University of Zakho

College of Basic Education

Department of English Language
Grammar – Fourth Semester
All Material for the Term and End-of-Semester
Exams: 2018 - 2019

1) The third conditional

We use the third conditional to talk about imagined past events: things that might have
happened in the past, but didn’t happen.

If I’d known it was your birthday, I’d have bought you a present.
If the taxi had arrived on time, he wouldn’t have missed the plane.

A conditional sentence has two parts. In the third conditional, the if part is the imaginary
situation in the past, and the main part is what could have happened (but didn’t happen)
as a result. We make the third conditional with if + past perfect, and would have +
past participle.

If I’d known it was your birthday… (This is the imaginary situation in the past)

I’d have bought you a present. (This is the imaginary result of the situation in the past)

The two parts can come in any order. When we write, we put a comma between
the if part and the result part. You don’t use a comma when the result part comes first.

 If I’d known it was your birthday, I’d have bought you a present.
 I’d have bought you a present if I’d known it was your birthday.
 If the taxi had arrived on time, Jack wouldn’t have missed the plane.
 Jack wouldn’t have missed the plane if the taxi had arrived on time.

We use the past perfect in the if part to show the situation is imaginary and didn’t
actually happen. The result part of the sentence tells us the imaginary result of this
situation.

If there had been any snow, we’d have gone skiing. (There wasn’t any snow; we didn’t
go skiing.)

If it hadn’t been raining, we’d have had a picnic.(It was raining; we didn’t have a
picnic.)
Form
Positive
If you’d asked me to marry you, I’d have said no.
We’d have been in trouble if we’d missed the last train.

Negative
She wouldn’t have become ill if she’d taken the medicine.
It would have been better if they hadn’t come to the party.
If you hadn’t been so friendly, I wouldn’t have talked to you.

Question
What would they have done if they’d lost their jobs?
If I’d told him the truth, how would he have felt?

Short answer
In short answers, you use would/wouldn’t.
If you’d needed help, would you have asked me?
Yes, I would. / No, I wouldn’t.

Take note: past continuous

We can use the past continuous in the if part of the sentence.

If he’d been driving more carefully, he wouldn’t have had an accident.

I wouldn’t have met my girlfriend if I’d been living abroad.

Take note: modals

We can use other modal verbs in the result part, for example might. Might shows we
are less certain than when we use will.

We might have been happier if we’d bought the other house.

If he hadn’t got up so late, he might not have missed the train.

Take note: ‘I wish …’and ‘If only …’

We use I wish or If only with the past perfect when we are sorry about something that
happened in the past, and we imagine doing things differently.

I wish I’d stayed in bed this morning. (I’m having a bad day today.)

If only I’d stayed in bed this morning.

I wish I’d picked the other horse! (My horse didn’t win the race.)

If only I’d picked the other horse!

Spoken English
In the third conditional, we usually use a short form of had and had not when we speak:
I had = I'd, I had not = I hadn’t. We also use a short form of would and would not: I
would = I'd, he would = he'd, I would not = I wouldn’t, etc.

We’d have been unhappy if we’d lost the game.

We wouldn’t have been happy if we hadn’t won the game.

The third conditional is sometimes confusing because I’d can mean both I had and I
would – so listen carefully! And remember that I’d in the if part is I had, and I’d in the
result part is I would.

2) Double contractions
In spoken English, people often use contractions like this: I will becomes I'll and you
would becomes you'd. Double contractions are when we shorten three words, like this:

I would have -> I'd've

could not have -> couldn't've

might not have -> mightn't've

must not have -> mustn't've

cannot have -> can't've

you would have -> you'd've

he would have -> he'd've

she would have -> she'd've

we would have -> we'd've

they would have -> they'd've

2. Reported Speech

Meaning and use

If someone says something that you want to tell another person, you can report it
using direct speech or reported speech.

In direct speech we use speech (or quotation) marks to show the exact words the
person said.
"I’m hungry."

"I love chicken sandwiches."

We can also use a reporting verb to show who was speaking.

He says: "I’m hungry."

She tells me: "I love chicken sandwiches."

Say and tell are both reporting verbs. We use tell when we say who we are speaking
to.

CORRECT: She tells me she loves chicken sandwiches. (The speaker is talking to
‘me’.)

CORRECT: She says she loves chicken sandwiches. (We don’t know who the speaker
is talking to.)

WRONG: She says me she loves chicken sandwiches. (We don’t use ‘me’ with the
reporting verb ‘say’.)

CORRECT: She said TO me she loves chicken.

If the reporting verb is in the present tense, then the reported statement stays in the
present tense:

Direct speech

"He’s hungry", he says.

She tells me, "I love chicken sandwiches."

Reported speech

He says he is hungry.

She tells me she loves chicken sandwiches.

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, we usually change the present form to a past
form in reported speech.

Direct speech

"He’s hungry", he said.

She told me, "I love chicken sandwiches."

Reported speech

He said he was hungry.

She told me she loved chicken sandwiches.

We change the pronoun when the speaker or listener changes.

A boy tells his mother: "I’m hungry.”

Later, the boy’s mother tells the father: He said he was hungry.

We can use that, but we can also miss it out and the meaning is the same.

He said that he was hungry. > He said he was hungry.

She told me that she loved chicken sandwiches. > She told me she loved chicken
sandwiches.

Form
In reported speech, we usually move the direct speech verb one step back in the past.

1) Present simple -> past simple

"I know you." -> She said she knew him.

2) Present continuous -> past continuous

"I am having coffee" -> He said he was having coffee.

3) Present perfect -> past perfect

"I have finished my homework" -> He said he had finished his homework.

4) Present perfect continuous -> past perfect continuous

"I have been studying Chinese" -> She said she had been studying Chinese.

5) Is going to - > was going to

"I am going to go home" -> She said she was going to go home.

6) Future simple - > would

"I will go to the bank later" -> He said he would go to the bank later.

Notes

1) A reported statement in the past simple often stays the same:

"I drove to work" -> She said she drove to work.

2) And you can't go further back in time than the past perfect, so it stays the same too:

"I had driven to work" -> She said she had driven to work.
3) Modal verbs: some change in reported speech:

“I can/can't speak Turkish” -> She said she could/couldn't speak Turkish.

“I must/mustn't wash my hair” -> She said she had to/didn't have to wash her hair.

4) Some modal verbs don't change:

“I could take the bus” -> He said he could take the bus.

“I should go to bed” -> She said she should go to bed.

“I might watch TV” -> He said he might watch TV.

5) We don’t change the verb in reported speech if the situation hasn’t changed, for
example if it’s a fact or is generally true:

"I love you" -> She told me she loves me.

6) But we can use the past tense to show you're not certain the other person loves
her/him – for example, the other person wasn’t telling the truth

"I love you" -> She said she loved me.

Questions
A direct question is:

Where are you from?

A reported question is:

He asked where I was from.

To form a reported question, you need to follow these steps:

1) Use a reporting verb:

He asked where I was from.

2) Repeat the question word:

He asked where I was from.

3) Change the pronouns:

He asked where I was from.

4) Move the tense back:

He asked where I was from.

 5) Use statement word order:

He asked where I was from.

Note: Yes/no questions

For yes/no questions, we use if or whether.

Example: Is it two o'clock?

 She asked if it was two o'clock

 She asked whether it was two o'clock

Form summary
Positive

"I love you." > He said he loved her.

"I’ve been working hard." > She told me that she’d been working hard.

"I’ll see you later." > He said he would see me later.

Negative

"I didn’t have time to go shopping." > He said he hadn’t had time to go shopping.
“I can’t talk to you." > She told me that she couldn’t talk to me.

"I wouldn’t want to live in the country." > He said he wouldn’t want to live in the
country.

Question

"Where can I buy a hamburger?" > She asked where she could buy a hamburger.

"Who must I see at the bank?" > He asked who he had to see at the bank.

"Are you going to Leila’s party?" > She asked if I was going to Leila’s party.

Short answers

“Yes, I am. / No, I’m not.”> I said I was. / I said I wasn’t.

Take note: facts and general truths We don’t change the verb in reported speech if
the situation hasn’t changed, for example if it’s a fact or is generally true. Compare:

She told me she loves me. (The speaker uses the present tense to show (s)he
believes the other person still loves her/him now.)
She told me she loved me. (The speaker uses the past tense to show (s)he isn’t
certain the other person loves her/him – for example, the other person wasn’t telling the
truth.)

Take note: the past perfect

The past perfect doesn’t change in reported speech because there isn’t a verb form
further 'back in time'.

"I had never eaten sushi before I went to Japan." > 'She told me that she had never
eaten sushi before she went to Japan.

Take note: reporting verbs

We can use different verbs to report our thoughts, opinions or intentions.

"I know which way to go." -> He thought he knew which way to go.

"I stole the books." -> He admitted that he had stolen the books.

"Why doesn’t she like me?" -> He wondered why she didn’t like him.

Spoken English

Some contracted forms in reported speech can be difficult to hear, for example the past
perfect and conditional. He asked who’d eaten the cake. I told him he’d have to take
the train. In the first example, the words ‘who’ and ‘had’ become who’d. In the second
example, ‘he’ and ‘would’ become he’d. In both examples, two different words are
shortened to just a /d/ sound. So, listen carefully for past tense contractions – make
sure you get them right.

Say and Tell

Summary
1) When we use say, we don't normally include the object:

My friend said that he was making pizza.

Note: if you want to include an object, you need the word to:

2) But if we use tell, we do need an object:

My friend told me that he was making pizza.

Extra point - 'Like' for reported speech

One way people use like in spoken English is to mark reported speech. It's very
common in informal speech, particularly among young people. Look at these examples:
 My boss told me to finish the report by 4pm. I was like: "Fine, if you stop interrupting
me."
 My friend said it was the best film he'd ever seen. He was like: "You must see this
movie!"

The form is: verb to be + like, followed by the quoted statement.

3. If and whether - for when we have two choices

Often the words if and whether can be used interchangeably, but one difference is that
we use whether when we have two clear choices. Compare these:

1) I don't know if Finn wants tea or coffee. (It's possible Finn wants something else)

2) I don't know whether Finn wants tea or coffee. (These are the only two possibilities)

If and whether in indirect questions

Meaning and use

There are two ways to ask questions in English – directly and indirectly. Both have the
same meaning, but we use indirect questions if we want to sound more formal or polite,
especially when we are talking to people we don’t know.

We can use if and whether like this - notice how the word order changes:

(Direct question) - Is the coffee for everyone?

(Indirect question) - Could you tell me if the coffee is for everyone?

Form

Indirect questions have the same word order as statements:

introductory phrase + if or whether + subject + verb

(Direct question) - Is the meeting at two?

(Indirect question) - Do you know if the meeting is at two?

Ways of saying 'if'

As long as = Only if

 As long as we go somewhere hot.

Suppose + question clause = How about if ...

Note: Use this when making a suggestion.
 Suppose we go to America, will that be hot enough?

Unless = If ... not

 Unless I get the time off work, I won't be able to go.

Providing/provided = If
Note: Provided is more formal than providing but has the same meaning.

 Providing I get the time off work, I'll go.

On the condition that = If

Note: this is very formal and mostly used in writing.

 On the condition that you pay me extra, I'll work over the holiday.

When and if
The main difference is to do with certainty. Compare these:

1) If the coin lands on tails, I'll eat these sweets.

