Capacitor

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ar ticle is about the device. For the physical phenomenon, see�capacitance. For an
over view of var ious kinds of capacitor s, see�types of capacitor ."Capacitive"
r edir ects her e. For the ter m used when r efer r ing to touchscr eens, see�capacitive
sensing.This ar ticle�is missing infor mation about ther e is no gr aph of dischar ge
char acter istics showing time constant etc..�Please expand the ar ticle to include
this infor mation. Fur ther details may exist on the�talk page.�(Febr uar y 2019)
Capacitor TypePassiveInventedEwald Geor g von KleistElectr onic symbolA�capacitor �is
a�passive�two-ter minal�electr onic component�that stor es�electr ical ener gy�in
an�electr ic field. The effect of a capacitor is known as�capacitance. While some
capacitance exists between any two electr ical conductor s in pr oximity in a�cir cuit,
a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a cir cuit. The capacitor
was or iginally known as a�condenser �or �condensator .[1]�The or iginal name is
still�widely used in many languages, but not commonly in English.The physical for m
and constr uction of pr actical capacitor s var y widely and many�types of
capacitor �ar e in common use. Most capacitor s contain at least two�electr ical
conductor s�often in the for m of metallic plates or sur faces separ ated by
a�dielectr ic�medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sinter ed bead of metal,
or an�electr olyte. The nonconducting dielectr ic acts to incr ease the capacitor 's
char ge capacity. Mater ials commonly used as dielectr ics
include�glass,�cer amic,�plastic film,�paper ,�mica, air , and�oxide layer s.
Capacitor s ar e widely used as par ts of�electr ical cir cuits�in many common
electr ical devices. Unlike a�r esistor , an ideal capacitor does not dissipate
ener gy. When two conductor s exper ience a�potential differ ence, for example, when a
capacitor is attached acr oss a batter y, an�electr ic field�develops acr oss the
dielectr ic, causing a net positive�char ge�to collect on one plate and net negative
char ge to collect on the other plate. No cur r ent actually flows thr ough the
dielectr ic. However , ther e is a flow of char ge thr ough the sour ce cir cuit. If the
condition is maintained sufficiently long, the cur r ent thr ough the sour ce cir cuit
ceases. If a time-var ying voltage is applied acr oss the leads of the capacitor , the
sour ce exper iences an ongoing cur r ent due to the char ging and dischar ging cycles of
the capacitor .The ear liest for ms of capacitor s wer e cr eated in the 1740s, when
Eur opean exper imenter s discover ed that electr ic char ge could be stor ed in water -
filled glass jar s that came to be known as�Leyden jar s. In�1748,�Benjamin
Fr anklin�connected a ser ies of jar s together to cr eate what he called an
"electr ical batter y", fr om their visual similar ity to a�batter y of cannon, which
became the standar d English ter m�electr ic batter y. Today, capacitor s ar e widely
used in�electr onic cir cuits�for blocking�dir ect cur r ent�while allowing�alter nating
cur r ent�to pass. In�analog filter �networ ks, they smooth the output of�power
supplies. In�r esonant cir cuits�they tune�r adios�to par ticular �fr equencies.
In�electr ic power tr ansmission�systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
[2]�The pr oper ty of ener gy stor age in capacitor s was exploited as dynamic memor y in
ear ly digital computer s.[3]Contents* 1Histor y* 2Theor y of oper ationo 2.1Over viewo
2.2Hydr aulic analogyo 2.3Par allel-plate capacitor o 2.4Inter leaved Capacitor o
2.5Ener gy stor ed in a capacitor o 2.6Cur r ent�voltage r elationo 2.7DC cir cuitso 2.8AC
cir cuitso 2.9Laplace cir cuit analysis (s-domain)o 2.10Cir cuit analysis* 3Non-ideal
behavior o 3.1Br eakdown voltageo 3.2Equivalent cir cuito 3.3Q factor o 3.4Ripple
cur r ento 3.5Capacitance instabilityo 3.6Cur r ent and voltage r ever salo 3.7Dielectr ic
absor ptiono 3.8Leakageo 3.9Electr olytic failur e fr om disuse* 4Capacitor typeso
4.1Dielectr ic mater ialso 4.2Voltage-dependent capacitor so 4.3Fr equency-dependent
capacitor so 4.4Styles* 5Capacitor mar kingso 5.1RKM codeo 5.2Histor ical*
6Applicationso 6.1Ener gy stor ageo 6.2Digital memor yo 6.3Pulsed power and weaponso
6.4Power conditioning* 6.4.1Power factor cor r ectiono 6.5Suppr ession and coupling*
6.5.1Signal coupling* 6.5.2Decoupling* 6.5.3High-pass and low-pass filter s*
6.5.4Noise suppr ession, spikes, and snubber so 6.6Motor star ter so 6.7Signal
pr ocessing* 6.7.1Tuned cir cuitso 6.8Sensingo 6.9Oscillator so 6.10Pr oducing light*
7Hazar ds and safety* 8See also* 9Refer ences* 10Bibliogr aphy* 11Exter nal links
Histor y[edit]Batter y of four �Leyden jar sin�Museum Boer haave,�Leiden,
the�Nether landsIn October 1745,�Ewald Geor g von Kleist�of�Pomer ania, Ger many, found
that char ge could be stor ed by connecting a high-voltage�electr ostatic gener ator �by
a wir e to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar .[4]�Von Kleist's hand and the
water acted as conductor s, and the jar as a�dielectr ic�(although details of the
mechanism wer e incor r ectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching
the wir e r esulted in a power ful spar k, much mor e painful than that obtained fr om an
electr ostatic machine. The following year , the Dutch physicist�Pieter van
Musschenbr oek�invented a similar capacitor , which was named the�Leyden jar , after
the�Univer sity of Leiden�wher e he wor ked.[5]�He also was impr essed by the power of
the shock he r eceived, wr iting, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of
Fr ance."[6]Daniel Gr alath�was the fir st to combine sever al jar s in par allel to
incr ease the char ge stor age capacity.[7]�Benjamin Fr anklin�investigated the�Leyden
jar �and came to the conclusion that the char ge was stor ed on the glass, not in the
water as other s had assumed. He also adopted the ter m "batter y",[8][9]�(denoting
the incr easing of power with a r ow of similar units as in a�batter y of cannon),
subsequently applied to�cluster s of electr ochemical cells.[10]�Leyden jar s wer e
later made by coating the inside and outside of jar s with metal foil, leaving a
space at the mouth to pr event ar cing between the foils.[citation needed]�The
ear liest unit of capacitance was the�jar , equivalent to about 1.11�nanofar ads.[11]
Leyden jar s or mor e power ful devices employing flat glass plates alter nating with
foil conductor s wer e used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention
of�wir eless�(r adio) cr eated a demand for standar d capacitor s, and the steady move
to higher �fr equencies�r equir ed capacitor s with lower �inductance. Mor e compact
constr uction methods began to be used, such as a flexible dielectr ic sheet (like
oiled paper ) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, r olled or folded into a small
package.Ear ly capacitor s wer e known as�condenser s, a ter m that is still
occasionally used today, par ticular ly in high power applications, such as
automotive systems. The ter m was fir st used for this pur pose by�Alessandr o Volta�in
1782, with r efer ence to the device's ability to stor e a higher density of electr ic
char ge than was possible with an isolated conductor .[12][1]�The ter m became
depr ecated because of the ambiguous meaning of�steam condenser ,
with�capacitor �becoming the r ecommended ter m fr om 1926.[13]Since the beginning of
the study of�electr icity�non conductive mater ials
like�glass,�por celain,�paper �and�mica�have been used as insulator s. These mater ials
some decades later wer e also well-suited for fur ther use as the�dielectr ic�for the
fir st capacitor s.�Paper capacitor s�made by sandwiching a str ip of impr egnated paper
between str ips of metal, and r olling the r esult into a cylinder wer e commonly used
in the late 19th centur y; their manufactur e star ted in 1876,[14]�and they wer e used
fr om the ear ly 20th centur y as decoupling capacitor s in telecommunications
(telephony).Por celain was used in the fir st�cer amic capacitor s. In the ear ly year s
of�Mar coni's wir eless tr ansmitting appar atus por celain capacitor s wer e used for
high voltage and high fr equency application in the�tr ansmitter s. On the r eceiver
side smaller �mica capacitor s�wer e used for r esonant cir cuits. Mica dielectr ic
capacitor s wer e invented in 1909 by William Dubilier . Pr ior to Wor ld War II, mica
was the most common dielectr ic for capacitor s in the United States.[14]Char les
Pollak (bor n�Kar ol Pollak), the inventor of the fir st�electr olytic capacitor s,
found out that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode r emained stable in a neutr al or
alkaline�electr olyte, even when the power was switched off. In 1896 he was gr anted
U.S. Patent No. 672,913 for an "Electr ic liquid capacitor with aluminum
electr odes". Solid electr olyte�tantalum capacitor s�wer e invented by�Bell
Labor ator ies�in the ear ly 1950s as a miniatur ized and mor e r eliable low-voltage
suppor t capacitor to complement their newly invented�tr ansistor .With the
development of plastic mater ials by or ganic chemists dur ing the�Second Wor ld War ,
the capacitor industr y began to r eplace paper with thinner polymer films. One ver y
ear ly development in�film capacitor s�was descr ibed in Br itish Patent 587,953 in
1944.[14]Electr ic double-layer capacitor s (now�Super capacitor s) wer e invented in
1957 when H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electr olytic capacitor with por ous
car bon electr odes".[14][15][16]�He believed that the ener gy was stor ed as a char ge
in the car bon por es used in his capacitor as in the por es of the etched foils of
electr olytic capacitor s. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at
the time, he wr ote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in
the component if it is used for ener gy stor age, but it leads to an extr emely high
capacity."Theor y of oper ation[edit]Main ar ticle:�CapacitanceOver view[edit]Char ge
separ ation in a par allel-plate capacitor causes an inter nal electr ic field. A
dielectr ic (or ange) r educes the field and incr eases the capacitance.A simple
demonstr ation capacitor made of two par allel metal
plates, using an air gap as the dielectr ic.A capacitor consists of
two�conductor s�separ ated by a non-conductive r egion.[17]�The non-conductive r egion
can either be a�vacuum�or an electr ical insulator mater ial known as a�dielectr ic.
