Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Engineering
And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick
Denett.
Practical
Boiler Operation
Engineering .
And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick
Electricity figures every where in our lives. It is very important in our community because almost
everything we use is operated by electricity. No modern society exists without it. When we consider
electricity, we usually think of electric power. Contemporary society and our entire infrastructure
rely on electricity. Electric power is generated at Power Plants. Electric Power Generation Industry
remains a key factor for Industrialization and economic growth of any nation. Development of any
country depends upon the development of its Power Generation sector.
I am fortunate enough to be associated with Power generation for a quite long period and feel
proud to be a Power Engineer. I got opportunity to work at different Power Plants at different levels.
I decided to share my experience with people those who are interested to know about Power Plant.
This book is the collection of my experience. At the beginning, i prepared a note when I was
preparing myself for BOE Examination. Finally that small note took present shape after additions
and modifications. I have tried my best to cover all the areas of a Power Plant that a Power Plant
professional wants to know.
Practical Boiler Operation Engineering And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick Initially I had planned to write up to chapter -15, to cover all areas of a Boiler. Then I added
remaining seven chapters to cover all the major areas of a Power Plant which includes Steam
First Edition : August 2010 Turbine, Generator, Maintenance, Commissioning and C&I. There may be same typographical or
technical error in this book. I request readers to give their valuable feed back to make this book
error less in future.
ISBN 978-81-89904-53-1
This book will be helpful to professional Engineers, BOE examinees and Engineering students. I will
be fortunate enough if this small book can satisfy the reader and this will be my little contribution
Copyright © 2010 by Publisher
to Power generation industry.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired
out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover I am thankful to respected Mr. D S D Pandey, who has made me a member of Power industry. I also
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this. condition being thank Mr. Ramakrishna Sahoo to whom I woe a lot. I can't forget the help of Mr. V K Jha during
imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above. No initial days of the script.
part of this publications, may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior My wife Mrs. Amita Mallick and Son Amitya R Mallick have sacrificed a lot for me. I have not given
written permission of both the author and the publisher of this book.
enough time for them. Thanks for their understanding, co-operation and support.
Thanks to my colleagues, friends and critics who encouraged me to write this book.
Published by:
22.3.2 Manometer
22.3.3 Pressure Sensor / Transmitter
22,3.4 Smart Transmitter
22.4 Measurement of Temperature
22.4.1 Thermocouple
22.4.2 Resistance Temperature device (RTD) _FUNDAMENTALS_
22.4.3 Infrared Temperature measuring device
22.4.4 Liquid Expansion type
22.4.5 Temperature Transmitter
22.4.6 Thermo_Well
22.5 Measurement of flow
22.5.1 Mechanical flow meter
22.5.2 Differential pressure flow meter
22.5.3 Electromagnetic flow meter 1.1 Introduction
22.5.4 Ultrasonic type flow meter Before going in details about a Boiler and power plant some fundamental knowledge of Mechanical
22.5.5 Rotameter Engineering is essential. We will discuss some important points, which are essential for a Boiler operation
22.6 Measurement of level of liquid Engineer in his day to day job.
22.6.1 Sight glass
1.2 Law of Conservation of Energy
22.6.2 Magnetic level gauge
22.6.3 Float type level measurement Energy is the capacity to do work. It is available in many forms like- Mechanical Energy, Electrical
22.6.4 Pressure gauge method Energy, Chemical Energy, Heat energy, Light Energy, Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy etc. Energy can be
22.6.5. RF Capacitor method transformed from one form to another. But it can not be created.
22.6.6 Differential Pressure method
The law states "the Energy can neither be crated nor it can be destroyed. It only can be transformed
22.6.7 Ultrasonic method
22.6.8 Radar method
from one form to other". -
22.7 Measurement of level of Solids In a Boiler, chemical energy stored in fuel is converted in to heat energy during combustion. This
22.7.1 Ultrasonic method heat energy is utilised to convert water to steam. Heat energy is converted in to kinetic energy in steam.
22.7.2 Guided wave Radar method Kinetic energy of steam is used in Steam Turbine to convert in to mechanical energy. Turbine drives a
22.7.3 Laser method Generator to generate Electricity. In Generator, Mechanical Energy is converted in Lo Electrical Energy.
22.7.4 Load cell/Strain gauge method
1.3 Temperature
22.8 Continuous Weight Measurement
22.9 Measurement of Vibration Temperature of an object is the average energy of its molecules. Molecules moves faster when it
22.10 Process Control has more energy. Temperature is related to the average speed of the molecules. It is a measurement of the
22.11 PID Controller intensity of the heat. Heat is total energy of the object.
22.12 Actuator or Output Device
Temperature of a body means the warmth or coldness felt during contact with that body. The
22.12.1 Pneumatic operated Control Valve
22.12.2 Solenoid valve temperature is measured by a thermometer in quantitative way. Most materials expand when heated.
22.12.3 Motorized Valve Some material, like —Mercury, expands linearly with temperature. This principle is used to measure the
22.12.4 Pneumatic Cylinder temperature. Many thermometers use expansion of Mercury in a tube to measure temperature.
22.12.5 Hydraulic cylinder Also following principles are used to measure temperature.
22.12.6 Variable speed drive
22.13 Plant automation • Change of length, such as length of a mercury column.
22.13.1 Programmable Logic Control (PLC) • Change of volume, such as volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.
22.13.2 Different Modules of PLC • Change of pressure, such as pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.
22.13.2.1 Power supply Module
22.13.2.2 CPU
• Change in electric resistance, as in a thermistor.
22.13.2.3 I/O Module • Flow of electricity due to Seebeck effect, as in a thermocouple.
22.13.3 PLC Programming • Radiation, as in radiation pyrometers.
22.13.4 Other features of PLC There are three well known scales used to measure temperature. These are-
22.14 Distributed Control system (DCS)
22.15 Human Machine Interface (HMI) Centigrade or Celsius scale
Appendix • Fahrenheit scale
385 to 387
• Kelvin scale
0 0 0 [1]
Specific heat of any substance is defined as "amount of heat required to raise the temperature • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics :
of a unit mass of that substance through 1 °C". It is normally denoted by " C". This law speaks about thermal equilibrium. "If systems A and B are in thermodynamic equilibrium,
Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1 °C is lkcal. So the specific and systems B and C are in thermodynamic equilibrium, then systems A and C are also in
heat of water is one. thermodynamic equilibrium".
6
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Fundamentals
According to this law :
1.11 Specific heat of Gas
When two systems are put in contact with each other, there will be a net exchange of energy As discussed in previous section, specific heat of any substance is defined as the amount of heat
between them till they are in thermodynamic equilibrium condition. required to raise the temperature of unit mass of that substance through 1 °C. It is important to note that
• First Law of Thermodynamics all the solids and liquids have one specific heat. But the gas can have number of specific heats, depending
upon the condition under which it is heated.
First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that "energy cannot be Idea about following two types of specific heat of gas is helpful for a Boiler Engineer.
created or destroyed. Instead it is converted from one form to another, for example from work to
heat, from heat to light, from chemical to-heat,-or such - -- -__-_ -Specific-Heat at Constant Volume (Cv)
Alternately this law state- "a definite amount of heat energy is required to produce a definite It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 1°C, when
amount of Mechanical energy and vise versa". volume of the gas is kept constant.
According to the law :
If "m" kg of gas is heated from initial temperature of Tl °C to T2 °C at constant volume then heat
WaH or W=JH required is given by
Where "J" is a constant called as Joule, Mechanical equivalent of heat. It is defined as "amount of H = mCv (TZ Tl)
work done by unit quantity of heat " .
Total heat energy supplied is the sum of external work done and change in internal energy. •. Specific Heat at Constant Oressure (Ce)
H=E+W It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 1°C,
Where when pressure is kept constant.
If "m" kg of gas is heated from initial temperature of Tl °C to T2 °C at constant pressure then
H = Heat supplied
heat required is given by
W = Work done
H = mCp (T2 Tl)
E = Change in internal Energy For a particular gas, Cp and Cv are assumed to remain constant.
Potential energy and Kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy. They can be visualized in E Cp is always greater than Cv. As CP and Cv remains constant, so their ratio also remains constant
terms of position and velocity of the substance. In addition to these macroscopic forms of energy, and is more than unity.
a substance poses several microscopic form of energy due to rotation, vibration, translation and Y=C p/Cv
interaction among molecules of a substance. Sum of all these microscopic form of energy is called 1.12 Thermodynamic Process of Perfect Gas
as internal energy.
When one or more properties of a system change, a change in the state of the system occurs.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is called as thermodynamic process.
This law can be stated in following two ways. When flow of energy takes place, various properties of gas like- Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Specific
1. Kelvin and Planck statement : energy, Specific enthalpy are also change. Amount of work done during this process can be find out.
One example of a thermodynamic process is-increasing temperature of a fluid while maintaining
This is called as the first form of Second law of thermodynamics or Kelvin-Plank statement of a constant pressure. Another example is increasing pressure of a confined gas while maintaining a constant
Second law. "It is impossible to convert,all the heat supplied to an engine to get equivalent
temperature.
amount of work. Some portion of the heat supplied is rejected".
There are different process like- cyclic process, Reversible process, Irreversible process.
So the heat converted in to work is always less than heat supplied to engine. The ratio of heat
converted to work to heat supplied to engine is known as the thermal efficiency of the engine. So, !Cyclic Process
thermal efficiency of any engine is always less than unity. When a system moves from a given initial state, goes through a number of different changes in
2. Clausius statement : states (going through various processes) and finally returns to its initial state, then Cyclic process
takes place. Therefore, at the end of a cycle, all the properties have the same value, they had
"Without any external energy, heat can not flow from cold object to hot object". Heat can flow from at the beginning.
higher temperature to lower temperature. But in case of reverse situation i.e. heat flow from lower
temperature to higher temperature, some external energy is required. Reversible Process
Second law of thermodynamics also speaks about a useful state variable called as entropy, A reversible process of a system is a process that, once taken place, can be reversed, leaving
no change in either the system or surrounding. In other words the system and surrounding are
denoted by "S". The change in entropy dS (delta S) is equal to the heat transfer dH (delta H) returned to their original condition. Practically, there is no truly reversible processes, however, for
divided by temperature T.
analysis purposes, this is assumed to determine maximum theoretical efficiency.
dS=dH/T
If "m" kg of gas is heated at constant volume from initial temperature of "T l " °C
to "T2 " ° C, then the heat supplied which is equal to increase in internal energy of gas is given by
T1
H=mC v (T2 —T 1)
Where
Cv is the specific heat of the gas at constant volume.
Vi V2 0 S S2 S
H=E+W
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram
In this case work done is zero. So the heat supplied is equal to- Fig. 1.4 Constant Pressure Process
H = E = mCv (T2 — T1) Work (W) done during this process is the area below line 1-2.
This process is shown in the PV and TS diagram. PV diagram shows the change in volume and = Area of 12V 2V 1
pressure, where as TS diagram shows change in entropy and temperature of the gas. PV and TS diagrams = Area of P 1 2V2 0 —Area of P 1 1V 1 O
are used to visualize the process in thermodynamic cycle and it helps to understand changes in system
parameter. = P 1 V 2 — P 1V 1 = P1 ( V2 — V1)
P 1.12.3 Constant Temperature or Isothermal Process
PA
In this process heat is supplied to a gas in such a way that its temperature remains constant.
The volume of the gas increases. The expansion of the gas is called as "Isothermal expansion". When heat
P2
is taken out at constant temperature, volume of the gas decreases. As there is no change in the temperature
2 T2 2 .n,
of the gas, change in internal energy is zero. All the heat supplied is used for doing external work. In this
process P x V is constant.
This process is shown in P-V and T-S diagram below.
P1 Tj TA
P•
P1
0 V S^ S2 S
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram 1 2
P2
Fig. 1.3 Constant Volume Process
Work done
11
10 Fundamentals
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
1.13.1 Carnot Cycle with Steam as Working-fluid
1.12.4 Adiabatic Process or Isentropic Process
Sadi Carnot - a French scientist and engineer in1800, proposed an ideal cycle. In a heat engine,
In this process the system neither receives nor rejects any heat. Expansion and contraction of the heat is always rejected. Work done is the difference between heat absorbed and heat rejected. The maximum
gas depends upon the change in internal energy of the gas. As the internal energy changes in this process ; efficiency is limited by temperature difference. The most efficient theoritical thermodynamic cycle which is
so temperature of the gas also changes. External work is done in this process.
possible- between any-two temperatures is_giyen by Carnot cycle.
In this process PVY = constant
Carnot cycle is a four step process involving two isothermal processes and two adiabatic
Where
processes (i.e., without heat transfer). In the isothermal steps, there is no change in internal energy and
y = ratio of specific heats __the beat supplied is equal to work done. In two adiabatic processes, there is no heat exchange. No such
This process is shown in the P-V and T-S diagram. system can ever be built - since it is an idealized process. The importance of the cycle is that, it gives an idea
about upper limit of efficiency of any cyclic process between two temperatures.
TA A
Tt ---------------
T2
Tr=
Adiabatic
Compresor)
T2 --------------- 2 L_
3 T3= T4
4I
Isothermal
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram Compressor
Fig. 1.6 Adiabatic Process
I 1
Vt V4 Vy V3 V SI= S4 S2= S3
We know H= E + W
(B) TS Diagram
As there is no heat supplied, so H = 0 (a) PV Diagram
Fig. 1.7 Carnot Cycle
or E=—W
1 to 2 - Isothermal expansion
The first process performed is an isothermal expansion. Volume and Pressure of the fluid changes
1.12.5 Free Expansion Process from Vi to V2 and Pi to P2 respectively. This process is represented by curve 1-2.
In this process the gas is allowed to expand suddenly in to a vacuum chamber through an orifice 2 to 3 – Adiabatic expansion
of large dimension. No heat is added or no external work is done and no internal energy is developed. So The second process is adiabatic expansion. During this process, fluid is allowed to expand till
in this case H=0andW=O. point 3. At this point the volume, temperature and pressure drops to V3, P3 and T3. This process is
1.12.6 Throttling Process represented by curve 2 -3.
In this case, the gas is expanded through an aperture of small dimension like- a slightly opened 3 to 4 – Isothermal compression
valve. In this case there is no work done, no heat is supplied and no change in internal energy. The third process is isothermal compression. The fluid is compressed till point 4.
1.13 Thermodynamic Cycle This process is shown in curve 3-4.
As discussed earlier, any change in the system like- Compression, Expansion, Heating and Cooling 4 to 1 – Adiabatic compressions
etc. can be represented on a P-V diagram. When any working fluid of a system undergoes number of The forth process performed on the fluid is an adiabatic compression. The fluid is compressed
operations or process, which takes place in a certain order and finally returns to the initial state, then a adiabatically from point 4 to point 1. Pressure and temperature return back to original state as before
thermodynamic cycle takes place. In the P-V diagram each operation has its own curve and finally they starting of cycle. This process is represented as curve 4-1.
_form a closed figure. The work done during one cycle is given by the enclosed area of the P-V diagram. Work done during the cycle is given as – (S2 – Si) (Ti –T 3)
There are number of cycles in the field of Mechanical Engineering. But we will discuss about Efficiency of Carnot cycle is given as – 1 – T3/ Ti
"Carrnot cycle" and "Rankine Cycle" which is useful for a Boiler Engineer.
Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle. No engine can be made on this cycle.