2) When the coin stops, I'll know what to do.

In the first sentence, we don't know what will happen. The coin could land
on heads or tails. Both consequences are possible, so we use if.

But in the second sentence, we are certain that the coin will stop. It's a question
of when it stops, not if it stops.

Not finishing conditional sentences

If you do something, something will happen. That's an example of a typical conditional
sentence. It has two parts. An 'if clause' and a main clause. In spoken English, in
particular circumstances, it's possible to leave out the main clause. Tim looks at how
and when this happens in this video.

Summary
The main clause of a conditional sentence can be left out when its meaning is clearly
understood. This can often be the case with:

 polite requests
If you could just help me with this.
If you wouldn't mind passing me the stapler.
 If you could get here by four.

 angry threats
If you do that one more time!
If you don't tidy your room up!
If you're late again!

 regrets and recriminations

If only I hadn't sold the car.
If you hadn't left it so late to book the flight.
If only she'd been more careful with her wallet.

5 uses of 'wish'
1. Wish for a present or past that isn't real

This use of wish is for present or past situations that we want to change, but we
understand that they can't.

I wish I were taller. (I am not tall)

I wish I had eaten ice-cream for breakfast this morning. (I didn’t eat ice cream for
breakfast this morning)

I wish I were taller is an example of a present wish. It is ‘wish’ plus the past simple.
We often use ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ for all pronouns because of the subjunctive (For
example: I wish I were, I wish you were, I wish he were...). I could also say:

I wish I knew how to speak Chinese. (I don’t know how to speak Chinese.)

I wish I had eaten ice-cream for breakfast this morning is an example of a past
wish. This morning is a past time; we make a past wish. ‘Wish’ is followed by the
past perfect, which is had plus the past participle. That indicates true past time.

Negatives and questions are also possible:

I wish you weren't so selfish.

I wish I hadn't left my keys at work.
Do you wish you knew how to drive?
Do you wish you had worked harder at school?

2. Wish for an irritation that can change

Another common form of wish is to use ‘wish’ plus would plus the bare
infinitive (verb without 'to'). And this is often in regards to other people and
our irritation. For example:

I wish you would make the bed!

I wish people wouldn't throw litter on the street.
This is a present wish, but unlike the wishes I discussed before, this wish means ‘I
believe you can change and something can be done.’ Compare:

I wish you would make the bed means ‘I think you can, but you don't, so please do.'
I wish you made the bed means ‘you don't and I don’t think you ever will so…’

It is extremely uncommon to use a first person ‘I’ in this form of wish. This is
because we have control over our own actions ourselves, so:

I wish I would stop talking means 'I want to stop talking, and I believe I can so why don’t
I?’

However, in terms of an illness or an addiction, this form is fine. When I say 'I wish I
would stop smoking' it means 'I don’t want to smoke anymore, but I can’t stop
because I’m addicted.'

3. Wish = want

Wish followed by the full infinitive (to + verb) is a formal way of saying want. It’s not
very common, and only used in special circumstances, for example, when you want to
make a polite formal complaint. For example: I wish to see the manager.

We can also use wish followed by ‘for’ to attach an object that you want. And this is
most often used in the circumstances of magic. For example: I wish for a pizza.

4. Wish to send ‘good vibrations’

We can use the verb wish followed by two objects, the first of which is most often a
pronoun, to send ‘good vibrations’ to somebody. This is more common than hope and it
is used in fixed phrases such as:

I wish you luck for your exam tomorrow.

We wish you a merry Christmas.

5. Wish for the future

This is a trick, because apart from sending good vibrations, as mentioned before, we
cannot use the verb wish in this way. We need another verb, and the verb is hope.
And this is usually followed by will plus the bare infinitive (verb without 'to'). So, for
example:

I hope you will pass your exam.

Verb forms that follow 'wish'
For wishes about the present or future, use the subjunctive. Follow I wish with the past
subjunctive. The past subjunctive looks like the past simple, except for the verb to
be which uses were for all subjects.

I wish I had a better job.

I wish I were famous.
I wish I didn't spend so much on clothes.

For wishes about the past, use the past perfect.

I wish I hadn't drunk so much last night.

I wish I had accepted the job.

Ways of using the verb 'wish'

1) Wish – something unlikely or impossible to be true

We use this pattern when we imagine a different past or present situation which is very
unlikely or impossible. The clause after wish often uses a past form of the verb, such
as was and hadn't in these examples:

I wish my eyesight was better.

I wish I hadn't told her.

2) Wish – for something

This is when you think very hard about something you want to happen - you wish for it
to happen. We use it with for:

I wish for a happy, peaceful life.

She wished for a better job.

3) Wish – someone something

This is when you tell someone you hope they will experience something good like being
safe or happy (it's usually something good, but not always!). There is an indirect
object (him) and a direct object (a safe trip) in the example:

I wished him a safe trip!

Here are two more examples which follow this pattern:

He wished me luck!

I wish you a happy anniversary!

Five ways to use would

1) Conditionals

I would memorise these sentences if I were you!

2) Future in past

When you started learning English you knew you would be fluent one day.

3) Reported speech

Finn said he would teach us how to use would.

4) Repetition in the past

I would always make mistakes until I learned these examples.

5) Polite requests

Would you try a little harder please?

Indirect questions:

1) Direct: Where is the cafe?

Indirect: Do you know where the cafe is?

2) Direct: When will you finish the report?

Indirect: Could you tell me when you'll finish the report?

3) Direct: Where is the toilet?

Indirect: Would you mind telling me where the toilets are?

4) Direct: Can you help me?

Indirect: Is there any chance you could help me with this?

We can also use if and whether, like this:

I wonder if you can help me?

Do you know if there's a bank near here?

Could you tell me whether Mark prefers fish or chicken curry?

 Let and allow
The verbs let and allow have similar meanings – both are related to giving permission.
But they're not used in exactly the same way.

Let and allow are both followed by nouns or object pronouns. 'Let' takes an infinitive
without to, and 'allow' takes an infinitive with to. Both can be made negative with an
auxiliary verb, and allow is often used in the passive form.

Form (allow in passive)

Subject + to be + allowed (past participle)

Take note
Here's another useful tip. In the active voice, allow takes the infinitive + to, but let does
not.

 They let him leave early to go to the doctor.

 She let her brother borrow the car.
 They allowed him to leave early to go to the doctor.
 She allowed her brother to borrow the car.

Alternatives to let's go
Let's go is a really useful phrase in English, but do you use it too much? What else
could you say instead?

Here are some phrases for when you're suggesting to leave somewhere together with
others:

 Time to make a move

 Let’s hit the road
 Off we go
 Let's get outta here
 Shall we?

And here's one for when you're leaving by yourself:

 I'm off

1) Active and passive forms

In English, we can express sentences in two different ways: active voice and passive
voice.
 The active voice is used when the focus is on the subject (or agent) of the main verb.
This is the person or thing doing the verb.

 Millions of people use the internet every day.

 A strong storm destroyed many houses in the village.
 Only six students passed the test.

The passive voice is used when the person or the thing affected by the main verb
becomes the focus.

 The internet is used by millions of people every day.

 Many houses in the village were destroyed by a strong storm.
 The test was passed by only six students.

The passive is often used when the person or thing doing the verb is not
important, unknown, or obvious. In this case, we may leave them out completely.

 The solution was heated to 100 degrees. (agent is unimportant)

 My bike was stolen last Thursday. (identity of agent is unknown)
 The president was voted into office. (agent is obvious)

Form
The active voice is made with subject + main verb + object.

 Bees make honey.

 James Cameron directed Titanic.
 Alex is repairing Bill's bicycle.

The passive voice is made with subject + to be + past participle + by + object.

Note that the active voice object becomes the passive voice subject. In the passive, the
main verb is always the past participle.

Positive

 Honey is made by bees.

 Titanic was directed by James Cameron.
 Bill's bicycle is being repaired by Alex.

Negative

We make the negative passive with subject + negative of to be + past participle + by

+ object.

 Honey is not made by wasps.

 Titanic wasn’t directed by George Lucas.
 Bill's bicycle is not being repaired by Alex.

Question

 Is honey made by bees?

 Was Titanic directed by James Cameron?
 Is Bill's bicycle being repaired by Alex?

Take note: describing a process

We can use the passive voice to describe processes in which the action is more
important than the person performing it.

 The metal sheeting was heated and bent into shape before being cooled, polished,
and finally painted.

Spoken English

When using the passive voice, get is sometimes used in place of the verb to be. This is
especially common in informal, spoken English.

 I got fired for being late!

 These letters get delivered first.
 Your bike will get stolen if you don’t lock it up.

2) Irregular verbs
Group verbs depending on how many forms they have for the infinitive, past simple and
past participle.

One form

 put, put, put

 shut, shut, shut

Two forms

 find, found, found

 have, had, had

Three forms

 choose, chose, chosen

 ring, rang, rung

The last group can be split into further groups in which the three verb forms rhyme, for
example:
 Rhyming group 1

 begin, began, begun

 sing, sang, sung

Rhyming group 2

 break, broke, broken

 speak, spoke, spoken

Unless
Unless is similar in meaning to if not and can be used instead of if not in certain types
of conditional sentences. We normally use unless with present tenses when we are
referring to the future:

 You won't get in to see the show, if you don't have reserved seats. OR: Unless you
have reserved seats, you won't get in to see the show.
 Let's play tennis on Saturday, if it's not raining. OR: Let's play tennis on
Saturday, unlessit's raining.
 I'll see you at the gym this evening, if you're not too tired. OR: I'll see you at the gym this
evening, unless you're too tired.

Don't use 'unless' in questions

 What will you do if you don't pass those exams? If I don't pass those exams, I won't be
able to study in Australia.

Don't use 'unless' with would to talk about unreal future situations

 If he didn't take everything so seriously, he would be much easier to work with. If he

weren't so bad-tempered, I would help him to get the work done

Don't use 'unless' with would have to talk about unreal situations in the past
either

 If you hadn't driven so recklessly, you wouldn't have had this accident. If you hadn't had
that last glass of wine, this would never have happened.

Use 'unless', and not if not, if we are introducing an idea as an afterthought

 I won't bother going to the meeting at the school tonight - unless you want to go, of
course.

unless + past participle

 Unless can be used with a past participle in a reduced clause when you choose to leave
out the subject words and the auxiliary verbs in the brackets in the examples below:

 Don't shut down these computers unless (you are) instructed to do so. Just log off.
Unless (he is) given sufficient warning of the consequences, he will continue to
misbehave.

However, this sounds quite formal and in spoken English we would normally keep
subject words and auxiliary verbs.

Answering negative questions

When a yes/no question is asked with a negative, it can be difficult to know what the
correct way to respond is.

Think of a negative question as if it were a positive question and answer it like that!

Aren't you going out tonight? is the same as: Are you going out tonight? For both
questions the answer will be the same.

Yes, I am = you are going out tonight.

No, I'm not = you are not going out.

