Chapter 1: introduction to networks

overview:
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 security
 protocol layers, service models
 history

Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-2
 What’s the Internet: Simplified view
 millions of connected computing
PC
server devices:
wireless  hosts = end systems
laptop
smartphone  running network apps

 communication links
wireless
links
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite
wired  transmission rate: bandwidth
links

 Packetswitches: forward packets

router (chunks of data)
 routers and switches
Introduction 1-3
 What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

 Internet: “network of networks”

 Interconnected ISPs

 protocols control sending/receiving of messages

 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11

 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments https://tools.ietf.org/rfc/index
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force https://www.ietf.org/

Introduction 1-4
 What’s the Internet: a service view

 Infrastructure that provides services to applications:

 Web, VoIP, email, games, e-commerce, social
nets, …
 provides programming interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending and receiving app
programs to “connect” to Internet
 provides service options, analogous to postal
service

Introduction 1-5
 What’s a protocol?

protocols define format, order of messages sent and

received among network entities, and actions taken
on message transmission, receipt

Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?

TCP connection
request

TCP connection
response

Get http://www.emi.ac.ma

<file>
time

Introduction 1-7
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-8
 A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers

 access networks, physical media:

wired, wireless communication links

 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks

Introduction 1-9
Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end systems to edge

router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per second) of access network?
 shared or dedicated?

1-10
 Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 20 Mbps)
Introduction 1-11
 Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted in different frequency bands

Introduction 1-12
 Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2 Mbps upstream
transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office
Introduction 1-13
Access net: cable network

Introduction 1-14
Access net: FTTH network

 FTTH : fiber to the home

 asymmetric: up to 200Mbps downstream transmission rate, 20 Mbps upstream
transmission rate
 network of fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 two competing optical-distribution network architectures :
 Passive Optical Networks (PONs)
 Active Optical Networks (AONs). AON is essentially switched Ethernet Introduction 1-15
 Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54-1300 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100/1000 Mbps)

Introduction 1-16
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch
Introduction 1-17
 Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by Telco (cellular) operator, 10’s km
 802.11b/a/g/n/ac (WiFi): 11, 54, - 1300 Mbps  between 1 and 10 Mbps
transmission rate  3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet to Internet Introduction 1-18

 Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller chunks, known as two packets,
packets, of length L bits L bits each

 transmits packet into access network at

transmission rate R
2 1
 link transmission rate, aka link capacity,
aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate
host

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
1-19
 Physical media
twisted pair (TP)
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs  two insulated copper wires
 Category 5/5e: 100 Mbps, 1 Gpbs
 physical link: what lies between transmitter Ethernet
& receiver  Category 6/6A: 10Gbps
 guided media:  Cat 7/7A, Cat 8
 signals propagate in solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely, e.g., RF

Introduction 1-20
 Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper conductors  glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband:  high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 multiple channels on cable 100’s Gpbs transmission rate)
 HFC  low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-21
 Physical media: Radio Frequency
 signal carried in electromagnetic radio link types:
spectrum  terrestrial microwave
 no physical “wire”  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
 bidirectional  WLAN (e.g., WiFi)
 propagation environment effects:  11Mbps, 54 - 1300 Mbps
 reflection  Wide-Area (e.g., Cellular)
 obstruction by objects  3G, 4G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 interference  satellite
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or multiple smaller
channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low altitude

Introduction 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction1-23
The network core

 mesh of interconnected routers

 packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
 forward packets from one router to
the next, across links on path from
source to destination
 each packet transmitted at full link
capacity

Introduction 1-24
The network core: Traditional Separate Networks
 Each network with its own rules

Introduction 1-25
The network core: Converged Networks
 Capable of delivering data, voice, and video over the same network infrastructure

Introduction 1-26
The network core: Reliable Network
 Four Basic Characteristics of Network Architecture
 Fault Tolerance
 Scalability
 Quality of Service (QoS)
 Security

Introduction 1-27
 The network core: Reliable Network

 Quality of Service (QoS)

Introduction 1-28
The network core: Reliable Network
 Quality of Service (QoS) / Using Queues to Prioritize Communications