T1=T2
Condenser
3 T4=T3 3.
iG i3
I
i
I
I Q
Y
V S4 Si S2.S3 S
Pump
(B) TS Diagram
(a) PV Diagram
©-
Bleed steam r
Feed water heater
...-
Condenser S
T4 TA
Ii!
To understand the equation it is required to know some thing about black body and emissivity.
These are discussed below.
Heat Transfer Methods 21
20 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Incident'
Radiation Incident radiation
• Solid fuel
Radiation
Convection • Liquid fuel
• Gaseous fuel
Also fuel is classified as
• Fossil fuel
• By product fuel
I • Chemical fuel
• Nuclear fuel
Fig. 2.3 Location wise Heat Transfer methods in a Boiler Fossil fuel is derived from fossil remains of plant and animals. These fuels are found at inside
layer of earth. It takes million years to convert those fossils of plants and animals in to fuel. Coal, petroleum
Heat transfer surfaces are placed in suitable location to get efficient heat transfer.
and natural gas etc. are example of this type of fuel.
In a Boiler these heat transfer elements are Evaporator, Super heater, Economiser and Air heater. These
heat transfer elements will be discussed latter on. Byproduct fuels are the co- product of some manufacturing process. Coke oven gas is the
example of this type of fuel. This gas is produced during producing coke from coal in coke oven. Blast
For a pulverised/ oil/ gas fired Boiler, the furnace lay out is shown in the above figure. furnace gas is another example of this type of fuel.
Chemical fuel is not used in conventional Boilers. Hydrazine (rocket fuel), ammonium nitrate,
fluorine etc. are example of chemical fuel.
000 of fuel.
Nuclear fuel releases heat due to fusion. Uranium and plutonium are the example of this type
Further we may classify fuel as – primary fuel and secondary fuel. The fuel which is available
naturally like- Coal, Wood, Petroleum and Natural gas are called as primary fuel. Secondary fuel is derived
from primary fuel, like- Coke, Fuel oil, Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene etc.
Carbon 50%
Hydrogen 6%
Oxygen 44%
Wood chips, saw dust, baggase and Bio waste are used as fuel in Boiler.
3.2.1.1 Charcoal
Coal is the major fuel used in today's Boilers. Most of the power boilers use coal as fuel to 3.2.2.2 Lignite
generate steam. The firing process may be different for different boilers like- Stoker fired Boiler, FBC Boiler, Lignite contains high percentage of moisture. It exhibits woody structure. It occurs in thick seam
and Pulverised Boiler etc. As the main constituent of coal is carbon, coal is called as "Black Gold". (up to 30 meter seam) and nearer to the earth's surface. On exposure to air, moisture is reduced.
Coal is a fossil fuel and it is made from the remain of plants. Million years ago, the plants which Ultimate analysis of lignite is
were died, are covered by layers of mud and sediment. Then it is converted from peat to anthracite series. Carbon 70% Nitrogen 1%
This is initiated by anaerobic bacteria and continues under the action of temperature and pressure within Sulpher 1%
Hydrogen 6%
the earths crust for several million years. This process is called as coalification.
Oxygen 22%
Calorific value 5500 kcal/kg
Hydrogen 55 — 57% Carbon dioxide 2.5% Solid fuels are tested by taking sample under specific conditions. The result is expressed on basis
of the sample collection. Sampling is normally done as following basis.
Methane 24 - 26% Oxygen .3- .6%
Calorific value of coke oven gas is higher than that of Blast furnace gas. It is around 5000 to • As Received (ar) : includes Total Moisture (TM)
6000 kcal per Nm3 . This gas is used as fuel in Boiler. • Air Dried (ad) : includes Inherent Moisture (IM) only
3.5 Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis of Fuel • Dry Basis (db) : excludes all Moisture
During discussion about fuel, we came across the term "proximate analysis" and "ultimate • Dry Ash Free (daf) : excludes all Moisture & Ash
analysis". These tWo analyses mainly determine the quality of fuel. Proximate analysis of fuel (mainly coal)
decides the adoption of coal and designing coal handling system. Like this, from ultimate analysis we know The Proximate Analysis of any coal i.e. % content of Moisture (M), Ash (A), Volatile Matter
the suitability of coal. The calorific value can be calculated from ultimate analysis. (VM), Fixed Carbon (FC) and Calorific Value (CV) can be expressed on any sampling bases.
When Hydrogen present in fuel oxidizes during combustion, it forms H 2 O. This H2O consume To obtain 1kg of oxygen we require 4.35 kg of air and for 1m3 of oxygen we require
100/21= 4.76 m3 of air.
some heat, released by fuel to convert in to steam. In this case heat taken out by H2O is not considered
3"T„S:
while calculating this calorific value of fuel. So this value is called as Gross calorific value (GCV) or Higher
Calorific value (HCV).
Time, Temperature and Turbulence are called as three "T's. These three `T's are important in
3.6.2 Net or Lower Calorific value (NCV or LCV) burning process.
The total heat released by fuel during combustion is not utilised. Some heat is taken out by Time :
water vapor, which is produced during combustion of hydrogen as discussed earlier. The heat value obtained For complete combustion of fuel sufficient time is required.
by considering the heat taken out by this water vapor is known as Net calorific value (NCV) or Lower
calorific value (LCV). Temperature :
The fuel should be at ignition temperature for burning. Different fuel is having different ignition
LCV = HCV – Heat taken out by water vapor to convert in to steam. temperature. Temperature at which, fuel starts to burn is called as ignition temperature.
Or
LCV = HCV – (9H 2 X 586) kcal/kg Turbulence :
Considering latent heat of steam = 586 kcal/kg For complete combustion, the fuel and air should mix properly. By creating turbulence the fuel
And, 9H2 is the amount of steam formation. can be burnt with less excess air. Turbulence ensures supply of oxygen to each molecule of fuel.
In a Boiler the total air for combustion is divided in to two parts. One part is primary air which Or
supports burning of fuel initially. Second part of air is called as secondary air. This air is supplied in to Boiler 12 kg of carbon + 32 kg of Oxygen = 44 kg of carbon dioxide (by weight)
furnace to crate turbulence and ensure complete combustion. Or
Combination of Fuel, Heat and Oxygen is called as Fire triangle. Absence of any one from 1 kg of carbon + 8/3 kg of oxygen 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide
these three can extinguish fire.
It means 1kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen to produce 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide gas: Also
3.7.1 Chemistry of Combustion 8137 kcal of heat is produced during this.
As discussed earlier, all fuel contains some basic element like- Hydrogen, Carbon and Sulpher. Like this it is found that
These elements react with Oxygen during burning. During this process, heaf is elease-. Some of the 1 kg of Hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen and 1 kg of Sulpher requires 1kg of Oxygen.
important chemical equation connected to combustion is given below.
If already oxygen present in the fuel, then net oxygen required for combustion of fu ,1 is given by
H2 +02 = H2O + 57810 kcal/kmol (28905 kcal/kg) 8/3 C + 8 H2 + S -02 kg
C+'/2 02 = CO + 29430 kcal/kmol (2452 kcal/kg) C, H2, S and 02 is the weight of Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulpher . and Oxygen respectively in 1 kg
CO+'½202 •= CO2 + 68220 kcal/kmol (2436 kcal/kg) of fuel.
C + 02 = CO2 + 97650 kcal/kmol (8137 kcal/kg) Air contains 77 % Nitrogen and 23% Oxygen by weight. Soto obtain 1kg:of Oxygen from air we
S + 02 = SO2 + 69800 kcal/kmol (2181 kcal/kg) require 100 / 23 = 4.35 kg of air.
Putting this value in above equitation- air required for combustion of fuel is:
CH4 + 202 = CO2 +2H2 0 + 192400 kcal/kmol (12025 kcal/kg)
4.35[( 8/3 C+ 8H2 + S) – 02] kg.
For combustion calculation, kilogram mole (kmol) is used as unit. The molecular weight of any
substance in kilogram represents 1 kilo mole. So 1 kg mole of hydrogen has a mass of 2 kg and 1 kmol of This is the theoretical air requirement for one kg of fuel. It is also called as "Stoichiometric
carbon has mass of 12 kg, 1 kilo mole, of methane has a mass of 16 kg. combustible mixture. In this case fuel and air is mixed in such a manner that no excess or deficiency of air
and fuel is found.
The molecul ao weight of some substance present in fuel is given below.
But practically some excess air is required for complete combustion of fuel. Otherwise due to
Substance Chemical Symbol Molecular weight shortage of oxygen, fuel may not burn completely.
Hydrogen H2 2 3.8 Some Important Properties of Coal
Carbon C 12 Idea on some important properties of coal will help the coal user to understand the coal better.
Sulpher S 32 As in most of the cases coal is used,as fuel in a Boiler, so it will be helpful to discuss these properties here.
Oxygen 02 32 • Weathering or Slacking Index of Coal :
Nitrogen N2 28 When coal is stored in open space, exposed to atmosphere, it has tendency to break into small
Carbon monoxide CO 28 pieces due to alternate dry and wet. This phenomenon is called as weathering. Weathering or
Methane CH4 16 Slacking Index is an indication of coal size stability when exposed to open atmosphere.
Ethane C2H6 30 Abrasiveness index
Acetylene C2H2 28 Abrasiveness index gives an idea about hardness of coal. This is responsible for wear-and-tear of
Ethylene C2 H4 28 equipments of coal handling plant. .
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 Grinding Index of Coal :
Sulpher dioxide SO2 64
Coal is required to be crushed in to required sizes to use in Boiler. In pulverised Boiler the coal is to
Steam or water H2O 18 be grinded. Coal is supposed to have easy grinding nature. Grinding Index gives us idea about the
relative ease of grinding of coal:
Carbon combines with Oxygen to form carbon dioxide, i. e. - C+ 02 = CO2
1 kilo mole of carbon + 1 kilo mole of oxygen = 1 kilo mole of carbon dioxide • Caking Index of Coal :
(by volume) Some coal softens and swells on heating. The pieces of coal adhere together and form a pasty
mass. This is called as caking of coal. Caking Index is the measure of binding property of coal.
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
Secondary air
Air-
.Flame
Pulverised Coal
Primary air
4.1 Introduction
Steam is used as a medium for conversion of heat energy in to mechanical energy. Heat energy
is carried out by steam and converted in to mechanical energy at Turbine. As we know in a Boiler chemical
energy of the fuel is converted in to heat energy. This heat energy is added to feed water to get steam. Easily
Fig. 3.4 Combustion of Pulverised Coal
the heat energy of steam can be converted in to mechanical energy.
First volatile matter bums and then the remaining coal particle. In this case carbon of the coal
reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide gas is formed. Steam is nothing but water vapor. When it is pure and dry it is invisible. Super heated steam
3.10.2 Combustion of Liquid fuel behaves like perfect gas to some extent.
liquid fuel is broken in to fine particles by atomization while admitting in to furnace. Atomization
is done mechanically by means of a rotary disc or by blast of air or steam in burner. Air and steam In a Boiler, steam is generated at constant pressure process. Before discussing the properties of
atomization give better performance. The ratio of maximum to minimum heat in put rates (turn down steam it is required to know how steam is formed at constant pressure.
ratio) is high in this case.
4.2 Formation of Steam
In the furnace this atomized fuel comes in contact with heat, and evaporates. Carbon, Hydrogen
and Sulpher is released due to evaporation. These elements react with oxygen and combustion takes place. When water at atmospheric temperature is heated in a vessel, initially volume of water increases
For burning of oil, primary and secondary air is used to support the flame and complete combustion
slightly. Temperature of the water goes on increasing as heat is added to water till boiling temperature.
process, respectively.
/Viscosity of heavy viscous oil is lowered by heating; to make it easier to flow in burner and pipe line. Boiling temperature of water varies with system pressure at which water is heated. At lower
-3.11 Excess Air pressure the boiling temperature is less and at higher pressure boiling temperature is more. At atmospheric
It is discussed earlier about theoretical minimum air required for complete combustion of any fuel. pressure (1.033 kg/cm 2); boiling temperature of water is 100°C.
Air contains . 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen (by volume). Only Oxygen is required for combustion. So it is
required to handle large volume of air to get required quantity of oxygen. Large quantity of heat is required Once water reaches at boiling temperature, temperature of water remains constant there even if
to heat this total air. So efficiency of the system decreases. Also, if less air is supplied then complete heat is added. He?', added does not increase the temperature of water but the water starts converted into
combustion of combustible materials may not take place. Efficiency decreases in this case also. steam. Total heat required to raise the temperature of water up to boiling temperature is called as
Heat loss in flue gas = FG X Sc (TG — TA) sensible heat.
Where
Temperature of water remains constant at boiling temperature till all the water is converted in to
FG Flue gas weight per hour
steam. Any heat added to water after sensible heat, starts steaming of water. Initially the steam formed,
Sc = Specific heat of the flue gas
T° = Flue gas 'exit temperature contains some water particle. This steam is called as wet steam. When further heat is added, all the water
TA = Combustion Air temperature
is converted in to steam and the wet steam becomes dry, but still at boiling temperature. This steam is
Stoichiometric combustible mixture is one in which no excess or deficiency exists in either fuel or called as dry saturated steam having no water particle. Heat added to water at boiling temperature to
Oxygen. So it is the chemically correct mixture of fuel and oxygen. convert dry saturated steam is called as latent heat of vaporization.
' But in practice some excess air is supplied to ensure complete combustion of fuel. The amount of
excess air varies with type of fuel used and firing condition. It may vary from 10 % to 40%.
5.1 Introduction
From the following example it will be easier to understand the use.of steam table.
Steam is formed in Boiler from feed water. The water used in Boiler is called as Boiler feed
Example : Calculate the total heat of 1kg of steam at a pressure of 10kg/cm 2 (ab) when - water. Water which is available from different natural sources like- River, Pond, Ground water and sea
I) The steam is wet having dryness fraction is .8 water, can not be used directly in Boiler as feed water. Depending upon the sources of water, it contains
II) Steam is dry saturated different impurities. Before using this water in Boiler, these impurities are removed by various methods.
III) The steam is at 200 °C. Considering specific heat of superheated steam C. is .55 Water available from natural resources contains following impurities.
Solution : ' Un-dissolved suspended materials, like- mud, sand, sediment etc.
I) H=HW +XL • Dissolved salts and minerals, like- carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, silicate and nitrate of Calcium/
In this case dryness fraction is .8 Magnesium / Potassium.
From the steam table (pressure) it is found that for steam at 10 kg/cm 2 , HW = 181.3 and • Dissolved gases, like- oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
L=482.1 • Other materials, like- acid, oil etc.
Putting these values-
Above impurities can be removed by different methods. Depending upon the type of Boiler, feed
H = 181.3 + .8 X 482.1 = 566.98 kcal water quality is maintained. Permissible level of impurities are different for different Boiler. Feed water
II) For dry saturated steam impurities are responsible for corrosion and scale formation in the Boiler tube. Scale in the tube affects heat
H=HW +L transfer. So the quality of feed water is responsible for higher life of Boiler.
= 181.3 + 482.1 = 663.4 Kcal 5.2 Removal of un-dissolved suspended solid materials from water
H of dry steam can also be found from steam table directly. In rainy day, river water is muddy. It contains insoluble matter like- mud, sediment, sand etc.
III) From the steam table it is found that for steam at 10 kg/cm 2 the saturation temperature is 179 °C. Turbidity of this water is high. When less insoluble matter is present in water then its turbidity is less. These
undissolved matters can be removed from water by following three methods.
