THERMODYNAMICS 1

TERMS, EQUATIONS and FORMULAS

Prepared by: Rogelio O. Almira Jr., PME

CONVERSION FACTORS

LENGTH
12 in/ft 2.54 cm/in 25.4 mm/cm 1000 mm/m 100 cm/m

3.28 ft/m 1000 m /km 1.609 km/mi

MASS, FORCE
2.204 lbm/kg 453.6 gm/lbm 2000 lbm/ton 907.18 kg/ton 1000 kg/metic ton

16 oz/lbm 32.174 lbm/slug 9.8066 N/kgf 105 dynes/N 32.174 poundals/lbf

VOLUME
3 3 3
1728 in /1ft 7.481gal/ft 3.78 liters/gal 1000 liters/m3

ENERGY AND POWER

778 ft.lbf/Btu 252 cal/Btu 1.055 kJ/Btu 4.187 kJ/kcal

0.746 kW/hp 550 ft.lbf/sec.hp 33,000 ft.bf/min.hp 42.4 Btu/min.hp 2544.4 Btu/hr.hp
NEWTON’s LAW OF MOTION

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Sates that an object either remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by
a force.

This law is often called "the law of inertia".

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.

For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.

MASS, FORCE, and ACCELERATION

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

States that the acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass

a α F
m

F = m a.
k

where: F = force (applied to body), N ; kgf ; dyne; lbf

m = mass, kgm; gm; lbm; slug
a = acceleration due to force F, m/sec2; ft/sec2

k = proportionality constant
= 1 kgm m/N.sec2 = 9.8066 kgm.m/kgf.sec2
= 1 gm.cm/dyne.sec2 = 980.66 gm.cm/gf.sec2
= 1 slug.ft/lbf.sec2 = 32.174 lbm. ft/lbf.sec2

MASS and WEIGHT

The mass of a body is the absolute of matter in it.

The weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg on the body.

Fg = m g.
k

where: Fg = weight or force of gravity, N ; kgf ; gf ; lbf

m = mass, kgm ; gm; lbm slug
g = local gravitational acceleration

Note: Used standard gravity gSTD unless specified.

gSTD = 9.8066 m/sec2 = 32.174 ft/sec2

DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, and SPECIFIC GRAVITY (or Relative Density)

Density = mass / volume ρ = m/V Units: gm/cm3; kgm/m3; kgm/L; lbm/ft3

 Standard Density of Water: ρH20@ 4C = 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/L = 62.4 lbm/ft3

Specific volume = volume /mass v = V/m or v = 1/ρ Units: cm3/gm; m3/kgm; ft3/lbm

Specific weight = weight / volume γ = Fg /V Units: gf/cm3; kgf/m3; N/m3; lbf/ft3

= (density) (gravitational acceleration) γ = ρg/k

where: ρ= density kg/m3 ; lbm/ft3

v= specific volume, m3/kgm ; ft3/lbm
γ= specific weight, kgf/m3 or N/m3 ; lbf/ft3
g= gravitational acceleration
(at sea level or standard g = 9.8066 m/sec2 = 32.174 ft/sec2 )
k = proportionality constant
= 1 kgm m/N.sec2 = 9.8066 kgm.m/kgf.sec2
= 1 gm.cm/dyne.sec2 = 980.66 gm.cm/gf.sec2
= 1 slug.ft/lbf.sec2 = 32.174 lbm. ft/lbf.sec2

 Standard Specific Weight of Water: γH20@ 4C = 1 gf/cm3 = 1000 kgf/m3 = 1kgf/L = 62.4 lbf/ft3
= 9.81 kN/m3 = 9,810 N/m3

Specific gravity, SGs – is the ratio of the density (or specific weight) of a substance
to the density (or specific weight) of water at 4 oC

specific gravity, SGs = ρs . = γs .

