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Introduction
Prior to July 2006, penetration graded road paving bitumen such as 60/70 was
used in India. This grading system was based on empirical penetration test,
which is conducted at 25oC. The penetration test measures the consistency of
bitumen. Although two 60/70 penetration bitumen samples from different
refineries may have similar consistency (stiffness) at 25oC, but one may be
softer than the other when tested at 60oC, which is close to the highest
pavement temperature on a hot summer day. Bitumen which is very soft at
high temperature is undesirable because it can cause rutting in bituminous
pavement under heavy loads. Therefore, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
adopted a viscosity grading system for paving bitumen in July 2006 by issuing
standard IS:73:2006. This system is based on viscosity testing at 60oC.
Penetration graded bitumen 60/70 was deleted and substituted with viscosity
graded VG-30. Similarly, penetration graded bitumen 80/100 was deleted and
substituted with viscosity graded VG-10.
This test is based on the concept that round particles pack closer than angular
particles and therefore produce lower uncompacted void content, that is, lower
FAA value. A FAA value of 45 or more is desirable to ensure that the fine
aggregate is angular and does not contain any natural sand, which normally
has rounded particles.
Mix Design
Marshall Mix design is currently used in India for designing bituminous mixes.
In any mix design, it is desirable to compact laboratory specimens to a density
which is expected to be achieved in the bituminous course after 2-3 years of
densification under traffic. For designing bituminous mixes for heavy traffic, 75
blows each are applied with a Marshall impact hammer on both sides of the
specimen. This laboratory compaction level worked well in the past. However, it
was observed in the US during the 1980s that the field density of in-service
bituminous pavements was significantly higher than the laboratory design
density obtained with 75 blows. This was attributed to increased truck tyre
pressures and new tyre designs with stiffer side walls. Therefore, 75-blow
compaction level appeared inadequate. Increasing the number of blows was not
desirable because it merely caused degradation (breakage) of aggregate
particles in the specimen.
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) was developed in Germany in the mid 1960 and it
has been used very successfully by many countries including US as a highly
rut-resistant bituminous course, both for binder (intermediate) and wearing
course for heavy traffic roads. SMA is tough, stable, rut-resistant mix that
relies on stone-on-stone contact to provide strength and a rich mortar binder to
provide durability.
Since SMA mix has relatively higher bitumen content, cellulose fiber is added to
the mix to minimize drain down of bitumen in trucks during transportation of
the mix from plant to project site. Although the cost of SMA is typically about
25-30% higher than the cost of dense graded bituminous mix, it is still
economical considering life cycle costs.
SMA has been widely used in the US since 1991 for heavy-traffic roads. It must
also be used in India for heavy corridors especially when overloading is also
common. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has recently published a tentative
specification for SMA (IRC:SP:79-2008), which was drafted by the author to
facilitate its use in India. A manual containing detailed guidelines for designing
and constructing SMA mixtures was developed by the author in the US for
practicing engineers.
Figure 5: Lanes on the right have OGFC and lanes on the left have dense
graded hot mix asphalt on a interstate in the US. Note absence of
standing water and splash/spray on the lanes on the right side.
Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a fast emerging new technology which has a
potential of revolutionizing the production of asphalt mixtures. WMA
technology allows the mixing, lay down, and compaction of asphalt
mixes at significantly lower temperatures compared to hot mix asphalt
(HMA). The technology can reduce production temperatures by as much
as 30%. Asphalt mixes are generally produced at 150°C or greater
temperatures depending mainly on the type of binder used. WMA mixes
can be produced at temperatures of about 120°C or lower.
At the present time a mix is considered warm mix in the US if the mix produced
at the plant has temperature exceeding 100ºC but significantly below that of a
normal hot mix. WMA has a wide range of production temperatures ranging
from slightly over 100ºC to about 20 to 30ºC below typical HMA temperatures.
WMA technologies are also applicable to mixes made with polymer modified
asphalt binders.
WMA technologies can be classified broadly as (a) those that use water, (b)
those that use some type of organic additive or wax, and (c) those that use
chemical additives or surfactants.
Technologies which introduce small amounts of water to hot asphalt binder,
take advantage of the phenomenon: when water turns into steam at
atmospheric pressure it expands in volume by a factor of 1,673. This causes
tremendous increase in the volume of asphalt binder which not only helps in
coating the aggregate easily but also lowers the mix apparent viscosity.
Processes to introduce water into the asphalt binder consist of foaming nozzles,
use of hydrophilic material such as zeolite or use of damp aggregate. Asphalt
binder temperature typically is the same as that used for hot mix asphalt.
Technologies that use organic additives or waxes lower the asphalt binder
viscosity above their respective melting points. It should be ensured that their
melting points are above the in-service pavement temperatures during hot
summers so that permanent deformation or rutting does not become a
problem.