Zero article
Here are some rules:

Use zero article (-) with:

 The names of most countries, cities and continents: Saudi Arabia, Argentina, Warsaw,
Beijing, Europe, Asia
 Geographical areas in adjective phrases: I live in (-) north-west Egypt, (-) eastern
France
 The names of single mountains and lakes: Mount Kilimanjaro, Lake Titicaca
 Exact days, months and times: on (-) Friday, in (-) March, at (-) 7 o’clock
 Some prepositional phrases of place: at (-) home, at (-) work, in (-) bed, at (-) sea

Use the with:

 Countries with plural names or with Republic or Kingdom in the name: The United Arab
Emirates, The Netherlands, The United Kingdom
 Geographical areas in noun phrases: I live in the north-west of Egypt, in the east
 The names of rivers, seas, oceans and mountain ranges: The Mississippi, The Black
Sea, The Atlantic, The Urals
 Parts of the day: in the morning/afternoon/evening
 Most prepositional phrases of position and place: at the top, on the left, at the
office/bank/cinema
Take note: school/university, etc.
There is a special rule for these places: school, university, college, hospital, prison,
church. Compare these examples:

The children go to school by bus. I go to the school to help twice a week.

Ben's studying maths at university. He works in the canteen at the university.

She was in hospital for three weeks. Is there a shop in the hospital?

If someone is at the place because they are a student / are sick / a prisoner, etc, we
don't use the. If they are there for another reason, or we are talking about the building,
we use the.

Articles
Indefinite article: a and an

A or an means one person or thing. We use a or an:

1) before singular nouns: I've been to a concert. We had a great day and we saw an
elephant.

2) before the name of a job:

My sister wants to be an engineer.

A or an?
Use a before consonant sounds: a chair, a horse, a laptop

This includes letters u or eu when they are pronounced y (/j/): a university, a euro

Use an before vowel sounds. These words usually start with a, e, i, o, u: an

architect, an idea, an umbrella

Also use an with words that start with the letter h when the h is not pronounced: an
hour,an honour

Definite article: the

We use the:

1) before singular nouns that we have already mentioned with a/an:

We saw an elephant. The elephant was standing under some trees.

2) before singular, plural or uncountable nouns when we say exactly which person
or thing we mean:
 The people who live next door are really nice.

Where's the brown sugar?

Note that we don't use the before plural and uncountable nouns when we are talking
about things in general:

Children need plenty of exercise and fresh air. (children in general)

Sugar isn't good for you. (sugar in general)

3) We also use the before singular, plural or uncountable nouns when it is clear which
person or thing we mean:

I'm going to the supermarket. (the one we always go to)

The children are upstairs. (our children)

Could you shut the door? (the door of this room)

4) We use the before nouns when there is only one:

The sun is shining and there aren't any clouds in the sky.

5) We use the with superlatives:

You're the best dad ever!

6) We use the in many expressions with 'of'

In the middle of the night

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

At the end of my holiday

The or zero article?

Here are some rules:

Use the with

 Countries with plural names or with Republic or Kingdom in the name: The United Arab
Emirates, The Netherlands, The United Kingdom
 Geographical areas in noun phrases: I live in the north-west of Egypt, in the east
 The names of rivers, seas, oceans and mountain ranges: The Mississippi, The Black
Sea, The Atlantic, The Urals
 Parts of the day: in the morning/afternoon/evening
 Most prepositional phrases of position and place: at the top, on the left, at the
office/bank/cinema
 Use zero article (-) with

 The names of most countries, cities and continents: Saudi Arabia, Argentina, Warsaw,
Beijing, Europe, Asia
 Geographical areas in adjective phrases: I live in (-) north-west Egypt, (-) eastern
France
 The names of single mountains and lakes: Mount Kilimanjaro, Lake Titicaca
 Exact days, months and times: on (-) Friday, in (-) March, at (-) 7 o’clock
 Some prepositional phrases of place: at (-) home, at (-) work, in (-) bed, at (-) sea

Take note: school/university, etc.

There is a special rule for these places: school, university, college, hospital, prison,
church. Compare these examples:

The children go to school by bus. I go to the school to help twice a week.

Ben's studying maths at university. He works in the canteen at the university.

She was in hospital for three weeks. Is there a shop in the hospital?

If someone is at the place because they are a student / are sick / a prisoner, etc, we
don't use the. If they are there for another reason, or we are talking about the building,
we usethe.

Articles and adjectives

Adjectives go between articles and nouns: What a great place this is! I went on an
amazing trip. We went to the famous Bondi beach.

Pronouncing articles
We usually pronounce a/an with a weak vowel sound /ə/ ('uh'). It sounds like the vowel
sound in fun, and not the vowel sound in cat.

Before consonants and the letters u or eu when they are pronounced y (/j/), we
pronouncethe with this weak sound /ə/, too.

the doctor, the party, the uniform

But when the is before a vowel sound, we pronounce the with the long ee sound
in see.

the afternoon, the ice, the open door, the upstairs rooms

Continuous passive
Use
 We use the continuous passive the same way as regular continuous forms but when the
agent, that is the person or organisation that is doing the action of the verb, is not
known or is not as important as the action itself.

Form
be + being (present participle of to be) + past participle

It has present, past and future uses but is not used in a perfect structure.

 I am being chased.
 He was being watched.
 They were being followed.
 The company is being investigated by the tax office.
 The property will be being decorated that week.

Negative

 I'm not being chased.

 He wasn't being watched.
 They weren't being followed.
 The company isn't being investigated by the tax office.

Question

 Am I being chased?
 Was he being watched?
 Were they being followed?
 Is the company being investigated?

Passive = less direct

Using the passive can sound more polite because it is less direct. It means you don't
have to say you. This is less personal and sounds less like an order, accusation or
criticism.

Have you done it? => Has it been done?

You moved it! => It's been moved

It is also used when you want to avoid mentioning another person's name.

Peter told me to rearrange the meeting => I was told to rearrange the meeting

It's also useful when you don't want to emphasise your own responsibility for something.

I dropped your phone => Your phone was dropped

 Not Being Direct
Using the passive can sound more polite because it is less direct. It means that you
don't have to use a personal pronoun such as you. This is less personal and sounds
less like an order, accusation or criticism.

 Have you done it? => Has it been done?

 You moved it! => It's been moved

We also use it to avoid mentioning another person's name.

 Peter told me to rearrange the meeting => I was told to rearrange the meeting

It's also useful when you don't want to emphasise your own responsibility for something.

 I dropped your phone => Your phone was dropped

Need + verb-ing
We use this form when we talk about something that must be done, but we choose not
to say who needs to do it.

This is often because the person who needs to do it

is unknown, obvious or unimportant.

We usually use this form to talk about fixing or improving things.

The form is:

noun + need/s + verb-ing

Positive:

This studio needs tidying.

My hair needs cutting.

My shirt needs washing.

Negative:

His room doesn't need painting.

Question:

Does the house need cleaning?

 Have something done
Meaning
The causative is used when someone else does something for you.

I've had my hair cut

He's had his car repaired
She's had her house decorated
They've had their windows replaced

Form
to have + object + past participle

I've had my hair cut

Take note
It can be used in any tense or verb form. The only part of the structure that changes is
the verb to have, which should match the appropriate form.

Dad's had his car repaired.

He's going to have his washing machine fixed.
I'll have had my bag fixed before I need it next.
I was having my hair cut when my phone rang.

Question:

Have you had your hair cut?

Negative:

He isn't having his bedroom painted.

Compound words
As you probably know, English has a very large number of words. Some of those words
are made by joining together different words to make new words. These are called
compound words and there are quite a few of them.
Unfortunately, there is no simple rule for compound words. They really have to be learnt
individually. However, you can categorise them into different groups, which might help
you to remember them.

One word made from two words

 moreover
We are going to open a new factory. Moreover, we will be creating 1,000 new jobs.
 furthermore
Due to your actions your employment has been terminated. Furthermore, you will be
reported to the police.

 therefore
I made the mistake, therefore I should take responsibility.

 whereas
I like the red carpet, whereas my wife prefers the blue. I don't think we are going to
agree.

 meanwhile
The police blocked all the exits. Meanwhile, the robbers left through the tunnel they had
secretly dug.

Ever can used with most question words to make compound words:

 whatever
You can choose whatever you like from the menu.

 wherever
Wherever we go this weekend it's going to rain.

 however
However hard I try I just can't finish this level, it's too hard. I hate this game.

 whenever
"When do you want to leave?" "Whenever you're ready is fine with me."

 whoever
Whoever gets there first will be the winner.

One word made from three words

 nevertheless
We may have lost this battle, but nevertheless we will continue and win the war.

 albeit
We built the house under budget, albeit two months behind schedule.

 notwithstanding
We are going to sell the company, your objections notwithstanding.

 heretofore
This is a heretofore undiscovered species.
 wherewithal
I don't think he has the wherewithal to run his own company.

 inasmuch as
Losing my job was the best thing that happened to me, inasmuch as it challenged me
to do new, more interesting things.

 insofar as
I'll support you, insofar as it doesn't interfere with my own plans.

Three individual words used together with a single meaning

 as long as / so long as
I'm going to take the car to the shops, as long as you don't need it for work.

 so be it
"I'm sorry but we have to split up." "So be it. It's been coming for while and I think it's for
the best too."

 as well as
Mum's coming to the party as well as Aunt Jo.

 as soon as
Let me know as soon as he gets here.

 in order that
I lent her the car in order that she wouldn't have to take public transport.

Not just grammar words

With the exception of the noun wherewithal, the compound words above are mainly grammar
words. They act as adverbs or conjunctions and are quite formal in many cases. However, as
well as grammar words, there are also many compound nouns in common use. For example:
handbag, suitcase, airport, underground, toothpaste, babysitter.

Past habits without 'used to'

Is there another way of talking about past habits without using 'used to'?
Use 'would + infintive without to' to talk about repeated past actions or habits:

 When I was at school I would play tennis every weekend.

 I would often go to the cinema by myself when I first moved to London.
 My dad would always bring us back a present when he went on business trips.

You can also use the simple past to describe these actions:
 When I was at school I played tennis every weekend.
 I often went to the cinema by myself when I first moved to London.
 My dad always brought us back a present when he went on business trips.

Very important:

You can't use would to talk about past states. For this, used to or the simple past are
the best options:

 I would be fit when I was a teenager. WRONG

I used to be fit when I was a teenager. CORRECT
I was fit when I was a teenager. CORRECT

 She would be in the football team at university. WRONG

She used to be in the football team at university. CORRECT
She was in the football team at university. CORRECT

Stative verbs in the continuous form

Verbs with two meanings
Some state verbs can be used in the continuous form to talk about a temporary action
or an action happening in the present. However, some state verbs can be used as
action verbs in the present continuous form with a change of meaning. Here are some
examples:

Bernard looks healthy. (his appearance now)

I was looking out the window at the rain. (watching the rain)

Does Maria have a piano? (own)

They are having lunch with their mother today. (eating)

I don't hear the music playing. (hear with my ears)

Our manager will be hearing our presentation today. (will be listening to)

Lola feels that we were rude. (thinks)

How has your father been feeling? (how is his health)

That perfume smells good. (has a good scent)

The boy is smelling the flowers. (sniffing at)

The new baby weighs 3 kg. (her weight is 3 kg)

The woman is weighing the apples. (measuring their weight)

They are good writers. (it's a fact)

Bob is being crazy. (behaving in a crazy way)

What do you see on the wall? (notice with your eyes)

They are seeing their cousins tomorrow. (will visit)
Informal English
In very informal English, the continuous form is sometimes used with state verbs. An
example is the restaurant advertisement that says, ‘I’m loving it!’ You might also hear
someone say, ‘I’m hating this movie.’ The -ing form of the verbs in these examples
have a sense of being temporary.

