discipline and as a professional

practice lives. Prolific exchanges in web forums; its discourses posted in
different websites, and a wide body of literature in English, Spanish, and other
languages the world over attest that devcom is here to stay. Among all these,
the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) stands out as pioneer in
devcom teaching and currently most productive in devcom education. In Los
Baños, Development Communication has four specializations, Educational
Communication being the most popular among undergraduates within the last
decade.

In its earlier years in the late 70s and early 80s, the edcom specialization
struggled for recognition among devcom experts as a devcom major in its own
right. Writing this textbook was spawned by the desire to clarify the major as a
devcom domain. No longer questioned and finding actualization in the
professional practice and scholarship of its numerous graduates, the need to
clarify its domains among new devcom students and edcom majors continues.

This textbook was written specifically for Devcom 40, the core course in
educational communication under the Bachelor of Science in Development
Communication (BSDC) curriculum at the UPLB College of Development
Communication (CDC). It is an attempt to synthesize, translate, adapt and
report in a single reference the basic concepts, principles, theories and
knowhow in educational communication, based on BSDC students’ frame of
reference and in the light of the situations that they are likely to meet as devcom
professionals.

From its first publication in 1991, educational technology has taken leaps and
bounds, and admittedly, this book’s third printing lags far behind these changes.
PowerPoint and Flash presentations have replaced photographic soundslide

ii
sets and pure video presentations, integrating motion and still visuals, graphics
and animation. Students are ahead of their teachers in design and in blending
information and communication technologies creatively. Newer approaches,
theories and perspectives have likewise enriched learning science while
innovations in educational practice bloom.

In this light, the UPLB CDC Department of Educational Communication has

agreed to prepare an updated, revised edition of this textbook. But in the
interim, students continue to need a third printing of this book in their
introductory course to the educational communication major in Development
Communication. The original intent of this book is to prepare them for
production skills courses if they are educational communication majors. If they
are not majors and have no chance of taking the production skills courses in
educational communication, only Devcom 40 provides them a structured
exposure to the major field, which they try to practice in an internship course
during the summer prior to their last year in their undergraduate program.
Ultimately, this book is hoped to assist the BSDC students in preparing to work
for development through communication and related activities, with the view
that the essence of their future work would focus on inducing and enhancing
other people’s learning.

The textbook attempts to cover the content of Devcom 40 in a comprehensive

yet understandable manner, drawn from numerous references as listed at the
end of every chapter. It is meant to provide a grounding in the edcom domain
of devcom, accompanying perhaps more meaningful experiential activities to
replace the usual lectures. With the textbook as a ready reference, some of the
Devcom 40 lectures can then be shortcut if not totally replaced with other
structured experiences.

While this textbook was primarily written for the Devcom 40 teachers and
students at UPLB CDC, teachers and students in development communication
in other schools throughout the country are also hoped to benefit from it.
Likewise, specific chapters may be addressed for the professional development
needs of teachers, trainers, training managers and staff, extensionists, media
designers – all those working toward other people's learning, whether inside or
outside the school.

Chapter 1 defines educational communication as a domain of development

communication. It tries to distinguish edcom from its earlier version,
audiovisual communication, and the more ubiquitous formal teaching
profession. While it draws on the definition and historical perspectives of
educational technology as a field in the West, it also discusses educational
communication as a profession and practice in the context of development,

iii
focused on nonformal education. Suggested research for the devcom senior is
further described.

Chapter 2 dwells on the media and their application in an educational

communication context. It is the most voluminous chapter, reviewing
educational media classifications and a lengthy list of communication media
and materials. It emphasizes media utilization, providing guidelines on how to
decide which media to use, and pointers on using them. In addition, it provides
presentation tips, including those of Heinich, Molenda and Russell (1982).

Chapter 3 then discusses the systems view of educational communication

providing the framework for designing its product, the learning system. A
review of learning science follows in Chapter 4, reminding the edcom student to
ground his media designs and decisions to making learning take place in better
ways than usual. The major field’s roots in audiovisual communication are
then reaffirmed in Chapter 5’s focus on visual media design principles and
production tips.

I personally thank the UPLB College of Agriculture (CA) led by Dean Candida
B. Adalla and its Publications Program for this book’s second and third printing
with only minor updating. This signifies the UPLB CA’s commitment to
showcase communication as a core process in agricultural and rural
development. This book also emphasizes individual learning or behavior
change as a key process in the more complex processes of development and
social change, and attempts to show how to best make people learn.

Maria Celeste H. Cadiz, PhD

Associate Professor
College of Development Communication
University of the Philippines Los Baños

iv
 Contents
Foreword i
Preface ii

Chapter 1 The Nature of Educational Communication 1

Defining Educational Communication 1

Elements in Educational Communication 4
Role of Educational Communication in Development 6
Characteristics of Educational Communication 7
Historical Perspectives 12
Directions for Research and Practice in Educational Communication 19
Chapter Summary 21

Chapter 2 The Educational Communication Media 23

Defining Media 24
Defining Educational Media 24
Three Properties of Media 25
Classifications of Media 27
Functions of Media in Instruction 30
Selecting Educational Communication Media 33
Potentials and Limitations of Specific Media
Commonly Used in Development Work 41
Using Educational Media Effectively 52
Chapter Summary 71

Chapter 3 Learning Systems and their Design 75

Nature of Learning Systems 76

Designing Learning Systems 83
The Learning System Plan 84
Chapter Summary 98

Chapter 4 Towards Effective Learning:

Theories, Principles, Concepts, and their Application 101

Defining Learning 102

Communication and Learning 103
Learning Theory: An Overview 103
Stimulus-Response Theories 105
v
 Cognitive/Perception Theories 113
Functional Learning Principles 121
Learning Principles for Effective Communication: A Run-through 125
Chapter Summary 129

