TransportPlanning&Engineering PDF

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LECTURE NOTES
.f
FOR
'I
'f
TRANSPORT PLANNING
I
&
ENGINEERING
(As per Syllabus of Purbanchal University)
By
Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
Acme Engineering College
2015 September 01
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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Acme Engineering College (PU)
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Urban and Regional Planning 4
Chapter 3: Urban Transport Planning Process 9
Chapter 4: Transportation System Analysis 15
Chapter 5: Introduction to Airport Engineering 19
Chapter 6: Introduction to Railway Engineering 43
Chapter 7: Ropeways 68.
Chapter 8: National Transp.Oii Policy 75


1. Chapter I
Introduction
1.1. Transportation planning

Transportation planning is a process that includes careful consideration of problem, incorporation of
alternative viewpoints of analysis and evaluation, development of goals, objectives and a statement of
desirable transportation system performance and completion of the technical analysis needed to determine
impact of alternative decisions.
At simplest level, transportation planning is the process of answering four basic questions.
1) Where are we now? (Such as trends, and conditions relating to population, the transportation
system, and general state of the urban area)
2) Where do we want to go? (major issues, obstacles, and opp01tunities)
3) What will guide us? (goals, objectives, input and performance measures)
4) How will we get there? (revenue estimation, policy changes, program implementation)
Types of transportation planning

• Long term transport planning (strategic transport planning) : It work out a financially feasible
tr~nsportation system that is compatible to future development. It is prepared for 20 to 25 years.
e.g. new highway system
• Short term transport planning: It takes into account the more immediate needs of transportation
system performance. It is prepared for 5 to 10 years. e.g. traffic engineering techniques.
1.2. Scope of transportation planning and system engineering
a) System characteristic study

A transportation system consists of the facilities and services that allow an efficient movement of people
and goods. The following system characteristics are studied
• System hierarchy: order and function to the operation of the individual components
• System purpose: purpose of transportation system
• System Boundary: the boundaries of the system being analyzed
• System components: individual parts or components such as user, mode, infrastructure etc.
• System performance: the level and quality of the outputs
• System capacity: the number of units passing a given point during a given time period
• System control: means of system cootdination
• system feedback: feedback to individual components of transportation system
b) Transportation system impact

The transportation system can impact the natural environment and urban systems in a variety ways. These
impacts can range from the physical effects to the social and cultural effects. Impacts can be direct and
indirect. Impacts may be:
• Natural system impact: terrestrial /aquatic ecology
• Physical impact: air quality, noise, vibration, water quality, landslide etc.
• Social and cultural impact: historic and archeological impact, displacement of people, land use,
business activities etc.
c) Demand analysis
Estimating the demand for transpo1tation facilities and services is one of the most important task in urban
transportation planning. Demand analysis to find how many people, what type of people, what purpose
they will use the transportation system for, and expected flow of goods in metropolitan area.


d) Supply analysis
Developing and managing the supply of transportation is a primary focus of an effective transportation
planning process. Supply related policies are, infrastructure (fixed facilities), vehicles, routes, schedules
etc. Supply can be characterized by performance ofthe transportation system (e.g. travel times, headways,
and capacities). ·
e) Transportation system evaluation

Evaluation is the process of determining the relative value of individual alternatives and the desirability of
one alternative over other. Evaluation provides information to decision makers on impacts, trade off and
area of uncertainty. Different evaluation techniques such as B/C ratios are used.
t) Program and project implementation

Programming is the process of matching available or expected resources with transportation needs to
achieve planning goals. Transportation planners establish project priorities for project implementation.
1.3. Significance of transport planning
i) Justify funding
Transpmtation project expenditure requires huge investment. A detailed plan of how this road/service will
impact upbn the population needs to be conducted. TranspOitation planning will help to justify funding.
ii) Obtain planning permission

When a large development is being planned, one of the key elements in such a plan is the traffic impact
assessment and transpmtation plan for the new site. These plans are included in the application of
planning permission.
iii) Environmental considerations

It is important that in the transport plan that environmental considerations are taken into account.
1.4. Transportation modeling

Transportation model is a simplification of transportation reality. Transportation Modeling is
representation of transportation reality to analyze the future traffic conditions or existing conditions.
Transportation models are applied to individual highway facilities, or entire transpmtation system at the
city, state, and national levels. They can be divided into the following categories.
1. Demand models (economic models, shmt-term traffic pre~iction, traffic generation etc.)
2. Network models (model split, traffic assignment, scheduling)
3. Traffic models (advanced traffic control)
4. Pttrformance models (pollution model, safety performance models, traffic model)
Modeling step
a. Model formulation: A model may be formed by using various mathematical functions or forms. It can
be linear, exponential etc. for example,Y =AX+ B. where, Y is a function of variables X. a, bare
model parameters to be estimated.
b. Model estimation: 1t is the process by which the numerical values of the parameters of an assumed
model are estiniated.
c. Model validation: It refers to the testing of calibrated model by using empirical data that used to
estimate the model.


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1.5. Transport Problems in Cities

a. Traffic congestion
Inadequate transport infrastructure, problems in traffic management and increasing number of vehicles
are major cause for traffic congestion. Traffic congestion can be reduced With increase infrastructures,
increase passenger flow, reducing demand etc.
b. Traffic accident
Deficiencies in road infrastructures, increase in motorized traffic with ill mannered driving, drunken
driving and speeding are major causes of traffic accident. Improved road design, driver's training,
education and education measure can reduce traffic accident.
c. · Inadequate accessibility
Bad access to any area, inadequate bus lines etc should be addressed by providing new roads, transit or
bus lines etc. ··
d. Pollution and Nuisance
Rapidly increased motorized traffic and the continued use of outdated motor vehicles become major
sources of atmospheric deterioration such as air pollution.
e. Soci~tl Injustice and inequality
Biased accessibility for elderly, handicapped people, pedestrian, poor people etc should be addressed with
provision of passenger and pedestrian friendly facilities, affordable transportation modes etc.
f. Inadequate mobility
Inadequate road facilities, obstruction, narrow roads etc results delay and large travel time.
g. Inadequate (lack) offunding
Insufficient funding affects development of new infrastructures. The existing funds should be efficiently
utilized.
1.6. Tnwsportation Network and their Characteristics

Transportation network consists of system of highway, railway network, waterway network, pipeline
networks etc. Transportation networks have a node and link structure link represent the linear features
providing for movement such as highways and rail lines and nodes represents intersections, terminals etc.
Highway iink attributes are starting node, ending node, road length, free flow speed, capacity, number of
lanes or road width, type of road etc. Similarly, highway node attributes are node number, starting nodes
of all links joining current node, type of
FreewaY
intersection etc. (National Highways) District Roads
Highway network consists of networks of roads

which include freeways, aJierials, collectors
and local roads.
• Free ways: these roads provide largely Local/Rural
uninterrupted travel, often using partial (village Roads)
or full access control designed for high

speeds.
• Arterials: arterials are major through
roads that are expected to carry large
volume of traffic
• Collectors : collectors collect traffic
from local roads, and distributed it to
arterials
• Local roads: these roads have the
Collector Road
lowest speed limit and carry low (Feeder Road)
volume oftraffic.


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2 Chapter II
Urban and regional Planning
2.1 Difference between Urban and Regional Planning

Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations characterized by higher population density and vast
human features. Urban, city and town planning is the planning and designing of infrastructures
considering wide range of the aspects of the built and social environment of urban area. Urban planning
deals with small environment at more detailed level.
Region is larger than urban area which may consist of a few villages and town to a number of countries.
Region may be several towns, cities or different states. Regio11al planning is a category of planning and
development that deals with designing and placing infrastructure and other elements across large area.
Regional planning is normally long range planning and deals with larger environment at less detailed
level.
2.2 Transportation demand surveys and studies

Transportation survey includes the following types of study:
i) Travel pattern survey
ii) An inventory of existing transport facilities
iii) An inventory of existing land use and economic activities
2.2.1 Travel pattern survey
2.2.1.1 Home Interview Survey

It intended to yield data on the travel pattern of the residents of the household and the general
characteristics of the household influencing trip making.
The information collected in these home interviews are the type of housing structure, number of vehicle
ownership, household numbers, household income, description oftrips (origin, destination, trip purpose,
trip times .and travel modes) etc made by household member 5 years or older.
A number of techniques are available forthe home interview survey.

i) Full interview technique - it involves interviewing as many members of household as
possible and directing recording all the information
ii) Home questionnaire technique - the interviewer collects only details of the household
characteristics, leaving forms for household ·residents to complete with regard to travel
information
Variant ofhome interview

i) The telephone interview : In the telephone surveys, questionnaire is sent out by post before
the survey date and the reply are received by telephone
ii) The postal questionnaire: in the postal survey method, the questionnaire is mailed and the
household are requested to send their replies by post in pre-paid envelopes.
2.2.1.2 Road side interview

It can be done by directly interviewing drivers of the vehicles at selected survey points or by issuing
prepared post cards containing the questionnaire to all or sample of drivers.


Data Collection Sheet

Road Side Interview
Date: Location:
Please take a moment to answer a few questions about your trip. Your responses will help determine
the need.for improvements in this area.
1) Where did your trip begin? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2) What type of place is your trip start point?

0 Primary Residence 0 Workplace 0 Store
0 School (I am a student) 0 Recreation Area OOther
----------
3) Where did your trip end?
4) What type of place is your trip end point?

0 Primary Residence 0 Workplace 0 Store
0 School (I am a student) 0 Recreation Area 0 Other - - - - - - - - -
5) What was the purpose of your trip?

0 Work Commute 0 Business Related 0 Shopping
0 School (attend class) ORecreation OOther - - - - - - - - - - -
6) How many people were in the vehicle, including the driver?

0 1 02 0 3 0 4 0 5 or More
7) What type of vehicle were you in?

0 Passenger vehicle (car, motorcycle, SUV, pick-up truck, minivan)
0 Commercial vehicle
OOther_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8) Do you regularly use this route? 0 Yes ONo
9) Please add any comments on transportation you
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
2.2.1.3 Public transport survey

In order to assess the number of bus passenger, the survey can either by direct interview with passengers
0 r bJY .ISSUing pos t car d ques f Ionnmres. samp1e
l ofd at a shee t.IS s11own b eow:
1
Public Transport Survey
Vehicle Type: Registration No.:
Name of Owner: Address:
Date: Day:
Trip No. I Origin I Destination 1 Start Time J End Time J Number ofPassef!g_er
I I 1 I I


2.2.L4 Registration Plate No. Survey

This method consists of nothing the registration numbers of vehicles entering and leaving an area at
survey points located on cordon line. By matching the registration numbers of vehicles at points of entry
· £rom t he area, 0 - D of veh'1c1es, path fio11owe d , trave1tnnes
and ex1t · etc. can b eo btame
· d.
Field Data Collection Sheet
Registration Plate No. Survey
Survey Station: Surveyor:
Date: Day:
Registration No. I Time I Vehicle Type I Others

I I I
2.2.1.5 Post Card Survey (Mail bacl{ survey)
In this method, questionnaires are handed over to each driver or a sample at the survey point along with
pre aid envelo and re uest them to com lete the information and return the uestionnaire b ost.
Post Card Questionnaire Survey
Survey Station: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Surveyor.: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Date: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Day:
-------------------
Time: Vehicle Type: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
---------------------
Vehicle Occupancy: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Destination:
-------------
c Types of Goods Carried: _ _ _ _ __
2.2.1.6 Tags on Vehicle

Vehicles are stopped at each point where the road cross the cordon lines and tag is fixed usually under the
windscreen wiper. The tags for different survey stations have different color and shape to identify the
surve station. The vehicles are sto ed a ain at the exit oint when ta s are collected back.
Tag on Vehicle Survey
Surve>: Station: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ Surveyor

----------------
Date: Day:
-------------- ---------------------
Time while starting: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Vehicle Type:-------'-------
Survey Station: Surveyor
--------- -------------
Date: Day:
--------------- --------------
Time while Removing: Vehicle Type: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
-----------

Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

2.2.1.7 Commercial vehicle survey

It is conducted to obtain information on journey made by all commercial vehicles based within study area.
Address of the operators is obtained and forms are issued to drivers with the request that they record
. 1ars o f a11 tnps
p art1cu . t heycou ld mace.
1
Commercial vehicle Survey
Vehicle Type:. Registration No.:
Name of Owner: Address:
Date: Day:
Trip No. I Origin I Destination I Start Time I End Time I Types of Goods
I I I I I
2.2.2 Inventory study of Transportation Facilities
Inventory of existing transport facilities should be undertaken to identify the deficiencies in the present
system and the extent to which they need to be improved. The inventory consists of:
• Inventory of streets forming the transp01i network
• Traffic volume, composition, peak and off peak
• Studies on travel time by different mode
• Inventory of public trans port buses
• Inventory of rail transport facilities
• Parking inventory
• Accident data
2.2.3 Inventory of Land Use and Economic activities

2.2.3.1 Inventory of Land use
Since travel characteristics are closely related to the land use pattern, it is of utrnost importance that an
accurate inventory of land use be prepared. Land use type such as residential, industrial, commercial,
recreationftl, open space etc. in each oft!1e traffic zones are to be collected from concerned department.
2.2.3.2 Inventory of Economic activities

Aggregate data on demographic and socioeconomic activities should be collected. Other sources to
include the following:
• Population of the planning area and the various zones
• Age, sex and composition ofthe family
• Employment statistics
• Income
• Vehicle ownership
2.3 Travel demand forecasting

Travel demand forecasting is a method used to predict future demand for transport facilities and services
in an area, city or region. Travel demand model are designed to calculate the nuniber of trips connecting
0-D, predict mode of travel, and identify roadways or transit routes most likely to be used for the trip.
Travel demand forecasting is the sequential steps of trip generation, trip distribution, modal choice and
traffic assignment as shown in figure.


;-
2.3.1 Steps in travel forecasting process
a) Population and economic analysis determines the magnitude and extent of activity in the urban
~
area
b) Land use analysis determines where the activities will be located
c) Trip generation determines how many trips each activity will produce or attract
d) Trip distribution determines the origin or destination of trips that are generated at a given activity
e) Modal split determines which mode oftransportation will be used to make the trip
f) Traffic assignment determines which route on the transportation network will be used
Population, Economic activity,

Land use data
Trip Generation Model
Trip Distribution Model
Modal Split Model
Traffic Assignment
2.3.2 Factors influencing Travel Demand

Three factors that influence the demand for urban travel:
• land use characteristics
• Socioeconomic characteristics
• Availability ofTransportation facilities and services


3.. Chapter 3
Urban Transport Planning Process
3.1. Urban Transport Planning Process
.
Inventory of Existing conditions
Population & economic activity
. Land use & Transport Facilities
Forecasting population, land use,

Economic Activities
I Generation of Alternatives
I Travel Demand Forecasting
Estimation of project cost & Annual Estimation of usage level and user benefit
I Operation and maintenance cost I and impact
Evaluation of Alternatives I
1
I Choice of Project & Implementation
I
3.2. Four step transport planning

Four step transport planning is the sequential steps of trip generation, trip distribution, modal choice and
traffic assignment. The details of each step are explained in the following sub topics.
3.2.1. Trip Generation

Trip.generation is the process of determining the number of trips that will begin or end in each traffic
analysis zone within study area. In other words, trip generation is the prediction of the number of trips
produced by and attracted to each zone.
Trip production- the home end of home based trip or as the origin of an non-home based trip.
Trip attraction- the non home end of HB trip or the destination of an non home based trip.