Introduction 1-29
The network core: Reliable Network
 Security TRIAD

Introduction 1-30
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit (push out) L-bit one-hop numerical example:
packet into link at R bps
 L = 7.5 Mbits
 R = 1.5 Mbps
 store and forward: entire packet must arrive at
router before it can be transmitted on next link  one-hop transmission
delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming zero
more on delay shortly …
propagation delay)
Introduction 1-31
 Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Introduction 1-32
Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source-
destination route taken by
packets
 routing algorithms
forwarding: move packets from
router’s input to appropriate
router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-33
 Alternative core: Circuit Switching
end-end resources allocated to, reserved
for “call” between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.

 dedicated resources: no sharing

 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance

 circuit segment idle if not used by call (no

sharing)

 Commonly used in traditional telephone

networks
Introduction 1-34
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM

Introduction 1-35
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
 1 Mb/s link

…..
N
 each user: users
• 100 kb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time

 circuit-switching:
 10 users
 packet switching:
 with 35 users, probability > 10 active at
same time is less than .0004 *
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
Q: what happens if > 35 users ? Introduction 1-36
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup

 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss

 protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control

 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?

 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (more later)

Introduction 1-37
 Internet structure: network of networks

 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs

 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.

 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other

 Resulting network of networks is very complex

 Evolution was driven by economics and national policies

 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly doesn’t access
net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
access access
Internet exchange point
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access peering link

net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPS
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects
it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction 1-46
 Internet structure: network of networks
 Internet Access Technologies
 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
 Broadband cable
 Broadband Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Wireless WANs
 Terrestrial Mobile Services (3G, 4G, 5G)
 Satellite Mobile Services
 Business DSL
 Leased Lines
 Metro Ethernet
 Types of Internet Connections
 Home and Small Office
 Business
Introduction 1-47
Internet structure: network of networks

Introduction 1-48
Internet structure: network of networks

Introduction 1-49
Internet structure: network of networks

Introduction 1-50
 Internet : List of tier 1 networks

Introduction 1-51
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tier_1_network
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …

…
…

…
to/from customers

Introduction 1-52
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-53
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-54
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors
 determine output link
 typically < msec
 time waiting at output link
for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router
Introduction 1-55
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed in medium
 dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-56
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 cars “propagate” at  time to “push” entire

100 km/hr
 toll booth takes 12 sec to
service car (bit transmission
time)
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet
 Q: How long until caravan is
lined up before 2nd toll
booth?
caravan through toll
booth onto highway =
12*10 = 120 sec
 time for last car to
propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
100km/(100km/hr)= 1
hr
 A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-57
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first
booth?
 A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three
cars still at 1st booth.

Introduction 1-58
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth (bps)

delay
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet arrival
rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large

 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay infinite!

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-59
 “Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards destination.
For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-60
 “Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: home to www.traceroute.org
C:\>tracert www.traceroute.org

Détermination de l’itinéraire vers www.traceroute.org [193.141.43.158]

avec un maximum de 30 sauts :
3 delay measurements from home to www.traceroute.org
1 1 ms 2 ms 2 ms dsldevice.lan [192.168.1.254]
2 6 ms 6 ms 6 ms 41.140.0.1
3 8 ms 5 ms 6 ms adsl-130-65-192-81.adsl2.iam.net.ma [81.192.65.130]
4 7 ms 6 ms 5 ms adsl-137-65-192-81.adsl2.iam.net.ma [81.192.65.137]
5 10 ms 6 ms 7 ms adsl-18-12-192-81.adsl.iam.net.ma [81.192.12.18] trans-oceanic link
6 30 ms 34 ms 34 ms te0-7-0-20.ccr22.mrs01.atlas.cogentco.com [149.6.155.69]
7 44 ms 41 ms 42 ms be3093.ccr42.par01.atlas.cogentco.com [130.117.50.165]
8 43 ms 42 ms 43 ms be3184.ccr31.par04.atlas.cogentco.com [154.54.38.158]
9 43 ms 42 ms 41 ms be3169.agr21.par04.atlas.cogentco.com [154.54.37.238]
10 56 ms 56 ms 55 ms kpn.par04.atlas.cogentco.com [130.117.14.110]
11 57 ms 55 ms 58 ms sdns-s1-rou-1101.FR.eurorings.net [134.222.48.117]
12 54 ms 54 ms 56 ms rt2-rou-1022.NL.eurorings.net [134.222.48.202]
13 57 ms 58 ms 58 ms asd2-rou-1044.NL.eurorings.net [134.222.48.208]
14 55 ms 54 ms 54 ms asd2-rou-1022.NL.eurorings.net [134.222.48.224]
15 59 ms 58 ms 57 ms dssd-s2-rou-1102.DE.eurorings.net [134.222.48.179]
16 56 ms 54 ms 57 ms traceroute.org [193.141.43.158]
Introduction 1-61
 “Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: home to www.eurecom.fr
C:\>tracert www.eurecom.fr