Examples of dielectr ic media ar e glass, air , paper , plastic, cer amic, and even
a�semiconductor �depletion r egion�chemically identical to the conductor s.
Fr om�Coulomb's law�a char ge on one conductor will exer t a for ce on the�char ge
car r ier s�within the other conductor , attr acting opposite polar ity char ge and
r epelling like polar ity char ges, thus an opposite polar ity char ge will be induced
on the sur face of the other conductor . The conductor s thus hold equal and opposite
char ges on their facing sur faces,[18]�and the dielectr ic develops an electr ic
field.An ideal capacitor is char acter ized by a constant�capacitance�C, in�far ads�in
the�SI�system of units, defined as the r atio of the positive or negative
char ge�Q�on each conductor to the voltage�V�between them:[17]{\displaystyle
C={\fr ac {Q}{V}}}A capacitance of one�far ad�(F) means that one�coulomb�of char ge on
each conductor causes a voltage of one�volt�acr oss the device.[19]�Because the
conductor s (or plates) ar e close together , the opposite char ges on the conductor s
attr act one another due to their electr ic fields, allowing the capacitor to stor e
mor e char ge for a given voltage than when the conductor s ar e separ ated, yielding a
lar ger capacitance.In pr actical devices, char ge build-up sometimes affects the
capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to var y. In this case, capacitance
is defined in ter ms of incr emental changes:{\displaystyle C={\fr ac {\mathr m {d} Q}
{\mathr m {d} V}}}Hydr aulic analogy[edit]In the�hydr aulic analogy, a capacitor is
analogous to a r ubber membr ane sealed inside a pipe� this animation illustr ates a
membr ane being r epeatedly str etched and un-str etched by the flow of water , which is
analogous to a capacitor being r epeatedly char ged and dischar ged by the flow of
char geIn the�hydr aulic analogy, char ge car r ier s flowing thr ough a wir e ar e
analogous to water flowing thr ough a pipe. A capacitor is like a r ubber membr ane
sealed inside a pipe. Water molecules cannot pass thr ough the membr ane, but some
water can move by str etching the membr ane. The analogy clar ifies a few aspects of
capacitor s:* The�cur r ent�alter s the�char ge�on a capacitor , just as the flow of
water changes the position of the membr ane. Mor e specifically, the effect of an
electr ic cur r ent is to incr ease the char ge of one plate of the capacitor , and
decr ease the char ge of the other plate by an equal amount. This is just as when
water flow moves the r ubber membr ane, it incr eases the amount of water on one side
of the membr ane, and decr eases the amount of water on the other side.* The mor e a
capacitor is char ged, the lar ger its�voltage dr op; i.e., the mor e it "pushes back"
against the char ging cur r ent. This is analogous to the mor e a membr ane is
str etched, the mor e it pushes back on the water .* Char ge can flow "thr ough" a
capacitor even though no individual electr on can get fr om one side to the
other .�This is analogous to water flowing thr ough the pipe even though no water
molecule can pass thr ough the r ubber membr ane. The flow cannot continue in the same
dir ection for ever ; the capacitor exper iences�dielectr ic br eakdown, and analogously
the membr ane will eventually br eak.* The�capacitance�descr ibes how much char ge can
be stor ed on one plate of a capacitor for a given "push" (voltage dr op). A ver y
str etchy, flexible membr ane cor r esponds to a higher capacitance than a stiff
membr ane.* A char ged-up capacitor is stor ing�potential ener gy, analogously to a
str etched membr ane.Par allel-plate capacitor [edit]Par allel plate capacitor model
consists of two conducting plates, each of ar ea�A, separ ated by a gap of
thickness�d�containing a dielectr ic.The simplest model capacitor consists of two
thin par allel conductive plates each with an ar ea of�{\displaystyle A}�separ ated by
a unifor m gap of thickness�{\displaystyle d}�filled with a dielectr ic
with�per mittivity�{\displaystyle \var epsilon }. It is assumed the