Production Attraction
EJ Production Attraction
- EJ
Production . Attraction
EJ Attraction Production EJ
3.2.1.1. Classification ofTrips
• By trip purpose - work trips, education trips, shopping trips, social and recreational trips, other
trips (health, trip accompanied by person)
• By time of day- peak hour trips (8:00 - 10:00 & 4:00 - 6:00 pm), off peak hour trips (1 0:00 -
12:00)
• By person type- by income level, car ownership, household size and structure
3.2.1.2. Factors affecting trip generation

• Personal trip production - Income, age, car ownership, household size and structure, value of
land, residential density, accessibility
• Personal trip attraction - roofed space available for industrial, commercial and other activities,
employment, accessibility
• Freight trip production and attraction- number of employee, number of sales, roofed area of firm,
total area of firm etc.
3.2.1.3. Method of estimating trip generation
i) Growth factor modeling

Trip will increase at the same growth rate at which socioeconomic variable increase. Future trip is simple
multiple of growth factor and current trip.
Tid =fiT{
Where, j;= growth factor for zone 'i' ·
T/ = Current trips in zone 'i'
T/ =design (future) year trips in zone 'i'
1
The growth factor 'ti' depends on the explanatory variables such as population (P), average household
income (I), average vehicle ownership (C) etc.
d d d d
f(Pi,li,Ci)
fi = f(Pci Jci Cc)
1
Ji i
Where superscripts'd' and 'c' represents the design (future) and current year respectively.


ii) Cross classification or category analysis

In category analysis, the population of the study area is divided into a number of homogeneous group
especially based on socioeconomic characteristic (family size, automobile ownership etc.). Trip rate for
each categories are estimated and this trip rate is used for forecasting trips for other zones.
iii) Regression analysis

The total number of trips produced or attracted in an area is assumed to depend upon some variables such
as population, family income, family size, employment etc. Regression analysis predicts the umber of
future trips from the measurement of the other independent variables.
If the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable is linear, then the analysis is called
linear regression. If independent variables are two or more in numbers, then the analysis is called multiple
regression analysis.
A linear regression line is,

Y =a+ bx
Where,
x = the independent variables
y =the dependent variables
The slope of line is 'b' and the intercept 'a'.
a {L L
= ~ y - b x}
b = nl:xy- l:xl:y
nl:x 2 - (l:x) 2
Multiple linear regression analysis is the statistical technique mostly used to derive the estimates of future
trip generation where two or more independent factors are affecting the amount of travel.
y = a+ b1x1 + bzXz + ........... · ..... · .. · + b11 X11
Where,
y =the dependent variable (zonal measure of trips in terms of person/vehicle movement)
x~, x 2 , ........ x11 =the independent variables (socio-economic variables)
a = constant to represent the portion having value 'y' which is not explained by the.
independent variables
b 1, b2, ........ b11 =the coefficients of respective independent variables
Two independent variables

The general form of regression equation for two variable case, can be written as:
Y = a+ b1X1 + b2 Xz
Where


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3.2.2. Trip Distribution

Trip distribution is a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated to other zones in the
study area. Example, if the trip generation analysis results in an estimate 200 home based work trip in
zone I 0, the trip distribution analysis would determine how many of these trips would be made between
zone 10 and all other zones. ·
oi
Zones 2 j m
The trip pattern in a study area can (Pi)
be represented by trip matrix or 1 T11 T1z T1.i Tim OJ
origin-destination (0-D) matrix. Tij 2 Tz1 Tzz Tzi Tzm Oz
is the number of trip between origin
'i', and destination 'j'. 'Oi' is the
total number of trips originating in Til Ti2 Tii Tim oi
zones 'i' and 'Dj' is the total number
of trips attracted to zone 'j'.
i) Growth Factor Method n T11 T12 Tni Tnm On

The present day impersonal Di (Ai) D1 Dz Di Dm T
movements are multiplied by growth factor in order to estimate the future distribution of trips between
traffic zones. Common growth factor methods of are:
a) Uniform growth factor
b) Average growth factor
c) Fratar method
a) Uniform growth factor

This is the oldest and simplest method of projecting future trip distribution. A single growth factor is
calculated for the entire area under study and used to multiply all the present inter-zonal movements to
produce4 the estimates of future inter-zonal movements.
The future trips between zone 'i' and zone 'j', namely, 'Tu' are calculated by applying the uniform growth
factor 'F' to the base year trips, tiJ between zone 'i' and 'j'. thus
b) Average growth facto•· method

In this method, the growth factor represents the average growth associated with both ongm and
destination zones. If 'F;' and 'F'/ are the growth factors for the zone 'i' and 'j' respectively, and 't;/ is
base year trips, between zone 'i' and 'j'. Then, the future trips 'T;/ are calculated by,
c) Fratar Method
This method was introduced by T.J. Fartar. As per this method, the total future trips for each zone are
obtained by multiplying the base year trip between two zones, their respective growth factor and relative
attractiveness factor.
Then future trips estimated for any zone would be distributed in the measurements involving that zone in
proportion to existing trips between it and other attraction zones and expected growth of each other zone.
2:}=1 ti1
Where,
'tu' & 'T;/ are base year trip and the predicted future trips between zone 'i' and zone 'j' respectively
'F/ and 'F/ represents growth factor of zone 'i' and 'j' respectively.


Advantages of Growth Factor models

• Easily understood
• Simple in operation and application
• Reasonable for areas with stable development
Disadvantage
• Underestimate trips where present day development is limited and over estimate where present
day development is intensive
• If the present trips between any two zones is zero, the future trips also become zero
• It doesn't take into account the resistance to travel
• It neglects the effects of changes in travel pattern by new construction
• Present (base year) trip distribution matrix must be obtained first.
ii) Gravity Method

Gravity model is preferred over other models because it uses the attributes of the transportation system .
and land use characteristics, and has been calibrated extensively for many urban areas.
Gravity model states that the number of trips between two zones is directly proportional to the number of
trip attraction generated by the zone of destination and inversely proportional to a function of time of
travel between the two zones. Trip distribution between zones 'i' and 'j' can be written as,
P·A·
Tij -- 1'''{ _!_2'}
dij
n n
Irij
j =1
= L
j =1
KPA Fij
Where,
Pi and Aj are the production and attraction of zone
Fij = d\ is the impedance function, and K =constant
'!
Also,
n n
fi = Irij=
j=1
L
j=1
KPiAj Fij
n
pi= KPi L
j=1
AjFij
yields
---7
Mathematically,
Where,
Ku = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij
Fij can be determined using travel time values and an inverse relationship between F and t
exists such as f 1, f 2 , e- 1 etc.
e.g. the friction factor can be expressed as F = ab1e·ct
3.2.3. Model split models (Mode choice model)

Mode choice is determining the number (or percentage) of trips between zones that are made by particular
mode. The factors influencing mode choice are:


• Characteristic of trip maker - such as car ownership, possession of a driving license, household
structure, income, residential density
• Trip characteristics- such as trip purpose, time of the day
• C~aracteristics of the transp01i facility - suph as travel time, in-vehicle time, waiting time and
qualitative factors such as comf01i, convenience, reliability, security etc.)
Most widely used model for modal split model is logit models. Logit models are based on utility
maximization prinCiple. The traveler will associate some value for the utility of each mode. If the utility
of one mode is higher than other, then that mode is chosen. The utility of each mode can be expressed as a
summation of each modal attribute. Then the choice of a mode is expressed as a probability distribution.
n
Ux = IaiXi
i=l
Where, Ux= utility of mode 'X'
n = number of attributes
Xi =attribute value (such as time, cost, and so on)
ai =coefficient value of attribute 'i', (negative since the values are disutilities)
The probability of using any mode 'k' can be expressed as,
Where,
p(k) =probability ofusing mode 'k'
Uk= Utility of using mode 'k'
Ux =utility of using any particular mode 'X'
N =Number of mode to choose from
3.2.4. Traffic Assignment

Traffic assignment, route choice or route assignment is the final step of 4-step modeling process. Traffic
assignment involves computing one or more optional route between each origin and destination and
distributing travel demand over these routes.
3.2.4.1. Application of traffic assignment model

• To determine the deficiencies in the existing transp01iation system
• To evaluate the effects of the improvements
• To develop the construction priorities
• To test the transportation system proposals
3.2.4.2. Types of traffic assignment model.

i) All of nothing model
It is based on the theory that a motorist or transit user will select the quickest route that represents
minimum· travel time. First, the sh01iest routes between traffic analysis zones are computed. Then, all
trips are assigned to links comprising the shortest route. Continue until trips between all traffic analysis
zone pairs have been assigned
This is simple, inexpensive, fast method, and results are easy to understand and interpret. However, it
generates unrealistic flow patterns in situations where there are minor differences in travel impedance
between alternative routes.


ii) Multipath assignment model (Multiple route assignment model)

This method assigns inter zonal flow to several paths between each pair of zones based on their relative
impedance. Irwin and Van cube suggested the following inverse proportion function to compute the
fraction to be assigned to each of number of inter zonal routes.
w:ijr-1
p(r) = L..x=1 w:.-:-1
'\'n
LJX
Where, Wijr =the impedance of route 'r' from 'i' to 'j'
iii) Capacity restraint method

The number of trips assigned to each link is compared with the capacity of the link to determine the
extent to which link travel time have been increased by the additional volume placed on the formerly
empty link. A reassignment is then made based on these new values. The iteration process continues until
a balance is achieved. Several link performance functions are found in literatures. The functional form
developed by the BPR (Bureau of Public Roads), is expressed as,
(~)
4
t =t 0 [ 1 + 0.15 ]
Where,
t =travel time on the link
t0 = free flow travel time
V =Volume on the link
C =Capacity of the link
A trip between a pair of zones is chosen at random, the minimum path is determined using the free-flow
impedances, and the entire interchange volume is assigned to this minimum path. The impedances of the
Jinks that make up this path are updated according to the assigned flows and another interchange is
randomly chosen. The procedure ends when all interchanges are considered.
iv) Capacity constraint multipath Model

In this method, traffic is assigned as per multi path assignment model. Then, the number of trips assigned
to each link is compared with the capacity of the link to determine the extent to which link travel time
have been increased by the additional volume placed on the formerly empty link. A reassignment is then
made based on these new values. The iteration process continues until a balance is achieved.
v) Diversion Curve Method _

Diversion curves are empirically derived relationship showing the proportion of traffic that is likely to be
diverted on a new facility (bypass, new expressway, etc.) once such a facility is constructed. This model
is based on travel time saved, distance saved, travel time ratio, distance and speed ration, travel cost ratio
etc. bureau of Public roads fitted curve to the following formula.
. 100
p = (1 + t) 6
Where,
p =%of the traffic diverted to new system
T =travel time ratio (time on new systern /time on old system)
California curve method

Travel time saved and distance saved are used. The formula is,
0
. . _ 50 x (d + 0.5t)
Yo trafftc dwerted (p)- 50+ [(d _ 0.5 t)2 + 4 .5]o.s
Where, 'd' and 't' are distance saved in miles and travel time saved in minutes.


4. Chapter IV
Transportation System Analysis
4.1. Generation of Alternatives

Transportation Engineer has a variety of option available in any particular situation. Consideration should
be given to a variety of ideas, designs locations and system configurations that might provide solution to
problem. The alternatives available to the transportation engineer include various technologies, network
configurations, vehicle operating policies, and organizational arrangements.
Federal transit administration (FTA, USA) has suggested 6 principles of the developing alternatives:
i) Alternatives should be defined in terms of their design concept and scope
ii) Alternatives should respond directly to clear statement
iii) Should be developed through a process of considering all reasonable options
iv) Should be structured to provide a range of options to decision makers
v) Should be as competitive as possible
vi) Alternatives should be identified and refined in an open, well documented process.
4.2. Evaluation of alternatives

Evaluation is the process of determining the desirability of different course of action and of presenting
this information to decision makers in comprehensive and useful form. Evaluation is a comparison of
alternatives that give decision makers better information on the trade off and likely impacts of a project.
4.2.1. Purpose of evaluation

• Determine the cost .effectiveness of a project
• Recognizes uncertainties
• Examine trade off
• Rank alternatives
• Provide the best information to decision makers
•·
4.2.2. The basis of evaluation
• Appropriateness
• Equity
• Effectiveness
• Adequacy
• Efficiency
• Implementation Feasibility
• Sensitivity analysis
4.2.3. Characteristics of Evaluation

• Should focus on the decisions being faced by decision makers
• Should relate the consequences of alternatives to goal and objectives
• Should determine how different groups are affected by project
• Should be sensitive to the time frame
• Should produce information on the likely impacts of alternatives
• Should analyze the implementation requirements of each alternatives
• Should assess the financial feasibility of the actions recommended in the plan
• Should provide information to the decision makers on the value of alternatives


4.3. Costs and benefits of transport Project
4.3.1. Benefits
Benefits are the desirable effect (positive impact) of an investment. The evaluation of user benefit is a
process of determining how great a reduction in costs ~ill occur if an improvement is made. Benefits are:
• Benefit from travel time saving- monetary value of travel time saving
• Benefit fron1 reduction in accidents - a monetary value of reduced fatalities and injuries attribute
to reduction in accidents
• Benefit from reduced cost of vehicle operation- a monetary value of the saving due to reduction
of vehicle operating cost
4.3.2. Cost
The Cost of a transportation facility improvement includes:
i) Capital costs - initial cost, total investment required
ii) Operation and maintenance cost - operation and maintenance cost incurred over the life of
the facility
iii) Social and environmental cost
4.3.3. Social Cost of Transportation

Deluchi (1999) provideds the following classification of motor vehicle costs.
a) Personal non monetary cost of using motor vehicles, such as:
• Uncompensated non-work travel time
• Personal time working on motor vehicles
• Noise suffering on oneself
• Air pollution suffering oneself
b) Explicitly priced private sector motor vehicle goods and services, taxes and fees
• Annualized costs of vehicle, excluding taxes
• Automobile insurance
• Parking cost
• Overhead expenses
c) Bundled private sector goods
• Annualized cost of non-residential parking
• Annualized cost of home garages and other residential parking
d) Government services charged partly to motor vehicles user
• Annualized cost of road maintenance
• Annualized cost of municipal off street parking
• Highway law enforcement
• Environmental regulation, protection and clean up
e) Monetary externalities
• Cost of travel delays caused by others
• Accident costs not paid for by responsible party
• Price effect of using petroleum fuel for motor vehicles
f) Non-monetary externalities
• Air pollution
• Accidents, pain, suffering , death not paid by responsible party
.• Global warming
• Noise and water pollution
• Habitat and species damaged
• Damage to aesthetics of environment


4.4. Economic evaluation methods

An economic evaluation of a transportation project is completed using one of the following methods.
4.4.1. Present worth (PW)

• Most straight forward of the economic evaluations
• It represents the current value of all the costs that will be incurred over the life time of the
project.
N
~ en
PW =L (1 + i)n
n=O
Where, Cn =facility and user cost incurred in year 'n'
N = service life (in year)
i = interest rate
Selection criteria - Select project with least present worth for cost project
4.4.2. Equivalent Uniform Annual Worth

The conversion of a given cash flow to series of equal annual amounts is referred to as the equivalent
uniform annual worth (EUA W).
Where, NPW = net present worth
Selection criteria - Select project with least EUA W for cost project
4.4.3. Benefit cost ratio

The ratio of the present worth of net project benefit and net project costs is called the benefit cost ratio
(BCR).
B
BCR =-
C
B = reduction in user and operation cost C
C = increase in facility cost
Selection criteria- Select project with BIC greater than 1.
4.4.4. Internal rate of return

• The interest rate at which the PW of benefit equals o PW of cost.
• Project is feasible if interest rate is greater than minimum attractive rate of return (MARR)
• PW(B)- PW(C) = 0
Selection ~riteria - Select project with IRR greater thanMARR


5. ChapterV
·Introduction to Airport Engineering
5.1. Airport Engineering

A branch of Transportation Engineering (civil engineering) which deals with the planning design,
construction, and operation and maintenance of facilities providing for landing and takeoff,
loading and unloading, servicing and storage of aircraft.
5.1.1. Advantage of Air Transportation

;. • Improves accessibility
• Fastest and safe mode of transport
• Provides continuous connectivity
• Promotion of trade and commerce
• Add foreign reserve through tourism
• Military, agricultural spraying, aerial photography etc
5.1.2. Disadvantages of Air Transportation

• Heavy funds required for both initial investment as well as operation
• Highly depended upon weather conditions
• Requires highly sophisticated machinery
• Outward flow of foreign exchange
• Noise pollution
5.2. Factor Affecting Airport Site Selection

• Regional plan
• Airport use
• Proximity to other airports
• Ground accessibility
• Topography
• Obstructions
• Visibility
• Wind
• Noise nuisance
• Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
• Future development
• Availability of utilities from town
• Economic considerations
5.3. Aircraft Component Parts