ρH20@ 4C γH20@ 4C

 Specific Gravities of some substance:

Water SGH20 = 1 (standard)

Mercury SG Hg = 13.6 (standard)
Blood SG Blood = 1.05
Seawater SGSW = 1.025
Ice SGICE = 0.92
Oil SGOIL = 0.7 – 0.9
Gasoline SG Gasoline = 0.7

Note: For water used it standard density, specific weight

and specific gravity unless specified.
FLUID
Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. The principal differences between them are:

GAS/VAPOR LIQUID
- Does not have a free surface - Has a free surface
- Occupies all portions of any container - Occupies only a volume in a container
regardless of its size (or VGAS = VCONTAINER) for a given mass (or VLIQUID = m/ρ)
- Are compressible - Practically incompressible

VOLUME of different shapes of container/vessel :

Cube: V = x3 Rectangular: V = L x W x H Cylinder: V = π r2 h = πD2 h

4

Cone: V = π r2 h = π D2 h Frustrum (Right Circular Cone): Sphere: V = 4 π r3 = π D3

3 12 V = π h (r2 + R2 + rR) 3 6
3

Note:
 If the vessel is filled with liquid then the volume of liquid is equal to the volume of vessel,
VLIQUID = VVESSEL
 If half-full then the volume, VLIQUID = VVESSEL / 2

TEMPERATURE SCALE

Relation between Temperature Scales:

T(oF) = 9/5 T(oC) + 32 or T(oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32

T(oC) = 5/9 T(oF) – 32 or T(oC) = T(oF) – 32 / 1.8

Absolute Temperature Scales:

T(K) = T(oC) + 273 and T(R) = T(oF) + 460

Temperature Difference (or Temperature Change):

ΔT(K) = ΔT(oC) and ΔT(R) = ΔT(oF)

ΔT(R) = 1.8 ΔT(K) and ΔT(oF) = 1.8 ΔT(oC)

 Freezing Point of Water (at 1 atm) = 0oC (32oF)

 Boling Point of Water (at 1 atm) = 100oC (212oF)
 Temperature reading oC and oF equal = – 40oC = – 40oF
PRESSURE (is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area)

pressure, p = Normal Force, F Units: N/m2 or Pa ; kgf/cm2;

Area, A lbf/in2 or psi ;

Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Atmospheric Pressure

pabs = patm + pg where: pabs = absolute pressure, the actual or true pressure measured relative to absolute
vacuum or absolute zero pressure

patm = atmospheric or surrounding pressure measured by a barometer relative to

absolute zero pressure.

pg = gage pressure (measured by pressure recording instrument) relative to

atmospheric or surrounding pressure.
Note: pg = negative (–) when pressure is vacuum that is pabs < patm

STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE in different units

14.696 psia 101,325 Pa 101.325 kPa 1.0332 kg f/cm2

29.92 in Hg(0oC) 760 mm Hg(0oC) 33.9 ft H2O (60oF) 10.335 m H2O( 60oF)

1 atm 1.01325 bar 760 torr

Pressure head or simply head, h represents the height of a column of homogeneous fluid of specific weight γ that
will produce an intensity pressure p. It sometimes used as a measure of pressure.

h = p/γ mm or m ; in or ft then, habs = pabs / γ ; hatm = patm / γ ; hg = pg / γ

p h

also, habs = hatm + hg

Gage pressure at the bottom of the column of liquid:

pg = γhg where: γ = specific weight of the liquid

Note: If specific gravity of liquid (SGL) is given, γ = (SGL) (γH2O@4C)
hg = height of column of liquid (also known pressure head gage)

pg = γH2Ohg
= (62.4 lbf/ft3) (9.92 ft)
144 in2/ft2
pg = 4.3 psig

Absolute pressure at the bottom of the column of liquid:

pabs = patm + pg

pabs = Patm + γhg

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM, or simply a SYSTEM

A system is defined as quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system
is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
boundary. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

Classification of Systems

1. Closed system (also known as control mass), consist of a fixed amount of mass and no
mass can cross its boundary. That is no mass can enter or leave a closed system. But
energy, in form of heat or work can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed
system does not have to be fixed.

2. Open system (also known as control volume) is a properly selected region in space. It
usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, pump,
or nozzle. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.

CONSERVATION OF MASS PRINCIPLE

Mass flow rate, mR – the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.
Volume flow rate, or VR– the volume of the fluid flowing a cross section per unit time.