Total heat of super heated steam is given by- H+ CP( Tsup – T sAT) = 663.4 + .55
(200-179) =674.95 kcal • Sedimentation
44 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 45
5.2.2 Filtration Practically, Alum is dosed in the form of solution in to the clarifier tank. This makes the settling
process faster. ,
In this process the water is passed through a filter bed composed of porous material (sand,
gravel, charcoal). When water passes through this bed, the suspended solid matters are collected in the After removal of suspended solids, the water is used as drinking water (chlorination is done to kill
bed. Clear filter water is collected from the bottom of the filter bed. bacteria). But this water can not be used as feed water for steam generation. Only undissolved solids have
been removed by above process._The water still contains dissolved salts and minerals. Presence of these
salts and minerals are responsible for hardness of water. More the,salts and minerals more is the hardness.
may! The hardness is classified as permanent hardness and temporary hardness. Bicarbonate of calcium
Raw Water Overflow and magnesium_is responsible for temporary hardness of water. Temporary hardness can be avoided by
boiling the water.
\ ' \
■
{ '^{ q .4',Iq ^ 4 ' •l 1 •1 t
. ,l • {' { ' ,I q •{',{g4,',l" , ' ,1 t4
,19 • 4',4.I Permanent hardness is due to presence of chloride, sulfate and nitrate, of Sodium, Calcium and
4,
.t
k
44
.14
{
4 4
1, 44 i, 4,
4 44^I4 ,44 'l
4 '1
Magnesium. Small quantity of iron, aluminum and manganese salts are also present in water and contributes
i(, ii('r
4 4 Ir
{(1,,if'
, ^.)'
t
II( t(, 1 4 {il,', .4 i{1,y,il',4..
11( Sand
f ' ' /')r /')r,' )'' ) a little to water hardness.
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 0 5.3 Dissolved salts and minerals
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0 0 00 0 00 0 60 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 0
Gravel In Boiler feed water salts of Calcium and Magnesium are mainly responsible for scale formation.
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Most natural source water contains silica. Presence of silica is not desirable in feed water as it forms hard
0 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 0 scale. Some time silica is evaporated and carried out in steam which forms an insoluble deposit o
000 000 000 006 000 000 000 000 000 000 0 00 000 000
0000000 0000000000000002 000000 600000 turbine blade.
n0 nn 0 nn n 0 nn0 nnd no O nn O ne, 0 nnO nn0 n 0 nn 0 n - -I.-Filtered
Back washing water Mainly Calcium and Magnesium salts are present in water in the following form.
water 4
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 49
48
SAC can remove all cations associated with Strong Acids like- Sulphuric Acid, Hydrochloric After back washing, Hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid is injected in to Resin bed. Normally 2%
Acid, Nitric Acid etc., as wall as weak acids also. Where as the WAC can remove Cations associated with to 6% acid for SAC and .5% to .7% acid for WAC, with 30% concentration is injected to the water stream
which flows through the Resin bed in reverse direction of the normal water flow and drained out.
weak acids only, like – silicic acid and organic acid.
This method is called as counter flow regeneration. Some time co flow method is also adopted, where
Like this two types of Anion exchangers are used. These are : regeneration is done in the same direction of normal water flow. DM water or degassed water is used for
• Strong Base Anion exchanger (SBA) regeneration. During regeneration less flow is maintained.
Hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid reacts with exhausted Resin in the following manner to
• Weak Base Anion exchanger (WBA)
recharge_theresin again.
SBA can remove all the anions associated with strong and weak acids. Where as -WBA can- -
remove the anions of strong acids only. ++ R-H +
Ca+R. + H+Cl- = CaCl2-
In between Cation and Anion exchanger, there is a degasifier unit. Here carbonate and bicarbonate Mg +R. + H 2+SO4 = Mg +SO4 + R-H +
are removed.
Depending upon the water quality requirement and salt concentration (Ionic load) in the raw It should be noted that Ca +R- and Mg+R- is the exhausted Resin due to absorption of cations in
water, different combinations of Cation and Anion exchangers are used. Some time SAC and WAC Cation exchanger during normal operation. and R-H + is the charged Cation Resin as discussed earlier.
exchangers along with SBA and WBA exchangers are used. Some plant only uses SAC along with SBA Either hydrochloric Acid or Sulphuric Acid can be used for this purpose. Remaining CaCl 2 and MgSO4 is
exchanger. drained out with the water.
Simple DM water flow diagram is shown in figure 5.2. Certain quantity of acid is permitted to flow for some duration during regeneration. This duration
5.5.1.2 Cation Exchanger and quantity of acid depends upon the bed depth and Resin quantity.
Cation exchanger contains bed of Cation Resin. As told earlier the Resin is cross linked polymers. After acid injection is completed, water flow is continued for some time to rinse the bed. As
The chemical formula of Cation Resin is given as R-H + . Where, R- is the complicated chemical composition during regeneration less water flows so this rinsing is called as slow rinse. Slow rinse is continued for some
of the Resin. It will be easier to remember the Resin with this formula.
+ time.
When raw water passes through this Resin bed, cations of the salts like – Ca , Mg+ and Na+ are
substituted by H+ ions of the Resin. So the salts of Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium are converted in After slow rinse raw water at normal flow rate and at normal direction is passed through the
to different acids as mentioned below and mixed with water. So the water coming out from Cation exchanger regenerated bed. But this water is drained out to rinse the bed thoroughly. This rinsing method is:called as
is acidic. The cations are trapped at Resin bed. fast rinse. The water quality is checked for non-availability of hardness. Fast rinse continued for some time
and then drain valve is closed.
Salts Converted to Equation Now the exchanger is fully charged and ready for further production of DM water.
After regeneration of the exchanger for some number of times, the bed is regenerated with
Carbonates/ Carbonic acid Ca+CO3+ R-H + = Ca+R- + H2+ CO3
double quantity of acid. This is called as double regeneration.
Bicarbonates
5.5.1.3 Degasser
Sulfates Sulphuric acid Mg+ SO4 + R H+ = Mg+ R- + H2+SO4
As stated in earlier section, when carbonate and bi carbonate is passed in Cation exchanger,
=Chlorides Ca
Hydrochloric acid ++ R-H+
CaCl2 +R- + H +CI-
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) is formed. Carbonic acid is a weak acid. Soft drinks available in the market
Nitrates Nitric acid Ca+ (NO)-24H 2O+ R-H+ = Ca+R- + H+NO3 contains Carbonic acid. Carbonic acid can easily be broken in to water and carbon dioxide gas.
Silicates Silicic Acid Ca +SiO3+ R-H+ = Ca +R- + H2+SiO3- H2CO3 = H2O + CO2
So carbon dioxide gas is released when we open soft drink bottle. In case of DM water production
As the cations are trapped at the Resin, so it is exhausted after flow of some quantity of water through
process, the quantity of water is more. So Degasser is used to remove carbon dioxide gas from the cataionised
it. The Resin can not absorb more cations. So it is required to regenerate the Resin. This process is called
water. .
as regeneration.
In degasser unit, water coming out from Cation exchanger is sprayed from top of the degasser
Regeneration tower to increase its surface contact area. Low pressure air by help of a blower, called as degasser blower
Before regeneration of Resin, bed is back washed (water flow in reverse direction of normal flow is blown from bottom of the column. By this process carbonic acid breaks easily and carbori dioxide gas is
through the bed and drained out) for some time to wash the Resin completely. Back wash also removes liberated. This carbon dioxide gas is vented along with low pressure air at the top of degasser tower.
Resin fines and filtered particles from the inter space of resin bed. This helps in efficient regeneration.
50 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 51
It can be noted that anions of the salts are absorbed by Anion Resin. H+ ion, substituted with Both the beds are rinsed to wash out remaining acid or alkali.
Cations of salts at Cation exchanger, reacts with OH- ions of the Resin to form H 2O. • Mixing of Bed
Like Cation Resin, Anion Resin also exhausted after passing certain amount of cationised water.
Further absorption of anions is not possible after exhaust of resin. In this case regeneration, like Cation Both the resins are mixed thoroughly by help of high pressure air. Air is introduced from the
bottom. This air agitates the bed and resins are mixed uniformly.
exchanger is required.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 53
solution Hydrogen ion concentration is more. Pure alkaline solution is having 10- 14 grams of H2 ion per liter.
• Final rinsing So its pH is 14. Pure acidic solution is having 1(10°) gram of H2 ion per liter. So its pH is 0.
After mixing of bed, water from Anion is passed through the bed at full flow for some time and As per law of mass action in mass dissociation H* X OH- =10- 14 at 20°C. So, if hydrogen ion
drained out. concentration is more in the solution then hydroxyl (OH) ion concentration reduces. If a solution has H* as
Conductivity and other parameters are checked and the exchanger is put in to service if found ok. 10-1° then OH- will be 10-4. So the alkaline solution-has lesser H2 ion concentration and hence high OH ion
To maintain PH of DM water morpholine doing is done. Water coming out from Mix bed is concentration. The pH of the solution depends on, whether Hydrogen or Hydroxyl ions predominate.
stored in a DM storage tank and used in Boiler. As the pH value is logarithmic function so pH 8, 9 or 10 is respectively 10, 100 or 1000 times
5.5.2 Reverse osmosis Process more_alkaline than pH value 7.
In osmosis process, liquid from an area of low salt concentration moves naturally through a 3. Hardness
membrane, to an area of high salt concentration, when no external pressure is applied. The flow may be Hardness of the water is due to presence of calcium and magnesium salts as discussed earlier.
stopped, or even reversed by applying external pressure on the higher concentration side. This phenomenon More the salt in the water more is the hardness. Some time presence of aluminum and manganese contributes
is called as reverse osmosis. Reverse Osmosis is a process which is reverse to osmosis process, where to hardness. These salts are deposited in Boiler tube as hard scale, which disturbs the heat transfer and
dissolved salts, is separated from water by forcing the water through a semi-permeable membrane under leads to tube failure. Hardness is of two types i.e. – carbonate and non carbonate hard ness.
high pressure. A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that passes some atoms or molecules but not 4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
others. It allows pure water to pass through it, while rejecting the contaminants that are too large to pass Total dissolved solid is due to presence of dissolved non volatile substances in water. It is an
through the tiny pores in the membrane. The water diffuses through the membrane and the dissolved salts important parameter to know about the condition of Boiler water. If TDS of the Boiler water is more, then
remain behind on the surface of the membrane. As the membrane clog up with the dissolved minerals that blow down is given to reduce this. By giving blow down some fresh water with little or no TDS can be
it traps from water, part of the water fed into the system is used to flush them away, greatly extending the introduced in to the system to balance TDS. The unit of TDS is milligram per liter (mg/liter).
life and effectiveness of the membrane. The pure water obtained is called as permeate and the rejected
5. Conductivity :
water is called as concentrate. Colloidal silica as well as reactive silica can be removed by RO Process.
If the TDS of the water increases then its specific electrical conductance or conductivity increases.
5.6 Removal of Dissolved Gasses from Water
Pure water has zero conductance. By measuring conductivity one can also know about the TDS of the
From the discussions so far, we understand how the suspended un-dissolved particles and dissolved water. The unit of conductivity is micro siemens per centimeter (jScm- 1 ).
salts are removed from water by various methods. Some gasses like- Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen etc.
To calculate the conductivity of water into the approximate TDS, the conductivity is multiplied
are present in water in dissolved condition. Particularly presence of Oxygen is highly objectionable in Boiler
by a conversion factor. The conversion factor depends on the chemical composition of the TDS and can
feed water, as oxygen is responsible for corrosion of Boiler tube.
very between 0.54 – 0.96. A value of 0.67 is commonly used as an approximation if the actual factor is not
For the removal of dissolved gasses deaeration is done at an equipment called Deaerator. known.
Chemical dosing (Hydrazine) is done in to the feed water to remove Oxygen. 6. Alkanity :
These methods are discussed in details in chapter "Feed water system".
The alkanity of water is due to presence of HCO3, CO3 and OH ions. SiO3 and PO4 ions also
5.7 Some Parameters of Boiler Feed Water contribute towards alkanity. According to the presence of above ions the alkanity is classified as under
Boiler feed water plays vital role for scale formation and durability of Boiler tube. This feed water • Carbonate alkanity (CO 3 ) denoted by Ac'
is tested in laboratory regularly to know about the quality of feed water. Some important parameters of feed
water are discussed below. From these parameters one can easily understand about feed water quality. • Bi-Carbonate alkanity (HCO 3) denoted by Ab'
1. Turbidity: • Hydrate alkanity (OH) denoted by Ah'
Pure water free from suspended solids is colorless. Cleanness of water decreases when water is To know about the alkanity two types of alkanity is measured in laboratory. These are
contaminated with any suspended insoluble particle like- mud, sand, sediment etc. Cleanness of water is • M- alkanity (M) or Methyl orange alkanity
measured as turbidity. Less turbidity means clear water and higher turbidity indicates water is contaminated.
The unit of turbidity is NTU (Normal Turbidity Unit). Turbidity decreases when filtration is perfect. • P- alkanity (P) or Phenolphthalein alkanity
2.. pH Value : M- alkanity is called as total alkanity.
pH value of the water indicates whether the water is Acidic or Alkaline. pH value plays important M-alkanity = Ac + Ab + Ah
role for corrosion. P- alkanity = Ah + 1 Ac
pH value of different solution varies from 0 to 14. It is derived from the amount of hydrogen ion Some cases are given here to know the exact alkanity of water.
present in the solution. pH value is the Logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration. Pure water CASE -1
contains 10-' grams of Hydrogen ion per liter. So its pH is 7. When P= 0 (pH =8.2)
pH 7 indicate normal solution. pH more than 7 is alkaline and less than 7 is acidic. M is called as bicarbonate alkanity
It is clear that in alkaline solution, Hydrogen ion concentration is less and in case of acidic
CASE—2
When P=M
M is called as hydroxide alkanity
CASE — 3
When 2P < M (Suitable for Boiler water)
There is no OH. concentration
CO3 concentration 2P and HCO 3 concentration isM-2P
CASE — 4
When 2P>M
OH is present and equal to 2P-M 6.1 Introduction
CO3 = 2(M-P) and HCO3 is zero
Boiler is a closed vessel in which the heat produced by combustion of fuel is transferred to feed
CASE-5 water to generate steam. Boiler is a heat exchanger.
When2P=M
As per Indian Boiler act 1923, Boiler means "any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity
CO3 concentration = 2P
which is used expressly for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other fitting
OH concentration = Nil attached to such vessel, which is wholly or partially under pressure, when steam is shut off."
HCO3 concentration = Nil
For effective heat transfer, heat transfer units are arranged in different ways. Requirement of high
7. Silica pressure and high temperature steam in today's power houses, to drive steam turbine, has made Boiler
Silica can exist in three physical/chemical forms: monomeric (dissolved/soluble/reactive), polymeric design complicated. High capacity boilers are operated above critical pressure range (221.2 bar). These
(colloidal/unreactive), and granular (particulate) Silica is present in water in following forms. boilers are called as supercritical boilers. There are different types of boilers depending upon their design
• Dissolved silica features. These are discussed in subsequent sections.
• Colloidal silica A good Boiler should have some essential qualities. These are
• Particulate silica • Capable to meet large load fluctuations.
Silica in dissolved state is called as reactive silica. This is volatile and easily carried over by o Fuel efficient, or to produce maximum steam with minimum fuel consumption.
steam and deposited at turbine blade where temperature and pressure of steam drops. This silica is not
• Able to quick start up.
desirable in Boiler water. Silica concentration in Boiler water can be controlled by giving blow down. Only
reactive silica is removed at DM plant. • Easy for maintenance and Inspection.