gap�{\displaystyle d}�is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. This model
applies well to many pr actical capacitor s which ar e constr ucted of metal sheets
separ ated by a thin layer of insulating dielectr ic, since manufactur er s tr y to keep
the dielectr ic ver y unifor m in thickness to avoid thin spots which can cause
failur e of the capacitor .Since the separ ation between the plates is unifor m over
the plate ar ea, the electr ic field between the plates�{\displaystyle E}�is
constant, and dir ected per pendicular ly to the plate sur face, except for an ar ea
near the edges of the plates wher e the field decr eases because the electr ic field
lines "bulge" out of the sides of the capacitor . This "fr inging field" ar ea is
appr oximately the same width as the plate separ ation,�{\displaystyle d}, and
assuming�{\displaystyle d}�is small compar ed to the plate dimensions, it is small
enough to be ignor ed. Ther efor e, if a char ge of�{\displaystyle +Q}�is placed on one
plate and�{\displaystyle -Q}�on the other plate, the char ge on each plate will be
spr ead evenly in a sur face char ge layer of constant�char ge
density�{\displaystyle \sigma =\pm Q/A}�coulombs per squar e meter , on the inside
sur face of each plate. Fr om�Gauss's law�the magnitude of the electr ic field between
the plates is�{\displaystyle E=\sigma /\var epsilon }. The voltage�{\displaystyle
V}�between the plates is defined as the�line integr al�of the electr ic field over a
line fr om one plate to another {\displaystyle V=\int _{0}^{d}E(z)\,\mathr m {d}
z=Ed={\sigma \over \var epsilon }d={Qd \over \var epsilon A}}The capacitance is
defined as�{\displaystyle C=Q/V}. Substituting�{\displaystyle V}�above into this
equation{\displaystyle C={\var epsilon A \over d}}Ther efor e, in a capacitor the
highest capacitance is achieved with a high�per mittivity�dielectr ic mater ial, lar ge
plate ar ea, and small separ ation between the plates.Since the ar ea�{\displaystyle
A}�of the plates incr eases with the squar e of the linear dimensions and the
separ ation�{\displaystyle d}�incr eases linear ly, the capacitance scales with the
linear dimension of a capacitor ({\displaystyle C\var pr opto L}), or as the cube
r oot of the volume.A par allel plate capacitor can only stor e a finite amount of
ener gy befor e�dielectr ic br eakdown�occur s. The capacitor 's dielectr ic mater ial has
a�dielectr ic str ength�Ud�which sets the�capacitor 's br eakdown
voltage�at�V�=�Vbd�=�Udd. The maximum ener gy that the capacitor can stor e is
ther efor e{\displaystyle E={\fr ac {1}{2}}CV^{2}={\fr ac {1}{2}}{\fr ac {\var epsilon A}
{d}}(U_{d}d)^{2}={\fr ac {1}{2}}\var epsilon AdU_{d}^{2}}The maximum ener gy is a
function of dielectr ic volume,�per mittivity, and�dielectr ic str ength. Changing the
plate ar ea and the separ ation between the plates while maintaining the same volume
causes no change of the maximum amount of ener gy that the capacitor can stor e, so
long as the distance between plates r emains much smaller than both the length and
width of the plates. In addition, these equations assume that the electr ic field is
entir ely concentr ated in the dielectr ic between the plates. In r eality ther e ar e
fr inging fields outside the dielectr ic, for example between the sides of the
capacitor plates, which incr ease the effective capacitance of the capacitor . This
is sometimes called�par asitic capacitance. For some simple capacitor geometr ies
this additional capacitance ter m can be calculated analytically.[20]�It becomes
negligibly small when the r atios of plate width to separ ation and length to
separ ation ar e lar ge.Inter leaved Capacitor [edit]The inter leaved capacitor can be
seen as combination of sever al par allel connected capacitor s.For �{\displaystyle
n}�number of plates in a capacitor , the total capacitance would be{\displaystyle
C=\epsilon _{o}{\fr ac {A}{d}}(n-1)}wher e�{\displaystyle C=\epsilon _{o}A/d}�is the
capacitance for a single plate and�{\displaystyle n}�is the number of inter leaved