Its ~ssential parts are as given below:
a) Engine: Engine provides the force required for propelling the aircraft through the air. According to
the method of propulsion aircraft engine can be Piston engine, Jet engine (Turbo Jet, Turbo Prop,
Turbo fan etc.). An airplane can be single engine or multi engine. Single engine usually mounted at


the nose of the fuselage. In two or four engine aircraft, they usually housed in the leading edge of the
aircraft or wing.
b) Fuselage: It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the power plant, fuel, cockpit,
passenger, cargo etc.
Vertical Stabilizer"-
'-..,
Horizontal Stabilizer '-.., Rudder
Jet Engine
//
Cockpit
Fuselage Slats
c) Wings: Wings are required to support the machine in the air, when the engine has given forward
speed.
d) Three controls: There are three axes about

which an aircraft in space may move. The
movement of aircraft about the X, Y and Z axes
are called lateral (rolling), pitching and and
yawing movements respectively. To control
these .movements, the airplane is provided with
three principal controls namely (i) elevator (ii)
rudder and (iii) aileron.
(i) Elevator: It consists of two flaps capable of z
~
moving up and down through an angle of 50° to
Roll Axis
60°. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal Yaw Axis
stabilizer (tail plane). It controls the pitching or
up and down movements of the aircraft.
X
(ii) Rudder: It consists of a streamlined flap
hinged to a vertical fin provided at the tail. It can he moved right or left of the vertical axis
through an angle of about 30°. It is utilized for the turning or yawing movement of the
aircraft.
(iii) Aileron: It is a hinged flap which is fixed in the trailing edge of the wing near the wing
tip. When aileron in one wing is pulled up that in other is pulled down. Once the wing with
aileron deflected downwards, there will be an increased lift under the wing. Pulling an
aileron up reduces the lift on the plane.
e) Flaps: Flaps are located along the trailing edge of both wing typically close to fuselage. They
are similar to aileron in that they affect the amount of lift created by the wing.


f) Tricycle Under Carriage: It is a structure to support

the aircraft while it is in contact with the ground, It l -
·Main Wheels (Single)
-..
has two principal functions are:
(i) To absorb landing shocks while an aircraft. lands •. -Main Wheels (Dual)
(ii) To enable the aircraft to maneuver on ground
5.4. Aircraft characteristics :t -

! Main Wheels (Dual-Tandem).
These are importance to the airport planner and designer. !
a) Engine Type and Propulsion system: It affects size

of aircraft, circling radius, speed, weight carrying
capacity, noise nuisance etc. ~
Speed Limit (kmph)
Engine
Piston 250 to 750
Jet Engine 1000 to 3000
Ram jet 1280 to 2400
Rocket 4600
b) Size 9f Aircraft: Aircraft's wing span, fuselage length, height, distance between main gears,
wheel base, trail width etc affect various components of airport.
c) Minimum turning radius: It is the the line joining the center of rotation and the tip of
farthest wing of the aircraft. Maximum angle of nose gear is limited 50° to 60° for turbo jet. It
is important to estab Iish the radius of taxiways, and the path of the movement of aircraft.
d) Min circling radius: Separation between two nearby airports is governed by minimum
circling radius. It varies from 1.6 )<.m for small aircraft to 80 km for large jet engine aircraft.
e) Speed of Aircraft: Speed of aircraft is expressed with respect to ground (called cruising or
ground speed) or air.
f) Weight of Aircraft & wheel configuration: Weight and Wheel configuration affect the
pavement design of runway, taxiway, aprons and hangers. ·
g) Aircraft Capacity: It depends on size of aircraft, propulsive power, speed etc.
Ii) Jet blast: Jet blast affects inconvenience to passenger and bituminous pavement.
i) Fuel spillage: It should bring within minimum limit. Therefore, constant supervision .is
required.
j) Noise: Noise should be minimum,


Wheel Tread
Figure: Size of Aircraft
Minimum Turning Radius
Figure: Circling Radius
Figure Circling Radius Figure: Minimum Turning Radius
5.5. Airport Classification

5.5.1. Based on takeoff and landing
a. Conventional take off and landing (runway length> 1500m)
b. Reduced take off and landing (runway length 1000- 1500)


c. Short take off and landing (runway length 500- 1000)

d. Vertical take off and landing (operational area 25 to 50 sq.m)
5.5.2. ICAO Classification

Two classification system
i) Length ofrunway available
ii) AircraJt wing span and outer main gear wheel span
5.5.2.1 .B ase d on L eng1th of runway ava1·1 a bl e
Code Number Basic Runway Length (m)
1 Less than 800m
2 800 m up to but not including 1,2000 m
3 1,200 m up to but not including 1,800 m
4 Over 1,800 m
2 B ase d on L eng1th of runway ava1.1 a bl e

5.5.2 ..
Code letter Wing span Outer main gear wheel s_pan
A Up to but not including 15m Up to but not including 4.5 m
B 15 m up to but not including 24 m 4.5 m up to but not including 6 m
c 24m up to but not including 36m 6 m up to but not including 9 m
D 36 m up to but not including 52 m 9 m up to but not including 14m
E 52 m up to but not including 65 m 9 m UQ to but not including 14 m
F 65 m up to but not including 80 m 14m U_Q_ to but not including_ 16m
5.5.3. FAA Airport Classification

. . A ut hon'ty (FAA) c1ass1'fites as per approach spee d
Pede ra I Avtatwn
Approach Category Approach Speed (Knots)
A <91
B 91 -120
c 121- 140
D 141-165
E 166 orgreater
5.5.4. Based on Function

• International Airport- Handles flights from different countries
• Domestic Airport- Handles flights within country
• Combined_:__ Handles both domestic as well as international flights
5.5.5. · Classification based on Mach Number(M)

~, h 71 r. ber (M)
1V1GC .1vUl11
Flow Velocity
= -------''---
Local Speed of Sound .
• Subsonic (M<l)
• Transonic (M:::::l)
• Supersonic (M>l)
• Hypersonic (M>>l)


5.5.6. Classification based on Engine type

• Propeller (Piston)
• Turbojet
• Turboprop
• Turbofan
• Ramjet
• Rocket
5.5.7. Classification based on Number of Engine

Single, Twin (Double), Four Engines, Six Engines
5.5.8. Classification based on Number of Wings

• · Mono planes
• Biplanes
5.5.9. Classification based on Range

• Short Range (<500 km)
• Medium Range (3,000 km)
• Long Ra:nge (>3,000 km)
5.5.10. Classification based on Mode of take off & Landing

• Normal
• VTOL (Vertical Takeoff & Landing)
• XSTOL (Extremely Short Take off & Landing)
• STOL (Short Take off & Landing)
• STOVL (Short Take off &Vertical Landing)
5.5.11. FAA Aircraft Design Group (ADG) Classification
Design Tail Height Wing Span Representative Aircraft

Group (feet) (fc~et)
Cessna172, Beech36,
I <20 <49
-
Cessna 421, Lear Jet 35
Beech B300, Cessna 550,
II 20 to <30 49 tc' <79
·-
Falcon 50, Challenger 605
Boeing 737, Airbus A320,
III 30 to< 45 79 to< 118 ·
L
CRJ- 900, EMB- 190
Boeing 767, Boeing 757,
IV 45 to< 60 118 to< 171
Airbus A300, Douglas DC-1 0
Boeing 747, Airbus A340,
v 60 to <66 171 to< 214
Boeing 777
VI 66 to <80 214 to< 262 AirbusA380
-·


5.6. Air Travel demand Forecasting

Air Travel Demand forecasting is the activity of estimating the amount of an air travel that
traveller will use.
Use
To aid air lines in their long run planning
To assist government in orderly development of air transportation system
To assist government in planning facilities required for air transportation system
5.6.1. Trend Forecasting method

This method is based on the past travel pattern. Forecaster assume that the traffic will continue to
develop in the futqre as in the past. This method is more reliable for forecasting over a short
period.
Methods of finding trend.

a) Fitting trend line by graphic.
b) Time series analysis employing least square.
5.6.2. Base forecasts Method

In the base forecast method, annual national passenger volumes are obtained as percentages
of national forecasts. There are two methods used in USA:
Method A:
• Determine the percentage of national enplaned passenger that the airport has attracted in the
past.
• Adjust this percentage to reflect anticipated abnormal growth trends
• Obtain data for national passenger volume for the design year
• Calculate step down design figure as the product of the percentage of step 2 and the nationa;I
figure from step 3. ·
Method B
• Obtain the number of passenger per 1000 population that the airport has experienced in
the past, and the number of passengers nationally per 1000 population.
• Compute the ratio:
Passenger per 1000 Population for Airport
r= -
Passenger per 1000 Population for Nation
• Obtain the national forecast of air passenger volumes per 1000 population for the design
y~a~ '
• From the ratio computed in step 3 and the national forecasts of step 4, calculate the local
passenger volume per 1000 population.
5.6.3. Analytical methods of air travel demand f9recasting

• Conventional analysis of traffic demand divides the modeling procedure into four
distinct consecutive steps: ·


Generation How many trips originate & terminate

in specific area
Distribution Trip interchange between specific

pairsof origin and destination
. Modal Choice It split the interchanges into those

specific to individual modes
Assignment + Route taken by the individual traveler
from a choice of all available route
• In case of air transport, the model chain has frequently been simplified to a mode
specific chain ofthe following from:
5.6.3.l.Market analysis:
• It is dominant technique for aviation demand forecasting
• Trend forecasting or Cross classification.
• Historical data are examined to determine the ratio of local airport traffic to total
national traffic
• National demands total are estimated for the design date
• Demand for local airport is obtained by multiplying national demand with the ratio
5.6.3.2.Regression analysis:
• A statistical relationship between rate of trip generation (dependent variable) and a
number of independent variables is established by tegression analysis
•. Typically the air trip generation regression model would be:
• T = ao+a,x,+a2x2+ ........ +anXn
o Where,
• T =The number of air trip
• x 1, x 2,: .• •Xn = independent variables
• a1, a2, ..... an= regression constant
5.6.4. Air trip distribution models .

• The trip distribution models predicts the level of trip interchange between designated
airport pairs, once the level of generation of air trip ends at the individual airports
have been computed
• The most widely used distribution model is the gravity model.
PA.F
T. = I j !I
!I n
LAjF0
j=I
Where,
Tij =Travel by air passenger between cities 'i' and 'j'
Pi , Aj = Production and Attraction of zone 'i' and 'j' respectively
Fij =Friction Factor (Impedance function)


5.7. Airport Components

An Airport has two major components: (i) Airfield and (ii) Terminal
i) Airfield
The area and facilities on the property of an airport that facilitate the movement of aircraft are
said to be part of the airport's airfield. Components of Airfield are:
Runways
Taxiways
Hanger
Navigational Aids
Lighting Systems
Facilities for air traffic control and surveillance
Fueling the aircraft
Signage and markings
• . Weather reporting facilities
Security and fire control
ii) Terminal
Terminal area provides the facilities, procedures and processes to efficiently move crew,
passengers and cargo onto and off of aircraft. Components of Airport Terminal are:
Apron
Gate system
Passenger Handling System
Ground Access
5.8. Airport Layout

Layout of an airport is dependent upon the following factors:
• Number and orientation of runways

• . Number oftaxiways
• Size and shape of aprons
• The area and shape of land 1


• Topography and site soil conditions

• Obstacle to air navigation
• Required proximity ofland uses within the airport boundary
• Surrounding land uses
• Timing and scale of phased development ofthe airport
• Meteorology
• Size and scale of airport facilities being planned
·s.9. Runways
5.9.1. According to ICAO:

" A runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and.
takeoff of aircraft".
The runway is designated by two digits just after the threshold marking on both ends of the
runway, which is based on magnetic bearing. In addition, it also indicate the left, right, or central
runway ifthere are two or more parallel runways
Touch Duwn Fixed Distance
ThresMid Zone Marks
5.9.2. Classification ofRunway

• Non-instrument runway: A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.
• Instrument runway: Runways intended for the operation of aircraft using instrument
approach procedures. Instrument runway may pe:
;
Non-precision approach runway: An instrument runway served by visual aids and a
non-visual aid providing at least directionil guidance adequate for a straight-in
approach. ·; ·
Precision approach runway: An instrument runway served by Instrument Landing
System (ILS) and/or Microwave Landing Systt~rn (MLS) and visual aids .
.'
, I


5.9.3. Runway Configuration

FAA includes over 20 runway layouts. Amongst them there are 4 basic runway patterns:
a) Single Runway Configuration

It is simplest of all configurations. It is one runway optimally positioned for prevailing winds,
noise, land use and other determining factors. Capacity of single runway is 50- 100 per hour on
VFR rule., and 50- 70 per hour on IFR rule.
b) Parallel Runway Configuration

Two runways parallel to each other, one runway is used for landing while other for takeoff. Two
or Four parallel runways are common. Spacing between runways may be close (700ft to 2500
ft), intermediate (2700 ft - 4300 ft), far ( more than 4300 ft). Under VFR conditions, it can
handle 70% more traffic than single runway, where as under IFR conditions, it can handle 60%
more traffic.
>2,500 but< 4,300ft

J~2500ftlt > 4,300ft
!close Intermediate l Far
c) Open-V Runway Configuration

They are runways diverging from different directions but do not intersect and form an open-V
shape. They are necessary when relatively strong winds blow from more than direction. During
strong winds, only one can be used.
Open Vwith dependent
operations away frorn
intersection. Open V'with dependent
operations toward the
intersection.
\ "!/

d) Intersecting Runway Configuration

Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as intersecting runways. This type of
runway is used when there are relatively strong prevailing winds from more than one direction
during the year. Both runways can only be used when there is light wind.
Two 1nter~ecting runv,rays
at e~rh onE!'s mid-point.
Two intersetting runways
at far threshold,
1\vo intersectin,g
runways at near
threshold.
5.9.4. Factors Affecting Runway Orientation

• Wind
• Airspace availability
• Environmental factors (noise, air and water quality)
• Obstructions to navigation (natural or man made)
• Air traffic control visibility
• Wildlife hazards
• Terrain and soil considerations
Crosswind
VSinfl
5.9.4.1.Wind Effect
Head wind is a wind which is coming from the side

of, from .the front side that is just opposite to the
movement of the aircraft. Tail· wind is a wind
which is coming from the tail side, then that is
known as tail wind. The normal component of the
wind (V Sin8) acting at right angle to the direction
of aircraft is Cross Wind. Air craft will drift frofn ... . ...... .... 1S
the runway if cross wind is very larger
Unfortunately, wind conditions vary from hour to hour thus requiring a careful examination of
prevailing wind conditions at the airport site. Aircraft do not maneuver safely at the wind that
contains a large component at right angle to the direction of travel. Therefore, we require finding
out that particular direction, where the maximum wind will i'emain can be ascertained throughout
the year. Wind Rose Diagram is the commonly used nethod to find correct orientation of
runway.
5.9.4.2. Wind Rose Diagram

The wind data (Direction, duration and intensity) graphically represented by a diagram called
Wind Rose. It helps in analyzing wind data and obtaining the most suitable direction of the


runway. Design Data should be collected for the period of 5 to 10 year. A standard wind rose
consists of a series of concentric circles cut by radial line into 16 parts by using an angle of 22 .SO
a} Design Criteria
A runway (or runways) orientation should be in the direction that satisfies 95% coverage
cot1sidering yearly wind conditions. If one runway does not meet the 95% criteria, design a
second crosswind runway
'dD es1gn n'tena

FAA/lCAO C rosswm . c
Air Craft typ_es Crosswind Value (km/hr)
Small Aircrafts 15 km/hr (13 mph)
Mixed Air Traffic 25 km/hr (15 mph)
Big Aircrafts 35 km/hr (23 mph)
b) Types of Wind Rose Diagram
• Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind
• Type II: Showing direction,

duration and intensity of wind
Type I
This type does not account for wind
velocity as well as cross wind
component. Therefore, it is not so
accurate. Radial Line shows wind
direction and Frequency of wind is
marked on radial line. Plotted pt. is -
joined by straight line. The best runway
is the longest line on wind rose diagrmn
Type II
Type II considers all direction, duration
and wind intensity. Circle represents
wind velocity and Radial' line indicates
wind direction. The percentage of
frequency is appropriate segrpent.
Transparent rectangular indicator is ·~tsed whose length equals to wind rose diameter and width
equals to permissible cross wind drawn same scale as wind rose. Total percentage coverage is
determined with the indicator oriented in several slightly different directions. Correct orientation
is one with maximum coverage.