= Ac υ where: or VR = volume flow rate, m3/sec ; ft3/sec or cfs; ft3/min or cfm; gal/min or gpm
Ac = cross sectional area of the stream, m2, ft2
υ = average velocity of the fluid, m/sec; ft/sec
The mass and volume flow rates are related by

ṁ = ρ = / v = ρ Ac υ = Ac υ / v

where: ṁ = mass flow rate, kg/sec ; lbm/sec

or VR = volume flow rate, m3/sec ; ft3/sec
ρ = density of fluid, kgm/m3 ; lbm/ft3
v = specific volume of fluid, m3/kgm ; ft3/lbm

Conservation of Mass Principle

Total mass entering – Total mass leaving = Net change in mass

the CV during Δt the CV during Δt within the CV during Δt

Σmin – Σmout = ΔmCV (kg or lbm) Note: CV = control volume (or open system)
Δt = time interval in sec, min. or hr
where: ΔmCV = mfinal – minitial (kg or lbm)

In rate form Σṁ in – Σṁ out = Δṁ CV (kg/sec or lbm/sec) where: ΔmCV = Δṁ CV x Δt

Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes

Σṁ in = Σṁ out (kg/sec or lbm/sec)

Single-Stream Steady-Flow Systems (denoting inlet state by the subscript 1 and the outlet state by 2)

ṁ1 = ṁ2 ρ1A1 υ1 = ρ2 A2 υ2 also A1 υ1 / v1 = A2 υ2 / v2

For Incompressible Flow (usually the case for liquids where ρ1 = ρ2 or v1 = v2 )

Steady, incompressible flow (single-stream): ΣVin = ΣVout (m3/sec or ft3/sec)

A1 υ1 = A2 υ2

or
=
 IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE :

pV = mRT where: p = absolute pressure; T = absolute temperature ; V = volume ; m = mass (kg or lbm)
v = specific volume
R = gas constant (kJ/kg.K or ft.lbf/lbm.R)
pv = RT For air: Rair = 0.28708 kJ/kg.K = 53.342 ft.lbf/lbm.R

R = Ru / MW
pV = n Ru T
Ru = universal Gas constant (kJ/kmol.K or ft.lbf/lbmol.R)
Ru = 8.3143 kJ/kmol.K = 8314.3 J/mol.K
= 1545 ft.lbf/lbmol.R = 1.986 Btu/lbmol.R
MW = molar mass or molecular weight in gmol/g or kmol/kg

m = n MW

n = number of moles (in gmol or kmol or lbmol)

Molar mass or Molecular Weight for some common gasses:

O2 = 32 gm/mol = 32 kgm/kmol = 32 lbm/lbmol
CO2 = 44 gm/mol = 44 kgm/kmol = 44 lbm/lbmol
N2 = 28 gm/mol = 28 kgm/kmol = 28 lbm/lbmol
H2 = 2 gm/mol = 2 kgm/kmol = 2 lbm/lbmol
Air = 29 gm/mol = 29 kgm/kmol = 29 lbm/lbmol

IDEAL GAS LAWS

Boyles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the absolute pressure is inversely proportional to
the volume.

p1V1 = p2V2 for fixed mass or m1 = m2 and same gas

T1 = T2 = C

where: p = absolute pressure

V = volume or specific volume

Charles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held constant, the volume is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.

V1/ T1 = V2 / T2 for fixed mass or m1 = m2 and same gas

p1 = p2 = C

where: T = absolute temperature, K ; R

V = volume or specific volume

Gay-Lussac’s Law or the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac

In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant, the absolute pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature

p1 / T1 = p2 / T2 for fixed mass or m1 = m2 and same gas

V1 = V2 = C

where: p = absolute pressure

T = absolute temperature, K ; R

Combined Gas Laws (Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law & Gay-Lussac’s Law)

p1V1 / T1 = p2V2 / T2 = mR = n Ru for fixed mass or m1 = m2 or fixed number of mols n1 = n2

also same gas
FORMS OF ENERGY

Potential Energy, PE – the energy of a body due to its position or elevation.

PE = Fg z = (mg/k) z (J or kJ ; ft.lbf )
on unit mass basis, pe = (g/k) z (J/kg or kJ/kg ; ft.lbf/lbm)

where: Fg = weight, N or kN ; lbf

m = mass, kgm or lbm
z = elevation w.r.t reference line, m ; ft
z positive if the body (or system) is above reference line
z negative if the body (or system) is below reference line
k = proportionality constant = 1 kgm m/N.sec2 = 1000 kgm m/kN.sec2 = 32.174 lbm. ft/lbf.sec2
g = local gravitational acceleration , m/sec2 ; ft/sec2 . Used standard g unless specified.

Kinetic Energy, KE – the energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving body, by the
virtue of its momentum.