Chapter 5 Designing Visual Media 133

Planning the Visual Communication 134

Visual Message Design 143
Pictorial Composition and Visual Design Elements 144
Producing Visual Materials 153
Visual Presentation 157
Evaluating Visual Media 158
Chapter Summary 158

vi
 List of Tables
1 Comparison of formal, nonformal and informal
education (based on Coombs, 1974) 11
2 Early forerunners of instructional technology
(Saettler, 1968; Librero, 1984) 13
3 Later forerunners of instructional technology
(Saettler, 1968; Librero, 1984) 14
4 Beginnings of a science and technology of instruction,
1900 to the present (Saettler, 1968; Librero, 1984) 14
5 Types of media or channel classification
and their bases of classification 28
6 The changing emphasis of educational communication
and technology, from educational technology 1 to 3
(based on Davies, 1972 in Librero, 1984) 29
7 Six families of presentation media
(Bretz in Haney and Ullmer, 1975) 31
8 An educational media checklist
for development communication 42
9 Information needed in evaluating
learning systems and their importance 91
10 Romiszowski’s (1981) skills schema (in British Journal
of Educational Technology Vol. 12 no. 1 p. 43) 95
11 Some key questions that communicators, such as
teachers, extension workers, and trainers may consider
to determine if visuals are needed; the role of visuals
given such needs/ problems/constraints; and examples
of situations requiring visual presentation 136
12 Some action words used in stating behavioral
objectives of visual presentations, examples
of such objectives, and recommended
visualizations in order to attain them 140
13 Recommended letter heights
for given viewing distances 149

vii
 List of Figures
1 A graphical presentation of the definition of Educational
Communication and Technology (AECT, 1977) 3
2 Dale’s Cone of Experience (1954,1969) 16
3Three decision vectors shaping media selection
according to Schramm (1977) 34
4 The flip chart may be supported on a table by its firm front
and back covers made of chip or illustration boards.
A flap on the back cover can be used to make the
support stand in place (a). If made of lighter
materials, an easel can serve as a flipchart stand (b). 46
5 For comfortable and undistorted viewing, avoid wide seating
arrangements, particularly for the front of the room.
Illustrations a, b, and c are acceptable, d is not. 53
6a Horizontal keystoning results when the projector lens
is not horizontally perpendicular to the screen. 54
6b Horizontal keystoning results when the projector lens
is not horizontally perpendicular to the screen. 54
6c The projector lens is horizontally perpendicular
to the screen, producing an even image. 54
6d The projector lens is not vertically perpendicular
to the screen, producing vertical keystoning. 55
6e Vertical keystoning in 6d may be corrected
by tilting a screen downwards. 55
6f When the projector is placed at a high position, as in an
elevated projection room at the back of a hall, this type of
vertical keystoning may result if the screen is tilted downwards. 55
6g The vertical keystoning in 6f may be corrected
by keeping the screen in an upright position. 56
7 Image size increases as the screen is moved father from the
projector. However, the image does not appear as clear
and bright at screen A as it does at B because
the former receives more diffused light. 56
8 Relative positions of the overhead opaque,
slide, and firm projector in a hall. 57
9 Recommended screen placement allowing smooth transition
between overhead projection and use of the chalkboard. 58

viii
 List of Figures
10 Recommended image height. The bottom of the image
must not be lower than the heads of seated viewers. 58
11 The leveling or elevating foot (a) under the front of the
projector may be extended by turning the knob (b) to
raise the image on the screen. Knob (c) may be
extended to adjust the image so that it projects evenly. 61
12 Posture a is too relaxed while b can exude
self-confidence and authority. 67
13 Heinich, Molenda and Russell (1982) rank the various
areas of the front of a hall according to strength. 67
14 The screen, because of its placement in the center, has clear
dominance over the presenter (Heinich, et. al, 1982 p. 50). 68
15 The presenter, situated in the center, has a stronger position
than the screen (Heinich, et. al., 1982 p. 50). 68
16 Here the presenter is in a moderate position, but
the display table, being at the front center,
takes precedence (Heinich, et. al., p. 50). 68
17 The three stage movements shown here give the greater
strength or emphasis to the presenter (numbers indicate
the order of strength). The reverse of these would be
the weakest movements (Heinich et. al., 1982 p. 51). 69
18 The full-front body position is the strongest
one (Heinich et. al., 1982, p. 51). 69
19 Three-quarters full front is the second strongest
body position (Heinich et. al., 1982, p. 51). 70
20 Standing in profile, these figures are in a rather weak
body position (Heinich et. al., 1982, p. 51). 70
21 A one-quarter-view body position is the very
weakest (Heinich et. al., 1982, p. 51). 70
22 The learning system and its minimum parts or elements. 78
23 An educational TV program for preschoolers is
a learning system showing some of its parts. 79
24 Different system levels, with the educational TV
program for preschoolers as the focal system. 81
25 Gestalt perception principle of similarity - the perceiver
tends to group similar shapes together, seeing
patterns of the objects with the same shape. 114