5.9.5. Basic Runway Length

It is the length of the runway
under following assumed
conditions ofthe airport
• Airport altitude is at sea
level
• Temperature at airport is
staridard(l5°C)
• Runway IS levelled in
longitudinal direction
--g
• No wind is blowing on 27
runway
• Aircraft is loaded to it's full
loading capacity
• There is no wind blowing
enroute to the destination
• Enroute ten1perature is
standard
5.9.5.1.Approximate Runway Length

• A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights
below approximately 20.0,000 lb (90,000 kg).
• Larger aircraft including wide bodies will usually ~equire at least 8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea
level and somewhat more at higher Altitude airports.
• International wide body flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore
heavier, may also have landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff
requirements of 13,000 ft (4,000 m).
5.9.5.2.Factors affecting the basic runway length

• Aircraft characteristics
• Safety requirements
• Airport Environment
a) Aircraft characteristics
• Power and propulsion system 1 .
• Gross take off and landing weights of the aircraft:

• Type of aircraft
b) Safety Requirement
• Normal landing case
• Normal takeoff case
• Engine failure case
o Continued takeoff
o Aborted takeoff


For jet engine aircrafts, all 3 cases are considered. For piston engine Aircrafts only 1st and 3rct
cases are considered.
1) Normal landing case

Aircraft shall come to to stop within 60% of landing distance.
LD = Landing distance
SD = Stopping distance
FS = Full strength pavement
FL =Field length
!~·.·· .· .· . . . .
- · - - " ' ' " - · - - - Landing distance
LD=1.67SD
F'S F'L =LD
2) Normal Take off Case

Clyarway is provided at the yl)A.ofthe.runway. Totaltakeoff distance including clearway shall be
1,5% more than the total distance required to reach aircraft to height of 10.5 m (35ft).
Distance to 10.5 m hei

115% of distance to 10.5 m h ke-off distance
Longitudinal Section
1;. C"TW - 1· f6 L~D) F-.S ~ T6R.

CL;::. ~
'·
TOJ) -CL
f:l = FS +CL..
T
s-om
t'1ll'). 1
•:--------""':'··-

Where, CL = Clear way

TOR = Take off run
TOD = Take off distance
3) Engine Failure Case

Stop way is provided at the end of runway to be ablt: to stop the aircraft after running some
distance. '
lt')l.
-<EI
J)~ef"1Jdz4 .skrp a1 i.£-h:.hC/l. . .....
14 ;_!;.
. -- ~
l
e---r
l Ls-ns wa
A-ccel~
\: (T~~· ~
aW oj,(JY'·~
F~ :: J)Jt-..s- SW . a..Lf/.:0 =- ~, t. Dyset~- LOPed )
ec ·- o.-
lTJR.ec :::. J)9s~- C L.e0
'F:S eo -c .: Tcr£ eD ·
Where, DAS =Accelerated stop distance '~Lf.b.- c.- ::: t=s'eo-o +CL~o.
LOD =Lift off distance, SW = Stop way
'''\
I


Case 1: Normal Take off

Case 2: Engine Failure- Continue
Case 3: Engine Failure -Aborted
Case 4: Landing
Runway length is the maximum of following cases:

FL =max(TODpTOD2 ,DAS3 ,LD4 )
FS= max(TORI'TOR2 ,LD4 )
SW = DAS -max(TORpTOR2 ,LD4 ),SWmin = 0
CL = min(FL-DAS4 ,CL1,max,CL2 ,maJ
CLmin = 0, CLmax = 1000 jt
If both ends of runway are to be used, the field length components (FS, SW, and CL) must exist
in each direction
c) Airport Environment
The basic runway length is for mean sea level having standard atmospheric conditions. Change
in elevation, temperature and gradient for actual site of construction will have effect on the
length of runway.
1) Elevation
As elevation increases, air density reduces. This reduces lift on wings of Aircraft and requires
greater ground speed. Longer runway is required for greater speeds. ICAO recommends that
basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL.
The factor for Elevation correction, Kh is:
Kh =(1+0.07x H
300 .
J Where, H= Airport Elevation in meters
2) Temperature
Aerodrome reference temperature: The aerodrome reference temperature is the monthly mean of
the daily maximum temperatures for the hottest month of the year. The hottest month is the
month that has the highest monthly mean temperature. This temperature should be averaged over
a period of years.
K 1 =1+0.01x(tart -ta,}
where, tart =Airport reference temperature
ta, =Standard AtmosphericTemp. at given elevation
= 1SO -0.0065 x Elevation
ta =the monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hotte$t month
of the year
t111 =the monthly mean ofthe maximum daily temperature(Tm).


3) Gradient
The slope computed by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum elevation
along the runway centre line by the runway length. Uphill gradient requires more runway length
than a down-ward gradient. Increase and decrease in runway length is linear with change in
gradient
As per FAA, the runway length having been corrected for elevation & temperature be further
increased at a rate of 20% for each 1% of the runway Effective Gradient (G). The Gradient
correction factor is:
Kg =1+ 0. 02 X RLmax-RL.mm
L
Where,
4) Procedure of Runway length corrections for elevation, temperature and runway slope.
Step -1: For Critical (design) aircraft select a basic runway length (L) required for take-off
or landing at standard atmospheric conditions [sea level, zero wind, zero runway
slope and temperature 15° Celsius]
Step- 2: Correction for elevation (h)
L(h) = Kh XL
Where,
K 11= Elevation correction factor
Step- 3: Correction for temperature (t)
L(h,t) = L(h) X Kt
Where: K1 = Temperature Correction factor
Step ~ 4: Check Correction for Elevation and Temperature
The runway length {L (h,t)} corrected for elevation and temperature under Steps 2
& 3 should be less than 35% of Basic n.nway length. Else, ICAO recommends
these corrections should be further checked by specific studies
Step - 5: Correction for runway slope (g)
L (h, t & g)= L(h, t) x Kg .
Where, Kg = Correction of gradient
5.9.6. Runway Width

It varies from 45 m to 30. It depends upon types of airport and the biggest aircraft in operation.
Rttnway width as per ICAO recommendation are:
-·
Code Code Letter
Number A B c D E F
1a 18m 18m 23m ., - - -
2a 23m 23m 30m I - - -
3 30m 30m 30m 45m - -
4 - ... 45 m 45m 45m 60m
a. The width of a precision approach runway should be not less than 30 m where the code
number is 1 or 2.


5.9.7. Longitudinal Slope

The longitudinal gradient of runway increases required length and the aircraft performance. The
difference between the maximum and~ minimum elevation along the runway centre line by the
runway length should not exceed:
• 1% where the code number is 3 or 4
• 2% where the code number is 1 or 2
5.9.8. Transverse Slope

The runway is cambered to promote rapid drainage of water. The recommended transverse slopes
as per ICAO are:
o 1.5% where the code letter is C, D, E or F
o 2% where the code letter is A or B
5.9.9. Runway Shoulder

These are usually lesser strength pavements and are provided on both sides of the runway. They
provide sense of openness to pilot. Runway shoulders are paved to resist jet blast or maintenance
equipment and are about 7.5 m both sides of runway.
5.9.10. Typical cross-section of Runway

CEN'ti':RUME:
~ PRiiMARJSURI"ACE:
PIUS£CTION I
HUNWAY SAFETY AREA.
- ON Sl'l' 1:£ CONDrTIDN Btl1' IN NO CASE

'WrfHJN LtMfTS OF RUNWAY &AFE'fY AREA.
NOTE'S: 1. TRANSVERSE SL.OP£8 8110ULD BE .ADE(~UAi£ 'fO

PREVENT iHE: ACCUMUL&.'f!ON OF VIATER ON THE
SURFACJS BlJi Sf-!OULD PALL WITHIN THE RANG!:::$
SHOWN ABOVE.
l.Tl+E ftEOOr)l:l\•l£NOED h>" PAVE:Mt!NT EDGE :DROP IS
DETAll"l\' INTE~JnE:o tO BE USED 8ET 1.''>.fEEH PAVE.D .AND
UNPAVED SURFACES..
3. FOR THE FIRST 1(:1' OF UNPAVED SURFACE
I'MMEDIA1'EL.Y ADJACENF TO THE PAVED S:lJF1!':4CE
i'T IS biESI:RABLE 10 MAJNTA!N $%SLOPE:!
MINlMil.iM R<EOUIRJ:::b 3o/• :sLOPE.


5.10. Taxiwa:ys
Taxiways are paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of the aircraft and are intended to
provide linkage between one part of the airfield (runways) and another part of the airfield
(apron).
5.10.1. Fftctor affecting layout of Taxiways

• Minirnum ·interference between just landed aircraft and ready to take-off aircraft
• Provision of separate entrance and exit taxiways at various locations
• Avoiding intersection of taxiway and active runway
• Facilitate higher turn-off speed for reducing runway occupancy and increasing airport
capacity
• Shortest possible distance between terminal building and end of take off runway
5.10.2. Types of Taxiways

i) Apron taxiway: They are provided very near to the apron, so as to provide the storage of
the aircrafts somewhere at the periphery of the apron.
ii) Dual parallel taxiway: Two parallel taxiways on which aircraft can taxi in two opposite
directions.
iii) Terminal taxi way: Provided very near to the terminal building and it is portion of apron
intended to provide access to the terminal.
5.10.3. Taxiways Geometric

a) Length - as short as possible. It will increase as number of taxiways have to provide
along the runway
b) Longitudinal gradient : level taxiways are desirable. As per ICAO, maximum

longitudinal gradient is 3% for A & B type of airports and 1.5% for C, D, E type of
airport
c) Width of taxiway: width of taxiways is lesser than runway, as aircraft is not air borne
and speeds are small. It varies between 22.5m and 7.5 m
d) Transverse gradient: ICAO recommended maximum pavement transverse gradients of

2% for A and B and 1.5 % for airports with code C, D, and E type of airport. Minimum
gradient is taken as 0.5% for rigid pavement cases and 1% for other cases. Transverse
gradient of at least 3% for turf of shoulders
e) Turning radius: Change in aircraft path is done by providing a horizontal curve.

Recommended radii corresponding to taxing speeds of small, subsonic and supersonic
airplanes is 60 m, 135 m and 240 m, respectively.
5.11. Apron
The airport apron is the area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled,
or boarded. ,


5.11.1. Holding Apron

Runway
Holding bay or aprons are place
adjacent to the ends of runways
where aircraft park briefly before
taking off. Aircraft is held due to:
Runway being busy
Engine warming up
Cockpit or instruments
check up before take off
Holding Apron
5.11.2. Loading (Passenger) Apron

This is a paved area adjacent and in front of terminal building. It is used for loading, unloading,
fueling, minor servicing or checkup of aircraft. Size of loading apron depends upon number of
gate position, size of gates, arrangement of gate positions around terminal buildings, system of
aircraft parking.
5.11.3. Parking Apron

Parking apron is the apron where aircrafts can be parked for a specific period of time. The
airplanes are berthed on the aprons before they are loaded and unloaded. It may be used for light
periodic servicing and maintenance. Parking aprons are located as close to the terminal apron as
possible.. ·
5.11.4. Cargo Terminal Apron

Separate apron for aircraft that carry only freight and mail adjacent to cargo terminal building.
5.11.5. General Aviation Apron

General aviation aircrafts, used for business or private flying which requires several categories of
aprons to support different general a~iation activities.
5.11.6. Transient aprons

The aprons used for temporary parking of aircrafts such as access to fuelling and other services
are known as transient aprons.
5.12. Terminal
An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground
transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.
5.12.1. Functions
• Change of mode i.e. Transfer from car, train, or bus to the air plane
• Passenger processing such as ticketing, check in , security check
·• Provide passenger facilities such as shopping, toilets, eating, meeting & greetings etc.
5.12.2. Parts of Terminal Building

• Passenger check in area and baggage handling counter
• Bagga~e claim section


• Waiting hall for passenger

• Shop retails
• Security Check & passport control
• Custom control
• Lounges of business class
• Passenger meet and greet area
• Airline offices and counters
• Travel and tour agencies counter
• Restaurants & bars
• Toilets
• First aid room
• Post office, Bank
5.12.3. Types of Terminals

Pier
Open Linear
Terminal Building
Satellite
Transporter +
+
Transport Model
I I
I I
1·1·
1
I I
I I
I I
Terminal Building Terminal Building
5.12.4. Land side Terminal Facilities

• Pedestrian facilities (sidewalk, curb islands, pedestrian crosswalks etc)
• Access roads ( loading and unloading lanes, by pass lanes, through lanes)
• Parking (terminal passenger parking, remote passenger parking, AirpoD: employee
parking etc)
• Public transport terminals, taxi stands


5.13. Introduction to Airport Pavement Design
5.13.1. FAA Method (CBR Method) of Flexible Pavement Design

• FAA uses modified CBR method of design of Flexible pavement
• The sub grade soil is categorized based on the soil classification group, drainage, and frost
damage conditions
• Design charts are available for design of pavements for gross aircraft weight of 30000 lbs
or more for single, dual and dual tandem aircrafts
• It is assumed that 95% of the gross weight of the aircraft is carried by the main landing
gear and 5% by the nose gear
• Three Basic Design Parameter are Sub grade Strength (CBR), Design Aircraft (Gear type
and Gross Load) and Traffic (Annual Departures)
Procedure
Step 1: Determination ofDesign Aircraft

• The design aircraft is not necessarily the heaviest aircraft in the forecast. It is the one
requiring the greatest pavement thickness.
• Due to the differences in stress distribution characteristics, separate flexible pavement
design curves for several gear configurations have been prepared.
I II I®
@
S D 2D
Single Wheel Dual Wheel Dual Tandem
• Determine the required pavement thickness for each aircraft, using weight/gear
configuration/traffic for given CBR value.
• Select the aircraft requiring the largest thickness, which is the design aircraft
Step 2: Conversion into the same Landing gear type as the.Design Aircraft
Since the traffic forecast is a mixture of a variety of aircraft having different landing gear types
and different weights, the effects of all traffic must be accounted for in terms of the design
aircraft. First, all aircraft must be converted to the same landing gear type as the design aircraft.
The following conversion factors sho_uld be used to convert from one landing gear type to
another ,.
To convert from To Multiply Departures ~
Single Wheel Dual wheel 0.8
Single Wheel Dual Tandem 0.5
Dual Wheel D_ual Tandem 0.6
Double Dual Tandem Dual Tandem 1.0
Dual Tandem Single Wheel 2.0
Dual Tandem Dual Wheel 1.7
Dual Wheel Single Wheel 1.3
Double Dual Tandem Dual Wheel 1.7

Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shtestha

Step 3: Determination of Equivalent Annual Departures by the Design Aircraft

The conversion to equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft should be determined by
the following formula: Jl/2 (W
logR1 =logf4 x - 2
. ~
R 1 = equivalent .annual departures by the design aircraft
R2 = annual departures expressedin design aircraft landing gear
w, = wheel load of the design aircraft
w2 = wheel load of the aircraft in question
Step 4: Using the landing gear configuration of Design Aircraft select the appropriate pavement
design chart. Determine the total thickness of pavement using Design Aircraft Weight, Total
Equivalent Annual Departures and Sub Grade Strength
Step 5: With CBR for sub base, determine the pavement thickness to protect the sub base
Step 6: Calculate the thickness of the sub base as the difference of the two thicknesses calculated
Step 7: Calculate the thickness of base by subtracting the "minimum surface thickness
5.13.2. FAA Method of Rigid Pavement Design
Step 1: Determine the Concrete Flexural Strength

The required thickness of concrete pavement is related to the strength of the concrete used in the
pavement. The design flexural strength of the concrete should be based on the age and strength
the concrete will be required to have when it is scheduled to be opened to traffic.
Step 2: Determine Modulus of (mm)

12tr .1.€0 lE~t 2DD 220 2·iD 26D 280 3DD
Subgrade Reaction, k "! § (·
Foundation modulus of the 500 r"'""""""T"-.,_..""""'l"'_"T"'"'".......,.~
subgrade, in pci, can be estimated 120
6 r
from CBR Value as: z.::::. 400f---+- 100
90
=[1500; CBR
7788
~. 300 80
k
M 70
~ 60
If the subgrade is multi-layered, § 200 60 "1-.
or sub-base (granular or :rn ~
z;
stabilized) is put over the XX.. 40 ~
0 35 '-'
subgrade, the effective modulus ·0..
0 30
of subgrade reaction needs to be ~ lOOr--7~~~~~--+-_,---+---i
determined. Charts are provided, z 90 26

0 80 »--+-~~f--~-+-_,--1---fl
similar to the figure below. :::.::: 70 20
60 11---+·-+-- (:..-4--+-+-~--ll
Step 3: Find Design Aircraft and 15
50~07·~~~-~~L__L__~~--L~
Equivalent Annual Departures of 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1l 12!
Design Aircraft. (Same as in THICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES
Flexible Pavement Design)
Step 4: Design charts are available, which involves the input parameters as, concrete flexural
strength, ·effective modulus of sub grade reaction, gross weight of the design aircraft and the
annual departure of the design aircraft.