Détermination de l’itinéraire vers www.eurecom.fr [193.55.113.240]

avec un maximum de 30 sauts :

1 1 ms 2 ms 2 ms dsldevice.lan [192.168.1.254]
2 5 ms 5 ms 6 ms 41.140.0.1
3 7 ms 6 ms 6 ms adsl-138-65-192-81.adsl2.iam.net.ma [81.192.65.138]
4 7 ms 6 ms 6 ms adsl-129-65-192-81.adsl2.iam.net.ma [81.192.65.129]
5 7 ms 6 ms 5 ms adsl-14-12-192-81.adsl.iam.net.ma [81.192.12.14]
6 37 ms 39 ms 38 ms xe-4-3-0.cr0-mrs1.ip4.gtt.net [77.67.95.253]
7 46 ms 47 ms 45 ms xe-5-1-7.cr4-par7.ip4.gtt.net [141.136.111.110]
8 46 ms 46 ms 46 ms renater-gw-th2.gtt.net [77.67.123.210]
9 47 ms 55 ms 48 ms 193.51.180.53
10 47 ms 46 ms 45 ms te0-0-0-5-lyon1-rtr-001.noc.renater.fr [193.51.177.216]
11 47 ms 47 ms 44 ms xe1-0-1-marseille1-rtr-131.noc.renater.fr [193.51.177.222]
12 45 ms 47 ms 46 ms te1-2-sophia-rtr-021.noc.renater.fr [193.51.177.21]
13 46 ms 46 ms 47 ms eurocom-valbonne-gi9-7-sophia-rtr-021.noc.renater.fr [193.51.187.17]
14 * * * Délai d’attente de la demande dépassé.
15 * * * Délai d’attente de la demande dépassé.

* means no response (probe lost, router not replying) Introduction 1-62

Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end
system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
Introduction 1-63
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between
sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bitspipe Rs bits/sec
fluid at rate Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-64
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-65
 Throughput: Internet scenario

 per-connection end-end throughput:

min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs
 in practice: Rc or Rs is often bottleneck Rs Rs

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-66
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-67
 Network Protocols and Standards
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of organizing
 links of various media structure of network?
 applications
 protocols …. or at least our discussion of
 hardware, software networks?

Introduction 1-68
 Network Protocols and Standards
Protocols
 Rules that Govern Communications

 Network Protocols
 The role of protocols
 How the message is formatted or structured
 The process by which networking devices share information about pathways with
other networks
 How and when error and system messages are passed between devices
 The setup and termination of data transfer sessions

 Protocol Interaction
 Example: web server and client
Introduction 1-69
 Internet protocol stack
Interaction of protocols in communication between a web server and web client.

Introduction 1-70
 Network Protocols and Standards
Rules that Govern Communications
 Rule Establishment
 Identified sender and receiver
 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
 Message Encoding
 Process of converting information into another
acceptable form
 Message Formatting and Encapsulation
 Message Size
 Message Timing
 Access method
 Flow control
 Response timeout
 Message Delivery Options
 Unicast
 Multicast
 Broadcast
Introduction 1-71
 Network Protocols and Standards
Message Delivery Options

Introduction 1-72
 Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex system’s
pieces
 layered reference model for discussion

 modularization eases maintenance, updating of system

 change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system

 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-73
 Internet protocol stack (TCP/IP stack)
 The TCP/IP protocol model for internetwork communications was created in the early
1970s and is sometimes referred to as the Internet model.
 It defines four categories of functions that must occur for communications to be
successful.
 The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the structure of this model.
 Because of this, the Internet model is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP model.
 Most protocol models describe a vendor-specific protocol stack. Legacy protocol suites,
such as Novell Netware and AppleTalk, are examples of vendor-specific protocol stacks.
 Because the TCP/IP model is an open standard, one company does not control the
definition of the model.
 The definitions of the standard and the TCP/IP protocols are discussed in a public forum
and defined in a publicly available set of RFCs. (https://www.ietf.org/standards/rfcs/)
Introduction 1-74
Internet protocol stack (TCP/IP stack)