Colloidal silica is called as non reactive silica. At RO plant colloridal silica alongwith reactive • Occupy less floor space.
silica can be removed. o Friction loss in water and flue gas circuit should be less.
8. Iron, Copper
o Require little attention for operation and maintenance.
In Boiler feed water, presence of iron (as Fe 2O3 ) and copper is not desirable. For different Boiler
the higher limit of these two are specified. A Boiler mainly contains following systems.
Boiler Mountings Water tubes are arranged in closed system. Cold water come to the tube from Boiler drum.
Then this water is circulated back to drum after absorbing heat. Due to difference in density, which is created
Fittings on a Boiler which are required for its safe and efficient operation are called as mountings.
due to difference in temperature, water circulates in these tubes naturally.
These are
• Safety valve
o Water level sight glass (gauge glass)
• Pressure gauge
• Blow down valve
• Main steam stop valve
• Feed water check valve (NRV)
• Air vent
o Start up vent
o Manhole
Boiler Accessories
The devices which are used in a Boiler as an integral part and help to run the Boiler efficiently is Fig. 6.1 Natural Circulation of water in Boiler Tube
called as Boiler Accessories. These are :
This circulation is natural. The force causing circulation is given by
• Super heater F = pcH l — pHH2
• Desuperheater Where
pc is density of cold water
• Economiser pH = density of hot water
6.3.2 Straight Tube, Bent Tube, Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Boiler
In straight tube Boiler, the tube arrangement is straight. So the fabrication is not simple. But
bent tube boilers are most suitable as it is easier to fabricate by welding. Tubes are easily accessible for
inspection, cleaning and maintenance. Boiler inside space can be utilized efficiently. Also bent tube Boiler
has higher steam generating capacity.
Depending upon the geometric position of the Boiler, Boiler may be classified as Horizontal
Boiler, Vertical Boiler and Inclined Boiler. When the principal axis is horizontal the Boiler is called as
horizontal Boiler. When the axis of the Boiler is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, the Boiler is called as
vertical Boiler. When the axis is in inclined position the Boiler is called as Inclined Boiler.
4 ASh Disposal System
Fig. 6.2 Basic Arrangement of different Systems in Boiler
6.3.3. Waste heat recovery Boiler
Arrangement of these six systems are shown in the figure. Waste heat recovery boilers are used to utilize the heat energy from the system, which would
All the Boilers are not necessarily having all these systems. For example, waste heat recovery otherwise go waste. In some chemical process heat is produced due to exothermic reaction. For example,
Boiler does not have fuel handling system. The above figure is meant to have little idea about the functioning N2 + 3H2 = 2 NH3 + 22 kcal of heat, 2 SO2 + 02 = 2S0 3 + 45 kcal of heat. Mass of hot gas flow and
of a Boiler. its temperature is the main factor that decides the design of a waste heat recovery Boiler. Also the chemical
nature and corrosiveness as well as abrasive dust load in the gas are considered before designing such
6.3 Different types of Boiler Boiler.
There are different types of Boiler used to generate steam. Boilers are classified depending upon
the fuel used, pressure of steam, mode of flow of heat carrying substance etc. Mostly boilers are classified In sponge iron kilns lot of hot gas is produced. This hot gas is utilized in Boiler for steam
generation. This hot gas contains significant amount of abrasive dust. These dust particles may damage
on the basis of following considerations.
the Boiler tube due to erosion. This problem can be minimized by lowering the gas velocity. By providing
Heat source (Fuel fired, Waste heat, Nuclear powered, Electric powered etc.) abrupt change in the direction of flue gas flow, these dust settles down and can be removed by suitable ash
o Mode of circulation of feed water (Natural circulation, Forced circulation) handling system.
• Type of fuel used ( Coal fired, Oil fired, Gas fired, Baggase fired) 6.3.4 Package Boiler
o Position and type of furnace ( External fired, Internal fired) Package boilers are mostly shop assembled. These are not field erected. Mostly liquid and gaseous
• Material of construction (Cast iron Boiler, steel Boiler) fuels are used in these boilers. These are small in size for easy transportation. These boilers are mostly used
to meet process steam requirement in industry. In some cases these boilers may be hooked up with other
• Shape and position of tubes (Straight tube, Bent tube, horizontal, vertical and inclined Boiler)
Boiler to produce power.
o Content of the tube (Fire tube, Water tube )
6.3.5 Sub- critical and Super- critical Boiler
o Operating pressure of the Boiler ( Low pressure, High pressure, Sub critical, Super critical)
If the pressure and temperature increases, then the heat content in the steam (enthalpy) increases.
• Purpose of utilisation (Marine, Locomotive, Power and Industrial Boiler)
More work can be done by this steam. So plant efficiency increases. Now a day, modern power plants are
• Manufactures trade name (Bension, La- mont, Babcok, Velox) using high pressure and temperature steam to reduce the cost of power generation.
We will discuss about some of the commonly used Boiler in the subsequent sections.
Introduction to Boiler 63
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
The ash produced in this Boiler is collected in two ways. Major portion of the ash is collected at
6.3.6.3.2 Spreader stoker fired Boiler ESP as fly ash. Some ash melts at the furnace as furnace temperature is high, and forms slag. This slag is
In this type of Boiler, coal is fed by the help of a variable feeding device called as feeder, which collected from the bottom of the furnace. Now days most of the power Boilers are of this type. This boiler
throws coal in to the furnace. Some portion of coal, particularly fine particles, burn in suspension and has Evaporator, super heater and re heaters.
remaining large size coal falls to the stationary or moving grate, where it burns. The stationary grate is 6.3.6.3.4 Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler
moved periodically to remo ve ash from the grate. Primary air is supplied to the furnace through openings of In this Boiler combustion of coal or any solid fuel takes place at suspended condition. High
grate. Secondary air is supplied through nozzles. velocity air is passed through the fuel bed through air nozzles. Major portion of the bed volume contains
Coal feeder is a variable speed rotating drum having large number of blades mounted on it. inert material like- fused alumina, sand, mullite and zirconia etc. It is around 90% of the total bed volume.
Depending upon the loadonthe Boiler, feeder speed is adjusted. The spreader dissibutes coal uniformly Due to-this high velocity air a stage is reached when the individual particles of the bed are suspended in the
over the grate. air stream. Further, increase in velocity gives rise to bubble formation, vigorous turbulence and rapid
6.3.6.3.3 Pulverised coal fired Boiler mixing. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of
The main drawback of the stoker fired Boiler is formation of clinker over the grate and does not a fluid. The mixture of this air and fuel behaves like a fluid. So the fuel bed is called as Fluidised bed.
respond too quickly to load change. The ash handling system is also complicated. But in case of pulverised The inert bed material is helpful to maintain bed temperature. The bed temperature is maintained
Boiler ash handling system is very simple. Fly ash is produced in this Boiler which can be easily collected at around 900°C. This inert material and fuel remain in Fluidised condition during operation of Boiler..
ESP. Load on the Boiler can be changed quickly. Larger capacity Boiler can be designed with pulverised As the volume of fuel in the bed is less,. high ash content fuel can be used in this Boiler. Small
coal firing. amount of dolomite or lime stone is feed in to the bed which nutralises formation of sulpher dioxide gas
Coal is crushed in to fine powder in a ball or hammer mill. This powdered coal is sprayed in to ( SOX ). Another merit of this Boiler is thaf; formation of NOx in the Boiler is less.
furnace through a burner. This powdered coal is transported up to the burner by the help of primary air. Water tubes called as bed tubes are placed inside the Fluidised bed. Heat produced in the bed is
Turbulence is created at the furnace for complete combustion of coal with the help of secondary air. transferred to feed water. During starting, oil or gas burners are used to heat the bed material. In some case
Like other boilers primary air is a portion of air supplied by FD fan and heated in air heater. initial bed heating is done by burning charcoal on the bed. Once bed comes to ignition temperature, coal
This air is used to dry the coal as well as to transport coal up to burner and support combustion. Remaining is supplied.
portion of air supplied by FD fan is used as secondary air for complete combustion of fuel.
FBC Boiler is more accepted now days due to following advantages.
By making the coal in to powder, surface area of coal exposed to heat and oxygen increases. So,
faster combustion is possible in Boiler, which helps to meet fluctuating load demand of the Boiler quickly. • FBC boilers can burn fuel with higher combustion efficiency.
Excess air requirement is less, so the efficiency of this Boiler is high. Wide variety of coal having different • Size of Boiler is less as compared to conventional stoker fired or pulverised Boiler.
ash content can be used in this Boiler.
Depending upon the method of supply of pulverised coal to the Boiler, pulveriser system is • FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with variety of fuels and these can be fed either independently
classified as Individual or Central system. In Individual system, each burner is having its own pulveriser mill. or in combination with coal into the same furnace. Washery rejects, biomass solid waste can be
But in case of Central system the coal is pulverised centrally and stored in a bunker. From this bunker coal burnt efficiently in this Boiler.
is supplied to all the burners. Super heated • Inferior quality fuel can be used in this boiler. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high
steam
A as 65% and having calorific value as low as 2500 kcal/kg.
• Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC Boiler which is very difficult in
conventional firing system.
Super heater
• S02 formation can be greatly minimized by addition of limestone or dolomite for high sulpher
coals. Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.
There are many type of FBC Boilers. Atmospheric Fluidised bed (AFBC) and Circulating Fluidised
Bed (CFBC) Boilers are used widely. The main features of these Boilers are discussed below.
Economiser
Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustor (AFBC) Boiler
Feed water Low velocity air is used for fluidization of the bed in this case. Air from FD fan is used for this
purpose. This air is approximately 50% — 60% of the total air and supplied to the compartments through
Secondary
Air air nozzles to create fluidisation of bed. Balance air supplied by FD fan is used as secondary air. The bed of
Primary To Air heater the Boiler is divided into sections. Individual sections called as compartments have their own coal feeder
Air and Fluidised air supply. Mostly coal is feed to the bed by primary air. Primary air fan is used for this.
Depending upon the load on the Boiler some sections may be taken out of service. This procedure
is called as bed slumping. During this process, coal feeder to the section is stopped and then Fluidised air is
cut off. Some time it is required to maintain the temperature of the slumped section. For this, air is charged
ASH to the bed for some time and some fuel is feed.
Fig. 6.4 Pulverised coal fired Boiler
Super heater
Cyclone
Economiser
v
Fuel Supply
Bed Coil
To Air heater
in the line is maintained by the help of a control valve provided at the return line. To take care of overpressure,
Primary 'la Oil temperature control valve
relief valve is provided in the line. In some cases, oil is pumped to a small tank called as "Day Tank". Filter Final Filter
Furnace
Atomising Steam
I,
Burner
Pressure Control
Valve
Fig. 7.1 HSD Fired Boiler
[66]
In India coal is classified in to various grades, depending upon the content of fixed carbon; ash (0) (o)
i, Weigh feeder
etc. Depending upon design of Boiler, different grade coals are used in different Boilers. Following activity
is performed in a coal handling plant. Magnetic
0 (() separator
A) Coal Transportation and Storage
Coal is mined from coal mines. This coal contains ash forming and sulpher bearing minerals,
Under size hooper
rock etc. So this coal, after mining is cleaned and sized properly. This is done at coal beneficiary plant or
coal washery. Major coal consumers have their own coal beneficiary plant preferably located at coal fields.
Fig. 7.3 Coal Preparation System Storage Bin
The fuel stored in intermediate bin is transported to burner by the help of hot air supplied by FD
fan. This air acts as primary air.
It is clear from the above discussion that, in the closed drying system, primary air is used for
Raw Coal Bin drying, carrying and support burning. But in case of open drying system coal is dried by the help of flue gas.
~Secondary air
Carrying and burning is done by primary air. In open drying system, coal is dried with high temperature gas,
so the quality of fuel improves. But in this case some coal dust passes through dust collector to atmosphere.
Feeder In this system all the equipments used in Individual system are used. But the capacity of these
equipments is higher, as one system is used for all the burners. The coal dust after cyclone (as discussed in
open dried system) is stored in a central bin. From this bin, fuel is supplied to individual burner with the help
of primary air. In this case each burner do not have separate pulveriser mill. So the capacity of the mill and
other related equipments is more and operates at optimum level.
Fig. 7.4 Individual close drying pulverising System
Air Path 75
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
The static pressure of the system consists of pressure loss in ducts, fittings, air pre heater etc.
This static pressure varies with air flow. The curve of static pressure to flow variation is called as resistance
curve. Resistance varies with velocity and quantity of air flow.
Flue gas
Static
Pressure
Secondary
Furnace Air
Primary
air
rs.
To chimney Air flow
Fig. 8.2 Resistance Curve of fan
Fig. 8.1 Boiler Air Path
8.3 Air flow control
In a Boiler where both ID and FD fans are used (balanced draft), ID fan is started first before FD
Depending upon load variation on the Boiler, fuel supply and hence air for combustion is varied.
fan. Some Boiler has two FD and two ID fans. This type of boiler is called as multi pass Boiler. Depending
So it is always required to vary air flow in a Boiler depending upon the load. Air flow can be controlled by
upon the load condition, both the fans share load. The condition of the fan is to be regularly monitored to two methods. These are
ensure continuous trouble free operation.
• Speed control
Damper is provided at both suction and discharge side of the fan. These dampers are operated
Pneumatically, Hydraulically or Electrically. In the suction side of the fan, before damper, wire 'mesh is • Damper control
provided to restrict the entry of large size particles-to the fan. Discharge of the fan is connected to Boiler Both these methods have merits and demerits. These are disused in brief below.
with air duct. The impeller of the fan is required to be cleaned regularly. 8.3.1 Speed control
Following steps are followed while starting a FD fan. In this method, speed of the fan is adjusted through a variable speed motor. Now a day, FD fans
are driven by variable frequency (VFD) drive. By adjusting the frequency through VFD, speed of the.
• Check no maintenance job is going on. induction motor can be varied. By varying speed of the fan, air flow can be varied.
• Ensure power supply is available.
Static
• Put the fan in sharing or independent mode. Pressure
o Check lubrication in the bearings are available.
• Ensure suction and discharge damper in closed condition.
• Check the smooth operation of the dampers from control room.
• Check the condition of suction side air mesh. Resistance
R
• Ensure the inspection doors at the air duct are closed.
• Start the fan and check current, sound and vibration.
• Open the discharge damper fully.
• Open the suction damper as per requirement.
Qs
The pressure at the suction side of the fan is slightly less than atmospheric, due to suction of-the fan. Air flow
Discharge side pressure is more than atmospheric pressure. Pressure of the air is measured as mm of water quantity '
column (mmwc). Due to bends in the duct and restriction etc. there is always pressure drop in the air path. Fig. 8.3 Speed Control method
to NB rpm. The resistance curve remains same. Only fan characteristic curve changes. • Greater load flexibility
This type of control is very efficient. Variable frequency drive is an energy efficient drive. Lot of Also hot air is used for coal drying and conveying in pulverised Boiler.
electrical power can be saved in this method. Also the regulation is very smooth. Air flow can be adjusted
Air is preheated in an equipment called as Air heater. Air heater is placed at the exit end of the
to very close limit.
flue gas path, after Economiser.
8.3.2 Damper Control There are two types of air heater.
Inthis method, fanspeed remains constantthroughout theoperation,Resistance of the system -Re- cuperative air heater
is varied by adjusting damper position.
In the previous case, to increase air flow the resistance curve was constant. But in this case, to • Regenerative air heater
increase the air flow, the resistance of the system is required to be decreased by opening the damper. So the Regenerative air heater has a slow-turning rotor that is packed with closely spaced heat transfer
resistance curve in this case changes. surfaces, similar to an automobile radiator. The rotor turns in the flue gas streams, picking up heat from the
flue gas and transferring it to the combustion air.