ix
 List of Figures
26 Gestalt principle of proximity - even if all the triangles
are of the same size and shape, we tend to see three
groups of triangles forming diamond shapes by virtue
of the proximity of some triangles with others. 115
27 Gestalt perception principle of common movement –
objects with the same direction are grouped
together and seen as unified. 115
28 Gestalt principle of figure-ground - the central circle at a
looks big and important in relation to its surroundings, while
that at b is not as arresting as compared to its surroundings. 116
29 Gestalt perception principle of contrast - the shapes are the
same, but their contrasting positions and tones set them apart. 117
30 Gestalt perception principle of closure - the word “are” can
be read because spaces in between shapes are “closed”,
making the perceiver group them as letters. 117
31 Gestalt perception principle of good continuity - instead of
separately seeing circles of different sizes enclosing smaller
circles, the perceiver sees a complete pattern. 118
32 On a page, the larger headline tends to attract attention first.
The position of the headline at a may tend to make the
reader start with the text on the second column
from the left, while that at b clearly indicates
that the story starts with the leftmost column. 138
33 The inner square in a looks small as compared to that in b,
when actually, both are of equal dimensions. 138
34 Realistic drawing. 146
35 Realistic line illustration 146
36 Stylized drawing 146
37 Cartoonized illustration 146
38 Humanized illustration 147
39 Stick figures/ghosted diagrams 147
40 Possible abstractions or symbols to represent a box. 147
41 Letters may be condensed (a), normal (b), or expanded (c) 149
42 Letters may be light (a), medium (b), or bold (c) in strokes. 149

x
 List of Figures
43 Five letter families: (a) Block, Gothic or sans serif; (b) Roman
or serif; (c) Old English; (d) Script; (e) Decorative or modem. 150
44 The effect of mechanical spacing is that letters look
unevenly spaced (a), unlike optical spacing (b). 151
45 Posters a to c have headline patterns that are “pains
in the neck.” The slight upward tilt of poster d’s
headline is acceptable, however. 151
46 Poster a has symmetrical layout while b
is asymmetrical against a vertical axis 152
47 Layouts a, b and c all tend to follow a top-down eye
movement with slight differences. In layout a, the word “azolla”
may catch or hold greater attention first particularly if azolla is
not familiar to the viewer. After reading the sub-headline, the
eyes may move up to the illustrations again as a way by which
the perceiver synthesizes the message. In layout b, the top-
down eye movement is complemented with a left-to-right
movement. The top-left position of the word “azolla’ as well as
its distance from the other elements makes it catch attention
first. In layout c, the eyes follow the top-down arrangement. 153
48 Line of sight/action directs eye movement. In picture b, the
space behind the farmer may be done without because the
eye focuses on the farmer first, then follows
the direction of his sight and action. 154
49 The grid or graph method of enlarging (c) or
reducing (a) illustrations from an original (b) 154
50 The projection method of enlarging or copying illustrations 155
51 The pantograph and rubber band methods
of copying and enlarging an illustration 155
52 Templates and lettering guides 156
53 The unistencil as a lettering guide. Bar a is used to guide
diagonal strokes as in letters A, K, V, W and M. The horizontal
bar b can be used to guide middle horizontal strokes as in A, E,
B, P and G. Vertical bars c and d may be used to guide the two
vertical sides of letters as in H, D, 0 and U. The curving strokes
are finished off manually at the corners for curving letters like
C, 0 and P. Anybody can make a unistencil using cardboard or
chipboard. The size would depend on the desired letter size. 157

xi
 Chapter 1
The Nature of Educational
Communication
After thoroughly reading Chapter 1, you should be able to:

1.! Discuss the nature of educational communication based on the

definition of the Association for Educational Communication and
Technology (AECT) (1977);

2.! Briefly explain how educational communication fits in the development

process;

3.! Describe educational communication based on its six characteristics;

4.! Differentiate formal, nonformal and informal learning;

5.! List and describe the important contributions of the various stages and
major influences in the history of educational communication and
technology; and

6.! List some possible directions for research and practice in educational
communication.

Chapter Summary
A common misconception about educational communication is that it is just a
newer term for audiovisual communication. This may be because audiovisual
communication was an earlier form in the evolution of the field. The Association
for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) (1977, p.1) defined
educational communication, which it called educational technology, as

a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and

 organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating
and managing solutions to those problems involved in all aspects of human
learning.

As a field, educational communication is described by its six characteristics:

1.! It considers learning and communication as processes and as systems;

2.! Its procedures and approaches are well planned and systematic;
3.! It utilizes both human and nonhuman resources, combined in the best
way to make learning take place;
4.! It applies concepts, theories and research findings on human learning
and communication;
5.! It involves various functions; and
6.! As applied in the Third World countries, it emphasizes nonformal
learning.

The field gives emphasis to nonformal learning because majority of the

populations in developing countries are unable to substantially participate in the
formal schooling system. Nonformal learning is different from day-to-day
learning. The three types of learning differ from each other based on the
following factors: orientation, institutions or sponsors involved; composition of
participants; content; behavioral domain emphasized; mode of instruction of
learning; setting; duration; and accreditation.

The role of educational communication in development is in enhancing or

inducing learning among intended development participants. Such learning is a
necessary part of social change, because the core of development is in people
changing their awareness and understanding, attitudes and values, and know-
how and skills in a long-lasting manner.

An overview of the history of educational communication provides a better

understanding of its nature. The history of the field is made up of two major
parts: its early philosophical development, characterized by philosophers’ and
later, scientists’ theorizing about teaching and learning; and the 20th century
developments, when “devices” were used for teaching in schools in the West as
well as in the Third World. The 20th century development of the field shows the
influence of the visual and audiovisual instruction movements; their evolution
into audiovisual communication as shaped by communication theory and
systems concepts; the influence from the behavioral sciences; of the process of
instructional development; and of the concept of instructional technology.

As a major field of development communication, educational communication

should aim to innovate, pilot, test, refine and assess mediated as well as non
mediated approaches in inducing and enhancing learning among disadvantaged
groups, who make up a substantial segment of populations in Third World
countries. While research in message and media design should continue, the
educational communication researcher should also study how such message and

2!
media designs may be used with varied types of learner involvement. Likewise,
studies on the effective management of units in organizations engaged in
educational communication should continue.