(Right now) I’m hating this movie.

(General opinion) I like the movie I saw last week.

Relative clauses and relative pronouns

Meaning and use
Relative clauses are used to give additional information about a noun, such as a
person, place or thing. Relative pronouns introduce a relative clause. They include
who for people, that and which for things, when for time, and whose to show
possession.

Relative clauses belong to one of two categories: defining relative clauses and non-
defining relative clauses.

1. Defining relative clauses add essential information to a sentence.

The woman who found my wallet handed it in to reception.

The student whose dog has run away, has gone to look for it.

I remember the day when we first met.

These are the earrings that my mother gave me.

These clauses give essential information about the subject of the sentence. They
define the person, time or thing that we are talking about. If we remove the clause, the
sentence does not make sense.

2. Non-defining relative clauses add extra information to a noun or noun phrase.

My friend’s birthday, which was last weekend, was great fun.

My current girlfriend, who I love very much, calls me every night.

This extra information is not essential. If we remove the clause, the sentence still
makes sense.. This type of clause is more common in written English.

Form
Defining relative clauses are made with noun + relative pronoun + rest of clause.

A kangaroo is an animal which lives in Australia.

The man who came for lunch was my uncle.

Winter is a time when it sometimes snows.

Non-defining relative clauses are made in the same way. An important difference,
however, between both types of clause is the use of punctuation. With non-defining
relative clauses, we separate the clause with commas. We cannot use that in this type
of clause.

My favourite food, which used to be Italian, is now Japanese.

Rachel, who we met yesterday, lives in this neighbourhood.

My car, which I bought seven years ago, needs replacing.

This shirt, which I bought last weekend, cost £50.

My best friend, who I met at university, is coming for dinner.

Take note: replacing the relative pronoun

In informal communication, relative pronouns, such as who and when,are commonly
replaced with that in defining relative clauses.

The woman that called last night was very polite.

Do you remember the time that you first met?

Take note: leaving out the relative pronoun

When using defining relative clauses in informal speech and writing, the relative
pronoun can be left out completely if it refers to the object of the relative clause.

This is the shirt that I bought.

This is the shirt I bought.

The girl who I like isn’t here yet.

The girl I like isn’t here yet.

In non-defining relative clauses, the relative pronoun cannot be left out.

 Take note: spoken English
The relative pronoun who is used when referring to people. However, in formal written
and spoken English, if the pronoun refers to the object of the clause, we use whom
instead.

My German teacher, whom I really admired, retired last year.

The woman whom I called this morning was my secretary.

Infinitives of purpose
We use infinitives of purpose to explain why we're doing something:

 You're watching this video to get better at speaking English.

We can also use for + somebody to explain that we're doing an action on behalf of
someone else:

 We make these videos for you to get better at English.

In more formal English, we can use in order to or so as to to express purpose:

 The government has raised taxes in order to fund the NHS.

 People have taken to the streets so as to protest against the increase in taxes

We can add 'not' to make these negative - so as not to and in order not to:

 He paid the fine in order not to go to prison.

 I've worked really hard all my life so as not to be poor.

We can use the infinitive of purpose after a noun, pronoun or indefinite pronoun to
explain what we need it for or, what we intend to do with it:

 I want a house to live in.

 Do you have any more food to cook?
 Do you have anything to eat?

5 ways to talk about the future

1. be + full infinitive

We use be + full infinitive to talk about events in the future. It's quite formal and is
often used by journalists.

 The prime minister is to open a new factory.

 The motorway is to shut for maintenance.
 The actor is to be awarded for his services to theatre.

2. be due + full infinitive

We use be due + full infinitive to talk about scheduled events.

 Ling's train is due to arrive at 9:37.

 Jayeesh's parents are due to leave this evening.
 Ivana's exam's due to finish at noon.

3. be + sure / bound + full infinitive

We use be + sure / bound + full infinitive to talk about a future event we are confident
will happen.

 João's sure to be late. He always is.

 Lenu was bound to win. She's so much better at tennis than Carmela.
 It's bound to rain tomorrow. It always does when we have a picnic.

4. on the verge of / on the brink of

We use on the verge of / on the brink of for events that are going to happen very
soon. These phrases are followed by nouns or gerunds (words made from verb + ing
which act as a noun).

 The volcano was on the verge of erupting.

 The minister was on the brink of resigning.
 The countries were on the verge of war.

5. present tense with a future meaning.

We often use a present tense with a future meaning after verbs such
as hope, plan, aim, intend, want and propose. The verb that follows is in the infinitive.

 Elif hopes to finish her studies and find a job next year.
 Ekatrina intends to buy a house after saving for a few years.
 Jorge plans to live abroad.

I wish
Wishes are usually unlikely or impossible to become reality. When talking about the
past they are often in the form of regrets. After I wish in these situations use the past
perfect.

 I wish I hadn't drunk so much last night.

 I wish I'd accepted that job.
 I wish I hadn't read the reviews before I went to see the film.
 When talking about the present or future, a wish is expressed with a form that looks like
the past simple.

 I wish I had more money.

 I wish I didn't have to go to work next week.
 I wish I made better use of my time.

This form is the subjunctive and the only difference between the past subjunctive and
past simple is the verb to be which uses were for all subjects.

 I wish I were famous.

 I wish I were ten years younger.
 I wish I were more popular.

So, after I wish, use the past simple except when the verb is to be. In this
case, use were. When the situation you are talking about is in the past, use the past
perfect.

Uses of the present

Present time
We use the present simple tense for things that we do regularly and for facts, habits,
truths and permanent situations. We often use time expressions like every day, once a
week, on Fridays.

 I check my email every day. (regular activity)

 Yuki works at the bank. (permanent situation)

Future time
We use the present simple to talk about timetabled future events

 I'd better hurry, my bus leaves in 5 minutes.

 The exam starts at 9

Past time
1) Telling a story

This makes the events more immediate and exciting for the listener.

 Last year I was swimming off the coast in NZ when suddenly I see a shark fin heading
towards me…

2) Newspaper headlines
 Journalists often use the present not the past in newspaper headlines to make
newspaper stories more exciting, fresh and immediate.

 Man dies in forest fire.

3) With hear, tell, gather, say

This puts more emphasise on the information we heard rather than the fact you heard it.

 I hear you're getting married!

 She says she didn't like the present!

4) When telling jokes

This makes the joke more immediate and dramatic for the listener (even if the joke is
not very funny!)

 A man walks into a bar...

Adding Emphasis - 'It' cleft sentences

Sometimes there's a particular part of a sentence that you really want to stress. It might
be because it's new information or because it's the most interesting or important part.

One way of giving emphasis, is by changing the structure of a sentence and using
something called a cleft sentence.

'It' cleft sentences

You can use an 'it' cleft to draw attention to the most interesting or important part.
Compare these two sentences:

 Rob ate my biscuits.

 It was Rob that ate my biscuits

In the second sentence, we are focussing on the fact that Rob did this. It wasn't another
person.

Structure

It + is/was + emphasis + (that) + rest of message

 It was Rob that/who ate my biscuits. (not Catherine)

 It was my biscuits that Rob ate. (not my sandwiches)
 It was yesterday that Rob ate my biscuits. (not today)

We can also use this structure in the present tense:

 It is me that/who does all the work.

Question form

Is/was + it + emphasis + (that) + rest of message

 Was it Rob that/who ate my biscuits?

 Was it my biscuits that Rob ate?
 Was it yesterday that Rob ate my biscuits?

Negative form

It + isn't/wasn't + emphasis + (that) + rest of message

 It wasn't Rob that/who ate my biscuits.

 It wasn't my biscuits that Rob ate.
 It wasn't yesterday that Rob ate my biscuits.

Adding emphasis: 'what' cleft sentences.

Sometimes there's a particular part of a sentence that you really want to stress. It might
be because it's new information or because it's the most interesting or important part of
a sentence.

One way of giving emphasis is by changing the structure of a sentence and using
something called a cleft sentence. In Unit 12 we looked at 'it' cleft sentences. Now let's
study 'what' cleft sentences.

'What' cleft sentences

You can use an 'what' cleft to draw attention to the most interesting or important part.
Compare these sentences:

Normal sentence structure

 We got to our hotel and realised that our room had been double booked.
 They moved us to a different hotel.
 He offered us another week there for free.

With emphasis using 'what'

 What happened was we got to the hotel and realised that our room had been double
booked.
 What they did was move us to another hotel.
 What he did was offer us another week there for free.

Structure - Emphasising the noun

 What + understood information + is was + emphasis

 What I hated most was the insects everywhere.

Structure - Emphasising the verb

What/All + subject + do/does/did + is/was + verb

 What they did was move us to another town.

Structure - Emphasising the whole sentence

What happens/happened + is/was + clause

 What happened was we got to the hotel and realised that our room had been double
booked.

These structures are useful when you're writing because we can't stress or give intonation in
writing. They're also used often when speaking. But remember to stress the key information with
your voice. Not, "What I need now is a holiday," but, "What I NEED now is a HOLIDAY."

The future in the past

Sometimes when we are talking about past events, we want to refer to something that
was in the future at that time. In order to do this, we use the past tenses of verbs we
would normally use to talk about the future.

These forms can be used for plans, predictions and events that do happen - and ones
that don't happen.

1. Am/is/are going to becomes was/were going to

 I was going to go for a run today, but I feel a bit tired now!
 I knew it was going to be sunny today!

Note: When speaking, was going to often becomes was gonna.

2. Present continuous becomes past continuous

 Sorry I was in a rush earlier, I was meeting Neil at 10 o'clock and I didn't want to be
late.
 I was meeting a friend for lunch, but I've go too much to do so I'll have to cancel.

3. Will becomes would/'d

 Oh I told Neil I'd call him later... I need to do that!

 I knew Alex would be late today.
 4. Am/are/is about to becomes was/were about to

We use be about to to refer to something that will happen very soon in the future.
When we want to use this structure to talk about the future in the past, we use the past
forms of be.

 I was about to call Neil when he phoned me.

5. Future perfect becomes would + have + past participle

 It's almost lunchtime, I thought I would have finished all my work by now!

Note: When speaking, we often use a double contraction here:

 I thought I'd've made more money by now.

5 ways you can use past forms to talk about times other than the past
1. When a plan isn't certain

 I was thinking of going to that party later.

In this example, the use of the past continuous makes the plan less definite in the
speaker's mind than if she had used a present continuous sentence I am thinking of
going to the party later.

2. To be polite

 I was wondering if your report was ready.

In this example, the use of the past continous and past simple make the speaker sound
more polite than if he had used present tenses I am wondering if your report is ready.
This is because the past sounds less direct.

3. To sound more urgent

 It's time we left.

In this example, the use of the past tense makes the speaker sound more urgent than if
she had used the present tense It's time to leave. By using the past, the speaker gives
the idea that we should have left already.

4. With 'wish' and 'if only'

 I wish I had more time.

 If only I had more time.
 After wish and if only, we have to use the past tense. Present tenses are not correct.
However, these sentences have a hypothetical present of future meaning.

5. With 'suppose' and 'what if'

 Suppose we went on holiday to Thailand.

 What if we finished before the deadline?