Introduction 1-75
 Internet protocol stack (TCP/IP stack)
 application: supporting network applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data transfer application
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from source to transport
destination
 IP, routing protocols network
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements link
NI or NA
 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11(WiFi), PPP
physical
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-76
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation (TCP/IP
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-77
 ISO/OSI reference model

 Provides an extensive list of functions and services that can occur at each layer.
 Describes the interaction of each layer with the layers directly above and below.

 The TCP/IP protocols discussed in this course are structured around both the OSI and
TCP/IP models.
 TCP/IP model layers are referred to only by name
 The seven OSI model layers are more often referred to by number rather than by name.

Introduction 1-78
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-79
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-80
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-81
ISO/OSI reference model

 presentation: allow applications to interpret

meaning of data, e.g., encryption,
compression, machine-specific conventions
 session: synchronization, checkpointing,
recovery of data exchange
 Internet stack “missing” these layers!
 these services, if needed, must be implemented
in application
 needed?

Introduction 1-82
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-83
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-84
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-85
ISO/OSI reference model

Introduction 1-86
 TCP/IP vs OSI model
7

2
1 Introduction 1-87
TCP/IP vs OSI model

Introduction 1-88
 TCP/IP vs OSI model
 The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can also be described in terms of the OSI
reference model.
 In the OSI model, the network access layer and the application layer of the TCP/IP model are
further divided to describe discrete functions that must occur at these layers.
 At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify which protocols to use
when transmitting over a physical medium; it only describes the handoff from the internet layer to
the physical network protocols.
 OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access the media and the physical means
to send data over a network
 OSI Layer 3, the network layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP Internet layer. This layer is used to
describe protocols that address and route messages through an internetwork.
 OSI Layer 4, the transport layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP Transport layer. This layer describes
general services and functions that provide ordered and reliable delivery of data between source
and destination hosts.
Introduction 1-89
 TCP/IP vs OSI model

 The TCP/IP application layer includes a number of protocols that provide specific functionality
to a variety of end user applications.
 The OSI model Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as references for application software developers
and vendors to produce products that operate on networks.
 Both the TCP/IP and OSI models are commonly used when referring to protocols at various
layers.
 Because the OSI model separates the data link layer from the physical layer, it is commonly
used when referring to these lower layers.

Introduction 1-90
 Standard Organizations

 Open Standards
 Name some advantages of open standards

 Internet
Standards
 Name a few standard organizations

 Electronics
and Communications Standards Organizations
 Name a few organizations
Introduction 1-91
Standard Organizations

Introduction 1-92
Electronics and Communications Standard Organizations
IEEE 802 Working Groups and Study Groups
 802.1 Higher Layer LAN Protocols Working Group
 802.3 Ethernet Working Group
 802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group
 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Working Group
 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Working Group
 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
 802.19 Wireless Coexistence Working Group
 802.21 Media Independent Handover Services Working Group
 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks
 802.24 Vertical Applications TAG
Introduction 1-93
Internet Organizations

Introduction 1-94
Internet Organizations

Introduction 1-95
Internet Organizations

Introduction 1-96
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Encapsulation

 Message Segmentation
 Segmentation - Break communication into pieces
 Multiplexing – interleaving the pieces

 Protocol Data Units

 What are PDUs called at each layer?