Static Recuperative air heater is generally called static air preheater. This is a shell and tube type heat
Resistance RA
Pressure
exchanger. The flue gas flows inside the tubes and air flows at the shell side.
Normally recuperative air heater is used in most of the Boilers.
Due to very low heat transfer co- efficient between flue gas and air, the heat transfer surface of
the air heater is large.
Resistance
RB
Flue gas
Intel'
Hot air
Air flow outlet
Fig. 8.4 Damper Control Method
S
As shown in the figure, to increase air flow from QA to QB the resistance curve is to be lowered
from curve RA to curve RB.
As told earlier the dampers are operated Pneumatically, Hydraulically or Electrically.
Damper operation is not so smooth as compared to speed control. The power cylinder of the
damper in case of pneumatic or hydraulic operated damper requires special attention.
Cold Air_,_0.
In both the cases, air flow controller is put in auto mode, so that as per requirement speed of the Inlet
fan or position of the damper can be controlled automatically.
1 %.
8.4 Air Heater
Earlier it is told ; air supplied for combustion in Boiler is supplied by FD fan and is pre heated at Flue gas
air heater before supplying to Boiler combustion chamber. outlet
Air preheating is helpful in following ways.
o Improves combustion
o Increases thermal efficiency
o Decreases fuel consumption
Fig. 8.5 Air Heater
• Increases steam generation capacity
//1/
//.././/.,,///
Condensate out
Excess air requirement for different Boiler is not same. This is mentioned below for understanding.
Flue gas
Secondary
air -4" Type of Boiler Excess air Oxygen percentage
(by volume)
Gas fired 5%-10% 1%-2%
Fuel - -
Secondary
Oil fired 10% -15% 2% - 3%
air
Pulverised coal fired 15% - 20% 3% - 3.5%
Stoker fired 20% - 30% 3.5%- 5%
Primary air
In a Boiler, heat produced by combustion of fuel, is transferred to the feed water and steam is Feed water
generated. So, feed water is the medium to receive heat. Heat transfer takes place from hot flue gas to Feed
water. If it is a water tube Boiler, flue gas moves outside the Boiler tube in which feed water flows. In case
of smoke tube Boiler, hot gas flows inside the tube which is surrounded by feed water. To extract heat from
flue gas feed water flows continuously in the Boiler. As steam is taken out from the Boiler continuously, so Steam Distributer Pressure control valve
it is required to pump feed water continuously into the Boiler. 4-- Auxilary steam
In this chapter it is discussed how feedwater circulates in Boiler. All the related topics pertaining
to feed water path is discussed in this chapter.
In the fig. below a standard feed water path is shown. Mostly it is common for all boilers. Level gauge
Feed control By heating the water, dissolving capacity of gases in the water decreases. So dissolved gasses are
valve
removed from the water easily. These removed gases, along with some non condensing vapor present in
steam, is vented to atmosphere through a vent. The vent is fitted with an orifice and a by pass valve. The
Evaporator deaerated water is collected in a tank called as storage tank. If still there is some dissolved gas which is not
Fig. 9.1 Normal Feed Water Path of a Boiler removed at deaerator column, due to large surface area of heated water, these gasses are removed . here.
9.2 Deaerator Initially when feed water is at lower temperature, heating steam is used to heat the water.
As discussed , in previous chapter, Boiler feed water is free from suspended solids, minerals and Level gauge is fitted in the deaerator to indicate storage tank level. Level is maintained through
dissolved gasses. Mostly DM water is used in Boiler as feed water. In case of steam turbine power plant, the a level control valve and deaerator pressure is maintained through a pressure control valve, by controlling
steam used to drive turbine is condensed in a condenser and then this condensate is used again as feed the flow of steam to the deaerator. One safety valve is provided to take care of accidental over pressure.
water. So the feed water path is a closed loop path. Only some make up is required to make up blow down For maintenance of the deaerator it is required to drain out water from storage tank. A drain with suitable
and leakage losses. Feed water used in Boiler should be free from any dissolved gases, and oxygen. For this, Isolating valve is provided. For thermal expansion of the deaerator one end of the storage tank is fixed
Deaerator is used. through slotted fixing arrangement.
Main function of a deaerator is to deaerate or remove dissolved gasses (degasification) from feed
When the Boiler feed pump is in operation, low pressure is created at suction end of the pump.
water. Also it serves the purpose of storage tank from where feed water is pumped in to the Boiler. It is the There is chance of steaming of feed water; as this is at higher temperature. This is called as cavitation.
place where feed water is preheated before entering in to Boiler. To preheat feed water, low pressure steam
If pressure at suction point of the feed pump falls below saturated pressure, this situation may arise. To
from process is utilized. LP dosing also done here for removing dissolved oxygen from the water. avoid this situation, deaerator is placed at a higher level.
There are many types of deaerator. Commonly used, direct contact (mixing), tray type Deaerator If deaerator pressure is 3 kg/cm 2 and deaerator is placed at an elevation of 20 meter, then the
is discussed here. [82] feed pump suction pressure will be approximately 5 kg/cm 2.
Boiler Pressure
The driving force depends upon Boiler pressure. When pressure increases, density of steam water
4- mixture increases. At critical pressure, density of water is equal to density of steam water mixture. So net
Flue gas driving head becomes zero and natural circulation stops. At that condition forced circulation is required.
®—- Steam generation at evaporator tubes is not same always. Depend: 'non the Boiler load (heat
input) and circulation ratio, it varies always.
Circulation ratio is the ratio between weight of water entering to 111e down corner to the weight
of steam leaving the circuit.
9.7.1 Water wall
As the name suggests, in water wall, water tubes are arranged around the Boiler furnace. These
tubes are placed in such a way that they form a gas tight wall. In the furnace openings (manholes, burner
Fig. 9.10 Arrangement of Evaporator tubes ports), these tubes are arranged suitably.
As discussed earlier, density difference between cold and hot water is the driving force for natural There are different types of water wall depending upon the type of tube arrangement. These are
circulation in evaporator tubes. Thermal head created, makes water circulating in Boiler. Other than • Bare tube
density difference, this thermal head depends upon resistance of the tube and Boiler pressure also.
• Finned tube
Boiler Drum
• Welded or rectangular finned tube
• Bare tube with inter tubular space filled with building up material.
Now a days factory fabricated membrance panels are used widely. Water tubes are welded
through fines to form a wall like structure called as membrance panel. At the bottom portion of furnace the
Raiser water wall is bent to make ash collection easier. The water wall is terminated to lower and upper header.
Insulation
4/gf/4/f/4.0
Aluminum
Cladding
7
In most of the cases, blow down water is collected in a header placed just below the normal
Time -^^ water level of steam drum. Water is drained through-a flash tank. In flash tank, pressure of water drops
Fig. 9.16 TDS level incase of continuous blow down significantly. As the water contains lot of sensible heat corresponding to drum pressure, so flash steam is
produced. This steam can be utilized suitably. Normally this steam is used in deaerator for feed water
In case of intermittent blow down, blow down is given from the bottom mud drum to remove the
heating.
settled sludge. Boiler water salt concentration is monitored regularly. Blow down is given for a short duration
when concentration level goes beyond a predetermined value. And blow down is stopped at recommended Before draining out the blow down water, heat can be removed from this water by placing a heat
exchanger.
lower concentration level. The concentration level varies between higher and lower limits.
9.10 Gauge glass
This is a glass tube, or pair of flat glass plates, fitted to Boiler drum to provide a visual indication
Upper Limit of water-level of Boiler drum. Through this device, boiler operator can determine water level and general
..................
TDS level L ower Limit
condition of water in the boiler. This Glass is manufactured from highly chemical and corrosion resistant
to- low expansion Borosilicate is glass, especially noted for its clarity and mechanical strength properties.
Time —^ Gauge glass is regularly checked for any signs of clouding, scratching, erosion, or corrosion.
Fig. 9.17 TDS level variation in case of intermittent blow down The gauge glass may be flat type or reflex type (prismatic glass). Flat gauge glass design allows
easier observation of water level in a boiler. Reflex gauge has a single vision slot in which light can enter the
During blow down some loss of energy takes place, as the blow down water contains significant
gauge chamber to determine liquid level. One side of the glass is prism shaped.
amount of sensible heat. The loss is significant when blow down quantity is more. Suitable arrangement is
made to utilize the sensible heat of this blow down water.
1. Close the water cock and open the drain cock for some time.
2. Close the drain cock and open the water cock
Water should return to its normal working level quickly. If this does not happen, then there is a
blockage in the water side.
3. Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for some time.
(A) Gauge Glass arrangement
4. Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.
If the water does not return to its normal working level quickly, then there is blockage in
Drum connection(Steam) steam side.
It is difficult to distinguish between a completely full and completely empty gauge glass. In this
Drum boiler connection (Water) situation following procedure may be helpful. For this a little practice is required.
Hold a pencil against the far side of the sight glass at an angle of approximately 45°. If the image
of the pencil viewed through the glass appears to run across the glass and changes little with change in
Safety ball which closes in angle of the pencil, the glass is full. However, if the, image viewed through the glass tuns up and down the
the event of glass breakage
glass at a sharper angle than the actual angle of the pencil, the tube is empty.
Practice this difference with normal water level before an emergency by viewing through the sight
glass above and below the water line
Fig. 9.19 Gauge Glass
• Deposition in servomotor control valves and turbine blades 10.2 Steam Drum
• Process contamination
In previous chapter it was discussed, in Drum type Boiler, Boiler water is circulated in evaporator
Carryover is due to incomplete separation of steam from the steam-water mixture in boiler tubes for steam formation. Water from drum come down through down corner tubes and distributed in to
drum. Steam separation units are placed inside the Boiler Drum. Defect on these separation units may lead evaporator tubes. Heat is added and steam is formed. This steam is collected in steam drum. '
to carry over. Foaming of Boiler water is also responsible for carry over.
Steam drum is a cylindrical shaped container. It is located at top of the Boiler. It runs lengthwise
Boiler design, type of mechanical steam separating equipment, load fluctuation, boiler drum and provides space for steam and water. Two manholes are provided at both ends for internal inspection
level, amount of space available for steam separation from the steam-water mixture are some causes of during shutdown.
carryover.
Steam drum is a device of the Boiler where both water and steam exists at saturated temperature.
Foaming : Down corner tubes and raiser tubes are connected to the drum. Steam coming from raiser tubes may not
Foaming is the formation of unbroken bubbles on the surface of the boiler water. The bubbles be completely dry. It may contain suspended water particle which may carry over the impurities present in
may be in thin layer, with few bubbles overlying each other, or it may build up through- out the steam Boiler water. So separation of steam and water particles is required. For this, drum contains various
space. As these bubbles burst, the subsequent moisture is entrained with the steam. separation and purification internals.
Some causes of foaming are : Steam drum also acts as steam and water storage tank. Drum contains water at saturated
temperature. So lot of latent heat is stored in water which helps during load fluctuation. Drum also receives
• High dissolved solid concentration in the boiler water
feed water from economizer. From drum, steam is taken out and feed water is added. Also a blow down
• High suspended solid concentration header is provided in the drum to control impurity level of the feed water. HP dosing is also done at
Boiler drum.
• High alkalinity concentration
One air vent with Isolation valve is provided in drum to release air during start up. During
• Oil and organic contaminants in Boiler water . starting, when Boiler water is heated, it swells. The air from the drum space is released gradually. When
drum pressure becomes 2kg/cm2 , this vent is closed. Like this vent is opened during shut down, at 2 kg/cm 2.
[101]
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Path
103
From the above discussions, it is clear that drum is a critical part of the Boiler (except drum less
Main Steam Outlet
once through Boiler). Drum performs lot of functions. It is summarised below. Steam Pipe
Hanger Bolt
• Supply water to evaporator tubes and receive steam from raiser tubes.
drum. This header is also perforated, so that blow down water can be collected evenly from through out Chemical Feed Pipe
In some large boilers, where the purity of steam is highly maintained, another method of steam Horizontal super heaters are arranged horizontally. Sufficient sloping is made so that the condensate
formed at the super heater tube can be drained out completely. This type of super heater is called as
purification is employed. It is called as steam washing. In this method the separated steam is rinsed with drainable super heater.
fresh clean feed water. Dissolved silica and other contaminated impurities are washed away.
The area of super heater heat transfer surface may be calculated as
The separated and purified dry saturated steam is taken out from Boiler drum. In most of the
cases this saturated steam is further heated to get super heated steam. Heat is added in a set of tubes called
as super heater tubes. Temperature of saturated steam increases at super heater. The temperature difference
of super heated steam and saturated steam is called as degree of super heat. Formation and properties Ms( Ho -H 1)
of super heated steam is already discussed in previous chapter. 1 + TGo Ts, + T),
xU
The advantage of super heated steam is discussed below. 2 i
-
• As super heated steam contains more heat, so it can do more work than saturated steam at same Where
pressure. Ms = Mass flow rate of steam
• High temperature of superheated steam makes it higher thermal efficient. Ho = Enthalpy of out let steam
• There is sufficient margin for expansion in turbine before it cools down and becomes wet. Ht = Enthalpy of in let steam
• Super heated steam does not contain suspended water particle (moisture). So it is less erosive and TGr = Gas inlet temperature
corrosive than wet steam. TGO = Gas outlet temperature
10.3 Super heater Ts1, Tso = Steam inlet and out let temperature
Super heater is a set of tubes. Normally numbers of parallel tubes are connected between two U = Overall heat transfer coefficient between steam and gas.
headers to minimize pressure drop. One header is connected to steam drum to receive saturated steam and U Changes with change in gas flow rate.
another is connected to out going pipe.
Super heater is subjected to high temperature. So special alloysteel is used here. Alloy steel is
Inlet Header Outlet Header
high heat and corrosion resistant. The tube is alloyed with Chromium, Molybdenum, Nickel, Titanium, and
Niobium. Material and standard of different grade super heater tube will be discussed later on.
Super heater is placed at the flue gas path to gain heat from hot flue gas. The super heater is
placed at various zone in the Boiler as per Boiler design. Depending upon mode of heat transfer, superheaters
Flue gas; are classified as
• Convective super heater
This super heater is placed at the convective zone of Boiler. Heat transfer takes place here mostly
by convective method.
Fig. 10.2 Super Heater • Radiant super heater
Some times, super heater tubes are arranged vertically and some times horizontally. Condensate This type of super heater is located at the radiation zone of Boiler. Super heater tubes are
at the vertical super heater can not be drained out completely during Boiler in shut off condition. This type exposed to the flame of furnace. Heat transfer is done mainly by radiation method in this case.
of super heater is called as non-drainable super heater. Proper care is required to be taken in this case, • Platen (Combined) super heater
during starting of Boiler. Vent of this super heater is to be opened during startup so that the condensate can
evaporate. This type of super heater is placed in such a location that, heat transfer can take place through
radiation and convection method. The super heater is located normally above the Boiler furnace and
Inlet header Outlet header starting of convection zone.
10.3.1 Outlet temperature at various load for different type of super heaters
Radiant super heater is placed at the radiation zone. It absorbs radiation heat. So during low
Flue gas load time, when steam flow through super heater tube is less, the out let temperature remains high. As the
load increases more steam flows in the super heater tube, so temperature of the steam falls down.
D.