;.
Wind Rose Diagram I

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7n/95 . AC 150/5320-60
CBR
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I
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THICKNESS, IN.
FIGURE 3-2 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, SINGLE WHEEL GEAR
35

AC 1150/5320·60 · 7n/95
CBR
3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 30 40 50
I I I I I
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DUAL WHEEL GEAR

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0793
THICKNESS, IN.
FIGURE 3-3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL WHEEL GEAR
36

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CBR
3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 30 40 50
mJ I I I I I
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FIGURE 3-4 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL TANDEM GEAR
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'/// if/ '//~ / / \ - 7 I
7
8 6
///////.'/#' //.h / -:..""' -:;.. \ \ 7
500 0793E
IDr~2
NOTE.:
1 lhch €l.~lqp.m p£i = O.QC1fii9
FIGURE 3-18. RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL WHEELGEAR ~

,co
iCJl

7/7/95 AC 150/5320-60
(mm)
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
I
500
120
- 1{:=3b0 (81)
-- ----1""" ----
•. z.......
~
:9. 300
400
---
~-
~
---
~~
,,•
~
.-
100
90
80
Q \1..1)~
~ ~\() 70
~ / 60
~
~
200 v
./'
\..'-bel ~ -------- 50
""""
~ / ~t>~v ~s
(/)
~~/ ~
40 z
.
~
0 ~~~ ~
35 ......_,
0-t / 30
0
100
E-t /
L_ 25
•· z 90 v
0 80
~ 70 20
60
15
50 0793
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
THICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES
FIGURE 3-16 EFFECT OF STABILIZED SUBBASE ON SUBGRADE MODULUS
57


6. Chapter VI
Introduction to Railway Engineering
6.1. Railway Engineering
The branch of civil engineering which deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the railway
tracks for safe and efficient movements of trains.
a. Advantages ofRailway
• Railway can handle heavier loads at higher speeds
• Lower operation costs and cheapest
• High speed rails are much faster than roads
• Convenient for long haul distances
• It is very environment friendly if electricity is used
• Safe
• Promotes industrial development
b. Disadvantages
• High construction and maintenance cost
• Restricted to be in one direction
• Less suitable for hilly areas with curves
6.2. Rail Gauges

The gauge of a railway track is
defined as the clear minimum
pet'pendicular distance between the
inner faces of the two rails.
6.2.1. Types of Rail Gauges

a) Broad Gauge: Width 1676 mm to 1524 mm
• 1676 (India, Pakistan, Sri.Lanka, Brazil, Argentina)
• 1670 (Spain, Portugal)
• 1600 (Ireland)
• 1524 (Russia, Finland)
b) Standard Gauge (Standard or International or Normal gauge):

• Width 1435 mm and 1451 mm (England, USA, Canada, China Turkey etc.)
c). Meter Gauge:

• Width 1067 mm (Cape gauge- Japan, Australia, New Zeland, South Africa, Indonesia)
• 1000 mm (India, France, Argentina) and
• 915 mm (Ireland)
d) Narrow Gauge:
• width 762 mm and 610 mm
e) Mixed Gauge:
• 1,435 mm (Standard) & 760 mm (narrow)- Czech
• 1,435 mm (Standard) & 1,000 mm (meter)- Switzerland
• 1,435 mm (standard) & 1067 mm (cape)- Japan


6.3. Railway Classification

a) Broad gauge (BG) routes have been classified into five different groups based on speed criteria
• Group A: sanctioned speed of 160 km/hr or more
• Group B: sanctioned speed of 130 kmlhr
• Gmup C: sanctioned speed of 120 km/hr
• · Group D: sanctioned speed of 100 km/hr
• GroupE: branch lines with sanctioned speed less than 100 km/hr
b) Meter gauges routes have been classified according to importance of route, traffic carried and
maximum permissible speed
• Q Routes: max. permissible speed more than 75 km/hr, traffic density more than 2.5 GMT
[gross million tone(s) per km/annum]
• R routes: max. permissible speed of 75 km/hr and a traffic density of more than '1.5 GMT. R
routes have fmiher been classified into three categories depending upon the volume of traffic:
o R !-traffic density more than 5 GMT
o R2-traffic density between 2.5 and 5 GMT
o R3-traffic density between 1.5 and 2.5 GMT
• S routes: max. permissible speed less than 75 km/hrand a traffic density less than 1.5 GMT.
They are fmiher sub classified into three routes, namely, S1, S2, and S3.
o S 1 routes are used for the through movement of freight traffic,
o S3 routes are uneconomical branch lines, and
o S2 routes are those which are neither S 1 nor S3 routes.
6.4.Railw.ay Components
• Permanent way (Track)
• Rolling Stock
• Station & Terminals
• Signaling & Control
• Depot and workshop
6.5.Permanent way (Rail Track)

The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. The permanent way or track, therefore,
consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings, the ballast, and the formation as shown in Figure.
3.4 m
·I· o.s m ·I· 2d ·I
2.7 m
I· 1.7 m
·I
.-----Rail
· ·Spikes
I,----
Bearing Plate
Sleeper
• 1 ,--- E
~-~


Hails
Sleepet's
Ballast
.
6.5.1. Requirements of a good Permanent Way
• Correct and uniform .
• Proper level in straight portion and Proper amount of super elevation in curves
An uniform and gentle gradient
• Resilient and elastic
• Uniformly distributed load on both the rails
• Good lateral strength to maintain its stability
• Proper drainage facilities
• Easy replacement of various track components
Low initial as well as maintenance cost.
6.5.2. Components of Permanent Way
6.5.2.1, Rails
The rails on the tt'ack can be considered as steel girders for the purpose carrying axle loads. Rails are
joined in series by welding a few of them (5 of them) and the welded lengths are joined by fish plates and
bolts.
a) Functions of Rails
• Provide hard, smooth and continuous surface
To give minimum wear surface
• To bear stresses due to vertical load and transmit loads to the sleepers
Serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels
b) Types of rail sections

b.l) Double headed rails (D.H Rails): In the beginning, the rails used were double headed(D.H) of a
dumb-bell section. The idea behind using of these rails was that when the head was worn out in
course of time, the rail can be inverted or reused.
b.2) ·Bull headed rails (B.H Rails): The head is made little thicker. and stronger than the lower part, by
adding more metal to it, so that even after wear, it can withstand stresses.
b.3) Flat footed rails (F.F rails): It could be directly fixed into sleeper. It would eliminate the need for
chairs and keys required for the bull headed rails. Demerit of flat footed rails is that heavy train load
cause the foot of rail to sink into wooden sleeper.


Fishing angle
-l
Height
J
'
Figure DH rails BH rails
Foot
I
FF rails
1
c) Details of standard rail sections
90R rails are suitable for annual traffic ofaboutlO gross million Tonne (GMT) speeds upto 100
kmph and service life upto 20 to 25 yrs.
5lMR (i.e. 52 kg/m) rails are suitable for use of speed of 130 kmph and traffic density of 20 to 25
GMT.
60MR (i.e. 60 kg/m) rails are suitable for use upto a speed of 160 kmph and traffic density of
about35 GMT
Wt/m Area Dimensions of Rail Section (mm)
Type
(kg) (mm2) A B c D E F
90R 44.61 5795 142.9 136.5 66.7 13.9 43.7 20.6
.•
52MR 51.89 6615 156 136 67 15.5 51 29
60MR 60.34 7686 172 150 74.3 16.5 51 31.5
d) Length of Rails .
e) The most common length for BG rai.ls is 13m (42'8") although double-length rails (26m, 85'4") are
seen in some places. MG rails are usually 12m (39'4") in length. NG rails vary, but the commonest
length is 9m (29'6"). Factors governing length ofrails:-
Manufacturing cost
Transportation facility
Lifting and handling operation
6;5.2.2. Sleepers
Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. Rails are fixed to sleepers by different
types of fixtures and fastenings. The typical length of a BG sleeper is 2.7 m.
a) Classification of Sleepers .
a.l) Wooden sleepers: Wooden sleepets are ideal sleeper. Life of timber sleepers depends on their
ability to resist wear, decay, attack by vermin, and quality of timber. Generally sleepers are made of
Sal, teak, chir and deodar. The sizes of sleepers used for BG, MG, and NG as well as the bearing
area per s Ieeper are as fl0 11 ows:
Gauge Size (em) Bearing area per sleeper (m2)
BG 275x25xl3 0.465
MG 180 X 20 X 11.5 0.3098
NG 150xl8xll.5 0.209


Advantage of Wooden sleepers:

Cheap and easy to manufacture
Absorbs shocks and dampen vibrations
Easy to handle
Suitable for track-circuited sections
Alignment can be easily corrected
More suitable for modern methods of maintenance
Can be used with or without stone ballast
Disadvantage of Wooden sleepers:
Lesser life (12 -15yrs) due to wear, decay, and attack by vermin
High maintenance cost (e.g. pest control)
Liable to mechanical wear due to beater packing
Susceptible to fire hazards, theft
Negligible scrap value
a.2) Metal sleepers:
In view of the shortage of wooden sleeper and durability concern, metal sleepers have been developed.
These are either steel or cast iron, mostly cast iron since it is less prone to corrosion. Particularly they are
used in Girder Bridge.
Advantage of Metal (SteeVCast Iron) sleepers:
Longer life (30- 40 years)
Ensure smoother track
Easy to maintain gauge
Less maintenance problems
Lesser damage during handling and transport
Not susceptible to fire hazard, vermin attack
Have a good scrap value
Disadvantage of Metal (Steel/Cast Iron) sleepers:
Corrosion prone
Unsuitable for track circuiting areas
Develops cracks at rail seats
Gauge change is not possible
Light weight and not suitable for fast track
a.3) Concrete sleepers:

Large scale trail of concrete sleepers were done mostly due to shortage of wooden sleeper and economic
consideration. Two types of concrete sleepers are used namely reinforced concrete sleepers and pre-
stressed concrete sleepers.
Advantage of Concrete sleepers:
Offer higher longitudinal and transverse stability
Easy to maintain gauge, cross level and alignment
Can be used in track circuited areas
Long life (40-50 years)
Impervious to effect of moisture
Not susceptible to corrosion, chemical attack, fire hazards, pest attack etc.
. Easy to mould into required shapes
Disadvantage of Concrete sleepers:
Heavy to handle, therefore track laying need mechanical method
Heavily damaged at the time of derailment
Have no scrap value ·


b) Spacing of Sleeper
Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per unit track length for welded rail). Nos. of
Sleepers per rail length= M + 7 (BG), Where, M is length ofrail in m.lfthe sleeper density isM+ 7 on a
broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per
rail on that route. Spacing is closer near the joints.
JOINT
lntcrmediote 2nd hi Joint J\llnt hi 2nd Intermediate

Sleeper Shoulder Shuu.ldur Sleop·er Sluojler Shoulder Shoulder Sleeper
Sleeper Sleeper Sleeper Sleeper
Spacing of sleepers Brot:?d gauge Jvleter gauge

ccnt1-e-to-cen tre CC!'JJtrc-to-centre
spaclng {lwn} spacing {mm}
Wboden j\tfetai f H-mden

1
Metal
Between joint sleepers (a) 300 380 250 330
Between joint sleepe1:s and the first 610 610 580 580.
shoulder sleeper (b)
Bet;.ve·en first shonlde1: sleeper rmci 700 no 700 710
second shoulder sle·eper (t~) for sleepe1: (640)* (630) (620) (600)
density M + 4
Bet:;,veen intermediate sleepetcs (d) 840 830 ~20 810
for sleeper density .M + 4 (680) (680) (720) (640)
*Values within pa1cent'lleses are those for s:leepec density lvf + 7.

Factors affecting spacing are:
• Axle load and speed
• Type and section of rails
• Type and strength of sleepers
• Type of ballast and ballast cushion
• Nature of formation
6.5.2,3. Ballast
It is a layer of broken stone, gravel, moorum or any other gritty material placed and packed below and
around sleepers
a) Desirable Properties of Ballast
• Cubical with sharp edge
• Tough and wear resistant
• Good bearing capacity and crushing value
• Good drainage property
• Non porous
• Weather resistant
• Low lifecycle cost


b) Ballast Materials
• Broken stone
• Gravel Ballast
• Cinder or Coal ash
• Sand Ballast
• Moorum Ballast
• Brick Ballast
c) Size of Ballast Materials
Size of ballast depends upon
• Type of sleepers
• Maintenance method
• Location of the track.
The exact size of the ballast depends upon the type of sleepers.
• For wooden sleepers-Slmm
• For steel sleepers-38mm
• For under switches, points and crossings-25.4mm
d) Depth of Ballast Section

The wheel load dispersion in the ballast is assumed at 45' to the vertical. For uniform distribution ofload
on the formation, ballast depth should be such that the dispersion lines should not overlap each other.
Depth of ballast (Db) can be calculated by,

Sleeper spacing (s) =width of sleeper (w) +2xdepth ofballast
f Ss _ __,_
1
• Ws .. 1 I • Ws
· ·· .. I
145° 45° I
I I
6.5.2.4. Track Fittings and Fasting
a) Rail Joints
Rail joints are provided for expansion and contraction due to variation in temperatures. Certain gap is
provided at each joint. Rail joints hold the adjoining ends of the rails in the correct position both in
horizontal and vertical planes.
a.l) Types of Rail Joints
According to Position of Joints

~ Square Joints
• Staggered Joints
Square Joints
Joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the joint in the other parallel rail. Square joints are provided in
straight tracks.