Technologies that use some chemical additive and /or surfactants produce a
variety of different mechanisms to coat the aggregate at lower temperatures.
It appears WMA technology is about to take off in India. There is a need to
incorporate WMA specifications in MORTH specifications.
Recycling of Bituminous Pavements
Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement
materials results in considerable savings of material, money, and energy. The
specific benefits of recycling can be summarized as follows:
1. When properly used, recycling can result in substantial savings over the
use of new materials. Also, the cost of haulage can be avoided if
recycling is performed in place. The need for economic consideration is
felt now more than ever, because of tightening budgets and ever
increasing cost of materials.
2. Recycling can help in conservation of natural resources by reducing the
need for new materials. This translates to substantial savings in
aggregate resources and demand for asphalt binder (bitumen),
especially during supply interruptions. Even though there may be an
abundant supply of aggregates, the distribution of these sources does
not always coincide with the location of need.
3. Recycled materials have proven to be equal or even better than new
materials in quality. Hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlay on recycled base is
expected to perform better than an HMA overlay on the existing surface,
even though they have the same thickness, because the former can
substantially reduce the potential of reflective cracking through the
surface course.
4. Recycling can maintain pavement geometrics as well as pavement
thickness. The existing pavement structure can be strengthened by
recycling without adding substantial overlays. In some cases, the traffic
disruption is lesser than that for other rehabilitation techniques.
5. Recycling can save considerable amount of energy compared to
conventional construction techniques. This factor is of significant
importance during an energy crisis like the one experienced during the
1972 Arab oil embargo.
Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement
rehabilitation alternatives. With the continuous accumulation of performance
data, field and laboratory evaluations of recycled mixes, and with the
simultaneous development of realistic performance oriented guidelines it is
expected that recycling will continue to be the most attractive rehabilitation
technique.
Different recycling methods are now available to address specific pavement
distress and structural needs. A brief description of these recycling methods
follows.
The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association define five different types of
recycling methods: (1) Cold Planing; (2) Hot Recycling; (3) Hot In Place
Recycling; (4) Cold In-Place Recycling; and (5) Full Depth Reclamation.
Hot recycling or hot mix recycling is the process in which reclaimed asphalt
pavement (RAP) material is combined with new materials, sometimes along
with a recycling agent, to produce hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Both batch
and drum type hot mix plants are used to produce recycled mix. The RAP
material can be obtained by milling or ripping and crushing operation. RAP at
ambient temperature when introduced in weigh hopper of the batch plant
(Figure 7) or drum of the drum plant is heated by superheated virgin
aggregate. If the amount of RAP exceeds 15-20 percent, a softer asphalt binder
is used to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder in the RAP. The mix placement
and compaction equipment and procedures are the same as for regular HMA.
Typical RAP to new aggregate ratio varies from 10:90 to 30:70 with a
maximum of 50:50 (drum plant). The advantages of hot mix recycling include
significant structural improvement, equal or better performance compared to
conventional HMA, and capability to correct most surface defects, deformation,
and cracking.
Figure 7: Hot mix asphalt recycling in a batch plant
References
• Kandhal, P.S. An Overview of the Viscosity Grading System Adopted in
India for Paving Bitumen. Indian Highways, Volume 34, No. 4, April
2007.
• Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy.
'Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction.' NAPA
Education Foundation, Lanham, Maryland, Second Edition, 1996.
• Kandhal, P.S. and F. Parker. 'Aggregate Tests Related to Asphalt
Concrete Performance in Pavements.' Transportation Research Board,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 405, 1998.
• Kandhal, P.S. 'Aggregate Tests for Hot Mix Asphalt:' State of the
Practice. Transportation Research Board Circular No. 479, December,
1997.
• Kandhal, P.S. Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Open-Graded
Asphalt Friction Courses. National Asphalt Pavement Association
Information Series 115, May 2002.
• Kandhal, P.S. Designing and Constructing Stone Matrix Asphalt Mixtures
State-of-the-Practice. National Asphalt Pavement Association Quality
Improvement Publication QIP-122 (Revised Edition), March 2002.
• Kandhal, P.S. Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies: An Overview. Journal of
the Indian Roads Congress, Volume 71-2, 2010.
• Kandhal, P.S. Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview. Association
of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 66,
1997.
• Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick. Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State
and Local Governments. Federal Highway Administration Publication No.
FHWA-SA-98-042, December, 1997.
About the Author
Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal is Associate Director (Emeritus) at the National
Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) based at Auburn University, Alabama,
U.S.A. NCAT is the largest asphalt (bitumen) road technology center in the
world. Prior to joining NCAT in 1988, Kandhal served as Chief Asphalt Engineer
of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation for 17 years. He is the first
person born outside North America, who has held the following three very
prestigious positions in the asphalt technology area:
Prof. Kandhal has published over 120 technical papers and has co-authored the
first ever textbook on asphalt road technology, which is used by more than 25
universities in the U.S.