plates.As shown to the figur e on the r ight, the inter leaved plates can be seen as
par allel plates connected to each other . With the number of capacitor equal to the
number of the spaces in between the plates. Thus the�{\displaystyle (n-
1)}�multiplier .Ener gy stor ed in a capacitor [edit]To incr ease the char ge and voltage
on a capacitor ,�wor k�must be done by an exter nal power sour ce to move char ge fr om
the negative to the positive plate against the opposing for ce of the electr ic
field.[21][22]�If the voltage on the capacitor is�{\displaystyle V}, the
wor k�{\displaystyle dW}�r equir ed to move a small incr ement of char ge�{\displaystyle
dq}�fr om the negative to the positive plate is�{\displaystyle dW=Vdq}. The ener gy
is stor ed in the incr eased electr ic field between the plates. The total
ener gy�{\displaystyle W}�stor ed in a capacitor (expr essed in�Joule) is equal to the
total wor k done in establishing the electr ic field fr om an unchar ged state.[23][22]
[21]{\displaystyle W=\int _{0}^{Q}V(q)\mathr m {d} q=\int _{0}^{Q}{\fr ac {q}
{C}}\mathr m {d} q={1 \over 2}{Q^{2} \over C}={1 \over 2}VQ={1 \over 2}CV^{2}}
wher e�{\displaystyle Q}�is the char ge stor ed in the capacitor ,�{\displaystyle V}�is
the voltage acr oss the capacitor , and�{\displaystyle C}�is the capacitance. This
potential ener gy will r emain in the capacitor until the char ge is r emoved. If
char ge is allowed to move back fr om the positive to the negative plate, for example
by connecting a cir cuit with r esistance between the plates, the char ge moving under
the influence of the electr ic field will do wor k on the exter nal cir cuit.If the gap
between the capacitor plates�{\displaystyle d}�is constant, as in the par allel
plate model above, the electr ic field between the plates will be unifor m
(neglecting fr inging fields) and will have a constant value�{\displaystyle
E=V/d}. In this case the stor ed ener gy can be calculated fr om the electr ic field
str ength{\displaystyle W={1 \over 2}CV^{2}={1 \over 2}{\epsilon A \over d}
(Ed)^{2}={1 \over 2}\epsilon AdE^{2}={1 \over 2}\epsilon E^{2}({\text{volume of
electr ic field}})}The last for mula above is equal to the ener gy density per unit
volume in the electr ic field multiplied by the volume of field between the plates,
confir ming that the ener gy in the capacitor is stor ed in its electr ic field.
Cur r ent�voltage r elation[edit]The cur r ent�I(t) thr ough any component in an electr ic
cir cuit is defined as the r ate of flow of a char ge�Q(t) passing thr ough it, but
actual char ges�electr ons�cannot pass thr ough the dielectr ic layer of a capacitor .
Rather , one electr on accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the
positive plate, r esulting in an electr on depletion and consequent positive char ge
on one electr ode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative char ge on
the other . Thus the char ge on the electr odes is equal to the�integr al�of the
cur r ent as well as pr opor tional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with
any�antider ivative, a�constant of integr ation�is added to r epr esent the initial
voltage�V(t0). This is the integr al for m of the capacitor equation:[24]
{\displaystyle V(t)={\fr ac {Q(t)}{C}}={\fr ac {1}{C}}\int
_{t_{0}}^{t}I(\tau )\mathr m {d} \tau +V(t_{0})}Taking the der ivative of this and
multiplying by�C�yields the der ivative for m:[25]{\displaystyle I(t)={\fr ac {\mathr m
{d} Q(t)}{\mathr m {d} t}}=C{\fr ac {\mathr m {d} V(t)}{\mathr m {d} t}}}The�dual�of
the capacitor is the�inductor , which stor es ener gy in a�magnetic field�r ather than
an electr ic field. Its cur r ent-voltage r elation is obtained by exchanging cur r ent
and voltage in the capacitor equations and r eplacing�C�with the inductance�L.DC
cir cuits[edit]See also:�RC cir cuitA simple r esistor -capacitor cir cuit demonstr ates
char ging of a capacitor .A ser ies cir cuit containing only a�r esistor , a capacitor , a
switch and a constant DC sour ce of voltage�V0�is known as a�char ging cir cuit.