KE = Fg υ2/ 2g = m υ2 / 2k (J or kJ ; ft.lbf )

on unit mass basis, ke = υ2 / 2k (J/kg or kJ/kg ; ft.lbf/lbm)

where: Fg = weight, N or kN ; lbf

m = mass, kgm or lbm
υ = velocity, m/sec; ft/sec
k = proportionality constant = 1 kgm m/N.sec2 = 1000 kgm m/kN.sec2 = 32.174 lbm. ft/lbf.sec2
g = local gravitational acceleration m/sec2 ; ft/sec2. Used standard g unless specified

Internal Energy, U – is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity and configuration of
its molecules and of the vibration of atoms within the molecules.

U= mu (J or kJ or Btu)
on unit mass basis, or specific internal energy, u = U/m (J/kg or kJ/kg or Btu/lbm)

Flow Energy (or Flow Work) – (energy of a flowing fluid) is the work done in pushing a fluid across a
boundary, usually into or out of a system.

Wf = pV (J or kJ or ft.lbf)

on unit mass basis, wf = pv = p/ρ (J/kg or kJ/kg or ft.lbf /lbm)

where: p = absolute pressure, N/m2 or kN/m2 ; lbf/ft2

V = volume, m3 ; ft3
v = specific volume, m3/kgm ; ft3/lbm
ρ = density, kgm/m3 ; lbm/ft3

Enthalpy H is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by H = U + pV

Therefore H1 = U1 + p1V1 = U1 + Wf1

and H2 = U2 + p2V2 = U2 + Wf2

h1 = u1 + wf1 and h2 = u2 + wf2 ( per unit mass form )

ENERGY TRANSFER

1.) Heat Transfer, Q – is defined as the form of energy that is

transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by the virtue of a temperature difference.

Heat denoted by , has energy units, kJ, kcal, Btu, heat

transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted by q and is
determine from
q = Q / m (kJ/kg or Btu/lbm)

Rate of heat transfer or heat rate (the amount of heat transfer per unit time) is denoted by . where the over-
dot stands for “per unit time”. The heat transfer rate has unit kJ/sec, (which is equivalent to kW) and Btu/hr
or Btu/min.

Sensible Heat, Qs – is the heat needed to change the temperature of a body without changing its phase.

Qs = m c ΔT where: m = mass; c = specific heat; ΔT = change in temperature

For water: c = 4.187 kJ/kg.oC = 1 Btu/lbmoF = 1 kcal/kg.oC

Latent Heat QL – is the heat needed by the body to change its phase without changing its temperature.

QL = m LH where: m = mass; LH = Latent heat

Latent Heat of Fusion – amount of energy absorbed during melting or amount of energy released during
freezing.
LHFwater = 335 kJ/kg = 144 Btu/lbm

Latent Heat of Vaporization – amount of heat absorbed during vaporization (equivalent to energy
released during condensation)
LHVwater = 2257 kJ/kg = 970 Btu/lb m

2.) Energy Transfer by Work, W

Work, W is the energy transfer associated with a force

acting through a distance. A rising piston, rotating shaft,
and electric wire crossing the system boundary are all
associated with work interactions.

Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat,

therefore has energy units as kJ or Btu. The work done per
unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as

w = W/m (kJ/kg and ft-lbf/lbm or Btu/lbm)

The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted Ẇ and is expressed as

Ẇ = W / Δt (kJ/sec or KW and ft.lbf/sec; Btu/sec or horsepower, hp)

where: Δt = time interval in sec, min. or hr

Ẇ= mw m = mass flow rate, kg/sec or lbm/sec
w = work per unit mass, kJ/kg or ft-lbf/lbm or Btu/lbm

3.) Energy Transport by Mass, Emass

Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an

additional mechanism of energy transfer. The fluid
entering or leaving a control volume possesses four
forms of energy: internal, kinetic, potential, and flow
energy. Then the total energy of flowing fluid, Emass

Emass = PE + KE + U + Wf ( kJ or Btu)

per unit mass form, emass = pe + ke + u – wf

(kJ/kg or Btu/lbm)
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (Conservation of Energy Principle),

Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another.