In case of convective super heater, heat transfer to the steam takes place through convection
method. This type of super heater is placed at the flue gas path. During low load, volume of flue gas is less
Flue gas
as less fuel is fired in the Boiler. So out let temperature of super heated steam is less. When load increases,
(A) Non drainable vertical super heater (B) Drainable super heater
more fuel is fired in the Boiler. So the volume of flue gas increases. Hence the out let temperature of the
Fig. 10.3 Drainable and Non-drainable super heater steam also increases.
When the Burner is tilted upward, less heat is absorbed at water wall and more heat is absorbed
at super heater. So steam temperature increases. Depending upon requirement, Burner may be tilted
upward or downward.
In some Boiler, Burners are placed at different elevation (Tire) of the furnace. During low load,
when furnace exit temperature is less, upper Tire Burners are taken in to service. So the flue gas temperature
at furnace exit (super heater inlet) increases and steam temperature increases. During higher load lower
Burners are taken in to service along with upper Burners, so that the furnace exit temperature is maintained
constant.
Super heater
Fig. 10.5 Temperature Control by gas bypass method
Main furnace e
Super heater
furnace
r
Primary super
heater
a Attemperator
—^ Secondary Super heater
iff
Drum
0 0—k Fig. 10.14 Start up Vent
0 0
Once steam is taken out from the Boiler, start up vent is closed gradually. In vertical super heater
tubes, steam is condensed when the Boiler is stopped and collected at lower "U" portion of the tube. This
Primary super condensate can not be drained out. So during starting, when startup vent is in open condition, this condensate
heater --- Secondary is evaporated and vented out.
Super heater
The main advantage of this system is, feed water does not mix with steam. So the purity of
steam is maintained.
The temperature variation at superheater is shown in Fig.
Secondary Super heater
As this vent is used during starting, so it is called as start up vent. Some time during sudden load
cut off, Boiler Drum pressure increases and Drum level becomes low. At that time this vent may be opened
Superheater Attemperator to bring back pressure, and level of the Drum to normal.
Fig. 10.16 Spring loaded Safety valve Some quantity of steam is vented out and pressure of the system is normalized.
But after normalization, the disc does not close immediately. As the larger area (shroud) is still
There are different types of safety valve.
exposed to steam, so it requires the pressure to drop further more than the set pressure. The pressure at
• Spring loaded safety valve.
which the disc is closed completely is called as reset pressure. The difference between set pressure and
• Leaver safety valve. this resetting pressure is called as blow down.
• Dead weight safety valve.
100% .._. Maximum discharge
Spring loaded safety valve is commonly used in Boiler.
In spring loaded safety valve the disc is lifted, to discharge some steam. Steam pressure has to
lift the disc against spring compression. When compression force of the spring is more than the acting force
Opening
of steam on disc, the valve remains in closed. position. When acting force become more than spring force, Closing
then the disc lifts and steam escape to atmosphere through discharge pipe line. To reduce noise, venting
silencer is used. The discharge pipe should be straight as far as possible with minimum bends.
Fs = Compressive force of spring
1
pop
Reset -0- action
The set pressure can be changed by changing spring tension. There are two adjustable rings for
P = Inlet Steam pressure adjusting over pressure and blow down. They are locked with pins after adjustment.
Fig. 10.17 Spring force and operating force
A hand lever is provided in the safety valve to lift the valve manually. A test gag is used to
prevent valve operation during hydraulic test. One bolt is provided at the top of the valve body to restrict
movement of the valve spindle. During normal operation of boiler, this gag bolt is to be removed; otherwise
the safety valve will not operate during over pressure.
In a Boiler two safety valves are provided in steam Drum. Set pressures of these two valves are
different. Beside these two valves one more safety valve is provided at super heater out let. Its set pressure
is kept lower than that of Drum safety valve. During over pressure, super heater safety valve should lift first.
If the drum safety valve will open first, steam will be escaped from drum causing starvation of super
heater tube.
10.7 Steam Vent Silencer
Main function' of a vent silencer is to release large quantities steam from high pressure to 11.1 Introduction
atmosphere and reduce high levels of noise generated. The silencer is made out of concentric annular Combustion of fuel takes place in the Furnace. As discussed earlier, chemical energy stored in
acoustic cylinder enclosed with a robust steel casing with dished end or flat end at one end. the fuel is converted in to heat energy in Boiler Furnace. This heat energy is utilised to convert Feed water
The steam enters through diffuser and passes through annular space between acoustic packing into steam. This combustion product (Flue gas) passes in boiler in a predetermined path, so that heat
where the sound energy is absorbed. A weather cowl is provided for protection from rain .The silencer energy can be removed from hot flue gas before it is escaped to atmosphere. In this path, heat exchangers
should have minimum pressure drop. like — Superheater, Evaporator, Economiser and Air heater are placed.
Depending upon the location of this path, the Boiler can be divided in to various zones i.e. —
Silencers are used at following vents/discharge lines.
Radiation zone, Convection zone. It has already been discussed in chapter -2. Depending upon Boiler size
• Boiler drum safety valves discharge. and type of fuel used above heat exchangers are placed at various zones. The Furnace temperature depends
upon type of fuel used. The exit temperature of flue gas is maintained such that cold end corrosion due to
• Super heater safety valve discharge. condensation at the later stage (normally Air heater) can be avoided.
' Start up vent discharge. These heat exchangers produce resistance to the flow of flue gas. Proper draft in the Boiler is
maintained to overcome this resistance. In Boiler, draft is created through ID fan. In most of the Power
• Deaerator safety valve discharge. Boilers, Balanced draft is created by the help of ID and FD fans.
Flue gas velocity of the Boiler depends upon the type of fuel used and ash content in flue gas.
When ash content in flue gas is more, flue gas velocity is kept low to avoid erosion of the tubes.
000 Flue gas contains some undesirable gases and solid particulates. These are to be controlled
properly as these gases pollutes atmosphere.
Finally the flue gas escapes to atmosphere through a long height chimney.
All the above points are discussed step by step in subsequent sections.
11.2 Furnace
In Boiler furnace chemical energy of the fuel is released and converted in to heat energy. Actual
burning of fuel takes place here. Fuel and air is supplied to the furnace.
As discussed earlier, for combustion, three things are required.
• Fuel
' Oxygen (Air)
• 3 T,S (Time, Temperature, Turbulance)
We have discussed about the supply of fuel and oxygen (air) in fuel handling system and air path
respectively. Here, we will discus about 3 T, s.
In furnace, temperature is achieved due to burning of fuel. Initially during starting of Boiler this
temperature is achieved by burning some auxiliary fuel like diesel, wood etc. When furnace temperature
[115]
To
Chimny
ID Fan
Fig. 11.1 Furnace
Fig. 11.2 Burner Opening in water wall
Heat release in the furnace varies depending upon size of the Boiler and quantity of fuel used. In
large power Boilers lot of heat energy is released in the furnace. The rate of heat released in the furnace may Burners are arranged at different height of front water wall. In low capacity Boilers, Burners are
be expressed as "units of heat energy released per unit volume in unit time (Kcal/m 3 hr)". Some time heat fitted in single tier as shown in fig.
power of furnace is measured in KW. It is given as
P=Q*H
Where P = Heat released in KW
Q = Fuel consumption in kg/sec.
F Calorific value of fuel in KJ/kg
As huge amount ofheat is released in Boiler furnace, it is required to cool down the furnace, so
that over heating of other heat exchangers in convection zone can be avoided. Furnace exit flue gas
temperature mostly comes in contact with superheater first. So the flue gas temperature is required to be
lowered at this zone. In Pulverized Boiler, if the ash content in coal is high and ash fusion temperature is Burner
less, then chance of slagging of superheater tube is more, if flue gas temperature is not lowered in furnace.
Slagging is the phenomena when molten ash is deposited over the heating surface of tube. If flue gas
temperature is more then fusion temperature of ash, which moves with flue gas, then ash is fused and (b) Two tire arrangement
(a) Single tier arrangement
deposited on the tube where the temperature drops. Flue gas can be cooled up to required level, if a major
portion of heat released can be absorbed inside the furnace by suitable means for producing steam. Fig. 11,3 Burner Arrangement
,`f
Burner
Fig. 11.4 Tangential Arrangement
In some case Burners are also fitted at bottom and roof of the furnace.
Standby burners of the runing Boiler are charged with primary air to avoid over heating of the Fig. 11.6 Furnace width
burner. Each burner is having its own flame detecting device (photo cell). If flame of that particular burner The Furnace height depends upon number of tires in which burners are arranged. It also decided
extinguishes, fuel is cut off automatically and flame failure alarm is displayed to attract operator's attention. according to furnace exit flue gas temperature requirement. More the height of furnace, more is the furnace
To lighten the burner of oil fired boiler, lancer type High energy spark rod is used. This ignites the oil and absorption and furnace exit flue gas temperature is less.
retracted back. Spark is produced by help of a high voltage Electric pulse. 4
Vision glasses are provided in the furnace to observe flame condition. Small openings with
suitable locking arrangement (inspection window) are also provided to check furnace condition.During
Boiler Shut down it is required to enter inside furnace for inspection and Maintenance. So Manholes are
provided in the furnace wall. Openings for soot blowers are also provided in the furnace.
Water wall tubes are bent at above opening areas. Suitable refractory is applied in these openings
for sealing purpose. Furnace bottom hopper also provided with refractory. In some Boiler refractory bricks
are used. Where bricks can not be used castable refractory is used. Out side of the furnace wall is insulated
properly to avoid heat loss (radiation loss).
11.2.1 Furnace Dimension
Normally the furnace depth (b) is the distance between front and rear wall. It depends upon the
type of fuel used. It is selected suitably so that flame tip should not touch the water wall. If flame tip
touches the water wall then it will overheat the tube and the tube may fail. This phenomenon is called as
Flame impingement.
Fig. 11.7 Furnace height
In case of oil fired boiler, emissivity of flame is more. So heat absorption by water wall is high.
Hence in this case, furnace volume is less as compared to coal fired Boilers.
Burner 11.3 Different Zone§ of Flue Gas path
It has been discussed earlier, the Boiler is divided in to various zones according to the mode of
heat transfer. These are
• Radiation zone
• Radiation + convection zone
• Convection zone
Different heat transfer elements (superheater, evaporator, economiser etc.) are placed at
Fig. 11.5 Furnace depth different zones.
L.
120 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path 121
11.4 Refractories
Radiation zone
As discussed earlier, refractories are used to seal water wall openings like — Doors, inspection
In this zone burning of fuel takes place. This is the furnace zone of Boiler. Huge heat energy is
holes, burner openings, soot blower openings etc. These are the materials which can withstand high temperature
released due to burning of fuel. This heat is transferred to cold water walls surrounding the furnace. Due to
high emissivity of flame and high temperature difference, heat is transferred in this zone mostly by radiation and do not fuse. These are normally fire clay, silica, chromite, magnesite etc. Some of the desired properties
of refractory is discussed-below. - - -
method. Due to this heat transfer, combustion product cools down. The flue gas moves upward in the
furnace. Furnace exit flue gas temperature should be less than ash fusion temperature. Otherwise molten Porosity
ash will be deposited on the tubes. This is the property of refractory which determines the strength and thermal conductivity. More
Radiation + convection zone porous means less strength and less thermal conductivity. Porosity is a measure of open pores, into which
liquid can penetrate. This is an important property when the refractory is used where it came in contact
In this zone heat transfer takes place by both Radiation and convection methods. This zone is
with molten slag.
partially exposed to radiation of the flame in the furnace and partially located at flue gas
flow path. Refractoriness or fusion point
Flue gas from the furnace enters this zone first. The temperature of flue gas in this zone is still This is the temperature above which the refractory fuses. This temperature should be more than
high. Normally superheater is placed in this tone. service temperature.
Convection zone -1 Spalling
In this zone, total heat is transfered by convection mode. Normally superheater or reheater is This is the property of the refractory to withstand thermal sock due to rapid heating and cooling.
placed in this zone. Temperature of this zone should be less than ash fusion temperature to avoid slag Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE)
deposition on the tubes.
The temperature at which a refractory deforms under its own weight is known as its softening
Convection zone - 2 temperature, which is indicated by PCE. The refractoriness or fusion point is measured by this.
This zone is low temperature zone. Temperature of flue gas is reduced due to heat transfer to Bulk density
superheater and reheater. Evaporator bank tubes, economiser and air heater are placed in this zone. This may be defined as the material present in a given volume.
u
Bulk density = Total weight! Total volume
If density is less then the weight of refractory per unit volume is less. Density is required to be less
Radiation Convection Zone -1
+ so that the weight of refractory will be less.
Convection Normally refractory Bricks are used in furnace bottom hoppers, and castable refractories are
Zone
.............. used in different zones of Boiler where material is subjected to vibration as well as abrasion by flue gas.
11.4.1 Castable
Radiation
Zone
Convection
In castable, cementing material and unshaped refractory aggregates are used. The cementing
Zone -2 material is mostly alumina cement. The alumina cement contains mainly calcium aluminates with SiO 2
and Fe203.
Normal Portland cement based on lime- silica mineral phase. In alumina cement the reactive
phase is lime alumina compounds. Higher alumina content in cement can be used for higher temperature
application.
Fig. 11.8 Different Zones in Boiler When alumina cement and refractory aggregates are mixed with water, a concrete like material,
called as castable is formed. The refractory aggregates comprise of buxite, grog of fire clay, sillimanite,
For better heat transfer, Baffles are provided in this zone to control flow of flue gas. These alumina or chromites etc.
baffles change the direction of flue gas. So heat is evenly distributed. It also increases residual time of flue Castable is having some advantages. As the shape of refractory is unshaped, it facilitates joint
gas in the boiler, so the heat transfer is efficient. Baffles also deposits fly ash in easy accessible area from less construction. So, weakest area of construction in case of brick joint can be eliminated by using castable.
where it can be removed easily. The baffles are made of refractory or metals, which can withstand high Castable is easier to repair.
temperature. But some times this may crack and lead to short circuit of flue gas path. Heat distribution The castable should be mixed with right quantity water and used within 15-30 minutes.
may be disturbed. Boiler exit gas temperature may go high and Boiler efficiency may come down. During The castable may be cast by pouring or gunning method. Exothermic chemical reaction between alumina
Inspection of Boiler, condition of these baffles are required to be checked. cement and water raises the temperature and the casting sets.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path 123
11.5 ID FAN Some boiler is having one steam turbine driven ID fan and another Motor driven fan. During
startup, motor driven fan is used. Once steam is available, Turbo driven fan is taken in to service.
ID fan takes out the combustion product from furnace and exit it to atmosphere. It is called as
"Induced draft fan". The air supplied by the FD fan is used for combustion. After combustion of fuel, ID fan is a critical equipment of a boiler. So, proper inspection and monitoring is required during
combustion product (hot flue gas with dust particle) is to be evacuated continuously from the furnace service. To monitor the condition of the fan, vibration and temperature measurement provision is essential.
during continuous combustion process. This flue gas passes through different zones due to suction of ID Alarming-system-also-provided-to warn before these values go beyond a preset value. Also for safety,
fan. Heat of flue gas is transferred to different heat transfer elements. Finally the gas at low temperature is tripping interlock is provided to trip the fan in case vibration and temperature become more.
escaped to atmosphere through chimney. Normally ID fan is placed in between Air heater and chimney. ID fan speed/damper control is put in auto control mode during normal operation of boiler, so
Flue gas temperature at suction-end of ID fan is normally kept above sulphuric-acid due point. ...___ that-the draft of furnace can be maintained automatically.