[26]�If the capacitor is initially unchar ged while the switch is open, and the
switch is closed at�t0, it follows fr om�Kir chhoff's voltage law�that{\displaystyle
V_{0}=v_{\text{r esistor }}(t)+v_{\text{capacitor }}(t)=i(t)R+{\fr ac {1}{C}}\int
_{t_{0}}^{t}i(\tau )\mathr m {d} \tau }Taking the der ivative and multiplying by�C,
gives a�fir st-or der differ ential equation:{\displaystyle RC{\fr ac {\mathr m {d}
i(t)}{\mathr m {d} t}}+i(t)=0}At�t�= 0, the voltage acr oss the capacitor is zer o and
the voltage acr oss the r esistor is�V0. The initial cur r ent is then�I(0)�=V0/R. With
this assumption, solving the differ ential equation yields{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}I(t)&={\fr ac {V_{0}}{R}}\cdot e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau
_{0}}}\\V(t)&=V_{0}\left(1-e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau _{0}}}\r ight)\\Q(t)&=C\cdot
V_{0}\left(1-e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau _{0}}}\r ight)\end{aligned}}}wher e ?0�=�RC,�the�time
constant�of the system. As the capacitor r eaches equilibr ium with the sour ce
voltage, the voltages acr oss the r esistor and the cur r ent thr ough the entir e
cir cuit�decay exponentially. In the case of a�dischar ging�capacitor , the
capacitor 's initial voltage (VCi) r eplaces�V0. The equations become{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}I(t)&={\fr ac {V_{Ci}}{R}}\cdot e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau
_{0}}}\\V(t)&=V_{Ci}\cdot e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau _{0}}}\\Q(t)&=C\cdot V_{Ci}\cdot
e^{\fr ac {-t}{\tau _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}AC cir cuits[edit]See also:�r eactance
(electr onics)�and�electr ical impedance ��Der iving the device-specific impedances
Impedance, the vector sum of�r eactance�and�r esistance, descr ibes the phase
differ ence and the r atio of amplitudes between sinusoidally var ying voltage and
sinusoidally var ying cur r ent at a given fr equency.�Four ier analysis�allows any
signal to be constr ucted fr om a�spectr um�of fr equencies, whence the cir cuit's
r eaction to the var ious fr equencies may be found. The r eactance and impedance of a
capacitor ar e r espectively{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}X&=-{\fr ac {1}{\omega
C}}=-{\fr ac {1}{2\pi fC}}\\Z&={\fr ac {1}{j\omega C}}=-{\fr ac {j}{\omega C}}=-{\fr ac
{j}{2\pi fC}}\end{aligned}}}wher e�j�is the�imaginar y unit�and ? is the�angular
fr equency�of the sinusoidal signal. The ?j�phase indicates that the AC
voltage�V�=�ZI�lags the AC cur r ent by 90�: the positive cur r ent phase cor r esponds
to incr easing voltage as the capacitor char ges; zer o cur r ent cor r esponds to
instantaneous constant voltage, etc.Impedance decr eases with incr easing capacitance
and incr easing fr equency.[27]�This implies that a higher -fr equency signal or a
lar ger capacitor r esults in a lower voltage amplitude per cur r ent amplitude�an AC
"shor t cir cuit" or �AC coupling. Conver sely, for ver y low fr equencies, the r eactance
is high, so that a capacitor is near ly an open cir cuit in AC analysis�those
fr equencies have been "filter ed out".Capacitor s ar e differ ent fr om r esistor s and
inductor s in that the impedance is inver sely pr opor tional to the defining
char acter istic; i.e.,�capacitance.A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage
sour ce causes a displacement cur r ent to flow thr ough it. In the case that the
voltage sour ce is V0cos(?t), the displacement cur r ent can be expr essed as:
{\displaystyle I=C{\fr ac {dV}{dt}}=-\omega {C}{V_{\text{0}}}\sin(\omega t)}At sin(?
t) = -1, the capacitor has a maximum (or peak) cur r ent wher eby I0�= ?CV0. The r atio
of peak voltage to peak cur r ent is due to�capacitive r eactance�(denoted XC).
{\displaystyle X_{C}={\fr ac {V_{\text{0}}}{I_{\text{0}}}}={\fr ac {V_{\text{0}}}
{\omega CV_{\text{0}}}}={\fr ac {1}{\omega C}}}XC�appr oaches zer o as ? appr oaches
infinity. If XC�appr oaches 0, the capacitor r esembles a shor t wir e that str ongly
passes cur r ent at high fr equencies. XC�appr oaches infinity as ? appr oaches zer o. If
XC�appr oaches infinity, the capacitor r esembles an open cir cuit that poor ly passes
low fr equencies.The cur r ent of the capacitor may be expr essed in the for m of
cosines to better compar e with the voltage of the sour ce:{\displaystyle I=-
{I_{\text{0}}}{\sin({\omega t}})={I_{\text{0}}}{\cos({\omega t}+{90^{\cir c }})}}In
this situation, the cur r ent is out of�phase�with the voltage by +�/2 r adians or +90
degr ees, i.e. the cur r ent leads the voltage by 90�.Laplace cir cuit analysis (s-
domain)[edit]When using the�Laplace tr ansfor m�in cir cuit analysis, the impedance of
an ideal capacitor with no initial char ge is r epr esented in the�s�domain by:
{\displaystyle Z(s)={\fr ac {1}{sC}}}wher e* C�is the capacitance, and* s�is the
complex fr equency.Cir cuit analysis[edit]See also:�Ser ies and par allel cir cuitsFor
capacitor s in par allelSever al capacitor s in par allelIllustr ation of the par allel
connection of two capacitor sCapacitor s in a par allel configur ation each have the
same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Char ge is appor tioned among them
by size. Using the schematic diagr am to visualize par allel plates, it is appar ent
that each capacitor contr ibutes to the total sur face ar ea.{\displaystyle C_{\mathr m
{eq} }=\sum _{i}C_{i}=C_{1}+C_{2}+\cdots +C_{n}}For capacitor s in ser iesSever al
capacitor s in ser iesIllustr ation of the ser ial connection of two capacitor s
Connected in ser ies, the schematic diagr am r eveals that the separ ation distance,
not the plate ar ea, adds up. The capacitor s each stor e instantaneous char ge build-
up equal to that of ever y other capacitor in the ser ies. The total voltage
differ ence fr om end to end is appor tioned to each capacitor accor ding to the
inver se of its capacitance. The entir e ser ies acts as a capacitor �smaller �than any
of its components.{\displaystyle {\fr ac {1}{C_{\mathr m {eq} }}}=\sum _{i}{\fr ac {1}
{C_{i}}}={\fr ac {1}{C_{1}}}+{\fr ac {1}{C_{2}}}+\cdots +{\fr ac {1}{C_{n}}}}
Capacitor s ar e combined in ser ies to achieve a higher wor king voltage, for example
for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage r atings, which ar e based on
plate separ ation, add up, if capacitance and leakage cur r ents for each capacitor
ar e identical. In such an application, on occasion, ser ies str ings ar e connected in
par allel, for ming a matr ix. The goal is to maximize the ener gy stor age of the
networ k without over loading any capacitor . For high-ener gy stor age with capacitor s
in ser ies, some safety consider ations must be applied to ensur e one capacitor
failing and leaking cur r ent does not apply too much voltage to the other ser ies
capacitor s.Ser ies connection is also sometimes used to adapt polar ized�electr olytic
capacitor s�for bipolar AC use. See�electr olytic capacitor #Designing for r ever se
bias.Voltage distr ibution in par allel-to-ser ies networ ks.To model the distr ibution
of voltages fr om a single char ged capacitor �{\displaystyle
\left(A\r ight)}�connected in par allel to a chain of capacitor s in
ser ies�{\displaystyle \left(B_{\text{n}}\r ight)}�:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}
(volts)A_{\mathr m {eq} }&=A\left(1-{\fr ac {1}{n+1}}\r ight)\\
(volts)B_{\text{1..n}}&={\fr ac {A}{n}}\left(1-{\fr ac {1}{n+1}}\r ight)\\A-
B&=0\end{aligned}}}Note:�This is only cor r ect if all capacitance values ar e equal.
The power tr ansfer r ed in this ar r angement is:{\displaystyle P={\fr ac {1}{R}}\cdot
{\fr ac {1}{n+1}}A_{\text{volts}}\left(A_{\text{far ads}}+B_{\text{far ads}}\r ight)}
Non-ideal behavior [edit]Capacitor s deviate fr om the ideal capacitor equation in a
number of ways. Some of these, such as leakage cur r ent and par asitic effects ar e
linear , or can be analyzed as near ly linear , and can be dealt with by adding
vir tual components to the�equivalent cir cuit�of an ideal capacitor . The usual
methods of�networ k analysis�can then be applied.[28]�In other cases, such as with
br eakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and or dinar y (nor mal, e.g., linear )
networ k analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with separ ately. Ther e is
yet another gr oup, which may be linear but invalidate the assumption in the
analysis that capacitance
is a constant. Such an example is temper atur e dependence. Finally, combined
par asitic effects such as inher ent inductance, r esistance, or dielectr ic losses can
exhibit non-unifor m behavior at var iable fr equencies of oper ation.Br eakdown
voltage[edit]Main ar ticle:�Br eakdown voltageAbove a par ticular electr ic field,
known as the dielectr ic str ength�Eds, the dielectr ic in a capacitor becomes
conductive. The voltage at which this occur s is called the br eakdown voltage of the
device, and is given by the pr oduct of the dielectr ic str ength and the separ ation
between the conductor s,[29]{\displaystyle V_{\text{bd}}=E_{\text{ds}}d}The maximum
ener gy that can be stor ed safely in a capacitor is limited by the br eakdown
voltage. Due to the scaling of capacitance and br eakdown voltage with dielectr ic
thickness, all capacitor s made with a par ticular dielectr ic have appr oximately
equal maximum�ener gy density, to the extent that the dielectr ic dominates their
volume.[30]For air dielectr ic capacitor s the br eakdown field str ength is of the
or der 2�5�MV/m (or kV/mm); for �mica�the br eakdown is 100�300�MV/m; for oil,
15�25�MV/m; it can be much less when other mater ials ar e used for the dielectr ic.