ENERGY BALANCE

Energy Balance:

Total energy – Total energy = Change in the total

entering the system leaving the system energy of the system

ΣEin – ΣEout = ΔEsystem

where: ΔEsystem = Efinal – Einitial = E2 – E 1 1 – initial; 2 – final

= ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE

where: ΔU = U2 – U1 = m u2 – m u1 = m ( u2 – u1)

ΔKE = KE2 – KE1 = m υ22 – m υ12 = m (υ22 – υ12)

2k 2k 2k

ΔPE = PE2 – PE1 = mg z2 – mg z1 = mg (z2 – z1)

2k 2k 2k

Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Non-Flow System)

ΣEin – ΣEout = ΔEsystem

Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,

by heat, work, and mass potential, etc..energies

Note: Most systems encountered in practice are stationary, that is, they do not involve any changes in their
velocity υ, or elevation, z during a process. Thus, for stationary systems, the changes in kinetic and
potential energies are zero (that is, ΔKE = ΔPE = 0 ), and the total energy change relation reduces to
ΔEsystem = ΔU

Illustration 1: Wout Illustration 2: Qout

paddle work
Win
system Qin – Wout = ΔU system Win – Qout = ΔU
ΔU ΔU

Qin
Energy Balance for Open System (Steady-Flow System)

0 (steady)
ΣEin – ΣEout = ΔEsystem
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc..energies

ΣEin = ΣEout
Net energy transfer in Net energy transfer in
by heat, work, and mass by heat, work, and mass

Steady Flow Energy Equation for Single-Stream (one-inlet-one-exit) Systems

Assumptions: Heat is added to the system (Qin or QA) and Work is done by the system (Wout)

Illustration: Inlet and exit states are denoted by 1 and 2 respectively, for simplicity. The mass flow rate through the
entire control volume is constant ( m1 = m2) and is denoted by m.

Emass1 PE1 W
m1 KE1
Wf1
U1

System 2
PE2 Emass2
z1 KE2 m2
Wf2
U2
z2
Q
Datum Level

ΣEin = ΣEout

ΣE1 = ΣE2
Emass1 + Q = Emass2 + W

PE1 + KE1 + U1 + Wf1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + U2 + Wf2 + W

pe1 + ke1 + u1 + wf1 + q = pe2 + ke2 + u2 + wf2 + w (per unit mass form)

Q = (PE2 – PE1) + (KE2 – KE1) + (U2 – U1) + (Wf2 – Wf1) + W

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔU + ΔU + ΔWf + W

Enthalpy H is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by H = U + pV

Therefore H1 = U1 + p1V1 = U1 + Wf1

and H2 = U2 + p2V2 = U2 + Wf2

h1 = u1 + wf1 and h2 = u2 + wf2 ( per unit mass form )

therefore,

PE1 + KE1 + H1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + H2 + W

pe1 + ke1 + h1 + q = pe2 + ke2 + h2 + w ( per unit mass form )

Q = (PE2 – PE1) + (KE2 – KE1) + (H2 – H1) + W

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔU + ΔH + W
Specific Heats, c Specific Heat Ratio, k
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of unit mass
through one degree. If mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,

Q = m c ΔT English Units SI Units

where: Q = heat transfer Btu kJ
m = mass lb m kg
c = specific heat Btu/lbm.R or Btu/lbm.oF kJ/kg.K or kJ/kg.oC
ΔT = change of temperature R or oF (oC or K)

Heat transferred at constant volume process: Heat transferred at constant pressure process:

Q = m cv ΔT Q = m cp ΔT

q = cv ΔT per uint mass q = cp ΔT per unit mass

where: cv = specific heat at constant volume

cp = specific heat at constant pressure

Relation between cp, cv, k and R:

cp = cv + R k = cp / cv > 1 k = specific heat ratio; For air: k = 1.4

R = gas constant

cv = R / k – 1 cp = R k / k – 1

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas:

Joule’s Law states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only the temperature
change”. Therefore, ΔU

ΔU = m cv (T2 – T1) whether the volume remains constant or not.

Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas:

The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula,

ΔH = m cp (T2 – T1) whether the pressure remains constant or not.