Specific volume of flue gas is high at higher temperature. So ID fan handles more volume of gas
11.6 Draft
as compared to FD fan. Also flue gas contains dust particles. So the size of ID fan is normally higher than
that of FD fan. Its capacity is approximately 1.5 times higher than that of FD fan. If flue gas is free from In a boiler combustion takes place inside the furnace continuously. For this, continuous supply of
dust particle (due to upstream dust separators) then size of fan reduces. fuel and air (oxygen) is required. To supply air continuously to the furnace, combustion products are to be
exhausted from furnace continuously. If there is pressure difference between combustion product within
boiler furnace and out side cold air of atmosphere then only the combustion products can be exhausted to
atmosphere and fresh air can enter in to .furnace for combustion.
This pressure difference between furnace combustion products and outside cold air is called as
draft. Draft is required to —
• Supply required quantity of fresh air (oxygen) to the boiler for proper combustion.
Furnace Air
Heater Evacuate the combustion products from the combustion chamber.
Economsier Chimney
• Exl,,ust the combustion products to atmosphere.
As discussed earlier, before the hot combustion products or flue gas escape to atmosphere its
heat is utilized in various heat exchangers like — superheater, evaporator, economiser and airheater. When
flue gas flows through these heat exchangers, due to resistance, pressure of flue gas drops. This is called as
Fig. 11.9 ID Fan draft loss. Also there is draft loss in flue gas ducts and fuel bed resistance. Beside all these draft losses the
flue gas should be discharged to atmosphere with some velocity, which should be more than air velocity at
ID fan handles hot flue gas. Heat is transferred in to fan blade, shaft and then to the Bearing. So
that height where the flue gas is to be discharged. So the minimum draft required is the sum of all. Daft is
cooling water is used to cool down the bearing continuously. normally' expressed in "mm of water column (mmwc)".
Like FD fan ID fan also contains multi leaver dampers to control flue gas flow (draft). During
There are various methods to obtain draft like - Natural draft and artificial or Mechanical draft.
starting of the fan these dampers are kept closed. After starting, these dampers are opened to get desired
These are discussed below one by one.
negative pressure in the furnace.
Like FD fan ID fan also can have two methods of flow control i.e. —speed control and damper 11.6.1 Natural draft
control. Some Boilers (large boilers) are having two ID fans. The flue gas duct is divided in to two parallel
Natural draft is created by chimney. Draft is produced due to difference in density of hot flue gas
passes. Each pass has one ID fan, which can handle 50% flue gas. When both the fans are having 50%
and cold outside atmospheric air. The draft produced in this case is given as
capacity, than at partial load (less than 50%), one fan may be taken in line and at higher load both the fans
may be used. D=H(Da Df)
To fan
Where D = Draft
H = height of chimney
From Boiler To Chimney
Da = density of cold atmospheric air
Df = density of hot flue gas
To increase draft in this case either chimney height is to be increased or density of flue gas is to
be decreased. As we know the density of gas varies with temperature. So the flue gas exit temperature is to
be kept high to decrease its density.
Fig. 11.10 Two Pass Arrangement
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path
125
Out side air density is high when atmospheric temperature is less. So draft is high in this condition.
Like this when atmospheric air temperature is more, the draft is less. It is clear now; the draft varies with out
side atmospheric condition in case of natural draft.
For large Boilers natural draft method is not utilised for draft control. Chimney is used to avoid
concentration of combustion product at ground level. This is discharged at a height, so that it can be Economiser Air
Heater
diluted at atmosphere easily. Furnace
Chimney
11.6.2 Artificial Draft ( Mechanical Draft) Air In '^
Natural draft is not efficient for higher capacity Boilers. In this case height of chimney is required
to be increased significantly which is un-economical. Also in this case, draft is dependant on atmospheric I D fan
climate condition and it is difficult to control the draft as per requirement. So other type of draft control is discharge
pressure
required, which can eliminate above problem. This is achieved by some artificial means. Fans are used in
this case. Mechanical drafts are very economical and efficient. These are used widely because
Inlet Air
• This is very efficient pressure
2. Induced draft :
This type of draft uses a mechanical fan called as Induced draft fan. This fan is normally placed
just before chimney.
128 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path
129
11.7.4 Nitrogen oxide (NO x ) The catalyst is normally of vanadium oxide or titanium oxide. Honey comb, pipe or plate type
For combustion of fuel, oxygen is required. Air is used to meet the requirement of oxygen. catalysts are used. In this method up to 90% NOx reduction can be achieved. Injection of Ammonia is
normally done in between economiser and air heater.
Atmospheric air composition (by volume) is given below.
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21% Cata lyst
Argon .9%
Carbon dioxide .03%
Other minor gases balance -—
(Water vapor, hydrogen, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon krypton, xenon)
So it is understood that to get 21% oxygen, we are handling 78% of nitrogen for combustion.
This large volume of nitrogen gas, oxidizes and forms nitrogen oxides like- NO, NO2 etc., called as NOx due
to high temperature inside furnace. Also nitrogen present in the fuel contributes formation of NO x .
Fig. 11.14 Slective Catalyist Reduction
This nitrogen oxide is highly objectionable. Nitrogen oxide when reacts with atmospheric moisture,
forms droplets of nitric acid called as acid rain. II-Selective non-catalytic reduction method (SNCR)
NO2 reacts in atmosphere to form ozone (0 3 ). This ozone is tropospheric ozone which is present In this case NOx reducing agent such as Ammonia and Urea is injected in to flue gas. Catalyst
in ambient air that we breathe. This is harmful to human being. Only stratospheric ozone in the upper is not used in this case. Ammonia and Urea is injected at higher temperature.
atmosphere protects us from ultraviolet radiation coming from sun. 11.7.5 Sulphur oxide (SO x)
In a power boiler lot of NOx is produced. So it is required to control this. Emission standard for
Most of the fuel used in boiler contains sulphur. This sulphur when burns, SOx is formed.
NOx is set by pollution control authority of the country.
S +02 = SO2 + 2181 kcal heat
To control NO x , various control steps are taken. These are post combustion control methods and
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is highly objectionable in flue gas. Power plants are the major NOx and
combustion control technique. In combustion control technique, care is taken to control NOx formation. In
post combustion control methods, NOx content in flue gas is reduced by some means. Both these methods SOx producers. So strict norms has been adopted through out the world to control these gases.
are discussed below. In coal, sulphur is present in different forms, i.e. — chemically bound with coal and un bound
(pyrites). Pyrites present in coal can be removed from coal to some extent by coal washing and cleaning.
11.7.4.1 Combustion control technique But the chemically bound sulfur can not be removed from coal. So it has to take part in burning process.
In this method proper care is taken so that NOx formation can be reduced. NOx is formed due So it is prefered to use low sulphur fuel to avoid SOx formation.
to high temperature of furnace and high residual time of air inside the furnace. To limit SOx emission, flue gas desulphurization ( FGD) method is adopted. Like flue gas
Proper design of Boiler furnace, proper setting of burner, reducing the peak temperature in the denitrification, in this method also some SOx absorption material like lime, is used. These absorption
combustion zone, minimizing residual time of air in peak temperature zone, controlling heat release rate materials are mixed with water and this mixed water is sprayed on flue gas from the top of a reaction tank.
and flue gas recirculation (FGR) can controll, NOx formation. <— Lime mixed water
Low NOx burners are used for controlling NOx formation. Also by reducing oxygen concentration
at the combustion zone NOx formation can be minimized. At Alt At At
—9. Flue gas out
It is preferred to adopt above methods to reduce NOx formation, than to adopt additional
methods to control the emission after formation.
11.7.4.2 Post combustion control method
In this method additional means are applied to control NOx emission, once it is formed. This
method is also called as Flue gas de-nitrification. Some NOx reducing agent is injected in to boiler
exhaust gas, which reacts with NOx and forms less harmful product.
There are two types of NOx control method. These are
tt t
Flue gas in
I — Selective catalytic reduction method (SCR)
NOx reducing agent, mostly Ammonia is injected in to flue gas. This flue gas is then passed
through a catalyst bed. In the presence of this catalyst, NOx reacts with Ammonia (NH 3 ).
6 NO + 4NH 3 = 5 N2 + 6 H20 Gypsum
. (CoSo4 )
6 NO2 + 8NH3 = 7 N2 + 12 H20
Fig. 11.15 Flue gas desutphurization
Out side of chimney (shell) is subjected to condensation, rain, thermal variation, ultraviolet
12.1 Introduction
, wind and ground stability. When concrete is exposed to CO2 continuous
exposure, lightning, atmospheric CO 2
Indian coal contains 25% to 60% ash. After combustion of coal, these ash particles remain in
carbonation takes place. So degradation of RCC continues year after year. So suitable coating is to be
Boiler. Different type of Boiler produces different type of ash like- bottom ash and fly ash. 25% to 60% of
done. Coating of chimney helps in total coal used is produced as ash in coal fired Boilers. Among all the Boilers, Ash production is more in
coal fired Boilers. The ash is to be removed from Boiler continuously. Ash removed from Boiler is hot. So
• Protecting against environment. it is required to be cooled before transporting to a suitable location.
• Protect against process gases. Furnace bottom ash and fly ash are collected in different way. For conveying of ash different
methods are used. Due to strict environmental regulations, fly ash present in flue gas is to be separated
• Compliance with aviation administration requirement. before it is vented to atmosphere. All these points are discussed in following sections.
The stack is normally painted with alternate band of white and red color. 12.2 Ash
For protection against lightning, lightning rod is provided with proper earthing at the top of the Ash is the remaining product of solid fuel after burning. Ash is present in fuel itself. Ash is present
in coal in two forms. These are inherent or fixed ash and free ash. Inherent ash of the coal can not be
chimney. As the height of chimney is more, so for aviation requirement, flash lights are fixed.
removed. Free ash is due to presence of clay, shale, pyrites etc. It can be removed from coal by washing of
Depending upon the capacity of the plant and statutory requirement ,chimney height is decided. coal. Coal is graded in to various grades depending upon the ash content in coal. High grade coal has less
ash content. Normally ash has following constituents.
Fot ground stability the foundation of the chimney is designed properly. Raft or pile type foundation is
SiO2 , A103, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO and MgO
adopted. . Liquid fuels and Gaseous fuels contain very little ash. So these Boilers are not having ash
There are very high chimneys. The highest chimney of world is located at GRES-2 power station handling system.
in Exibstusz. Kazakhstan. It is 419.7 meter high. We know there are various types of coal fired Boilers depending upon the firing system. These are
— Grate fired Boiler, Stoker fired Boiler, Pulverised fired Boiler, and Fluidised Boiler. Total ash produced in
these Boilers can be classified as bottom ash and fly ash.
12.2.1 Bottom Ash
Bottom ash is collected from the Boiler furnace. In case of pulverised coal fired Boiler this
bottom ash may be collected in dry form or in molten form. In dry form, ash temperature is less than ash
fusion temperature. This type of Boiler furnace is called as dry bottom type furnace.
In some Boiler, where the furnace temperature is more than ash fusion temperature, ash is collected
from furnace bottom in molten slag form. This type of furnace is called as wet bottom type furnace.
Bottom ash is some percentage of total ash production. It depends upon the type of Boiler.
In case of pulverised coal fired Boiler, percentage of bottom ash is less as compared to fly ash. As the fuel
burns in suspended condition, most of the ash is taken away by flue gas. Like this in case of Grate fired
Boiler, fuel burning takes place in the moving grate. In this case bottom ash percentage is higher than fly
ash. In Stoker fired Boiler coal is thrown in to the furnace. Some portion of coal burns on suspended
condition. In this Boiler bottom ash quantity is more than pulverised Boiler and less than Grate fired Boiler.
[133]
134 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 135
In fluidised Boiler, fuel burns in fluidised condition. Here the generation of bed ash is less as
compared to fly ash. ti
• When ash come in contact with water, dangerous fumes and corrosive acid is formed. 12.4 Ash handling system
• Clinker is formed on grate which restricts primary air flow. It is required to be broken which is a Ash coming out from furnace is required to be removed continuously. For this three methods are
dangerous job. adopted. These are discussed below one by one
Proper water sealing is required in this case to avoid out side cold air ingress in to furnace which
12.4.1 Hydraulic ash handling system
disturbs Boiler draft and reduces efficiency.
12.3.1 Dry Bottom Furnace Ash removal. In this method ash is carried out by stream of water. Ash collected from furnace is transported to
a suitable location called as ash sump or settling pond, where the ash is allowed to settle down. Water from
In this method, ash is collected in Dry form. Ash temperature is normally below the ash fusion the sump is recycled and used for carrying ash again.
temperature. Ash from the furnace bottom drops in to water filled hopper. This water hopper serves two
purposes. Fly seals the Boiler furnace, to avoid air ingress and secondly it cools down the hot ash. Water The hydraulic system is dust free and clean.' As no mechanical part come in contact with
in the hopper is circulated continuously to carry out this heat. corrosive ash, so maintenance is not a problem. Ash is handled in cold condition so this system is very
simple.
When in pulverised coal fired Boiler ash is removed in dry form the furnace bottom is called as
dry bottom. The furnace of Grate fired and Stoker fired Boiler is not called as pry bottom furnace. But ash There are two types of hydraulic ash handling system named as Low velocity system and High
removal system is mostly same as dry bottom furnace. velocity system.
In Grate fired Boiler, coal is.fed from one end and burning of coal takes place on the moving
grate. Finally ash drops in to a water hopper like earlier case. 12.4.1.1 Low velocity system
From this water hopper ash is removed by different methods like — Hydraulic or Mechanical In this system, low velocity water at a velocity of 3- 5 m/sec is used to carry out ash, removed
Extraction system (chain drag conveyer). from Boiler furnace.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 137
High pressure water is directed to ash, just coming out from Grate, through set of nozzles fitted
at the hopper. This water quenches the ash. Other set of nozzles are fitted ' at the bottom portion.
These nozzles are used to drive out the ash to settling pond. Like low velocity system ash is settled at settling
pond and water is recycled.
-^ To ESP This method can also be used in case of pulverised Boiler with dry and wet type of furnace.
Water requirement in this case is lesser than low velocity system. More ash can be removed in
e r,s.r this system and ash can be transported up 1 KM distance.
hop /r
1 Low velocity
Some time ash is pumped to settling pond through pipe, by the help of slurry pump. The ash
water
channel Settling Pond collected from Boiler furnace is crushed first in a crusher. Slurry is prepared in a slurry tank. This slurry is
1
pumped through a pump to settling pond.
Circulation Pump
Fig. 12.2 Low Velocity System
Ash from Grate or bottom of the furnace falls in to water channel. Water, which flows at low
velocity at the water channel, carry out ash in to ash settling pond. At settling pond, ash settles down and
the water is recycled. Settled ash then reclaimed and transported for disposal/ dumping. There are more o° °o°^o
than one water channel per Boiler. Ash carried with water, contains corrosive acids and salts and ash is o°o °o
highly abrasive. So, water channels are made of corrosion and wear resistant material.
00000
0 0
-- Ash Crusher
Furnace
Ash from
ESP 1
Slurry pump
Agitator - Settling
(o Grate o) pond
Fly ash collected from ESP can also be put in to the slurry tank to transport this ash to
settling pond.
Ash Hooper
Make up water
—^
7
Submerged Conveyer —^
Fig. 12.5 Mechanical Ash Handling System Vessel pressure
valve
Ash from Boiler furnace falls on the running submersed conveyer. Conveyer takes out the ash
continuously to ash hopper. From ash hopper the ash may be transported to ash storage area by means of
further conveyer system, through truck or through pipe by slurry pump method as discussed earlier.