References
ALO, Jose Rey Y. 1983. Application of an Instructional Development Model in Educational Television: The Case of
Tele-Aralan (Unpublished BSDC reasearch) College, Laguna, Philippines: Department of Development
Communication, U.P. at Los Baños.
ASSOCIATION for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). 1977. The Definition of Educational
Technology. Washington, D.C.: AECT. 169 p.
BERIO, David K. 1960. The Process of Communication. San Francisco: Holt, Rinchart and Winston, 318p.
CASTILLO, Gelia T. 1979. Beyond Manila: Philippine Rural Problems in Perspective. Ottawa, Canada: International
Development Research Centre, p. 188.
COOMBS, Philips H. with Manzoor Ahmed. 1974. Attacking Rural Poverty: How Nonformal Education Can Help.
Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 18-21.
DAVIS, Robert H., Lawrence T. Alexander and Stephen 1. Yelon. 1974. Learning System Design. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., 341 p.
GERLACH, Vernon S. and Donald P. Ely. 1971, 1980. Teaching And Media, A Systemic Approach. Englewood Cliffs,
NewJersey: Prentice-Hall, lnc., 420 p.
LIBRERO, Felix. 1984. Instructional Systems Technology. Some Basic Concepts and Backgrounders. College, Laguna,
Philippines: Educational Communication Office, Department of Development Communication, U.P. at
Los Baños, 74 p.
______________.1984. Problem Structure Analysis of the National Communication Systems of the Ministries of
Agriculture and Natural Resources (Unpublished research manuscript). College Laguna, Philippines:
Department of Development Communication, U.P. at Los Baños.
ROGERS, Everett M. (ed.) 1976. Communication and Development. Beverly Hill Cali: Sage Publications, Inc. p. 121-141.
SAETTLER, Paul. 1968. A History of Instructional Technology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.

3!
 Chapter 2
The Educational
Communication Media
#
After thoroughly reading Chapter 2, you should be able to:
1.# Describe an educational medium;
2.# Discuss the usefulness of media in enhancing or inducing learning based
on their three properties;
3.# Describe two media classifications based on the historical development
of educational communication and on the nature of media use;
4.# Describe five functions of media in enhancing or inducing learning;
5.# Describe Schramm’s (1977) framework of three decision vectors in media
selection;
6.# Discuss seven factors to consider in media selection;
7.# Cite some potentials and limitations of specific instructional media in
relation to their instructional functions and to the factors affecting media
selection;
8.# List 13 or more pointers in the effective use of media in communicating
to induce or enhance learning; and
9.# List 11 or more pointers in effective presentation.

Chapter Summary

Any object or device that is used to convey a message to an audience is a

communication medium. When used to enhance or induce learning, it becomes
an educational medium.

23#
While face-to-face communication and learning through direct, purposeful
experiences tend to be preferred over mediated communication and learning,
media are useful in enhancing or inducing learning because of their three
properties. These are the fixative, manipulative and distributive properties of the
media. The fixative property refers to the ability of media to capture or document
a learning task. The manipulative property refers to their ability to transform the
presentation of an object or event in many ways to save time, permit a closer look,
review an event that has just happened, or simplify complex details. On the other
hand, the distributive properly refers to the ability of media to present an
identical experience simultaneously to large numbers of people.

In studying the media, they have been classified in several ways. Two newer
classifications of educational media include one that groups them as object,
presentation and interactive media and another as the educational technologies 1,
2 and 3. The latter classification reflects the changing emphases in educational
communication from the media equipment to media software to an integration of
both into a system.

While the educational media are commonly used primarily for presenting
information to grouped learners (presentation mode), there are four other modes
of using them. These are the discussion, sharing, feedback and doing strategies of
learning or media modes. In discussions, media are used to stimulate thought and
discussion among learners. The sharing mode involves learners presenting their
own insights and experiences to other learners through educational media.
Media may also be used as mechanisms for giving learners feedback about their
performance (feedback mode) aside from giving learners the chance to try or
practice a task to be learned (doing mode).

A common type of decision that an educational communicator has to rnake

pertains to choosing media appropriate for given learning situations. Schramm’s
(1977) model of media selection may be applied in such decision-making,
particularly for macro-level educational media planning. This model consists of
three decision vectors: task, media and cost. For more specific learning situations,
seven factors grouped into two may be considered in media selection. These are
the pedagogical factors that include the instructional goals and objectives, learner
characteristics, learning task, and instructional strategy or approach; and the
practical factors that include the resources, the nature of media being considered
and the situation in which they will be used. These factors are essentially the
same considerations in planning learning systems, in which media choices must
fit.

In making media choices, the educational communicator must bear three

important pointers in mind:

1.# No medium is best; all media teach. It is the message treatment and the
way a medium is used that makes it more effective or less effective
(Schramm, 1977).

24#
 2. Multi-media approaches are advantageous over using a single medium.

3. To determine the effectiveness of a specific media choice, of its message

treatment, and of the way it is used, pretesting helps.

The specific media materials that communicators can commonly find useful in
inducing learning for development include those classified as object and
presentation media and the publications.

In using educational media, three basic pointers must be remembered:

1. The media equipment and hall wherein learning is to take place must be
set up properly.

2. Learners must be adequately prepared to use the media according to the

learning strategy planned.

3. The media user must be able to operate media equipment and handle
media materials properly.

Finally, an educational communicator must be able to present information to

learners effectively in a face-to-face setting. Such is enhanced by the following
factors: message organization; posing of questions or problems; relating a
message to present or future learner needs; purpose-orientedness; adequate
presenter’s “energy level”; his proper use of gestures and facial expression; the
application of stagecraft; principles such as proper “blocking” and body
positioning; the use of humor; surprising the learners; the presenter’s
concentrating on his/her tasks and purposes; and the presenter’s flexibility in
following the above guidelines.