When we use past tenses after suppose and what if, the situation sounds less likely
than if we had used present tenses Suppose we go on holiday to Thailand.

Past simple and past continuous review

Meaning and use

We use the past simple for something that happened and finished in the past. We use it
when we say or know the time when something happened. It is often used in stories,
when one thing happened after another.

 Last year, we travelled by jeep across the Sahara.

 When the car stopped, we all got out.

We use the past continuous for something that happened in the past but was not
finished at a particular time. This can be an exact time in the past (12 o’clock, etc.) or
the time when another thing happened.

 It was 12 o’clock and we were standing in the midday sun.

 Mick was checking the engine when the rescue helicopter arrived.

We also use the past continuous to describe a scene or situation in the past or for an
action that continued for some time.

 The stars were beginning to come out.

 The dog was barking loudly.

Form
Past simple: positive

For regular verbs, the past simple ends in -ed. Irregular verbs have different forms. The
past simple form is the same for all persons (I, you, he, she, etc).

 Suddenly the jeep skidded and stopped.

 Jake thought that we had a puncture.

Past continuous: positive

 The past continuous is subject + was/were + -ing form. There are no short forms
ofwas/were.

 Fortunately, we were carrying a toolkit.

Past simple: negative

We make the negative past simple with didn’t + infinitive.

 We didn’t stay inside the jeep because that was even hotter.

Past continuous: negative

We make the negative past continuous with wasn’t/weren’t + -ing form

 Despite the heat, Jess and Debs weren’t wearing hats.

Past simple: question

The past simple question form is did + subject + infinitive for all persons. The short
answers are Yes, I did. / No, I didn’t.

 Did the helicopter land in the desert? Yes it did.

Past continuous: question

The past continuous question form is was/were + subject + -ing form. The short
answers are Yes, I was. / No, I wasn’t.

 How were you feeling when it arrived?

Take note: spelling changes

In the past continuous, all verbs end in -ing, but sometimes the spelling changes:

 take – taking hit – hitting die – dying

Passive reporting structures

Meaning and use

This structure is used to report information in a formal style or to report facts.

Passive structures hide the source of the information. This is because a) it is obvious b)
the source is unimportant or is 'people in general', or c) the source is unknown.

Form

1) A passive reporting structure can take this form:

 It + passive reporting verb + that-clause

For example:

 It is known that the sky is blue

 It is known that the criminal escaped
 It is thought that chocolate is delicious

2) A passive reporting structure can also take this form:

Subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive

For example:

 The sky is known to be blue

 The criminal is known to have escaped
 Chocolate is thought to be delicious

Intransitive verbs

These are verbs that are used without an object.

 I've been working hard all day. (To work)

 He always talks too loudly. (To talk)
 I was asked to wait. (To wait)
 The banana disappeared. (To disappear)

Transitive verbs

These are verbs that are used with an object.

 I really want a new job. (To want something)

 She's studying physics at university. (To study something)
 Dad's bought a new car! (To buy something)
 I love you. (To love someone)

Transitive and intransitive

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive with the same core meaning.

 Every morning, in the shower, I sing. (To sing, intransitive)

 I sing disco songs, very badly. (To sing something, transitive.)
 We usually eat at midday. (To eat, intransitive)
 Do you eat pasta? (To eat something, transitive)

Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, but with different meanings.
 She runs every morning before breakfast.(To run, physical activity, intransitive)
 She runs her own company. (To run something, administration, transitive)

Direct and indirect objects

Some transitive verbs are used with both direct and indirect objects. The indirect
object is often a person for whom or to whom the action of the verb is carried out.

 He gave the banana to his twin brother. (To give something to someone)
Direct object = the banana
Indirect object = his twin brother

Note that the indirect object can come immediately after the verb, before the direct
object.

 I bought my mum some flowers. (To buy (someone) something)

Direct object = some flowers
Indirect object = my mum

Discourse markers 1
Discourse markers are words and phrases which we use to connect and organise our
ideas, such as 'right', 'well' and 'anyway'. They can guide the listener by connecting
ideas and telling the listener what information is coming up.

Here are eight discourse markers which are common in spoken language:

1. you know

Use: I'm going to tell you some information you already know.

 You know, I was organising an amazing dinner party last night?

2. actually

Use: I'm going to give you some surprising information or I'm going to correct some
information.

 Actually, it was a complete disaster!

 ''You never do your homework.'' ''Actually, I have done it this time."

3. mind you

Use: I've had an afterthought and it contrasts what I've just said.

 Mind you, I did say 'turn up when you want'…

 The restaurant was so busy we couldn't get a table ... mind you, it was Saturday night!
 4. as I was saying…

Use: I'm going to return to the topic I was talking about before.

 As I was saying, I burnt the meat...

5. come to think of it

Use: I'm going to add something I've just remembered/thought of at the moment of
speaking.

 Come to think of it, I completely forgot to serve dessert.

6. So basically, everyone went home hungry and disappointed.

Use: I'm going to summarise my points now.

 So basically, everyone went home hungry.

7. Anyway

Use: I'm going to change topic, go back to the original topic or finish what I'm saying.

 Anyway, how was your evening?

 Anyway, I have to go now, speak again soon.

8. By the way

Use: I'm going change direction to talk about something that's not connected to the
main conversation topic.

 By the way, before I forget, it's my birthday next week...

Discourse Markers 2
Discourse markers are words and phrases which we use to connect and organise our
ideas, such as 'right', 'well' and 'anyway'. They can guide the listener by connecting
ideas and telling the listener what information is coming up. Some have other functions:

1. to tell you the truth

This is used to give your opinion - often when you are going to say what you really think
or feel, sometimes when you are just about to insult someone.
'Well, to tell you the truth it was a bit of a crazy idea'
'She asked me if I liked her hair and I said I did, but to tell you the truth it was awful!'

2. I mean
We use ‘I mean’ when you’re about to explain or correct a statement, or often just to
give yourself time. It’s like a filler.
'Well, to tell you the truth it was a bit of a crazy idea – I mean, we normally just go out
for dinner!'
'You can't just quit university! I mean, how on earth will you ever get a good job?'

3. you see
This means - I’m about to give an explanation or I’m going to give you some new
information.
'But you see I thought everyone would love the idea'
'You want to know where babies come from? Well, you see....when a mummy and a
daddy love each other...'

4. in other words
This is used to explain something in a different way, either something you’ve already
said or something the person you are having a conversation with has said.
'I've already bought all the tickets and they are non-refundable…so in other words I've
lost a lot of money!'
'She said that she had a headache. In other words, she didn't want to come.'

5. at the end of the day

We use this when you’re about to say the most important thing after you’ve considered
everything else…kind of like a summary.
'Well at the end of the day, it's only money and Christmas is coming…'
'I know dinner was expensive and you don't have a lot of money at the moment, but you
made your family happy and, at the end of the day, that is what's important.'

6. I know
This is used when you have a sudden idea at the time of speaking.
'Yeah but you won't have enough money to buy any presents for your family. I
know! Why don't you take them all skydiving as your gift to them?'
'How can I manage my time better? I know, I'll buy an organiser and make a note of all
my meetings and appointments.'

7. so to speak
This is used when you’ve used an expression or metaphor, but you want to emphasise
that what you said is not meant literally, you’re using it metaphorically.
'That's a great idea… they'll be over the moon, so to speak!'
'...and after one good kiss, we fell head over heels in love, so to speak.'

The subjunctive - an introduction

The subjunctive is a verb form which expresses possible, unreal, imaginary or desirable
situations. We see it most often in conditionals and wishes.

We also find it in sentences that start with: It + be + an adjective:

It is important that you go as soon as possible

It’s essential that he see a doctor

It’s crucial that they leave the building

It’s best that you not be at the meeting

These sentences are very formal. Notice that the form of the subjunctive is almost
always the same as the form of the infinitive (except for be).

The other place we can find a subjunctive is with verbs like recommend and suggest:

I suggest that you be there on time

I recommend that he not drink so much again

Aspect

Tenses in English are made of a time and an aspect. English recognises 3 times (past,
present and future) and 3 aspects (simple, continuous and perfect.)

An aspect is the character of a verb. It adds extra information to the verb’s meaning and
reflects the perception of the speaker.

The simple aspect does not modify the verb in terms of its meaning, only in terms of
its form, e.g. I go / he goes. The verb alone is enough to fully understand the
speaker. There are broadly three categories:
Long term general truth: I like studying English. Water boils at 100C. He lived an
unhappy life. Humanity will continue.
Instantaneous: I now pronounce you man and wife. I walked through the town. Those
books will fall!
Habitual: It barks all night when the moon is up. I woke up every day at 6am last year.
She will constantly forget her keys.

The continuous aspect is formed with some sort of be plus verbING. E.g. I am
walking. He was waiting. They will be eating.
It makes events seem in progress, temporary and/or unfinished, and stretches
them by giving them duration. For example:
I walked home and I fell. (First I walked home and the action finished. Then I fell, inside
the home)
I was walking home and I fell. (I fell while walking. My walk action was not completed
and my fall was in the middle of the walk.)
Actions can be:
At the moment of speaking: I am dancing.That man is singing.
Around a certain time: This week I'm staying with my parents. In those days people
were wearing shoulder pads. This time next week I'll be in France.
Happening simultaneously with another action: I was walking and I fell. He was
eating chips and watching TV when the phone rang.

The perfect aspect is formed with some version of have plus the past participle. E.g.
He has eaten. We had left the hotel. He will have finished.
Perfect aspects focus on joining the events or actions of two time periods together.
 E.g. The Present Perfect (Past to Present), The Past Perfect (Past 1 to Past 2), The
Future Perfect (Present to Future).
Perfect verb phrases can describe:
States: I’ve loved you since I first met you. He had been happy for many years. We will
have known each other for 5 years next week!
Actions: I have eaten. She had dropped her purse before leaving. I will have gone to
the gym by the time you get home.
Habits: My father had started work at 9 o’clock every day for the last 20 years.

We can combine aspects to make perfect continuous verb phrases. These combine
the forms of the perfect aspect (have + the past participle) and the continuous
aspect (be+verbING). For example, have+been+verbING. We can create verb phrases
which focus on actions or events with duration with relevancy to more than one
time period. For example:
I have been working here for 6 years.
I had been studying hard all that week.
I will have been studying English for 10 years by my next birthday.
Native speakers often say things that don't follow the rules of standard English. This is
due to regional variation, changes in formality and personal preference. Here are three
typical native speaker 'mistakes':

Native speaker 'mistakes'

1. Using past participles instead of past simple

Native speakers sometimes use a past participle instead of a past simple verb - or they
forget to include 'have' to make the present perfect.

 "John, how was the test? Have you finished?" "Yeah! I done it!"
 Correction: "John, how was the test? Have you finished?" "Yeah! I have done it! / I did
it."

2. Using 'me' instead of 'I'

Native speakers sometimes use the object pronoun me instead of the subject
pronoun Iand put these in the wrong order.

 Me and John went to the shops.

 Correction: John and I went to the shops.

3. Splitting infinitives

Native speakers often separate the 'to' from the 'infinitive' - normally by inserting an
adverb.

 I need to quickly stop at the bank.

 Correction: I quickly need to stop at the bank OR I need to stop at the bank quickly.
 Note: In spoken English, split infinitives are quite common and are not normally viewed
as an error. Splitting an infinitive can make the meaning of your sentence clearer and
more natural.