[31]�The dielectr ic is used in ver y thin layer s and so absolute br eakdown voltage
of capacitor s is limited. Typical r atings for capacitor s used for
gener al�electr onics�applications r ange fr om a few volts to 1�kV. As the voltage
incr eases, the dielectr ic must be thicker , making high-voltage capacitor s lar ger
per capacitance than those r ated for lower voltages.The br eakdown voltage is
cr itically affected by factor s such as the geometr y of the capacitor conductive
par ts; shar p edges or points incr ease the electr ic field str ength at that point and
can lead to a local br eakdown. Once this star ts to happen, the br eakdown quickly
tr acks thr ough the dielectr ic until it r eaches the opposite plate, leaving car bon
behind and causing a shor t (or r elatively low r esistance) cir cuit. The r esults can
be explosive, as the shor t in the capacitor dr aws cur r ent fr om the sur r ounding
cir cuitr y and dissipates the ener gy.[32]�However , in capacitor s with par ticular
dielectr ics[33][34]�and thin metal electr odes shor ts ar e not for med after
br eakdown. It happens because a metal melts or evapor ates in a br eakdown vicinity,
isolating it fr om the r est of the capacitor .[35][36]The usual br eakdown r oute is
that the field str ength becomes lar ge enough to pull electr ons in the dielectr ic
fr om their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenar ios ar e possible, such as
impur ities in the dielectr ic, and, if the dielectr ic is of a cr ystalline natur e,
imper fections in the cr ystal str uctur e can r esult in an�avalanche br eakdown�as seen
in semi-conductor devices. Br eakdown voltage is also affected by pr essur e, humidity
and temper atur e.[37]Equivalent cir cuit[edit]Two differ ent cir cuit models of a r eal
capacitor An ideal capacitor only stor es and r eleases electr ical ener gy, without
dissipating any. In r eality, all capacitor s have imper fections within the
capacitor 's mater ial that cr eate r esistance. This is specified as the�equivalent
ser ies r esistance�or �ESR�of a component. This adds a r eal component to the
impedance:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{C}}=Z+R_{\text{ESR}}={\fr ac {1}{j\omega C}}
+R_{\text{ESR}}}As fr equency appr oaches infinity, the capacitive impedance (or
r eactance) appr oaches zer o and the ESR becomes significant. As the r eactance
becomes negligible, power dissipation appr oaches�PRMS�=�VRMS? /RESR.Similar ly to
ESR, the capacitor 's leads add�equivalent ser ies inductance�or �ESL�to the
component. This is usually significant only at r elatively high fr equencies. As
inductive r eactance is positive and incr eases with fr equency, above a cer tain
fr equency capacitance is canceled by inductance. High-fr equency engineer ing
involves accounting for the inductance of all connections and components.If the
conductor s ar e separ ated by a mater ial with a small conductivity r ather than a
per fect dielectr ic, then a small leakage cur r ent flows dir ectly between them. The
capacitor ther efor e has a finite par allel r esistance,[38]�and slowly dischar ges
over time (time may var y gr eatly depending on the capacitor mater ial and quality).Q
factor [edit]The�quality factor �(or �Q) of a capacitor is the r atio of its r eactance
to its r esistance at a given fr equency, and is a measur e of its efficiency. The
higher the Q factor of the capacitor , the closer it appr oaches the behavior of an
ideal capacitor .The Q factor of a capacitor can be found thr ough the following
for mula:{\displaystyle Q={\fr ac {X_{C}}{R}}={\fr ac {1}{\omega CR}}}
wher e�{\displaystyle \omega }�is�angular fr equency,�{\displaystyle C}�is the
capacitance,�{\displaystyle X_{C}}�is the�capacitive r eactance, and�{\displaystyle
R}�is the equivalent ser ies r esistance (ESR) of the capacitor .Ripple cur r ent[edit]
Ripple�cur r ent is the AC component of an applied sour ce (often a�switched-mode
power supply) whose fr equency may be constant or var ying. Ripple cur r ent causes
heat to be gener ated within the capacitor due to the dielectr ic losses caused by
the changing field str ength together with the cur r ent flow acr oss the slightly
r esistive supply lines or the electr olyte in the capacitor . The equivalent ser ies
r esistance (ESR) is the amount of inter nal ser ies r esistance one would add to a
per fect capacitor to model this.Some�types of capacitor s,
pr imar ily�tantalum�and�aluminum�electr olytic capacitor s, as well as some�film
capacitor s�have a specified r ating value for maximum r ipple cur r ent.* Tantalum
electr olytic capacitor s with solid manganese dioxide electr olyte ar e limited by
r ipple cur r ent and gener ally have the highest ESR r atings in the capacitor family.
Exceeding their r ipple limits can lead to shor ts and bur ning par ts.* Aluminum
electr olytic capacitor s, the most common type of electr olytic, suffer a shor tening
of life expectancy at higher r ipple cur r ents. If r ipple cur r ent exceeds the r ated
value of the capacitor , it tends to r esult in explosive failur e.* Cer amic
capacitor s�gener ally have no r ipple cur r ent limitation and have some of the lowest
ESR r atings.* Film capacitor s�have ver y low ESR r atings but exceeding r ated r ipple
cur r ent may cause degr adation failur es.Capacitance instability