References
DALE, Edgar, 1969. Audio-visual methods in teaching (3rd ed.) Scranton, Pa. Dyslen Press.
DAVIS, Robert H., Lawrence T. Alexander and Stephen L. Yelon. 1974. Learning system
design. New York. McGraw Hill Books Co., Inc., 342 p.
DEVELOPMENTCOMMUNICATION REPORT. Nos. 26, 28, 43, 48, 49, 50, 53and 55,1414
22nd st., N. W., Washington, D. C.: Clearinghouse on Development
Communication.
FLORES, Thomas G., Pedro B. Bueno and Rafael D. Lapastora. 1983. Handbook for
extension work. College, Laguna, Philippines: Southeast Asian Regional Center
for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, p. 46-47.
GERLACH, Vernon S. and Donald P. Ely. 1980. Teaching and media, a system approach
(2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, Inc.
HANEY, John B. and Eldon J. Uller. 1975. Educational communications and technology
(2nd ed.) Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C. Brown Company, Publishers.

25#
HEINICH, Robert, Michael Molenda and James D. Russell. 1982. lnstructional media and
the new technologies of instruction, N.Y., U.S.A. John. Wiley an@ Sons, 375 p.
LIBRERO, Felix. 1984. Instructional systems technology. College, Laguna, Department of
Development Communication, U.P. at Los Baños, 74 p.
MASAQUEL, Liza dela Cruz. 1987. Lecture notes on extension public- ations College,
Laguna, Philippines. Department of Development Communication, U.P. at Los
Baños.
OROZCO, Remedios C. 1987. Lecture handout on extension publications. In Developrnent
Journalism Module, Training on Agribusiness Management and Technology
Transfer (1987), College, Laguna, Philippines: Department of Development
Communication, U.P. Los Baños.
QUEBRAL, Nora C. (No date). Status and needs of corn extension at UPLB. College,
Laguna, Philippines: Department of Development Communication, U.P. Los
Baños.
ROMISZOWSKI, Alexander J. 1981. A new look at instructional design. Part I. Learning:
restructuring one's concepts. In British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol.
12 No. 1 Jan. 1981.
ROSSI, Peter H. and Bruce J. Biddle. 1966. The new media and education. Garden City,
New York, U.S.A.: Doubleday and Company, Inc. p.4.
SCHRAMM, Wilbur L. 1977. Big media; little media. Beverly Hills, Ca.: Sage Publications,
Inc. 313 p.
_____________ . 1964. Mass media and national development. Stanford, Ca.: Stanford
University Press/Paris: Unesco, p. 141-143.
STEINAKER, Norman W. and M. Robert Bell. 1979. The experiential taxonomy. New York,
New York: Academic Press, Inc. p. 10-11, 23-24, 26-27, 29-32, 34-35, 57 and 52-53.
STUART, Teresa H. 1986. The communication process. (A lecture handout). College,
Laguna, Philippines: Department of Develop-ment Communication, U. P. at
Los Baños.
______________. 1986. Communication strategies. (A lecture handout). College, Laguna,
Philippines, Department of Development Communication, U. P. at Los Baños.
WALTER, Gordon A. and Stephen E. Marks. 1981. Experiential learning and change. New
York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc. 333.
ZIMMER, Anne and Fred Zimmer. 1978. Visual literacy in communication: designing for
development. Tehran: Hulton Educational Publication Ltd. and International
Institute for Adult Literacy Methods. 144 p.

26#
 Chapter 3
Learning Systems
and their Design
After thoroughly reading Chapter 3, you should be able to:

1.# Discuss the philosophy behind the concept of the learning system;

2.# Given an example of a learning system, characterize it based on systems

concepts;

3.# Define learning system design, citing its three major components;

4.# List and discuss 10 steps in planning learning systems;

5.# List five steps in carrying out and evaluating learning systems; and

6.# Perform the 10 steps in planning a specific and simple learning system.

Chapter Summary
The concept of the learning system is based on the view of reality and all
phenomena in it as interrelated systems. A system is an entity viewed as a whole
because all its parts are interacting, interdependent, and interrelated as they work
towards attaining the system goals or set of goals. Viewed as a system, each
phenomenon has a purpose according to the purpose/s of reality as a whole. Such
system purposes and their interrelatedness point out the order in reality.

As a system, a learning situation, such as an educational television program

watched by preschoolers, possesses the following qualities: wholeness, goal-
orientedness, levels, balance, boundary and a conversion process. A learning

75#
system ought to be viewed in its totality – in the way its elements, such as the
learners, the learning task, and the learning approach interact, are interrelated,
and are interdependent in working towards attaining the learning objective/s set.
As a system, the educational television program may be viewed from different
levels: as a focal system; as a subsystem of a larger project; as a suprasystem of its
various parts or segments; and as a related system or another part of the larger
project encompassing it. The educational television program also strives to
maintain balance at all times, described by a state wherein all its parts are
functioning properly in pursuit of the system objectives. Its learning objectives, its
intended learners, or the scope of its learning tasks may define its boundary. Its
conversion process is described by the transformation of preschoolers’
knowledge, attitudes, or skills as they watch the educational television program
meant for them.