 You need to really pay attention here.

 I want our profit to more than double this year.

More Native speaker 'mistakes'

Native speakers often say things that don't follow the rules of standard English. This is
due to regional variation, changes in formality and personal preference. Here are three
typical native speaker 'mistakes':

1. Using 'innit' for every question tag

Native speakers sometimes use 'innit' instead of question tags. 'innit' is a corruption of
'isn't it', which is just one type of question tag. Question tags in positive sentences
should be formed by taking the main verb and making it negative.

 "It was quite a good match, innit?"

 Correction: "It was quite a good match, wasn't it?"

2. there/their/they're

When writing, native speakers sometimes use the wrong version of the
words there/their/they're. This is because they are pronounced in exactly the same
way.

 A: Look over their! They're dog has just stolen that woman's shopping.

B: Ha! There going to be so angry when they catch it.

 Correction: A: Look over there! Their dog has just stolen that woman's shopping.

B: Ha! They're going to be so angry when they catch it.

3. Using 'what' as a relative pronoun

Native speakers sometimes us what as a relative pronoun instead

of who, which or, that.

 Do you have the item what I ordered yesterday?

 Correction: Do you have the item which/that I ordered yesterday?

Question Tags: Summary

Question tags are made of an auxiliary verb plus a pronoun, which go at the end of a
sentence, either to ask for more information about something, or to confirm something
which we believe is true. The auxiliary verb matches the tense of the main verb and the
pronoun comes directly from the noun. Question tags can either have a rising or falling
intonation depending if you want to genuinely ask for the answer or expect someone to
agree with you. Finally, Question tags usually work in opposition. If the main sentence is
affirmative, then the question tag is usually negative, so: You do live here, don’t
you?and vice versa.

1. Negative or Limiting Adverbs

Sentences which use a negative or limiting adverbs (never, no, hardly, scarcely, little,
etc.) are treated as negative by the question tag, even though their construction is
positive. Therefore the question tag is positive.

WRONG: They never go on holiday, don’t they?

RIGHT: They never go on holiday, do they?

2. Indefinite Nouns
Sentences with indefinite nouns such as someone, anyone, no one and everyone,
use they in the tag.

No one cares, do they?

Everyone left, didn’t they?
Someone's at the door, are they?

With other indefinite nouns such as something and everything, use it:

Everything is OK, isn’t it?

Nothing matters, does it?
Something smells bad, doesn't it?

3. Imperatives
Imperatives are commands, suggestions, offers, advice etc. They are constructed of the
bare infinitive in the affirmative and use don't in the negative: Sit down! Don't sit
there!

Imperatives don’t have a tense or use an auxiliary verb in the same way as other
sentences do. To make a question tag with imperatives, we use won't you? although
other modal verbs can be used, such as will, would, can, and could.

Sit down, won’t you?

Open the window, would you?
Don’t go outside, will you?
Keep quiet, won’t you?

Politeness and formality depend upon the choice of question tag and the tone of your
voice, although can’t you can come across as quite impatient and annoyed:

Turn the TV down, can’t you?

4. Suggestions with Let's:
When making a suggestion, it is common to use let’s. Let’s stands for let us, for
example:Let’s go to the cinema. When we use let’s in a question tag we always
use shall we, regardless of whether let’s is affirmative or negative. So for example:

Let’s go to the cinema, shall we?

Let’s not go to the cinema, shall we?

5. Double positives
Double positives are possible. This is where the both the sentence and the question tag
are positive, for example:

You're going to become a pilot, are you?

Double positives are common when people are reacting to news, repeating something
they have just heard or reacting in an emotional way to something. For example:

You’re getting married, are you?

You've lost your wallet, have you?

6. Opinions
If you start a sentence with I think, don’t use the question tag do/don't I. Make the
question tag agree with the main information in the sentence. This does not apply in the
second or third person.

I think it's a nice day, isn't it?

I don't think that's a good idea, is it?
You thought you'd be OK, did you? (second person)
He thinks he's going to university, does he? (third person)

However, in some situations, for example, when we're being sarcastic, we do make the
tag agree with I think.

A: Yes, yes. Well done. I know you think you are so clever.
B: Oh! So, I think I'm clever, do I? Not at all.
nversion 1: After Negative or Limiting Adverbs
Inversion happens in English for emphasis, dramatic purpose or formality. This type of
inversion uses negative and limiting adverbs these are a group of adverbs which limit
the meaning of a verb or make it negative. Examples are:
never, hardly, no, rarely, seldom, little, barely, no sooner...than, in no way, under no
circumstances, nowhere, not (+time), (only+ time). This is not a complete list.

To invert a sentence move the adverbial to the beginning of the sentence and
invert the subject and auxiliary verb:

‘I had never met someone so interesting.’ becomes ‘Never had I met someone so
interesting.’
'He won't often go to work.' becomes 'Not often will he go to work'
'You should not leave this room for any reason' becomes 'Under no circumstances
should you leave this room.'
'She hasn't seen him anywhere.' becomes 'Nowhere has she seen him'

Notice that if the auxiliary verb is negative in the first sentence, it becomes
affirmative in the inverted sentence and the 'not' moves to the front.

In cases where the tense does not use an auxiliary verb in the affirmative, such as
the present simple or the past simple, one must be added.

Present Simple:
‘I rarely go outside.’ becomes ‘Rarely do I go outside.’
'They don't ever know what to do' becomes 'Never do they know what to do.'
'She almost never loses' becomes 'Scarcely does she lose.'

Past Simple: (Notice how the verb changes from past tense to infinitive)
‘She seldom worked very hard.’ becomes ‘Seldom did she work very hard.’
'We never went to the shopping centre.' becomes 'At no time did we go to the shopping
centre.'
'He didn't react at all.' becomes 'In no way did he react.'

Some negative or limiting adverbials require you to complete a whole clause

before the inversion takes place.

‘I didn’t know what to do until I saw what had happened.’ becomes ‘Not until I saw what
had happened did I know what to do.’

In this case, ‘Not until I saw what happened’ is the adverbial clause. The inversion
takes place after this, in the main clause. This happens with 'Not +time' and 'Only +
time'.

Not + until / before + clause

Only + when / as / after / while / once + clause

Other examples are:

'Only when they met again did he tell her'

'Not before he admitted the truth did they let him go'
'Not since Paris had they seen such a beautiful sunrise.'
'Only now could he see how wonderful a car it was.'

'Hardly' puts the inversion in the adverbial clause. It uses 'than' and 'when' to
connect with the main clause.

‘Hardly had I got home than the dog started barking.’

'Hardly had he got into the bath when the phone rang.’
Little did they know means they didn't know. The subject can be changed. Little can
also be combined with nouns to show a lack of something, such as food or time.

‘Little did they know that he had stolen all of their money.’ (They didn't know he had
stolen all of their money)
'Little did he know that they would never meet again.' (He didn't know that they would
never meet again.)
'Little time did they have to explain.' (They didn't have time to explain)
'Little patience does she have on a good day!' (She doesn't have any patience on a
good day!)

Inversion 2
Inversion happens in English for emphasis, dramatic purpose or formality. In order to
invert, the subject verb object order of a normal sentence is changed in some way.

1. Reduced Conditionals:
Conditionals are sentences in English which express the result or possible result of a
real or imagined action. They usually start with if:

If you go to town, will you get me a cola? (1st conditional)

If I were an animal, I would be a dog. (2nd conditional)
If I had stayed longer, I would have learned a new language. (3rd conditional)

In second and third conditionals we can remove the if and invert the subject and
auxiliary verb. This is considered to be more formal and so more polite.In the case of
the second conditional, if the verb is an action we use were and the infinitive.

Were I an animal, I would be a dog.

Were I to go on holiday, I would go to Jamaica. (If I went on holiday...)
Had I stayed longer, I would have learned a new language.

To invert a first conditional in this way, we need to use the word ‘should’. Should makes
a first conditional more polite and more tentative. Then we remove the if and invert the
subject and auxiliary verb as normal. So:

If you should go to into town, will you get me a cola?

Should you go to into town, will you get me a cola?

Negatives in these forms are not contracted. So:

Should you not go to town…

Were I not a human…
Had I not left so early…

2. Adverbs of place or movement:

Adverbs of place or movement usually come after the verb in a clause.When an adverb
 of place or movement is put at the beginning of a clause, then the whole verb
phrase, and not just the auxiliary verb, can be put before the subject. This is done for
dramatic effect and is usually conveyed in a written style and even more so when
introducing a new noun - such as in a story. So, for example:

The spy came through the window.

Through the window came the spy (adverb of movement + complete verb phrase +
subject)

300 men would stand in the pass.

In the pass would stand 300 men. (adverb of place + complete verb phrase +
subject)

This is common with shorter adverbs in speech, such as: here & there. If a pronoun is
used instead of a noun, it must go before the verb.

There sat my father. There he sat.

On ran the racers. On they ran.
I opened the box and out jumped a puppy! I opened the box and out it jumped.

3. Consequences of an adjective:
We can use so plus an adjective, then we invert the normal subject and auxiliary verb,
and finally we use ‘that’ to emphasise how strongly something’s description affected us
and what the consequence was. We can do the same thing with a noun using such.

So beautiful was she that I fell in love immediately (so + adjective + inversion + that +
consequence)
Such a beautiful woman was she that I fell in love immediately. (such + noun + inversion
+ that + consequence)

Different Futures
When a future event is planned or arranged, use the present continuous or be going
to:

 I'm meeting her tonight.

 I'm going to meet her tonight.

When a future event is timetabled or arranged as part of a regular and repeating

schedule, use the present simple:

 My plane leaves at 6.00.

 The exam is on Thursday at 9.00 sharp. So don't be late!

When a future action can be predicted because of evidence in the present, use be
going to:
 Look at the sky! It's going to rain.
 They're too close, they're going to crash.

When a future action is an intention, decided at the moment of speaking, use will:

 My computer's died. How are we going to finish the project?

Don't worry, I'll pop home and get my laptop.
 It's time for tea: can one of you call your father in from the garden?
OK mum, I'll do it.

Alternatives to 'and'
 1. 'And' in a list – use as well as or also:
 Original: I love singing and dancing.
 Alternative: I love singing. I also love dancing.
 Alternative: I love singing as well as dancing.
 2. 'And' in a sequence of actions – use then or after:
 Original: The first time I sang on stage the crowd screamed really
loudly and when I finished they seemed very happy…
 Alternative: The first time I sang on stage the crowd screamed really
loudly then when I finished they seemed very happy.
 Or after…
 Alternative: …really loudly, after I finished they seemed very happy.
 3. 'And' when giving more information about a topic - use one of these formal
expressions, if appropriate:
 Original: And singing helps me feel good about myself.
 Alternative: Furthermore / moreover / in addition singing helps me feel good
about myself.
 4. 'And' when summarising - use one of these, again they're quite formal:
 Original: And I just think singing's great in every way.
 Alternative: To conclude / to sum up / as I've said, I think it's good to use your
talents.

Subject-Verb Agreement 1
Verbs always agree with the subject noun in a sentence:

I always go to work early.

She always goes to work early.

We are old
The house is old.