IDEAL GAS PROCESSES

1. Constant Volume (Isometric/Isochoric) Process, V=C

a.) Relation between absolute pressure, p and absolute temperature, T Initial State1 Final State 2
m m Wn = 0
p / T = C ; p1 / T1 = p2 / T2 at fixed mass p1 , T1, p2 , T2,
V1 V2
b.) Nonflow work, Wn = 0 (Reversible Process) ΔU
V1 = V2
c.) Heat Transfer, Q = m cv (T2 –T1) = ΔU Q

2.) Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process, p = C

a.) Relation between volume, V and absolute temperature, T Initial State1 Final State 2

V / T = C ; V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 at fixed mass Wn

b.) Nonflow work, Wn = p ( V2 – V1 ) ; p1 = p2 = p m

c.) Heat Transfer, Q = m cp (T2 –T1) m p2 , T2,
Q – Wn = ΔU p1 , T1, V2
V1 ΔU

p1 = p2 Q

3.) Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process, T = C

a.) Relation between absolute pressure, p and volume, V Initial State 1 Final State 2

pV = C ; p1 V1 = p2V2 at fixed mass Wn

b.) Nonflow work, Wn = p1V1 ln V2/V1 = mRT1 ln V2/V1

Wn = p1V1 ln p1/p2 = mRT1 ln p1/p2 m m
p1 , T1 p2 , T2
c.) Heat Transfer, Q = Wn ; ΔU = 0 V1 V2
= T ∆s
T1 = T2 Q

4.) Constant Entropy (Isentropic) Process, S = C

Reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic means no heat transfer (or Q =0)

a.) Relation between absolute pressure, p and volume, V Initial State 1 Final State 2

pVk = C ; p1 V1k = p2V2k at fixed mass Wn

b.) Nonflow work, Wn = p2V2 – p1V1 = – ΔU Insulated m

1–k cylinder m p2 , T2
p1 , T1 V2
c.) No heat transfer, Q = 0 V1 – ΔU

S1 = S2 Q=0

4.) Polytropic Process

A polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which, pV n = C, where n = is any constant.

a.) Relation between absolute pressure, p volume, V and Initial State 1 Final State 2
absolute temperature, T
pV n = C ; p1 V1n = p2V2n at fixed mass Wn
k-1 k-1 / k
T2 = V1 = P2
T1 V2 P1 m
m p2 , T2
b.) Nonflow work, Wn = p2V2 – p1V1 p1 , T1 V2
1–n V1 ΔU

c.) Heat Transfer, Q = ΔU + Wn Q

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Kelvin-Planck statement:
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir
and produce a net amount of work.
 That is, no heat engine can convert all heat it receive to useful work.
 That is, no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent.

 Clausius statement:
It is impossible to contruct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than
transfer of heat from lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
ENTROPY and THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Entropy (S)
Entropy is that property of substance which remains constant if not heat enters or leaves, while it
does work or alters its volume, but increases or diminishes should small amount of heat enter or leave.

The third law of thermodynamics provides an absolute reference point for determination of entropy.
The entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute entropy.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a system experiences a number of processes that eventually
return the fluid to its initial state

CARNOT CYCLE – the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature limits.

Processes of the Carnot cycle:

1-2 Isothermal expansion process; Addition of heat, QA1-2

at constant temperature T1 or T2 (High temperature in K or R)
2-3 Constant entropy (Isentropic) expansion
3-4 Isothermal compression; Rejection of heat, QR3-4
at constant temperature T3 or T4 (Low temperature in K or R)
4-1 Constant entropy (Isentropic) compression

Analysis of Carnot cycle: T-s diagram of Carnot Cycle

QA1-2 = mRT1 ln V2/V1 = p1V1 ln V2/V1

QR3-4 = mRT3 ln V4/V3 = p3V3 ln V4/V3 (negative value)

Net Work of a Cycle, WNET

WNET = ΣQ (Algebraic sum of heat transfer)

= QA1-2 + QR3-4

Thermal Efficiency, e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic cycle that is converted into
work.

Thermal Efficiency of the Carnot cycle:

e = WNET x 100%
QA1-2

In terms of temperature limits

e = T1 – T3 x 100% where: T1 = T2 = absolute temperature of the heat source, K or R

T1 T3 = T4 = absolute temperature of the heat sink, K or R

AIR-STANDARD or GAS POWER CYCLES

Otto Cycle – is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition (or gasoline) reciprocating engine.

Diesel Cycle – is the ideal cycle for compression ignition (or diesel) reciprocating engine.

Brayton Cycle – is the ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines. Two major application areas of gas-turbine engines
are aircraft propulsion (jet engine) and electric power generation.

Rankine Cycle – is the ideal cycle for vapor power cycles (thermal or steam power plant)