Designing learning systems involves planning, carrying out, and evaluation. A

learning system plan consists of the following parts:

1. The rationale, which describes the learning problems, needs or interests

that a learning system ought to answer;
2. A description of the capabilities and limitations of the intended learners;

3. A resource analysis, which lists the human and nonhuman resources

available and needed, including their specifications;

4. Instructional goals, which state learning outcomes in general terms; and

their translation into specific, observable, and measurable behavioral
objectives;

5. The evaluation plan, which describes how information is to be gathered

before, during and after conducting a learning system. These findings
would form the basis of making decisions in carrying out the learning
system;

6. The description and analyses of learning tasks;

7. The learning strategies to be employed, including the media materials to

use;

8. The budget or the plan in monetary terms;

9. The timetable or the plan in terms of time allotment; and

10. The work assignments, or the allocation of human resources to carry out
the plan.

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Finally, carrying out and evaluating a learning system includes five steps:

1. Preparation of resources, both human and nonhuman;

2. Carrying out activities as scheduled;

3. Carrying out the evaluation plan;

4. Analysis of evaluation findings and the reporting of such findings to a

learning system staff and other concerned parties; and

5. Making of necessary adjustments as the learning system takes place, or

its redesign afterwards.

References
CRAIG, Dorothy P. 1978. Hip Pocket Guide to Planning and Evaluation. San Diego, CA, USA:
Learning Concept, University Associates, Inc., p. 82-107.
DAVIS, Robert H., Lawrence T. Alexander and Stephen L. Yelon. 1974. Learning System
Design, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 342 p.
GERLACH, Vernon S. and Donald P. Ely. 1980. Teaching and Media, a Systematic Approach
(2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.
KRATHWOHL, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom and Bertram B. Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of
educational objectives. The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II:
Affective Domain. New York, U.S.A.: David McKay Company, Inc. 196 p.
MAGER, Roger F. 1975. Preparing Instructional Objectives (2nd ed.), Belmont, CA, USA:
Fearon Publishers, Inc. 136 p.
ROMISZOWSKI, Alexander J. 1981. “A New Look at Instructional Design, Part 1, Learning:
Restructuring Ones Concepts”. In British Journal of Educational Technology Vol. 12
no. 1 p. 20-47.
SHRODE, William A. and Dan Voich, Jr. 1974. Organization and Management Homewood,
Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., p. 115-135.
STEINAKER, Norman W. and M. Robert Bell. 1979. The Experiential Taxonomy. New York,
USA: Academic Press, Inc., p. 10-53.
WALTER, Gordon A. and Stephen E. Marks. 1981. Experiential Learning and Change. New
York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, p. 207-21 0.

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 Chapter 4
Towards Effective Learning:
Theories, Principles, Concepts
and their Application
After thoroughly reading Chapter 4, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the meaning of learning;

2. Describe how communication and learning are related;

3. List four groups of learning theories;

4. Differentiate stimulus-response theories from cognitive/perception

theories;

5. Explain the basic contentions of 13 learning theories or concepts or

principles;

6. Explain and cite examples of how the learning theories or concepts or

principles may be translated into practice; and

7. Given a specific learning situation, suggest how learning may be induced

or enhanced through the application of learning theories, concepts and
principles.

Chapter Summary
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, whether in its
cognitive, affective, psychomotor (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, 1964) or
interactive (Romiszowski, 1981) domains, or in any combination of these. Such
change in behavior is said to be relatively permanent because it must be held

101#
stable for some time. However, the learned behavior may change later as the
person’s learning continues in his/her lifetime.

Learning is a possible purpose or outcome of communication. However, not all

communication may result in learning, as when the effected behavior change is
only transitory.

From various authors’ discussions of learning theories, four groups of these

theories emerge: the SR or connectionist or behaviorist theories, the SOR or the
cognitive/perception or field theories; the motivation and personality theories,
and the functional theories.

The SR or stimulus-response theories essentially assume that a person’s

environment (stimuli) shapes his/her behavior (responses). These theories are
primarily applicable to learning of “low level” involuntary responses, to
psychomotor learning, and only to simple cognitive and affective learning.
Meanwhile, the SOR or stimulus-organism-response theories, also called
cognitive/perception theories, assume that one’s environment (stimuli) interacts
with factors within himself/herself (organism) in shaping his/her behavior
(responses). These factors within, which affect his/her behavior, include his/her
motivations, needs, goals, and previous learning. The application of
cognitive/perception theories may enhance more complex types of learning
involving interrelated changes in covert behavior along with the overt behavior.
On the other hand, the personality and motivation theories attribute one’s
behavior (response) primarily to factors within him/her (organism). These
theories are not discussed in this chapter, having applications in psychoanalysis.
Finally, functionalism is an eclectic approach that describes whatever is desirable
in various theories based on the demands of specific situations.

A total of 13 learning theories, concepts, or principles are discussed in this

chapter, as follows:

Stimulus-Response Theories

1. Thorndike’s trial-and-error learning is the stamping out of incorrect

behavior and stamping in of correct behavior. In practice, this type of
learning is not recommended.

2. Pavlov’s classical conditioning states that we learn by associating new

stimuli with old stimuli presented simultaneously in repeated trials. This
may be applicable in the learning of positive or negative attitudes or
predispositions, as when happy, healthy-looking family members are
shown to portray family planning. On the other hand, sad, weary-
looking family members may be shown to depict an unplanned family
size.

3. Stimulus-generalization, based on Pavlov’s theory, is the tendency of an

organism to respond in the same way to similar stimuli. On the other

102#
 hand, stimulus-discrimination is the tendency of an organism to respond
differently to stimuli that may be similar but are not exactly alike.
Applications of these concepts include the use of color codes for
publication pages or exhibit panels to indicate similarity or change in
topic.

4. Skinner’s operant conditioning states that we learn behavior that

repeatedly satisfies us. Such is the principle applied in programmed
instruction, which features individualized instruction with feedback to
the learner regarding his/her performance. Feedback on correct
behavior is considered to be satisfying.

5. Habit formation essentially involves learning SR chains or series of

stimulus-response relationships that become repeated regularly in a
somewhat automatic fashion. The best way to learn chains of behavior is
to practice their complete sequences. This means that a habit must
become incorporated in a regular routine, as in the adoption of
innovations. Five factors enhance habit formation: reward, repetition,
amount of reward, time between response and reward, isolation of the
SR relationship, and cost of the reward.