However, there are many types of noun and noun phrase in English, and it can be
difficult to know if a particular noun takes a singular verb (such as DOES / HAS / AM /
IS ) or a plural verb (DO / HAVE / ARE). Have a look below for some commonly
difficult nouns:
1. When singular and plural are the same.

‘The species is on the brink of extinction.’ (It...)

‘The species are on the brink of extinction.’ (They...)

Here the noun 'species' does not change form to show a plural, even if the meaning
changes. In this case, be careful about whether you are taking in the singular or plural
meaning and make sure to change the verb. Other examples include: economics,
sheep, politics, headquarters, series and fish (which has an alternative plural).

'The sheep is herded by the sheepdog into the farmer's van' (It...)
'The sheep are herded by the sheepdog into the farmer's van' (They...)

'Their country's politics are a mystery to me' (Their opinions)

'Politics is a mystery to me' (The subject)

'The BBC's new TV series is excellent' (It..)

'The BBC's new winter season TV series are excellent' (They...)

2. Nouns with no plural.

‘The news about the king’s death has been reported around the world.’ (It...)

Many English learners will know that English has countable and uncountable nouns.
When you want to show a plural countable noun, you use a 's' e.g. a hat / 3 hats.
Uncountable nouns have no plural and always use a singular verb. But, 'news' is a noun
that is uncountable AND ends in an 's', which can lead many learners to use the wrong
verb form. Here are some more examples: school subjects, such as mathematics,
gymnastics and physics; Games, such as dominos and darts and the disease: measles.

'Mathematics is a hard subject' (It...)

'What does measles do?' (It...)
'Dominos has been around for almost a thousand years' (It...)

3. Nouns with no singular

'The police are coming! The police are coming!'

Some nouns in English are collective. This means that they represent a group or
number of objects together. In many cases, these nouns are considered to be plural all
the time since they are collections of single pieces kept together. Because of this, they
take a plural verb and have no singular noun form. Here are some more examples:
staff, congratulations, cattle, thanks and fishes (an alternative plural which means the
different species of fish which are in the same place).

'The staff are unhappy with the wage cut' (They...)

'Congratulations are due to you on your birthday' (They...)
'The supermarket has many fishes. They have been organised according to type.'
This also applies with 'pair nouns', i.e. nouns where two things are joined together.
Examples of these are: glasses, scissors, tweezers, trousers, heaphones and tights.

'My jeans don't fit anymore!' (They...)

'Are my glasses in the kitchen?' (They...)
'Tights were fashionable as far back as Henry VIII's time!' (They...)

Finally, in English we can combine the definite article THE with an adjective to create a
group noun meaning 'all of..'. This is common for nationalities. They also take a plural
verb.

'The British are coming. The British are coming.'

'The rich have the most to lose'
'The sick have suffered enough'
Subject-Verb Agreement 2
Verbs always agree with the subject noun in a sentence:

I always go to work early.

She always goes to work early.
We are old.
The house is old.

However, there are many types of noun and noun phrase in English, and it can be
difficult to know if a particular noun takes a singular verb (such as DOES / HAS / AM /
IS ) or a plural verb (DO / HAVE / ARE). Have a look below for some commonly
difficult nouns:

1. Collective nouns with both singular and plural.

'The government is debating the new law!' (It...)

'The government are debating the new law!' (They...)

Government is a collective noun and represents a group of people, like police. But
unlike police, which is always plural, the choice of singular or plural verb depends
on whether you consider the noun to be a group of
individuals (e.g. They are debating) or a single unit (e.g. It is debating). Other
examples include: family, crew, team, public, jury and committee.

'The whole family are a great bunch of people.' (They...)

'The whole family is a great bunch of people.' (It...)
'The jury haven't yet made a decision.' (They...)
'The jury hasn't yet made a decision.' (It...)
'The team don't have any worthy opponents.' (They...)
'The team doesn't have any worthy opponents.' (It...)

It’s also worth noting that in a relative clause, we use who for the group and which for
the unit.
'The government, who are in talks now, are reviewing the law.'
'The government, which is in talks now, is reviewing the law.'
'The family who I met would never act that way.'
'The family which I met would never act that way.'
'The team, which has played so well this season, is in crisis.'
'The team, who have played so well this season, are in crisis.'

2. Quantities & amounts, portions and mathematics.

'3 minutes is perfect for tea.' (It...)

'£100 is a fortune!' (It...)
'24 hours is all I need' (It...)
'26 miles isn't so far!' (It...)

Despite the fact that 3 is a plural number and minutes is a plural noun, the sentence
uses a singular verb. This is because, within the context, three minutes is
considered to be one unit of time (3 minutes together is enough time to make one cup
of tea). This is true for amounts, distances, periods of time, quantities, weights sums of
money, etc.

Consider the difference:

There are 60 minutes in an hour. (We are counting the number of individual minutes)
60 minutes is perfect - I can get across town in that. (We are judging the unit of time
against what we need to do)

'One of my friends has a Ferrari.' (One...)

'More than one of us is a secret undercover agent.' (One...)

Be careful with expressions with ONE. Even if the noun is plural, we still use a
singular verb.

'Half of the cake was eaten.' (...of it...)

'Half of the cakes were eaten.' (...of them...)

Be careful with portions! The noun after‘of’ dictates the verb.

'Two and three is/are five.' (It/ They...)

'Two plus three is five.' (It...)
'Two times three is fifteen.' (It...)
'Two threes are fifteen.' (They..)

When speaking mathematics the verb can be singular or plural. It often depends on
the phrasing and speakers will switch between them inconsistently...even in the same
sentence!

3. Indefinite nouns.

'Something is coming.' (It...)

'It is making a terrible noise.'
Someone is at the door! (He or She...)
They are knocking loudly.
'Everyone was happy! They were dancing in the streets'
'Nobody knows what to do. They haven't understood fully yet!'

Indefinite nouns take singular nouns. However, when referring to the same person
again, we will use the impersonal pronoun they…which takes a plural verb.
Being Polite: How to soften your English
Summary
In English, politeness is considered to be very important. While it is ok to be direct in
informal situations or with friends, it is very important not to come across as rude in
formal situations or with strangers.

Requests, suggestions and questions:

We soften requests, and suggestions and questions by using past forms, continuous
forms or both.

Direct: ‘Pick me up on your way to the party this evening!’

More polite: ‘I was wondering if you could give me a lift later.’

We can also make requests softer by using a negative question with a question
tag.
‘You couldn’t give me a lift later, could you?’ or ‘I don’t suppose you could pick me
up tonight, could you?’

Giving Opinions:

We use verbs like reckon, guess, feel to make your opinions less direct. You can also
use vague expressions like ‘sort of’, ‘kind of’, ‘a little bit’.

Direct: 'You're too young to get married!'

More polite: 'I reckon you're a little young to be getting married!

It also helps if you make it into a question:

‘Aren’t you kind of young to be getting married?’

Discussing Problems:

We introduce problems with verbs like seem and appear to soften them.

Direct: ‘You've made a mistake in this report!’

More polite: ‘You seem to have made a mistake here.’

You can also use these to introduce your own problems.

‘I seem to have lost those reports you wanted’.

Saying No!
 We find it really hard to say no! So instead we use tentative language to soften it.

Direct: ‘No, I'm not coming to your party this evening.’

More polite: ‘I’m not sure I'll be able to make it to your party this evening…’

Features of informal English

common words and phrasal verbs

 Don't worry, I'll back you up.

abbreviations, contractions and acronyms

 Call me asap.

simple, short sentences

 I graduated. Then I worked for a small company. They promoted me to manager.

Features of formal English

Formal vocabulary and equivalents to phrasal verbs

 We will support your decision.

Fewer abbreviations, contractions and acronyms

 Please contact me as soon as possible.

More complex sentences through use of linkers, passive forms and relative
clauses.

 After graduating I started working for a small company where I was promoted to the role
of manager.

Participle Clauses
A participle is a form of a verb - either ING or Past Participle (3rd form of a verb). A
participle clause is a subordinate clause which begins with a participle. They act
like adverbs and are linked to the main clause of a sentence. They usually show
things like event order, time, cause and effect:

Stepping on camera, I relaxed completely. (When I stepped on camera)

Filmed inside, the footage was too dark to use. (Because it was filmed inside)
Fried in lemon, the fish would taste delicious. (if the fish were fried in lemon)
Turning round slowly, I tried hard not to make a sound. (As I was turning round slowly)
It is very important to remember that participle verbs do not change their form to
show tense. This actually happens in the main clause, and participle clauses usually
mimicthe same tense as the main clause:

Stepping on camera, I relaxed completely. (When I stepped)

Stepping on camera, I relax completely. (When I step)
Stepping on camera, I will relax completely. (When I step - future time clause)

However, it is possible to put a tense in a participle clause by itself. For example:

Knowing I was filming today, I wore a shirt.

Participle clauses often have implied subjects. This means that the subject of the
participle clause is the same as the subject of the main clause and so it is omitted in
the participle clause. For example:
Seeing the mistake, she corrected it immediately. (When/ because she saw)
Feeling unwell, he went to the doctor. (Because he felt unwell)

However, it is possible for a participle clause to have its own subject – and this is a
little bit more formal. So, for example:
Seeing she had made the mistake, she corrected it immediately.

Be careful not to make a pariticiple clause with a confusing subject:

Seeing it fall, the tree hit me in the back. (This implies the tree saw it fall - Better to say
'As I saw it fall' or 'When I saw it fall')
Feeling weak, the boy attacked the man. (Who is feeling weak here? - Better to say
'While the man was feeling weak, the boy attacked him')

To make a participle clause negative, we use ‘not’, and this comes before the
participle verb. So, for example:
Not knowing the baby slept, she phoned.
Not seeing the bus, the dog stepped into the road.
Not saying anything, she poured the glass of water over his head.

However, the ‘not’ can come after the participle verb depending on your
meaning. So, for example:
Not knowing the baby slept, she phoned. (Because she didn't know the baby slept.)
Knowing not to call because the baby slept, she waited until the next day. (Because she
knew not to call...)

To make clear that one action is finished before the action in the main clause is begun,
we use Having + the past participle. And this basically works the same way as
‘because’ or ‘after’. So, compare:
Putting away the equipment, they talked about going home. (While putting away...)
Having put away the equipment, they went home. (After they had put away...)

Other examples:
Having been to France, I can speak French. (Because I have been)
Having unpacked the suitcases, she took a shower. (After unpacking.)
Having decided what to do, I made my move. (Because I had decided)

Finally, all sorts of prepositions can sit before the participle verb to further
emphasise or clarify events’ order, time, cause and effect. Words like after, before,
since, while and with. So for example:

After eating, we sat on the couch.

Before leaving for work, they watched TV.
While waiting, I thought about my family.
Since coming to England, I have met a lot of new people.
By practising every day, she passed her driving test. (Because she practised - this
describes the method)
Without knowing it, I had ruined everything. (Although I didn't know it)

Collocations

To understand a word fully we must also know its relation to the other elements of
vocabulary, its ability to combine with other words. Words can usually be combined
(collocated) only with certain words. If we want to master a language properly, we
should know what words of the language are most likely to occur together – what are
the typical collocations. E. g. the noun rain may be collocated with adjectives: driving,
heavy, pouring, soaking, torrential, freezing, intermittent, light, steady.

Collocations fall into two major groups: grammatical collocations and lexical
collocations.