1' 2'0" 2'2" 2'4" 6 ){ 2'4" 2'4" 2'2" 2'0" 1'

·I~ + + ·r + 1· 1· l + -1' I' l ·I~+
Square Joints
Staggered Joints
Joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the centre of the other parallel rail is called as Square Joint. In
India, this type of joint is used in curves. It gives smoother running to the track.
, 2'1.5"
4
x 2 ,6 ,. 2'1.5" 2'.1.5'' 3Cx 2 , •
6
2'1.5".
-~r:.+---'-~~-+--+··~t----f1~p.;t----+·-~t~--+---+~. "'1t+-
Staggered Joints
According to position of sleepers
• · Suspended joints
• Supported joints
• Bridge joints
Suspended Joints
The rail joint placed at the centre of two consecutive sleepers. The load is evenly distributed on two
sleepers. When joint is dep1'essed, both rails are pressed down evenly.
Supported Joints
The sleeper is placed exactly below the rail joint. Do not giv1;' sufficient support with heavy axle loads.
Rails
/~
Suspended Joint Suppr)r\ed Joint
Bridge Joints
Similar to suspended joint, but a metal serving
as a bridge to connect the ends of two rails. The
bridge is placed at the bottom of rails and it
rests on two sleepers
Suspended Joint


b) Fittings and Fastenings

Fittings and fastenings in railway tracks hold the. rails in their proper position in order to ensure the
smooth running of trains.
Functions
• Join rails together as well as fixing them to the sleepers,
• Maintain the level, alignment, and gauge of the railway track within permissible limits even during
the passage of trains.
b.l) Rail to Rail Fastenings: Rail to rail fastening involve the use offish plates and bolts for joining rails
in series.
a) Fish plates: Railway fish plate is a pair of metal bar bolted to the ends of two rails to join them
together. Four or six suits of fish bolt per pair of fish plates are used to fix the fish plates. These are
used in rail joints to maintain the continuity of the rails and to allow expansion and contraction.
b) Fish Bolts: Made up of medium or high carbon steel used to hold fish plate together. These bolts get
loose by the traffic variations and require tightening from time to time
b.2) Rail to Sleeper fittings

• Spikes
• Bolts
• Chairs
• Blocks
• Keys
• plates
a) Spil<es:
A rail spike is a large nail with an offset head !hat is used to secure rails and base plates in railroad ties in
the track. They are (i) dog, (ii) Round, (iii) Screw, and (iv) Elastic.
Requirements of spikes:
• Strong
• Enough resistance against motion
• Deep for better holding power
• Easy in fixing and removal from the sleepers
• Cheap in cost
• Capable of maintaining the gaqge


u:r:
161_
E
E
0
(X)
......
[§]
1161 Top plan
BoHoin plan
Dog Round Screw elastic
b) Bolts
Bolts are a form of threaded fastener used for fixing various track components in position. They may be
hook (dog), fang and fish bolt.
'·
2mm '
'"'1'1~·~ T6[···
-~-l .,.,...
_____.....--J 13 mrn
·J3r;;-m -~~~~
51
Hook (dog) bolt Fang bolt Fish Bolt
c) Chairs
Chairs are a device to hold bull headed rails and double headed ra,lls in positibn. Also, they help in
distributing the load from the rails to thee sleepers. They are made of cast iron and consists of two jaws
and a rail seat. The web of the rail is held tightly against the inner jaws of the chair and a key is driven

Transport f!lanning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

between the rail and the outer jaw of the chair. The chairs are fixed with the sleepers by means of spikes.
The shapes of chairs depend upon the type of rails used.
d) Blocl<s
When two rails run very close as in case of check rails, etc. small blocks are inserted in between the two
rails and bolted to maintain the required distance.
e) Keys·
Keys are wedge shaped timber or steel pieces to fix rails to chairs on the metal sleepers. Two types:
• Wooden keys: Wooden keys are small straight or tapered pieces of timber.
• Metal keys: These keys are much more durable than wooden keys. Metal keys are of two types such
as Spring (Stuart's) key, Morgan Key.
f) Bearing Plates
Bearing plates are rectangular plates of mild steel or cast iron used below F .F rails to distribute the load
on larger area of timber sleeper.
Advantages:
• To distribute the load coming on rails to the sleepers
• Prevent the destruction of the sleeper
•.
b.3) Elastic Fastening

Due to shocks and vibrations caused by moving loads, the conventional rigid fastenings get loose. Elastic .
fastening could safeguard track parameters and dampen the vibrations against shock and vibrations. e.g.
Pandrol clip.
6.5.2.5. Sub grade & Formation

Sub grade is the naturally occurring ~oil which is prepared to receive the ballast. The prepared flat
surface, which is ready to receive the pallast, sleepers, and rails, is called the formation. Major functions
of sub grade and formation are as follows:

Transport Planning & Engineering_ Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Functions:
• To provide a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.
• To bear the load transmitted to it from the movin~ load through the ballast.
• To facilitate drainage.
• To provide stability to the track.
Embankment
Embankment is the formation in the shape of a raised bank constructed above the natural ground.
c 4725 c
(m.in;}
Cutting:
Cutting is the formation at a level below the natural ground.
c: 4725 c
(mrn)
----t
/
/
~
1 in 40 1: in 40
------------'10,980----'--------ill""l
6.5.3. Geometric Design of Permanent Track
6.5.3.1. Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall of the track. It is expressed as the ratio of vertical distance to horizontal
distance or as percentage of rise or fall.
a) Purpose
• ·To reduce the cost of earthwork
• To provide uniform rate or fall as far as practicable
• To reach the stations situated at different elevations
• To drain off rain water

Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts, by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

b) Factors which affect the selection of gradient are the following:

• Nature of the ground
• Safety required
• Drainage required
• Total height to be covered
• Hauling capacity of railway engines.
c) Types of Gradient
• Ruling gradient
• Momentum gradient
• Pusher gradient
• Station yard gradient
c.l) Ruling Gradient: The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient it is equals to I in I50 to I in 250
(plain terrain), and I in I 00 to I in I 50 (hilly terrain).
c.2) Momentum Gradient: Gradient which is steeper than ruling gradient and where the advantage of
momentum is utilized to overcome the gradient.
c.3) Pusher Gradient: The gradient of the ensuing section is so steep that require the use of an extra
engine for pushing the train.
c.4) Station Yard Gradient: Station Yard Gradient are quite flat. The maximum gr:;tdient prescribed in
station yards on Indian Railways is I in 400, while the recommended gradient is lin 1000.
d) Grade Compensation
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are compensated to the
following extent on curves
On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum
where R is the radius of the curve in meters.
6.5.3.2. Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves are provided when a change in the direction of the track is required. Horizontal curve is
defined either by its radius or by its degree. The degree of the curve, which is defined as the angle
subtended at the .centre of curve by a chord of 100 ft length, is,
17 0
D = : (when R is in metre, Dis degree in radians)
A 2° curve, therefore, has a radius of 1750/2 = 875 m.
Elements ofhorizontal curves are:
Angle AOB the angle of

intersection
Angle B00 1 =8= the angle of
deflection
Tangent OT; =OT2 = 2Tan(%) 8
r;r; =Length of Long Cord= 2RSin(%)

nRB
Length oif Curve =- -
180"


a) Maximum degree of a curve

The rnaximum permissible degree of a curve on a track depends on wheel base of the vehicle and
rnaxnnum
· · 'ble super e1evaf wn.
perm1sS1
On Plain Track On Turnouts
Gauge
Max. Degree Min. Radius (m) Max. Degree Min. Radius (m)
.BG 10 175 8 218
ME 16 109 15 116
NG 40 44 17 103
b) Super elevation (Cant)

Super elevation is also known as Cant. It is difference between the height of outer and inner rail on the
curve. Functional use of super elevation are:
• To neutralize the effect of centrifugal force
• Equal distribution ofwheelloads
• Improving passenger comfort
• To reduce wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
c) Equilibrium Super elevation

It is the super elevation that bring the resultant of the centrifugal force and the force ~xerted by the weight
of the vehicle acts at right angles to the plane of the top surface of the rails. Speed at this state of
equilibrium is equilibrium speed.
d) Super elevation Design

The centrifigual Force is,
2
F = Wv ......... (1)
gR
. h r e Super elevation e
F urt er,1.an = =-
gauge G
Also TanB =Centrifugal Force=.!___
' Weight W
Therefore,TanB =~ =; :::> F =e; ·......... (2)
Equating (1) and (2)

eW Wv 2 Gv 2 •
--=-- => e=--·
G gR gR
Where, G is gauge, v is speed (m/sec ), R is radius (in m), and g is acceleration (m/sec 2)
d.l) Recommended Gauge value (G) are as follows:
• For BG track: G = 1676 mm + 74 mm = 1.75 m
• For MG track: G = 1.058 m
• For NG track: G = 0.772 m
d.2) Maximum value of super elevation
Max. S. E.= 1/10111 to 1!1i11 of the gauge
As per Indian Railways: BG Track: 165 mm (normal\ 185 (special)
MG Track: 90 mm (normal), 100 (special)
NG Tracie: 65 mm (normal), /5 (special)


e) Terms Related to Super elevation
e.l) Cant deficiency (Cd)

It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed. Cant deficiency
is the difference between the equilibrium cant that is· necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a
curve and the actual cant provided. Maximum permissible values of Cant deficiency are 7 .Scm (BG)
(lOcm on special case), 5.0cm (MG), 4.0cm (NG).
e.2) Cant excess (Ce)

It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such a low speed. Cant
excess should not be more than 75 mm on broad gauge and 65 mm on metre gauge for all types of rolling
stock.
f) Safe Speed on Curves

Safe speed means a speed which protects a carriage from the danger of overturning and derailment and
provides a certain margin of safety. Earlier it was calculated by Martin's Empirical Formt,1la as below:
Transition Curve, V =4.4-JR-70 For BG &MG

V =3.65-J R- 6 For NG (Subjected to Max V = 50kml hr)
Non- Transition Curve, V =0.8x4.4-JR-70 For BG & MG
V = 2.92-J R- 6 For NG (Subjected to Max V = 40km I hr)
New Empirical Formula:
Full Transition Curve, For BG V = 0.27~(C0 +Cd)xR

ForMG V=0.347~(Ca+Cd)xR
For NG V = 3.65-J R- 6 (Subjected to Max V = 40km I hr)
Where, Ca =Actual Cant provided (mm); Cd =Cant Deficiency (mm),
R =Radius (m); V =max. Speed (km/hr)
g) Transition Curve
It is a curve, which connects the straight section the track at one end and circular curve at the other end.
g.l) Purpose
• Reduction in radius of curvature at uniform rate
• Smooth traversing of vehicle
• Introduction of super elevation at a constant rate
g.2) Forms ofTransition Curve

FrQud's Cubic parabola is most common:
x3
y= 6RL
Where,
y =perpendicular offset of transition curve at a distance x from commencement of the curve
x =distance of any point on the tangent from commencement of the curve


R = radius of circular curve

L =total length of transition curve
g.3)Length of transition Curve

The length of a transition curve is maximum of the following three:
• Based on arbitrary Gradient,
L = 0.72e
• . Based on the rate of change of Cant Deficiency

L =0.008C"Vmax
• Based on the rate of change of super elevation
• L = 0.008e Vmax
Where, e =super elevation (actual cant) in mm, Cct= cant deficiency in mm, Vmax in km/hr, Lin m
h) Negative Super Elevation

AB, which is the outer rail of the main line curve, must be higher than CD. For the branch line, however,
CF should be higher than AE or point C should be. higher than point A. These two contradictory
conditions cannot be met within one layout.
D
In such cases, the branch line curve has a negative super .elevation and, therefore, speeds on both tracks
must be restricted, particularly on the branch line. The Negativ2 Super Elevation are calculated as
follows:
• The equilibrium super elevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using the formula,
Gv 2
e=--
gR
• The equilibrium super elevation (e) is reduced by the permissible Cant deficiency Cc~ and the
resultant super elevation (x) to be provided is
• X= e- Cd
where, xis the super elevation, e is the equilibrium super elevation, and Cct is 75 mm for BG ~d
50 mm for MG. The value of Cct is generally higher than that of e, and, therefore, xis normally
negative. The branch line thus has a negative super elevati?n of x.
·;

Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts,. by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

:::::
• The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a super elevation of x, is then
calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd)·
• The safe speed is also calculated and smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum
permissible speed on the ~ain line curve. ·
i) Widening of Gauge on curves

Due to rigidity of the wheel base, it is sometimes found on the curve that the rails are tilted outwards so
that actual gauge is more than the theoretical value. To prevent this tendency, the gauge of the track is
sometimes widened on sharp curves. The amount of widening of gauge is,
Gd = (B+L) 2 x125
R
Where, d =Extra width of gauge in mm
B =Rigid wheel base in mm
L =Lap of flange in m =0.02~(h 2 +Dh)
R = Radius of Curve in m
D =Diameter of Wheel in em, h =Flange projectbelowrail,cm
6.5.3.3. Vertical Curve
a) Problems with the meeting of two gradients

• Angular formation i.e. kinks
• Rough run of the vehicles on track
• B]lnching of vehicles in the sags
• Variation in the tension of couplings in the summits
...
b) Vertical Curve
Vertical curves are provided at points where two gradients meet or where a gradient meets level ground.
Vertical curves may be Crest (Ridge)curve or Sag (Valley) curve.
c) Length of Vertical Curve

Required length of a vetiical curve for achieving maximum permissible speed is given by:
L= (g1 -g2 )x30.5
r
Where, g 1, g2 are successive % grades,r is rate of change of grade
New Method for Length of vertical curve,
L=(gl-g2)xR
100
Where, R is the radius of vetiical curve
6.5.3.4. Switch (Point)

Point (switch) is the device that is used to divert the wheels.
• A pair of stock rails, AB and CD

• A pair of tongue rails (switch rails), PQ and RS. The tongue rails are machined to a very thin
section to obtain a snug fit with the stock rail.


• A pair of heel blocks which hold the heel of the tongue rails
• A number of slide chairs to support the tongue rail and enable its movement towards or away
from the stock rail.
• Two or more stretcher bars connecting both the tongue rails close to the toe, for the purpose of
holding them at a fixed distance fi·om each other.
• A gauge ties plate to fix gauges and ensure correct gauge at the points.
r - - - - - - - Tongue rails - - - - - - J.... I
Stock rails ----+--------~
A
Gauge
tie
plate
6.5.3.5. Crossings
Crossing provides gaps in the rail that enables the flanged wheel to roll over them.
a) The requirements of crossing are:

• Crossingassembly should be rigid enough to withstand severe vibrations
• Wing rails and nose of crossing should be able to resist heavy wear due to movement of wheels
• The nose of crossing should have adequate thickness to take all stresses acting on th~ crossing
b) The various component parts of a Crossing are:

(i) Vee piece , (ii) A point rail, (iii) A splice rail, (iv) Two check rails, (v) Two wing rails, (vi) Heel
blocks at throat, nose and heel of crossing , (vii) Chairs at crossing, at toe and at heel etc.
Overall length
Facing Railing
direction direction
Figure: Component Parts of a Crossir.g

Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pro deep Kumar Shrestha
c) Type of Crossing
i) On the basis of shape of crossing
• Square crossing
• Acute angle or V-crossing ,or Frog
• Obtuse angle or Diamond crossing
Guard (Check) Rails
, ii) On the basis of assembly of crossing

• Ramped crossing
• Spring or movable crossing.
6.5.3.6. Turnout
It is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by means of which the rolling stock may be
diverted from one track to another. A turnout is designated as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout
depending on whether it diverts the traffic to the right or to the left.
Stock rail {AB)

Stretcller bar
Overall length End of
~ stock rail
A
T Outer straight lead rail· l
# Check rail
~ Throw
~ of switch
1
L . m....... Theoretical nose of crossing (TNC)

•mm···- Actual nose of crossing (ANC)
Figure Left Turn Out


Stock rail (AB)

Stretcller bar
OveraH length
Endof~~--4-------------------------------------~~----~
stock rail I A Outer straigl1t lead raH T
Facing
direction
- Tongue
rail (RS)
Toe of switch
Theoretical nose df crossing (TNC)

Actual nose of crossing (ANC) _ _ .....J
Figure Right Turn Out
Components of Turns Out

. (i)A pair oftongue rails, (ii) A pair of stock rails, (iii) Two check rails, (iv) Four lead rails (v) A vee
crossing (vi) Slide chairs (v) Stretcher bar (vi) A pair of heel blocks (vii) Switch tie plate or gauge tie
chair, (viii) Parts for operating points- Rods, cranks, levers etc., (ix) Locking system which includes
locking box, lock bar, plunger bar etc
6.6. Station
A railway station is a railway facility where trains regularly stop to load or unload passengers and/or
freight.
6.6.1. Factors to be considered while selecting a site for a railway station are:
• Adequate land
• Level area with good drainage
• Straight alignment
• Easy accessibility
• Adequate water supply
6.6.2. Function of Railway Station

• For exchange of passenger and/or goods
• To enable the trains on a single line track to cross from opposite directions
• To enable the following express trains to overtake
• For taking fuels
• For detaching or attaching of compartment and wagons
• For detaching engine or running staff
• For repairing engines and changing their direction


6.6.3. Types
• Wayside Stations
• Junction Stations
• Terminal Stations
6.6.3.1. Wayside Stations

Wayside stations are made for crossing or for overtaking trains. Wayside stations are of the following
types.
• Halt Stations
• Flag Stations
• Crossing Stations
a) Halt Stations
A halt is the simplest station, usually unstaffed and with few or no facilities .It usually has only a rail level
platform with a name board at either end. Sometimes a small waiting shed is also provided, which also
serves as a booking office. In some cases, trains stop only on request. Some selected trains are allotted a
stoppage time of a minute or two at such stations to enable passengers to board or alight The booking of
passengers is done by travelling ticket examiners or booking clerks.
Name Board
I
Platform
Halt Stations
b) Flag Stations
Flag stations describes a stopping point at which trains stop only if there are passengers to be picked up or
dropped off. These stations do not have overtaking or crossing facilities and arrangements to control the
movement of trains. However, these stations have buildings, staff and telegraph facilities. Some of the
flag stations have sidings also in the fonn·ofloops.
Board
Passenger Platform
Flag Stations
c) Crossing Station
Provided with facilities for crossing In this type at least one loop line is provided to allow another train if
one track is already occupied by a waiting train Generally the train to be stopped is taken on the loop line
and the through train is allowed to pass on the main line.