6. Hull’s concept of drive-reduction states that we learn more easily if the

behavior helps reduce or satisfy our drives. Although this theory may not
apply widely in all learning situations, it points out how drives, such as
hunger and fatigue, can interfere with learning.

7. Guthrie’s contiguity theory states that one trial is sufficient for learning
to take place, as long as the response takes place immediately after or
almost simultaneously as the stimulus is presented. In short, the theory
espouses learning by doing with close supervision and guidance.

Cognitive/Perception Theories

8. Gestalt psychology assumes that perception is the basis of learning, and

that such perception is the process by which we organize or see
relationships among stimuli so that they make up a coherent whole.
Gestalt psychology offers communicators seven perception principles
that essentially guide how a message ought to be organized. These are
the principles of similarity, proximity, common movement, closure, good
continuity, figure-ground, and contrast.

9. Lewin’s theory states that learning takes place when changes in a

person’s life space or psychological world take place. This theory points
out the importance of fitting a message according to an audience’s needs
and situation, which are part of the life space.

10. Tolman’s theory on cognitive maps contends that we learn and

remember ideas and behavior that help us attain our goals. The theory

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 stresses the importance of relating material to be learned to a learner’s
goals. Likewise, providing keys (cognitive maps) for remembering is
helpful.

Functional Theories

11. Mental set is a principle of perception that pertains to an individual’s

readiness to learn. The principle stresses the importance of preparing
learners to respond in the appropriate way in a given learning situation.
A conducive mental set may be created through preliminary activities
such as role plays and games; through instructions or introductions; by
relating a learning task with ideas familiar to the learner; by creating a
pleasant or favorable atmosphere; by catching attention; by relating the
message to learning needs and goals; and by showing how a learning
task conforms to norms.

12. Learning by problem solving is a creative process in which an individual

actively seeks ways of dealing with a difficulty and in the process arrives
at insights. Effective learning by problem solving basically follows the
scientific method, which an educational communicator must guide
properly. S/he may apply the method in facilitating participatory
development among his/her clients.

13. Cybernetic learning is a process by which an individual or group adapts

to his/her environment based on feedback from it. Such feedback, which
becomes the basis for behavior change, may present a difficulty or
problem to the learners. In enhancing such adaptive learning through a
cybernetic or feedback-generating system, the educational
communicator may provide mechanisms by which intended
development participants can perceive feedback on development
problems.

References
BALL, John and Francis C. Byrnes (eds.). 1960. Research, Principles and Practice in Visual Communication.
Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 160 p.
BERLO, David K. 1960. The Process of Communication. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 318
p.
BIGGE, Morris L. 1964. Learning Theories for Teachers. New York, USA: Harper and Row, Publishers 366
p.
CLAYTON, Thomas, E. 1965. Teaching and Learning, a Psychological Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
USA: Prentice-Hall Inc. p.46-77.
CROW, Lester D. and Alice Crow. 1965. Human Development and Learning (revised ed.) New York, USA:
American Book Co. 578 p.
GAGNE, Robert M. 1965. The Conditions of Learning. New York, USA: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, Inc.
308 p.
HILGARD, Ernest R. and Gordon H. Bower. 1966. Theories of Learning (3rd edition). New York, USA:
Appleton-Century Crafts, Inc. and Meredith Corporation. 661 p.
HILL, Winfred F. 1963. Learning: A Survey of Psychological interpretations. San Francisco, California,
USA: Chandler Publishing Company, 227 p.
JONES, J. Charles. 1967. Learning. New York, USA: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. 179 p.

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KINGSLEY, Howard L. and Ralph Garry. 1957. The Nature and Conditions of Learning. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. p. 82-128, 419-436.
KRATHWOHL, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertran B Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York,
U.S.A.: David Mckay Company, Inc. 196 p.
SMITH, Karl U. and Margaret F. Smith. 1966. Cybernetic Principles of Learning and Educational Design.
New York, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. p. 202- 220.

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 Chapter 5
Designing Visual Media
After thoroughly reading Chapter 5, you should be able to:

1. Explain why communicators who use visual media must engage in the
visual design process;

2. List and discuss seven steps in planning visual communication;

3. Define visual design, explaining the factors influencing it and the aids
used in undertaking it;

4. Define pictorial composition;

5. Match specific elements of visual design with their usual connotations;

6. List and characterize seven types of illustrations;

7. List four tips in using words effectively in visual media;

8. List and describe six factors affecting the legibility of lettering;

9. Describe the basic function of layout in a visual design, and cite

examples by which layout performs such function;

10. List several methods of producing and reproducing visual materials;

11. List some pointers in the effective presentation of visual media;

12. Visualize a message appropriately in a thumbnail sketch with

accompanying explanations, based on the objective of the specific
visualization; and

13.# Produce a simple visual that is neat; with a simple, harmonious and
functional color scheme and layout; legible lettering; and appropriate and
attention-getting illustration/s.

133#
 Chapter Summary
Educational communicators recognize how useful media are in enhancing or
inducing learning. To use visuals, they must initiate the visual design process
because they, and not the artist, are the ones who understand their intended
learners, their needs, and the desired learning responses from them. Designing
visual media involves five stages: planning, message design, production,
presentation, and evaluation.

In planning their visual communication, visual designers undertake seven steps:

1. Need or problem analysis - They determine if visuals are needed, and

why they are needed based on an analysis of the communication-
learning situation.

2. Learner or audience analysis - They determine the intended learners’

capabilities and limitations to learn a task. Likewise, visual designers
consider their audience’s visual literacy and culture.