 Encapsulation and de-encapsulation process

Introduction 1-97
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Encapsulation (Message Segmentation / Multiplexing)

Introduction 1-98
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Encapsulation (Message Segmentation / Multiplexing)
 Segmenting Messages:
 Allows many different conversations to be
interleaved
 Increases the efficiency of network
communications
 Adds complexity

Introduction 1-99
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Encapsulation (Protocol Data Units : PDU)

 During encapsulation, each succeeding

layer encapsulates the PDU that it
receives from the layer above in
accordance with the protocol being used.
 At each stage of the process, a PDU has
a different name to reflect its new
functions:
 Data
 Segment
 Packet
 Frame
 Bits Introduction 1-100
 Data Transfer in the Network
TCP/IP Communication Process
Protocol Operation - Sending a Message

Introduction 1-101
 Data Transfer in the Network
TCP/IP Communication Process
Protocol Operation – Receiving a Message

Introduction 1-102
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Access
 Network Addresses
 Source IP address
 Destination IP address
 Deliver the IP packet from the original source to the final destination, either on the same network or
to a remote network.
 Data Link Addresses
 Source data link address
 Destination data link address
 Deliver the data link frame from one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same
network
 Devices on the Same Network
 Devices on a Remote Network

Introduction 1-103
 Data Transfer in the Network
Network Addresses

Introduction 1-104
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Link Addresses

Introduction 1-105
 Data Transfer in the Network
Data Link Addresses

Introduction 1-106
 Data Transfer in the Network
Devices on the Same
Network

Introduction 1-107
 Data Transfer in the Network
Devices on the Same Network
 Role of the Network Layer Addresses
Network portion of the IP Address – The left-most part of the address that indicates
which network the IP address is a member.
Host portion – The remaining part of the address that identifies a specific device on the
network.
 Source IP address – The IP address of the sending device
 Destination IP address – The IP address of the receiving device
 Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses
Source MAC address – This is the data link address, or the Ethernet MAC address, of
the sending device.
Destination MAC address – When the receiving device is on the same network as the
sending device, this is the data link address of the receiving device. Introduction 1-108
 Data Transfer in the Network
Devices on a
Remote
Network

Introduction 1-109
 Data Transfer in the Network
Devices on a Remote Network

Role of the Network Layer Addresses

 The source and destination IP addresses will represent hosts on different networks
indicated by the different network portions of the source and destination addresses.

Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses

 Destination MAC address - When the receiving device is on a different network from
the sending device, the sending device uses the Ethernet MAC address of the default
gateway or router.

Introduction 1-110
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-111
 Network security
 field of network security:
 how bad guys can attack computer networks
 how we can defend networks against attacks
 how to design architectures that are immune to attacks

 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in mind

 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a transparent
network” 
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 security considerations in all layers!

Introduction 1-112
 Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
 malware can get in host from:
 virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing object (e.g., e-mail
attachment)
 worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving object that gets itself
executed
 spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites visited, upload info to
collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for spam. DDoS attacks

Introduction 1-113
 Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server, bandwidth)
unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts around the network
(see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target

Introduction 1-114
 Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g., including passwords!)
passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

 wireshark software used for labs is a (free) packet-sniffer https://www.wireshark.org/

Introduction 1-115
Bad guys can use fake addresses
IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security later

Introduction 1-116
 Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-117
 Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing theory
shows effectiveness of packet-
switching
 1964: Baran - packet-switching in
military nets
 1967: ARPAnet conceived by
Advanced Research Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node operational
 1972:
 ARPAnet public demo
 NCP (Network Control Protocol) first
host-host protocol
 first e-mail program
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Introduction 1-118
 Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

 1970: ALOHAnet satellite network in

Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - architecture for internetworking principles:
interconnecting networks  minimalism, autonomy - no
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC internal changes required to
interconnect networks
 late70’s: proprietary architectures:
 best effort service model
DECnet, SNA, XNA
 stateless routers
 late 70’s: switching fixed length packets  decentralized control
(ATM precursor)
define today’s Internet
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
architecture
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was an early packet-switching network and the first network to implement
the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. The ARPANET was initially founded by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the US DoD
PARC (Palo Alto Research Center; formerly Xerox PARC) is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California Introduction 1-119
 Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of TCP/IP  new national networks: Csnet, BITnet,

 1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined NSFnet, Minitel
 1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-  100,000 hosts connected to confederation
address translation of networks
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion control

Introduction 1-120
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 early 1990’s: ARPAnet
decommissioned
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
 early 1990s: Web
 hypertext [Bush 1945,
Nelson 1960’s]
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web
late 1990’s – 2000’s:
 more killer apps: instant
messaging, P2P file sharing
 network security to
forefront
 est. 50 million host, 100
million+ users
 backbone links running at
Gbps
Introduction 1-121
Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own
networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access
to search, email, etc.
 E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their
services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-122