Dead Line
. ...-.-·"""'""'
--......._____
Sand Hump
'-,
Loop Line
Crossing Station
6.6.3.2. Junction Station

A junction station is the meeting point of three or more lines emerging from different directions.
Following arrangements are necessary:
Facilities for the interchange of traffic between main and branch line
Facilities for repair and cleaning cifthe compartments
Facilities of goods siding engine sheds, turn table etc.
Goods shed
Station building
Sand
hump
·-,\
-""··'·:fJ·""'""'''':::::.~Oww... "'"''''·""""·~"""~···"-" /~............"~·--'
T turn table Loop line
1
Junction Station
6.6.3.3. Terminal Station

The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates. Facilities required at terminal station
are:
W.atering, coaling, cleaning, servicing the engine
Turn table for the change of direction of the engi11e
Facilities for dealing goods traffic. Such as marshalling yard, engine sheds, sidings etc.
In circulating area, ticket office, restaurant etc are provided and it is directly connected to the road
Terminal Station
6.7. Yard
A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the passenger as well as goods traffic being handled by
the railways. They are passenger yards, goods yards, marshalling yards, locomotive yards.


6.7.1. Passenger Yards

Function of passenger yard is to provide all the facilities for the safe movement of passengers. The
facilities in passenger yards are:
• B~:>Oking office, enquiry office, luggage booking room, cloak room and waiting room for
passengers
• Parking space for vehicles
• Signals forreception and dispatch of trains
• Platforms and sidings for shunting facilities
• Facilities for changing batteries
• Facilities for passing a through train
• Washing lines, sick lines facilities
6.7.2. Goods Yard

A goods yard is a railway station which is exclusively or predominantly where goods (or freight) of any
description are loaded or unloaded from ships or road vehicles and/or where goods wagons are transferred
to local sidings. These are provided for receiving, loading and unloading of goods.
6.7.3. Marshalling Yard

A goods yard which deals with the sorting of goods wagons to form new goods trains is called a
marshalling yard. The marshalling yards are distribution centers. Empty wagons are also kept in
marshalling yards.
Main Line
Sorting
Departure
.
Platform
Layout of marshalling Yard
6.7.4. Locomotive Yard

This is the yard which houses the locomotives for various facilities such as watering, fueling, cleaning,
repairing, ·servicing etc.


Workshop
Ash Pits
Engine Shed
Fuel Platform
Figure Locomotive Yard
6.8. Rolling Stock

It refers to any vehicles that move on a railway. It includes Locomotives, Coaches, wagons, and train
brakes.
6;8.1. Locomotive
It is a powerhouse mounted on a frame that produces the power needed for traction on railways. There are
three types of traction:
• Steam traction by steam locomotives
• Diesel traction by diesel locomotives
• Electric traction by elec~ric locomotives
Part of Locomotive:
• Fire box and Boiler: fuel is burnt in fire box and steam is generated in boiler.
• Proper engine: heat consists of cylinders, pistons and other various moving parts. It converts heat
energy of steam into mechanical energy of motion .
• Frame work: It is mounted on wheels. It has a draw bar which transmits the tractive force to the
train.
• Tender: To store the fuel, a small bogie is attached with the locomotive.
Bogie carr.ie.r
or !cfle wlwels
Steam Locomotive


6.8.2. Coaches
The compartments which provide accommodation to the passenger in trains are called coaches.
6.8.3. Wagons
Wagons are unpowered railway vehicles that are used for the transportation of cargo. To transport goods
wagons are used. Types:
Timber wagons
Cattle wagons
Oil wagons: cylindrical
Petrol wagons:
Hoper wagons: ballast, minerals, coals
Well wagons: bulky articles of excessive height
Power wagons: for explosives and chemicals
Refrigerated wagons: milk, fruits, meats and fish
6.8.4. Train Brakes

Function of train brakes are to stop moving locomotives. Train brakes are:
Hand brakes
Steam brakes
Continuous automatic brake
Hand and steam brakes
6.9. Signaling
Railway signaling is a system used to control railway traffic safely, essentially to prevent trains from
colliding. Signaling consists of the systems, device and means by which trains are operated efficiently and
tracks are used to maximum extent, maintaining the safety of the passengers, the staff and the rolling
stock. It includes the use and working of signals, points, block instruments and other equipments.
6.10. Depots and Workshops

A depot offer both equipment for the maintenance of rolling stock (e.g. cleaning, daily maintenance,
current maintenance, schedule maintenance, corrective maintenance etc.) and the maintenance of the
infrastructure and systems.
Depot facilities required consists in:

Workshops and the storage of tools and equipment required
Storage space for the vehicles used for maintenance·
Space for the maintenance of these vehicles.


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7. Chapter VII
Ropeway
(\
7.1. Definition
A ropeway is a mode of transport in which special types of carriers are suspended from, or simply
attached to, an overhead rope to facilitate the transfer of materials, goods or passengers, from one
point to another. The rope runs the entire length over which the ropeway operates, which typically
ranges from a few hundred meters to several kilometers.
7.1.1. Past History ofRopeway in Nepal

• In 1922, then primeminister Chandra Shamsher started building a 22km long cargo Ropeway
from Dhorsing-chisapnai-chandragiri hills passing into the Kathmandu.
C- • In 1964, this system was further improved and extended to 42 kilometer to Hetauda with the
financial and technical assistance of the United State Agency for international
Development(USAID).
• Many Agencies carried out feasibility study in the past to explore the possibilities of the
different types ofRopeway in Nepal.
• Two goods carrying ropeways, Bhattedanda and Barpak,and Mankamana passenger Ropeway
were actually built.
• The Ninth Five-year Plan mentioned ropeway in brief and encouraged involvement of private
sector. But no provision in national budget was made for ropeway developtnent.
7.2. Types of Ropeways

7.2.1. According to Numbers of Cable
a) Bi-cable system: A bi-cable system uses two ropes. The first is a load-carrying rope which is
fixed at the stations at both ends and stays stationary. This rope is also called a track rope or track
cable or skyline. The second rope is a hauling rope whose ends are joined to make a loop. The
carriages, which are suspended from the track rope, are attached to the hauling rope at fixed
intervals using grips. When the sheave rotates, the hauling rope moves in a circle and so do the
carriages.
b) Mono-cable systems: A mono-cable system uses a single rope, which serves the dual purpose of
carrying and hauling carriers. Carriages are attached to the rope by grips and move when the rope
moves.
Bicable ropeway Monocable- ro peway
Reversible operation Circulating-operation

7.2.2. According to Operation
Ropeway ,systems may be further sub-divided into circulating and non-circulating systems and
systems using fixed or detachable clips.
a) Non-circulating system (Reversible system) .


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In a non-circulating system, the hauling rope (or hauling-carrying rope in the case of a mono-cable
system) moves forwards and backwards between the loading and unloading stations. In a system with
one track cable, it can move only one carrier. In a non-circulating system, if the hauling rope winds
into a drum then the ropeway is called a drum-type non- circulating bi-cable
Instead of using a drum, the hauling rope can also form a loop but in this case the direction of motion
of the rope must be changed in order to move the carrier back and forth. Such a system is called a
looped non-circulating bi-cable system
Drum-type non-circulating bi-cable ropeway system
Drum-type bi-<:able system
Track rope tension

equipment
·b) Circulating System

In a circulating system, the hauling rope runs continuously in one direction and passes around the
sheaves at the ends. The cars move from one side of the rope to the other as the rope moves from one
station to the other and back.
.~!1-:o-
1 1
(o) (o)
'-""""···------------"-'-..-
Looped hauHng cable
7.1.1. According to Type of dips

a) Fixed Clip System
In a fixed-clip system, the cars are permanently attached to the hauling rope and remain so even when
travelling,around the sheaves.
b) Detachable Clip System
In a detachable-clip system, each car is manually or automatically detached from the continuously
running rope when it enters the station. It allows flexibility in the loading and unloading of cars as


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well as ease of maintenance and easy removal or addition of cars without affecting the operation of
the ropeway.
7.2.3. According to Power

a) Electric motors or engines powered: Electric motors or engines are used for driving force
b) Gravity-operated or self-driven ropeway: It has no external power service. These have only one
carrying steel rope, which stretches in a single.span from an elevated point down to the terminal.
Gravity acts as the driving force and these ropeways do not have any brakes. These are the
simplest and most primitive ropeways and can obviously be used only for downhill cargo
transport.
c) Mobile ropeways or
winch ropeways or
Carrier
cable cranes
It consist of the engine-
powered drum of a winch
and a specially-designed
gripping device that
travels on a temporarily-
installed skyline cable.
The cable from the winch
passes through the
gripping device and is
used to lift or deliver
loads. It can be stopped at
any point to drop or pick
up a load.
7.2.4. According to
Vehicle type
a) Open-air ropeways
(chair lifts): chairs or
benches with up to four
seats, each suspended
on a steel rope driven
in a loop.
b) Open cabins with roof
and railing and meant
for 1 to 6passengers
c) Semi enclosed cabins
with roof, railing and
sides not fully covered
and meant for 1 to 6 passengers
d) Closed cabins or gondolas are fully closed cabin with glass or transparent windows with a
capacity of 1 to 6 passengers
7.3. Components of a Ropeway

7.'3.1. Rope
The rope or cable of a ropeway bears the suspended load and hauls it along. A rope is made up of
several strands of steel wires spun together. In a rope the core may be a strand (a wire-strand core) a
second smaller rope (an independent wire-rope core), or a fibre core. Rope with a fibre-core is
generally used as a hauling cable.
Types of Ropes according to the way in which the wires and strands are laid
a) Equal Lay: In an 'equal lay' rope, all the wires in a strand are wound with the same helix angle.
The wires of different layers be of different s!zes and that the smaller wires be closer to the core.


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b) Cross lay: In a 'cross-lay' rope the wires in all layers are the same size and a different helix angle
or length of lay must be used for each layer.
Type of Ropes based on the methods used to wind the strands together
c) Lang-lay: In a lang-lay rope, 'F>nu!le"'.i.:
the direction of the lays of 0 """'1nlott.,.,. "~ ...,,_
the outer layer of wires is the
same as the direction of the
lays of the strands within the
rope.
d) Ordinary-lay: In an ordinary-
lay rope, the outer layer of
wires is laid in the opposite
direction of the lay of the
inner strands. This
arrangement provides a
better and more uniform
wearing surface
7.3.2. Ropeway carrier or

vehicles
The ropeway carrier or vehicles carry passenger or cargo. The vehicles vary from the fixed-grip 2-
seater to the detachable 8-seater chair to cabins up to 200 passengers. A ropeway carrier consists of a
carriage and a container. The carriages are suspended from the track rope and are attached to the
hauling rope at fixed intervals using grips in a bi-cable system. The container may be a bucket, a tray
or a passenger cabin and is suspended from the carriage by means of a hanger.
a) Open-air ropeways (chair lifts):
chairs or benches with up to four ~.;:!!Z~~·~~mM c~Cf!milu:}
seats, each suspended on a steel rope
driven in a loop. The chairs are
provided with a bench seat, backrest,
footrest and lockable safety bar for a
better seating position, comfort and
safety.
b) Open cabins with roof and railing
and meant for 1 to 6passengers
c) Semi enclosed cabins with roof,
railing and sides not fully covered
and meant for 1 to 6 passengers
d) Closed cabins or gondolas are fully ~{!!i~Hlft§l~:iSi"
lilttij~Jil~~l\lil
.._,
closed cabin with a capacity of 4 to 35 passengers. ...........
All gondolas have cabin made of glass creating a

unique sense of space and clear panoramic view to
the outside
7.3.3. Towers
Towers or trestles are supporting structures. Depending
upon the type of ropeway and its use, they are made of
wood, steel, or concrete. Towers are provided with a
saddle and rollers. Rollers are small wheels used to
support the hauling rope in a bi-cable system or the main
rope in a mono-cable system. Rollers are generally
grouped into a battery. A saddle or shoe is used to
support the track rope on the tower in a .bi-cable
ropeway.


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A bi-cable tower has saddles as well as a roller battery, while a mono-cable tower has only a roller
battery to support the hauling-carrying rope.
Wooden towers can be used in a ropeway which transports materials in a construction project. This
type of ropeway is dismantled after construction is complete. Concrete towers are generally used for
small ropeways, while steel towers, because they are reusable, are commonly used in all types of
ropeways. Steel towers also provide the flexibility.to make. towers of any size by using steel frames
of pole or lattice type.
7.3.4. Stations
Minimum two stations are necessary for a ropeway system as one is situated at the starting point and
one at the end of it.
Types of Stations
• Tension stations: Tension stations placed at appropriate points along a ropeway line are used
to limit the length and maintain the tension of the track cable.
• Drive station: A drive station contains the drive system of a ropeway, which includes a
motor drive mechanism and a driving sheave.
• Return station: This station at the end of the line contains a return sheave, from which
carriers move back towards the drive station.
• Divide stations: These intermediate stations are used in long ropeways to limit the length and
tension of the rope. They divide a ropeway into smaller segments, each ofwhich functions as
a separate ropeway.
7.3.5. Sheaves
Sheaves are wheels of large diameter found at both ends of the line and in the stations. The hauling
rope passes around them. A driving sheave is powered either by an engine or an electric motor
connected to the sheave with a suitable drive mechanism. At the other end of the line there is a return
sheave which is not powered but is free to rotate.
7.3.6. The grip

The carriers are attached to the hauling rope by means of
fixed or detachable grips.
• Detachable grips have the rnoving grip jaw
allowing the direct opening and closing of the
grip that in normal position remains closed.
• Fixed grips are very secure and reliable. The .
fixed grip tightens on the rope permanently.
7.3.7. The Drive System

The. drive system can be installed at the bottom or top
station, designed as overhead or underground drive and used as drive or drive-tensioning station. It is
composed of the drive, the service brake, safety brake and the gearbox. Through the drive teclmology
it is possible to control the speed and the conduct of the installation when it moves and when it stops.
7~3.8. Control System

The control system monitors the security of the installation and its passengers. The control panel
provides real-time data and information necessary for the operation of the ropeways installation. This·
enables the machine operator to immediately regulate the service ifnec;essary.