3. Objective-setting - They set the intended action or behavioral outcome

of the visual presentation. It may fall under any of the five possible
purposes of visualization: identification, characterization, evaluation,
prescription, and relating.

4. Assessing alternative visual media - They consider alternative visual

media based on their capabilities to attain the objectives set against their
costs.

5. Planning the evaluation - They plan how to determine whether their

media design and mode will produce the intended behavioral outcome
or not.

6. Resource analysis - They determine which resources are needed to

design and produce the visual medium, and which among such
resources are available.

7. The production plan - They prepare to produce the visual medium by

preparing a budget, a wok schedule, and work assignments.

Visual message design involves making decisions about how a message is to be

treated visually in order to attain the objectives of the visual medium. This is also
shaped by designers’ application of visual perception and design principles; by
the availability of resources; and by the learners’ characteristics. Visual designers
use rough thumbnail sketches with verbal captions or descriptions as their aids in
designing visual messages. Later, they may translate thumbnail sketches into
more polished storyboards.

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Visual designers essentially work with two types of “raw materials”: pictorial
elements and words.

One factor that they consider is pictorial composition, or the manner by which
visual elements, such as line, shape, color and texture, are combined to create a
meaningful picture. The meaning elicited by a pictorial composition is shaped by
the connotation of the specific visual elements used.

The pictorial composition that designers make may be in the form of an

illustration. In general, illustrations may range from the realistic to the abstract.
Seven specific types of illustrations may be found in visual media: realistic
drawings; line illustrations; stylized drawings which appeal to specific tastes;
cartoonized drawings which exaggerate certain features of the object portrayed;
humanized drawings which make non-human figures look human; stick figures
and ghosted diagrams; and symbolic drawings. The type of illustration to use
depends on the designers’ message treatment, the mode by which they are to use
their visual medium with their audience, and its learning objectives. Designers
must never sacrifice message accuracy and understandability for artistic value.

In using words in visual media, the designer must keep words to a minimum;
present correct verbal information; use correct grammar, spelling, punctuation
and terms; put words together in an engaging manner; and make sure that their
lettering is legible. Letter size; the proper use of capital and small letters; the use
of simple lettering style; optical letter spacing; appropriate layout; and
appropriate line length determine letter legibility.

Layout is the arrangement of pictorial elements and words in a given space. This
is of two general types: symmetrical and asymmetrical layout. The basic function
of layout in visual design is to control eye movement. Thus, the layout of a visual
message must follow the direction of reading in a culture, such as left to right and
top to bottom. Attention-getting visual elements and lettering must be positioned
in a way that will direct the eyes to the other elements of a design. The line of
sight and action of people or animals in an illustration may also he used to direct
eye movement.

Visual media may be produced manually, mechanically with the help of devices,
and chemically. Illustrations may be produced mechanically by tracing; grid
method; projection method; pantograph and rubber band methods; and
computer graphics. Letters may be produced mechanically by using templates;
rulers, protractors and compasses; the unistencil; transfer letters: the typewriter;
and computer word processing. The chemical production processes include
photography and the use of copying machines.

To reproduce nonprojected visuals, offset and silkscreen printing are commonly

used.

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 References
BALL, John and Francis C. Byrnes (eds). 1960. Research, Principles and Practices in Visual
Communication Washington, D.C. National Education Association, 160 p.
BULLOUGH, Robert V., Sr. 1978, 1974. Creating Instructional Materials. Colombus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merill Publishing Co., 277 p.
CADIZ, Maria Gracia A. 1986. “Effects of Three Art Styles on Comprehension and Recall of
a Developmental Message among Students in urban and Rural Communities”.
Unpublished BSDC Research. College, Laguna. Philippines. Institute of
Development Communication, U.P. Los Baños 118 p.
CAJULAO, Gerardo M. 1978. “An Exploratory Study on the Comprehensibility of
Perspective Visual Techniques as Perceived by Selected Filipino Rural
Audiences”. Unpublished BSDC Research. College, Laguna, Philippines Institute
of Development Communication, U.P. Los Baños. 84 p.
CORONADO, Lilibeth. 1985. “Understanding and Preference of Four Types of Illustration
among High School Students” Unpublished BSDC Research, College, Laguna,
Philippines. Institute at Development Communication, U.P. Los Baños. 107 p.
DE JESUS Antonio A and URETA, Ma Nelanie P. 1983. “The Effectiveness of Four
Drawing Styles of Comics Presentation in Disseminating Information to High
School Students”. Unpublished BSDC Research College, Laguna, Philippines:
Institute of Development Communication, U.P. Los Baños 93 p.
DONDIS, Donis A. 1973. A Primer of Visual Literacy. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
HEINICH, Robert, Michael Molenda and James D Russell. 1982. Instructional Media and the
New Technologies of Instruction. New York: John Wiley and Sons 375 p.
MAGISTRADO, Orlando N. 1981. “Why Use Visual Aids for Effective Teaching/
Communication”. Instructional transparency set. College, Laguna, Philippines:
Institute of Development Communication, U.P. at Los Baños, 4 pcs.
MAGLALANG, Demetrio M. 1975. Agricultural Approach to Family Planning. Manila,
Philippines: Communication Foundation for Asia, 159 p.
MUÑOZ, Milton. 1986. Understanding Visual Illiteracy. Bulletin 43. University of Wisconsin-
Madison: Department of Agricultural Journalism. 102 p.
TAYLOR. Irving A. “Psychological Aspects of Visual Communication”. In Whitney, E. (ed).
1960. Symbology. New York Hastings House.
ZIMMER, Anne and Fred Zimmer. 1978. Visual Literacy in Communication: Designing/or
Development. Tehran: Hulton Educational Publications Ltd. and International
Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, 144 p.

136#