A grammatical collocation is a phrase consisting of a dominant word (noun, adjective,

verb) and a preposition or grammatical structure such as an infinitive or a clause.
E.g. decide on - not “decide at”, accuse (somebody) of – not “accuse on”. Typical
grammatical collocations are verb patterns with infinitive, bare infinitive or – ing form,

Lexical collocations normally do not contain prepositions, infinitives, or clauses. They

consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. E.g. warmest regards not “hot regards”
or “ hearty regards”.

Classification

1. A verb usually denoting creation, activation or eradication, nullification + a

noun/pronoun.

E.g. reach a verdict, fly akite, execute a will, reverse a decision, revoke a licence.

These collocations are highly important for polysemantic nouns.

E.g. perform an operation (ina hospital), carry out (conduct) anoperation (on the
battlefield).
2. An adjective + a noun.

E.g. warm, warmest (not “hot”), kind, kindest, best (not “good”) regards; a rough
estimate; a formidable challenge.

3. A noun + a verb.

E.g. alarms go off (ring, sound), blizzards rage.

4. A unit associated with a noun.

E.g. a pack of dogs, a pride of lions, a school of whales, a bit (piece, word) of advice, a
lump of sugar, apinch of salt.

5. An adverb + an adjective

E.g. strictly accurate, sound asleep, keenly (very much) aware.

6. A verb + an adverb.

E.g. amuse thoroughly, argue heatedly, appreciate sincerely.

10 Uses of ‘make’

makes
creates

has made a name for himself

has become well-known for something

makes
causes something to happen

to make matters worse

to cause a bad situation to get even worse

makes for
moves towards

makes a start
begins to do something

makes his blood boil

causes him to be very angry
makes up his mind
finally decides

make of
understand the meaning of

makes time
finds spare time to do something

13 uses of 'turn'

take a turn for the worse

suddenly become worse

turns out
is discovered to be

turns a blind eye

ignores

turning
changing direction

turn back
travel in the direction they came from

turn of events
outcome of a situation

turn up
arrive

turns into
changes; becomes

turns out
ends; concludes

turns
moves her body

turn her nose up

reject

turned
become (a certain age)
in turn
as a result

9 uses of 'time'

a long time
a lot of time

in no time
very quickly; soon

only a matter of time

it will definitely happen

at times
occasionally; sometimes

as time goes by
as time passes

at one time or another

at an unspecified (usually past) time

time after time

again and again

in no time
very quickly; soon

time-consuming
taking a long time to do

7 Uses of ‘light’

light
start to make something burn

light
brightness

shed light on
give new information to help explain a situation

light
pale in colour
out like a light
in a deep sleep

in the light of
because of certain facts

brings to light
reveals something previously unknown

9 Uses of ‘run’

make your blood run cold

make you feel very scared

run
move fast by taking steps that are much quicker than walking

running
flowing

run up against (something)

start to experience a problem

runs through
thinks about

running through (his head)

thinking about

run the risk of

do something that might cause something bad to happen

runs away
escapes; leaves somewhere quickly and/or secretly

runs after
chased

9 uses of 'cut'

cut out
stop eating

to cut a long story short

to only talk about the most important or interesting details
cut (someone) short
stop (someone) from finishing what they are saying or doing

shortcut
different route or direction that saves time

cut to the chase

don't waste time, just get to the important bit

cutting down
making a tree fall to the ground by cutting it near the base

woodcutters
people whose job is to cut down trees

cut (someone/something) up
use a sharp tool to separate something into pieces

cutbacks
reduction in money available to spend

11 uses of 'look'

looking for
trying to find

has the looks

appears intelligent and/or handsome

the look of
the appearance of

looks on
has a particular opinion

looks like
seems

looking to
planning to

looks as if
appears to be

looks over
reads
look down on
believe that someone is less important than you

look up
improve

look forward to
be excited and happy about a future event

9 uses of 'stand'

stand up for
give support to; defend

can't stand
strongly dislike

don't stand a chance

have little possibility of success

stand for
represents an idea or priniciple

stands to lose
be in a situation where you may lose an advantage

won't stand for

refuse to accept or allow a situation

stand out
be noticeably better than other people

stands by
supports someone in a difficult situation

stands
remains; exists in a place

8 uses of 'round'

driving him around the bend

making him very annoyed

comes round
begins to accept something previously rejected
round and round
moving in a circular direction

round the clock

all day and all night

round
on all sides (of something)

goes round to
visits

in a roundabout kind of way

more or less; sort of

round off
finish; complete (something)

9 uses of 'sound'

sound out
talk to someone to find out their thoughts and ideas

by the sound of it
basing your ideas on information you have heard or read

sounds
seems

doesn't like the sound of [something]

is unhappy about a situation he has heard about

not a sight or sound of [someone]

nobody has seen or heard from [someone]

sounds strange
seems unusual

sound
something that can be heard

sounds as though
appears to be true, based on what you have heard

sounds like
(also) appears to be true, based on what you have heard
8 uses of 'break'

breaks the news

tells someone about something bad

break off
end a relationship

breaks into
enters a place by force

break up
end a relationship

breaks down
gets upset; starts to cry

break her promise

not do something she had agreed to do

breaking
separating into smaller pieces

breaks her heart

makes her feel extremely sad

4 uses of 'stick'

stick up for
support

sticks
goes into

stick with
stay close to

stick by
continue to support

11 uses of 'set'

set
(a story) situated in a particular time and/or place
set their sights on
have a particular goal (to do something)

dead set against

completely opposed to

sets off
starts a journey

set out
started doing something in order to achieve an aim

sets him off

causes him to start

setback
problem that causes a situation to be delayed or get worse

set
planned

set on
determined to achieve

sets on
attacks

all set
ready

12 uses of 'pay'

pay up
pay money that is owed

pays a heavy price

suffers terrible consequences

pay attention
watch or listen carefully

pay
give money in exchange for goods or services

pay off
be successful after taking a risk
pay handsomely
give a lot of money in exchange for goods or services

pay in cash
pay using coins and notes rather than by cheque or credit card

be in the pay of
work for someone (often secretly and/or dishonestly)

pay
money you receive for doing a job

pay day
the day you receive your wages from your job

pay
be punished

without paying a penny

not giving money in return for goods or services

9 uses of 'dead'

dead
not alive

dead certain
completely sure about something

deadly danger
extreme danger

the dead of night

the middle of the night

stops dead in his tracks

stop suddenly

dead silence
completely quiet

stone dead
completely dead

dead giveaway
something that accidentally but clearly reveals a secret
dead ringer
exact likeness

13 uses of 'take'

takes
brings a person or thing from one place to another

taken someone into (your) care

agreed to look after someone and be responsible for them

takes the opportunity

uses the situation to do something he wants to do

take (someone) off to

move (someone) from one place to another

take refuge
find shelter (from danger or unhappiness)

takes pity on
feels sympathy for

takes an instant dislike to

immediately feels hostility towards something or someone

seems/is taken with

is attracted to

taken advantage of
used a situation to get what you want (often by deceit)

takes up
begins a hobby, job or activity

take off
start to become successful

take a turn for the worse

start to go wrong

take care of
look after

13 uses of 'long'
all day long
continuously throughout the day

long
measuring a large distance between two points

before long
soon; quickly

last long
continue for a lot of time

a long way off

a large distance away

take long
need a lot of time

long gone
departed a large amount of time ago

as long as I live
for the rest of my life

no longer
not any more

a long shot
an attempt that is unlikely to succeed

at long last
finally; after a lot of time and/or effort

so long as
on the condition that

longed
wanted to do something very much

10 Uses of ‘stay’

stay
live in a place for a short time

stay out of his way

avoid him
stay on
continue to be in a place

stay over
sleep in a place for the night instead of going home

stays up
doesn't go to bed at the usual time

stay away from

avoid

stay put
not move from a place

stay
continue to be in a place

stay out of trouble

not get involved with something that will cause problems

stay together
continue to be with each other

9 uses of 'sleep'

loses sleep over (something)

worries about (something)

sleeps through it
remains sleeping despite the noise

sleep
rest, in a natural state of unconsciousness

sleep
has enough beds for a particular number of people to sleep in

sleeping like a baby

sleeping very well

get some sleep

have a period of sleep
falls asleep
starts to sleep

didn't sleep a wink

slept very badly

sleep on it
think about something before making a decision

9 uses of 'see'

see
find out; assess the possibility of

see
notice with their own eyes

you see
let me explain

see how
believe (something is possible)

wait and see

wait until later to find out what will happen

see sense
realise he is wrong

sees red
gets angry

see
understand

see eye to eye

agree with each other

9 uses of 'keep'

keep away from

not go near (a person, place or thing)

keep
continue
keeps him company
stays with him so he is not alone

keep his eyes open

be alert and attentive

keep (something) a secret

not tell anyone about (something)

keep his word

do what he has promised

a kept woman
a woman who is given money and a home by a man

keep (something) to himself

not tell anyone (about something)

keep
store safely

10 uses of 'get'

getting out of hand

becoming hard to control

get
catch (in this context. The wider meaning is obtain)

gets underway
begins

get
become

get to
have the opportunity to (do something)

get away
escape

get worse
become more unpleasant

get off
leave a vehicle
get through
survive a bad experience

getting up to (something)
being involved in; doing

9 uses of 'come'

come into
received or found (something)

coming across as
behaving like

comes
arrives

comes up with
thinks of (an idea or plan)

come with
join

come to the rescue

help

yet to come
going to happen

comes to light
is revealed

come naturally
is very easy

5 uses of 'cry'

a far cry from

very different to

cry
produce tears from her eyes

a shoulder to cry on
a person who listens to your problems and gives you sympathy
cries
says loudly

cry your eyes out

get very upset and cry a lot

12 uses of 'go'

go shopping
visit shops to buy things

go downhill
become worse

it goes without saying

it is obvious

go to
attend

go into detail
talk about all the facts

goes by
passes

to go
remaining

go without
not have something that you need or usually have

touch and go
uncertain

give it a go
try something

goes
develops

go with
match; look good next to

10 uses of 'catch'
catching
touching; reflecting on

catch my breath
take a short rest

caught off guard

surprised

catches sight of
suddenly sees

catch hold of
grab; seize

catch his death

develop a severe cold or chill

catch up
get up-to-date

catch up
go faster to reach someone in front of you

catch
feel

caught out
shown to have made a mistake

7 uses of 'touch'

touch and go
uncertain; with a risk of not succeeding

a touch
a small amount

touched
emotionally affected

touches
puts his hand on

a nice touch
a small but effective detail
gets in touch
contacts (someone)

sense of touch
ability to feel things

8 uses of 'right'

right
exactly

in her own right

not relying on anything or anyone else

right
most suitable

right
morally acceptable

right through
all the way

has no right
does not have a good reason

do the right thing

take action that is morally correct

right away
immediately

8 uses of 'with'

travelling with
taking (something) on a journey

with
on; to

with
because of

with bated breath

anxiously; nervously
with REPEAT
because of

live with
accept

with
about

with his bare hands

using physical strength and no weapons

with the aid of

using something that helps you

12 uses of 'out'

out
a long way from home

set out
begin an attempt

out of
from an amount or number

out of his mind

unable to deal with things normally because of something bad

get out
become known

find out
discover

out
not at home

out
determined

out
available to everyone

sets out
begins (a journey)
gives out
makes; produces

left out
not included