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7.4. Design Criteria
7.4.1. Profile
The profile of the aerial ropewa.y (longitudinal side elevation) shall be, as far as practicable, parallel to
the terrain over which it passes. The maximum gradient of the rope shall not exceed 1.0 (45°) except
in the case of aerial ropeway of fixed grip type. The transport path shall be straight between
successive stations
7.4.2. Ground clearance

The minimum ground clearance, that is, the distance between the ground and the lowest moving
portion of a ropeway (bottom of the car or hauling rope) shall be as given below under the most
unfavourable conditions like snow, swing of carriages, etc.
• Over national highways - 6m
• Over other vehicular roads - 4.5 m
• Over footpaths frequented by pedestrians- 2.5 m
• Over areas where traffic is not allowed to pass- 2.5
In closed vehicle installations,
• the height above ground shall not be greater than 25 m
• the height above ground may be more than 40 in if such length does not exceed 20 percent of
the total system length
7.4.3. Side Space

Swinging ropes and carriers shall be at a minimum distance of 3 m from objects not belonging to the
ropeway installation.
7.4.4. Track Width

The track width is the distance between the two carrying wire rope lines. The clearance between
opposite swinging carriers shall be minimum 40 em. For longer spans the track width shall be
correspondingly increased.
7.4.5. Ropes
The ratio of minimum breaking load of rope and the maximum rope tension in service shall not be
less than the following values:
• Carrying rope(bicable)- 3.0
• Hauling rope for both monocable and bicable- 4.5
• Tension rope for bicable and monocable -5.0
• Signalling and telephonic cables - 3.3
7.4.6. Vehicles
a) Maximum Speed
In rio case shall the maximum speed exceed the values given below:
1) System with closed gondolas having locked doors- 6m/s
2) Chairlift and system with open gondolas with adequate protection - 5 m/s
3) Others- 3m/s
b) Capacity of Vehicles
The calculation of the various components shall be done, taking into account the weight of 80 kg per
passenger. The vehicles may be following types: ·
~ chairs with one seat or more seats for passengers not exceeding four,
• open .cabins with roof and railing and meant for 1 to 6passengers
• semi enclosed cabins with roof, railing and sides not fully covered, and meant for 1 - 6
• passengers, and closed cabins with small windows with a capacity of 1 to 6 passengers


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c) Spacing or carriages
The minimum distance between two successive carriages shall not be less than 1.5 times the stopping
distance under the most unfavorable load conditions.
7.4.7. Towers or Trestles

a) Loads
In designing trestles, the following loads shall be considered:
• The weight of the trestle and the pressure exerted by the ropes.
• The stresses due to friction which occur during the motion of the carrying hauling rope with
factor of safety 2.5 percent of the load on the rollers.
• Weight of vehicles travelling with maximum load
• Load due to wind and load of snow or ice
• Load imposed by communication cable if provided.
b) Safety
• The ratio of stre~gth of the metal to the stress under most unfavorable conditions of not less
than 3 when the installation is in service and 2.2 when the installation is not in operation.
• the trestles shall have a minimum safety factor of 1.5 times to overturning displacement or
subsidence.
7.4.8. Crossings
• The crossing of routes, railways, waterways or other ropeways shall be avoided as far as
possible.
• When it is not possible, the clearances shall be determined and shall have protective structures
• The crossings and paralleling with railways, highways, ropeways or overhead electrical lines
shall be so done that no mutual discomfort results either in course of normal operation or
rescue operation or during installation operations.
7.4.9. Dangerous Area

In the proximity of airports or in areas where airplanes fly at low altitude or land frequently, the route
of the ropeway shall be adequately marked, taking into account any restriction imposed by the
authority having jurisdiction over the airports. ·
References: [Ropeways in Nepal (Nepal Water Conservation Foundation (NWCF), 2004); IS 5229
-1998; IS 9706-1997; and other internetresourcesj

Tranport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Acme Engineering Col/ege(PU}
8. Chapter VIII
Transport System in Nepal
8.1. Overview of existing system and future trend
Transport network system in Nepal can be divided into road transport, railway transport, air transport,
ropeways and cable cars.
8.1.1. Road Transport
Road transport system in Nepal can be divided into strategic road network system (central road
system), rural road network (local roads) and urban roads.
i) Central Road System: National highways, feeder roads and roads having specific objectives
are in Strategic road network. The function of the Strategic Road Network (SRN) is to provide
linkage and connectivity throughout the country. The existing SRN was designated in 1994
comprising 15 National Highways and 51 Feeder Roads, with a total length today of 5,030km.
Based on the economic returns on the investment required, capacity expansion, new network of
roads, new hill roads, upgrading and rehabilitation of paved road are considered for strategic road
networks.
ii) Local Road System: They are road within district, road within village, main trails, mule track,
arid village trails and tracks. These roads are not the parts of the central road system and the
project formulation, construction, maintenance and repair have to be done by local institution.
Roads connecting one or more main development center or connecting VDC's directly to the
headquarters of the same district or other district or through important road system shall be
classified as district road. The roads connecting village centers with other village centers and
market centers within villages are called village roads. The technical cooperation, funding
management etc are provided by the Ministry of Local Development or the Department of Local
Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Road.
iii) Urban Road: Roads within a Municipality, excluding those under central road system are urban
roads. The construction maintenance and repairing of these roads and its ancillaries are done by
the Municipality in coordination with various authorities of Government. ·
8.1.2. Air Transport

Air transport system consists of one international airport, Tribhuvan International Airport
(Kathmandu), four regional hub airports such as Biratnagar, Bhairahawa, Pokhara and Nepalgunj, and
other 29 additional domestic airports with scheduled flights. Currently, these airports are served by 13
different air companies operating domestic flights, with different traffic volumes, services and aims.
Of these 13, eight of them are fixed wing operators and the others use helicopters (rotor wing) to carry
out their operations. State-owned Nepal airline is only airline operating domestic as well as
international flights.
Nepal Airlines flies abroad to the capital cities of five different Asian countries (New Delhi,
Bengaruru and Mumbai (India), Hong Kong, Kualalumpur (Malaysia), Doha (Qatar), Bangkok
(Thailand) and Dubai (UAE)). Major international airlines operating their flight to Nepal are Korean
air, Silk air, Air India, Thai air, Malaysian Air, Air China, Jet air etc
Air transport policy focus on identifying the sectors where the road transports service cannot be
provided immediately. Development of a new international airport is being planned at a location like
Pokhara, Lumbini and Bara.
'"···


Acme Engineering College(PU)
8.1.3. Rail Transport:
The Nepal Railways Corporation operates the main narrow gauge passenger line within Nepal. There
is only one functioning Nepalese passenger railway in Nepal. This 59 km narrow gauge railway runs
between Janakpur in Nepal and Jainagar in India. The freight line from Raxaul in India is a broad
gauge installation, operated jointly by Nepal Railways Corporation and Indian Railways, an:d allowing
container traffic to be imported to Nepal, through the Sirsiva dry port container depot.
Department of Railways has been established on 2068/03/01 B.S for the planned development cif
railway network in the country to meet the growing passenger and freight transport demand.
Feasibility study of Kathamndu-pokhara railway and Mechi-Mahakali road as well as Kathmandu
Metro Railway have been completed. Government have planned to develop rail transport with with
the participation of private sector .
8.1.4. Ropeways and Cable Car

Cable cars can be a very popular means of transport for tourism as well as transporting agricultural
products. Similarly, Ropeways for transportation of construction materials, agriculturaL inputs and
outputs can solve an alternative means of transportation. Commercial ropeway was built in 1922
during reign of Prime minister Chandra Shamsher from Dhorsing~chisapnai-chandragiri hills. In 1964,
this system was further improved and extended to 42 kilometer to Hetauda with the financial and
teclmical· assistance of the United State Agency for international Development (USAID). Although
many studies have been conducted, Two goods carrying ropeways, Bhattedanda- Milkway, Barpak
Community Ropeway, and Mankamana Cable car were actually built. Looking at huge popularity of
Manakamana Cable car, cable car could be the feasible transport mode for the remote place of Nepal
which has huge potential of tourism.
Recently, private sector and ropeway activists have now shown great interest in development of
ropeway in Nepal. Some of the private companies sucha as Ropeway and Cable Car Pvt. Lt
constructed 600m long Kushma-Balewa Cable car in Parbat district, and Ropeway Nepal Pvt. Ltd.
Mechanized Bridge of 520m span in Kotre-Punditar across Seti River at Tanahun District of Nepal.
8.2. National Transport Policy, Five Year Plans
8.2.1. National Transport Policy
National Transport Policy has been introduced to provide transport facility in the remote and
backward region as soon as possible from the minim~m source, make the existing transport
infrastructure organized and reliable and develop the transport system of international standard of
foreign countries.
8.2.1.1. Objective:
To develop a reliable, cost effective, safe facility oriented and sustainable transport system that
promotes and sustains the economic, social, cultural and tourism development of Nepal as a whole.
8.2.1.2. Strategies:
For the attainment of the above through an9 objectives the following strategies will be followed:
(i) Take responsibility of transport structure to be constructed from the central level.
(ii) Strong decentralized governance system,
(iii) The development and promotion of transport system from the local level itself.
(iv) Maximum private Sector involvement


Acme Engineering College{PU)
8.2.2. Five Year Plan

• Nepal has adopted a planned approach to development of the country. Planned endeavor of
development was initiated with the inception of the First Five Year Plan in 1956.
• Since then eight periodic plans, 7 Five Year and 1 Three Year, have so far been completed and
the Ninth Plan is under implementation. The Ninth Plan has initiated a long term concept for
development in the country.
• The Ninth Plan has envisaged that the major long-term development objective is to create a
society that is cultured, modern development-oriented and endowed with skiils through
alleviating the prevailing wide spread poverty in the country.
• The plan recognized to broaden the sources of high growth in order to achieve a high and
sustainable growth rate and trickle down its effects on the majority of the population by fully
utilizing and investing available resources in infrastructure and social sectors.
• It is targeted to achieve 6 percent per annum growth rate in the Ninth Plan, 7.0 percent in
the Tenth Plan, 7.5 percent in the Eleventh Plan and 8.3 percent in the Twelfth Plan, thus making
the average growth rate of 7.2 percent during the 20 year period.
8.2.2.1. Current strategy

• To maintain road network effectively and efficiently (Asset Preservation)
• To provide access to all District Headquarters to strengthen social, economiC,
administrative linkages
• To improve existing access to District Headquarters for safe, reliable and cost effective
travel .
• To develop roads to supplement Poverty Reduction Program and to improve accessibility
· in Mid- hills and Terai
8.2.2.2. Long Term Strategy ( 20 Years Road Master Plan)

• All weather motor able access to all 75 districts .
• Doubling the length of SRN with target road density of 1.5 Km per 1000 people
• Ensuring more than 95 % of SRN in a good/fair condition .
• Road access within 4 hours in the Hills and 2 hours in the Terai.
Q • Establishment of Autonomous Road Agency to manage Strategic Road network
• Establishment and functioning of monitoring system for effective service delivery through
an annual user's satisfaction survey
• Substantial reduction in Road accident by adopting enhanced safety
8.3. Existing planning process
Road network Planning consists of strategic road network planning and rural road network planning~
8.3.1. Stategic road network planning

i) Identification and Prioritization: Priority should be given to those roads that generate
substantial benefits to local people. The following points are considered while prioritizing the
development of strategic road network.
• road connections to zonal and district headquarters
• North-South links up to Borders of neighboring countries
• Mid-Hill East- West Highway
• Postal roads
• Roads connecting potential areas of Hydropower, Mines, Tourism
• ~oads to mitigate Traffic congestion and/or environmental degradation
• Roads being constructed by DOR and likely to be incorporated in SRN.
• Short- cut roads


Acme Engineering College{PU}
8.2.1.3. Policy:
The following policies shall be followed in order to attain the above mentioned objectives:
1. The construction and development of transport infrastructure in central and local level as per the
short term, medium term and long term master plan of the transport infrastructure
2. The central level government plays role as supporter of the local level government for
development of transport infrastructure
3. High priority shall be given to completing the construction of roads connecting all 75
District Headquarters of the Country to the main road network.
4. Development of the East-West Mid-Hills Highway by constructing and improving the
component Feeder and District Roads
5. Roads shall be constructed, to connect the northern border
6. The maintenance and repair of the existing transport infrastructure to ensure appropriate service
levels
7. The local level transport infrastructure shall be constructed and maintained from the local level
itself.
8. Priority shall be given to maintain 'and upgrade of transport infrastructure of the central level
on the basis of traffic density and economic consideration.
9. The construction, improvement and management of the means of transport shall be done in
harmony with the traffic safety and environmental effect.
10. The skill and working capacity of the concerned labour force shall be enhanced.
11. The expansion of the solar and electricity powered throughout the country
12. Cross border, regional and sub-regional transport and transit facilities shall be further developed
and expanded.
13. Improving public transport service and to reducing harmful emissions arising from public
transport operations.
14. Promote Private sector involvement in the development and expansion of service of the transport
infrastructure.
15. The provide a minimum level of transport infrastructure in the remote areas
16. Foreign loans will not be utilized unless its positive economic feasibility
17. To develop various mean of transportation and infrastructure in a coordinated manner.
8.2.1.4. Institutional Structure

• A Road Transport Authority, by merging the Department of Roads and Department of Transport
Management, shall be established in order to make the road transportation and transport
management self-governing and self-reliance.
• A National Transport Board is constructed subject to connecting all authorities relating to
transport including civil aviation.
• The construction, operation and maintenance of local roads to be done under local development
programs.
• The road operated by the local bodies may be included into the central system if it gets feasible
from in terms of traffic density, standard of service and self-reliance
• Government subsidy and cross subsidy shall be stopped
• Fully handing over all infrastructure of the local transport system to the local bodies within 3
years,
8.2.1.5. Involvement of Private Sector:

To attract and encourage foreign and native private sector to construct/build airports,
roads, waterways and rope ways like transport structure through the process of Build Operate and
Transfer (BOT), Operate and Transfer (OT) and Build, own, operate and Transfer (BOOT).


Acme Engineering College{PU)
ii) Feasibility Studies: Once individual road has been selected for construction or up gradation, a
walkover survey of the road (and the corridor) needs to be undertaken so that technical, socio-
economic, environmental and social information pertaining to the road and the corridor is
collected. At the same time an assessment of the required civil works should also be undertaken
so that a tentative cost estimate for the sub-project is made.
iii) Review/Appraisal of Feasibility Study Report: The feasibility study report should be reviewed
thoroughly before approving and/or making decision as to budgetary allocation. Under review
process there may be various issues including information on technical, socio-economic,
environmental and social aspects of the proposed road. Result of this process may be approval or
acceptance of the project, refinement and approval and rejection.
iv) Detajled Project Preparation: Once the feasibility study report is accepted and investment
decision is made, the detailed project report need to be prepared. For this purpose, number of
activities will have to be undertaken such as a) detail topographical survey; b) socio-economic
assessment; c) social and environmental impact assessment; d) detail cost estimates and
preparation of bid documents; e) preparation of implementation plan and procurement plan.
v) Project Negotiation and Approval: This involves reviewing of the appraisal report and selection
of the most appropriate project. This also forms part of project negotiation. At this level, the
·implementing and financing agencies draw up a formal implementation or operation plan
vi) Project Implementation: Once approved, roads will be rehabilitated or constructed by the
concerned departments, private contractors or communities.
vii) Evaluation: An impact assessment aims at appraising to what extent improved road links have
led to changes life and livelihoods in local communities. Impact studies often require
sophisticated surveys to collect qualitative and quantitative data necessary to measure changes.
8.3.2; Rural road network planning
Preliminary rural road network plan for inaccessible area is prepared based on the nodal points/market
centers and national transport policy. Local level workshops/meetings is conducted and the proposed
prelimina,ry network plan for inaccessible area is presented and discussed to verify and preliminary
approval of the proposed road networks. All suggestions and feedbacks were collected and
incorporated in preliminary proposed road network plan.
On long term perspective, District Transport Master Plan (DTMP) prepared for the planned
development of the rural roads in the district. DTMP provides the guideline for decision making
process in rural road development. DTMP contains inventory of existing rural transpmi
infrastructures, list of all the rural transport infrastructures to be developed in future and prioritized
list of rural roads to be developed within next five years. DoLIDAR has recommended a set of
particular steps while preparing district transport master plan as given below (DoLIDAR Approach
Manual)
Step 1: Prepare and finalize Indicative Development Potential Map of the District
Step 2: Prepare District Inventory Map of Rural Road Network
Step 3: Collection of Demands for New Transport Linkages from VDCs
Step 4: Prepare Draft Perspective Plan of District Rural Road Network
Step 5: Synchronizing the Draft Perspective Plans of adjoining districts
Step 6: Acceptance of the Perspective Plan of District Rural Road Network
Step 7: Preparation of Five Year Rural Road Master Plan of District
$tep 8: Updating year-wise list of prioritized road links and approval

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Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Acme Engineering College

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Chapter 2: Urban and Regional Planning 4

Chapter 3: Urban Transport Planning Process 9

Chapter 4: Transportation System Analysis 15

Chapter 5: Introduction to Airport Engineering 19

Chapter 6: Introduction to Railway Engineering 43

Chapter 7: Ropeways 68.

Chapter 8: National Transp.Oii Policy 75

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.1. Transportation planning

Types of transportation planning

1.2. Scope of transportation planning and system engineering

a) System characteristic study

b) Transportation system impact

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

e) Transportation system evaluation

t) Program and project implementation

1.3. Significance of transport planning

ii) Obtain planning permission

iii) Environmental considerations

1.4. Transportation modeling

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.5. Transport Problems in Cities

1.6. Tnwsportation Network and their Characteristics

Highway network consists of networks of roads

or full access control designed for high

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

2.1 Difference between Urban and Regional Planning

2.2 Transportation demand surveys and studies

2.2.1 Travel pattern survey

2.2.1.1 Home Interview Survey

A number of techniques are available forthe home interview survey.

Variant ofhome interview

2.2.1.2 Road side interview

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Data Collection Sheet

2) What type of place is your trip start point?

4) What type of place is your trip end point?

5) What was the purpose of your trip?

6) How many people were in the vehicle, including the driver?

7) What type of vehicle were you in?

8) Do you regularly use this route? 0 Yes ONo

9) Please add any comments on transportation you

Thank you very much for your cooperation!

2.2.1.3 Public transport survey

Name of Owner: Address:

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Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

2.2.L4 Registration Plate No. Survey

Survey Station: Surveyor:

Registration No. I Time I Vehicle Type I Others

Survey Station: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Surveyor.: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2.2.1.6 Tags on Vehicle

Surve>: Station: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ Surveyor