Water in which the belt is submerged comes in contact with hot corrosive ash. So its temperature
increases. Also the water is mixed with small ash particles. So this water is taken out to the settling pond
and recycled. Make up water is also added to maintain water level and temperature. If water level become Fig. 12.6 Pneumatic Ash handling
low then temperature of belt may increase and it may burh out.
This system is having its own control panel. Pressure switches, Timers and Solenoid valves are
Drag chain conveyer has no risk to high temperature failure. But as it is exposed to acidic and
fitted in this control panel.
erosive environment so it requires proper maintenance.
One plate valve is placed in between ash hopper and conveyer vessel to isolate the system for
12.4.3 Pneumatic ash handling system maintenance. When ash inlet valve of the vessel opens, ash falls in to the doom or vessel of the conveyer.
In pneumatic ash handling system, high pressure air is used for conveying ash to a suitable This ash inlet valve closes when level switch in the vessel is operated or after some predetermined time
location. This type of system handles dry fly ash. As fly ash requires more settling time at settling pond, (timer mode). When inlet valve closes it seals the ash hopper from ash vessel. Vessel is pressurized by
pneumatic conveying system is preferred. Bottom ash can also be removed by this method after crushing it opening vessel pressure solenoid valve to admit compressed air in to the vessel. When vessel pressure
in a crusher. attains some predetermined value, ash discharge valve opens. When there is not proper sealing in inlet
There are three types of pneumatic conveying system. These are lean phase, medium phase and valve or ash discharge valve, pressure of the vessel will not increase. After discharge valve opens, blow valve
dense phase conveying system. Depending upon air to ash ratio these phases are classified. opens to allow conveying air. This conveying pressurised air carries out the ash to storage hopper, which is
In dense phase system.compressed air consumption is less as the volumetric ratio of ash to air located in a suitable location for further disposal. Discharge valve closes when vessel pressure reduces to
is high. Ash flows in fluidising condition. Flow characteristic of this is resemble that of liquid. Also due to some predetermined value. After some time blow valve closes and ash inlet valve opens for further cycle of
low velocity in the system, wear and tear of pipe is minimum. Ash is transported in an enclosed pipe. So conveying.
spillage and dust pollution is eliminated. The system can be automated easily. So ash handling system can In this system, more than one hopper may be connected into a common conveying pipe with
be operated through automatic control system from Boiler control room. common conveying air. This arrangement is called as "Master and Slave" arrangement. The system is most
For above advantages, dense phase conveying is preferred now a days in place of Mechanical suitable for automatic operation. Conveying pipe line may be routed as per requirement.
dust handling system (screw conveyers, chain conveyers, elevators etc.). Some time instead of pressurised From storage hopper ash may be disposed after conditioning it, by a ash conditioner. Dry dust
air, vacuum is used for ash transportation. from the storage hopper is taken out by a screw conveyor, where water nozzles are provided. Through these
We will discuss here about operation procedure of dense phase conveying system. nozzle's water is sprayed to the ash to make it moist. This moist ash can be loaded on truck and can be
The ash conveying system is placed below the ash hopper. If the temperature of ash is high then disposed off.
the hopper is made water jacketed. Cooling water flows continuously through this jacket. If bottom ash is
to be transported then it is to be crushed first before coming to the ash hopper.
140 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 141
Storage bin requires less space, so it can be used suitably where space is limited. For storage bin.
mechanical or pneumatic ash handling system is preferred.
Ash Hopper (c) Water availability :
Lot of water is required in hydraulic ash handling system. So where water is not available
sufficiently, this system can not be used. Other system may be used in this case.
(d) Type of coal
Different coal contains different percentage of ash, sulpher and other chemical contents. Good
- quality coal contains less ash, so ash production is less in this case. Low capacity ash handling system will
be sufficient in this case. If coal contains high calcium oxide, then it will solidify, when coming in contact
with water. In this case, hydraulic system is not suitable.
(e) Distance of transportation
Distance of ash storage area from the Boiler plays a major role. When ash is to be transported
to a longer distance, pneumatic or mechanical system may be used.
12.6 Fly ash separation system
Fig. 12.7 Ash Conditioner In solid fuel fired Boiler, particularly in coal fired Boiler, flue gas contains dust particles which is
12.5 Selection of suitable Ash Handling System generated during combustion. These dust particles are mainly ash. This ash is called as fly ash. This fly ash
is required to be separated from flue gas before it is evacuated to atmosphere. Then the separated dust is
Different ash handling system is used for different Boiler. Ash handling system performs following collected and removed for disposal.
three functions.
There are various methods of dust separation. In some methods dust is separated in dry condition
(i) Removes ash from Boiler furnace and other ash collection hoppers and in some methods, dust is separated in wet condition. Mechanical and electro static principles are
(ii) Convey this ash to a storage area / storage hopper applied for dust separation also.
(iii) Disposes this ash Various methods of dust separation are
Ash removal and disposal is a major function in a Boiler, specifically in a coal fired Boiler. As the (a) Inertial separators
ash contents in Indian coal is around 50%, so 50% of the coal burnt in a Boiler is removed as ash. This
huge quantity of ash is to be handled properly. Otherwise it may lead to stoppage of Boiler. Also the ash is o Settling chambers
in higher temperature, so proper care is to be taken. Ash produced from coal is highly abrasive and acidic
o Baffle chambers
in nature. So it makes the ash handling system complicated.
Selection of proper ash handling system can make this task easier. For selecting a suitable system • Centrifugal (cyclone) separator
there are so many factors. Some of them are discussed below. (b) Wet scrubber
(a) Boiler design and configuration (c) Fabric separator (Bag filter)
There are various types of Boilers. The capacity also varies from a small process Boiler to a large (d) Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
power Boiler. Different types of fuels are used in different Boilers. In some Boiler, coal is used in pulverised
These are discussed one by one in subsequent sections.
form and in some case, it is grate fired or spreader stocker type. As discussed earlier, percentage of fly ash
to bottom ash generation varies according to type of Boiler. In case of pulverised Boiler, 60 to 80% ash is 12.6.1 Inertial separators
produced as fly ash and remaining is bottom ash. In case of stocker fired Boiler, 20 to 30 % ash is produced
In this method forces like centrifugal, gravitational and inertial are used for dust separation from
as fly ash and remaining is bottom ash. So, different type of ash handling system is required for different
flue gas. The separated dust is moved by gravity in to a hopper from where it can be removed easily.
Boiler. As fly ash takes longer time to settle in settling pond, so, hydraulic system may not be suitable in this
Mostly three types of inertial separators are used. Tough these systems are not so effective, still these
case. Normally, pneumatic system is preferred here.
principle of separation are used along with other separation methods for more efficient dust separation.
High capacity Boiler consumes lot of coal, so ash production is more as compared to lower
capacity Boiler. So size of Boiler is a factor for deciding ash handling system. 12.6.1.1 Settling chamber
(b) Disposal condition : A large box is installed in the flue gas path. Size of the flue gas duct increases suddenly. Due to
In hydraulic ash conveying system, settling pond is required. This pond requires large space. So sudden expansion of size at this chamber, flue gas speed reduces and heavier dust particles settle down in
if space is limited, hydraulic conveying system may not be suitable. the hopper.
Flue gas
Economiser out
Furnace
Settling Air heater
Chamber
Flue gas out
collected Ash
Ash
1
Ash
A Baffle
Flue Gas
— ^ out
Flue gas in
Dust laden
flue gas e
Collected Ash
4. Dust
Fig. 12.11 Cyclone Separator
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 145
144
Separation efficiency of cyclone separator depends upon the dimension of cyclone. Smaller Dust laden flue gas enters from the lower portion of the tower. The gas distribution plate distributes
diameter and smaller apex angle makes the cyclone efficient. Longer size cyclone is efficient but increases the gas evenly throughout cross section of the tower. Water is sprayed from the top. Dust particle is
the flow resistance. So, multiple cyclone separators are used. More than one small diameter and longer separated and fall down with water. Clean gas leaves the tower from top. A mist eliminator (demister pad)
cyclones are connected in parallel having common flue gas inlet and out let. is provided to remove water from gas.
Cyclone separator is having following advantages Another type of wet scrubber mostly used is called as venturi scrubber. In this type of separator
• Simple construction dust laden gas passes through a venturi to increase the gas velocity. Water is sprayed in to the venturi throat.
• Have no moving parts High velocity gas immediately atomises the coarse water spray.
• Have low pressure drop Due to high turbulence and high velocity of flue gas, collision takes place oetween water droplets
Little maintenance and dust particles at the throat. Agglomeration process between them continues in the diverging section of
the venturi. Large agglomerates formed in the venturi are removed by an internal separator. Efficiency of
12.6.2 Wet scrubber
this type of separator depends upon pressure drop across the venturi.
In this method, dust is separated from flue gas in wet condition. Normally water is used as
scrubbing liquid. Water is sprayed to the dust laden flue gas. Dust removal efficiency is higher if the contact In wet scrubber, water comes in contact with flue gas which is acidic in nature. So this system is
of flue gas and water is more. The dust particle and water droplet come in contact by four primary prone to corrosion.
mechanisms. These are 12.6.3 Fabric separator ( Bag filter)
• Internal impaction
When water droplet flows in the path of dust laden gas stream, water droplets and dust particles In this separator, fabric collectors are used to filter flue gas to separate dust. Dust laden gas
flows in the stream. Due to inertia, heavy dust particles continue in a straight path and hit water enters the bag house and passes through fabric bags, which act as filter. The bags are woven or felted
droplets and become encapsulated. cotton, synthetic or glass fiber material. To provide support to the bags,. bags are normally supported by a
• Interception metal cage. Explosion vent is provided to protect the bag house from accidental explosion.
Finer particles moving within a gas stream do not hit droplets directly but brush against them and Bag filter is one of the most efficient and cost effective type of dust separator. Its collection
adhere to them. efficiency is more than 99% and very fine particles can be separated. It is used in many Boilers to separate
• Diffusion fly ash from the.flue gas. The separated fly ash is collected in a hopper from where this can be removed
When liquid droplets are scattered among dust particles the particles are deposited on the droplet through mechanical screw conveyer or pneumatic conveying system. Bag house filter is used where low
by diffusion. sulpher coal is fired.
• Condensation nucleation Dust is collected at the outer surface of the bag. Flue gas flows from outside to in side of
If a gas passing through a scrubber is cooled below the dew point, condensation of moisture occurs in
the bag.
the dust particles. This increases the particle size and makes collection easier.
Fabric/bag provides a surface on which dust particles are deposited due to following mechanisms.
Clean Gas outlet
• Gravity
Large size heavy dust particle falls down to the hopper placed below the bag house, due to
IU///IU//////LI
Mist elliminator gravitational force.
Spray • Inertial collection
water
Heavy dust particles strike the fiber bag placed in the flue gas path. They fall down in to hopper as
■ Gas Distribution Plate
ffilIIMI11111I1111MIEMINIIIII they can not change their flow direction suddenly with gas stream due to inertia.
• Interception
Flue Gas — ^
Inlet The dust particles can not cross the filter bag because of the fiber size.
• Diffusion
Submicron dust particles are diffused so that the probability of contact between the particle and
Dusty Water fabric filter surface increases.
Fig. 12.12 Wet Scruber
146 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System
Interception
Electrostatic
Electrostatic
Due to electrostatic force between dust particles and filter bag, dust capture capacity of the bag Fig. 12.14 Bag Filter (Reverse jet type)
increases.
Volume of gas flow per unit area of the bag is called as "air-to cloth ratio".
These different mechanisms are not independent but operate simultaneously in a bag filter. To clean more volume of gas more cloth area is required to avoid large pressure drop.
Which mechanism is most effective depends on particle size, mass velocity, density of gas, electrostatic Depending upon the temperature of flue gas stream, different types of fabrics are used. Higher
forces and the type of fabric used. temperature tolerance fabric is more expensive. Recommended maximum operating temperature for various
Dust is deposited on the surface of bag as a cake known as dust cake. Due to this dust cake, fabrics is mentioned below.
resistance of flue gas flow increases. So it is required to clean the bag periodically. There are two type of Temperature (°f)
Fabric
cleaning methods i.e.- on line and off line. In case of on line method, cleaning is done without interrupting
dust laden flue gas flow. In off line method, flue gas flow is interrupted temporarily during cleaning. Cotton 180
Wool 200
Depending upon the cleaning method of bags, bag filters may be divided in to following
three types. Nylon 200
Poly propylene 200
1. Mechanical shaker : In this type of filter, filter bags are shaked by a mechanical system.
Dacron 275
Force exerted on the dust particle removes them from filter bag. Normally this is done off line.
Nomex 400
2. Reverse air : In this method, clean air is injected in to the filter bag in the reverse direction of Teflon 400
normal gas flow. Cleaning air is forced to flow from inside to outside , of the bag. Due to reverse
Glass 500
direction of flow of air, the dust cake breaks and fall down to hopper. This method of cleaning is
done off line. For selection of suitable fabric following important factors are considered.
3. Reverse jet : Mostly this type of bag filter is used, as the cleaning of bags can be performed on • Temperature of flue gas
line. In this type of bag filter, flow of dust laden flue gas is normally from outside to inside of the
bag. Bags are cleaned by a sort burst of compressed air injected through &solenoid valve and Moisture level
nozzle. Duration of compressed air burst is very short. It acts as a rapidly moving air bubble, • Particulate size
traveling through the whole length of the bag and causing the bag surface to flex. This flexing of
• Gas stream chemistry
the bag, breaks the dust cake and dust fall in to the hopper. Cleaning of few bags is done at a time
while rest of the bags continue filtration. Continuous cleaning of this type of bag filter is done • Air to cloth ratio
automatically by suitable timer. So the bags are maintained clean. • Particulate abrasiveness
This
This equation was further modified by Sigvard Matts and Olaf ohnfeldt of Sweden popularly
known as Mtts — Ohnfeldt equitation. This equitation is given by
❑ 0000
❑ 0000 rl = 1— e e* (A/Q) k
❑ 0000 perforated plate
❑ 0000 Where
wk = average migration velocity collected from field experience in cm/s
k = a constant, usually .4 to .6
5. Collecting plate area : From Deutsch — Anderson equation it is clear that the collection
=1g. 12.18 Inlet Plenum efficiency increases with increase in collecting plate area.
152 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 153
In an ESP the collecting plates and discharge electrodes are placed in parallel with gas flow. 7. Sectionalisation
There are number of collecting plates provided across the width of ESP
To collect dust in ESP efficiently, ESP is divided in to series of independent sections or fields in
the direction of flow. Each field is having separate power supply units (TR sets) to energies discharge
electrodes. This type of arrangement provides better flexibility. Dust load at the inlet section of the ESP is
high and gradually comes down as it is collected in the up stream sections. The gas is clean towards outlet
end. So, more power is required at the inlet end to charge dust particle. As the dust concentration is high at
this end, so most of the particles are collected at this field. At the down stream field of ESP dust concentration,
is less, so lesspoweris required to charge remaining particles.
High voltage
power supply
Rappers
The passage between two collecting electrodes is called as channel. No of channel is equal to N-
1, where N is the number of collecting plates.
So the collecting plate area is given by
A = ApX (N-1) X Ns
Where
A = Area of collecting plate in m2
Ap = Area of each plate (HxL, H = height of plate; L = length of plate) Dust laden
flue gas
N = Number of plates
Ns = Number of sections
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 155
Dust falling on to the hopper after rapping is stored there temporarily. These hoppers are pyramid Some Reputed Govt. Institution of India have developed following fly ash based Building
shaped that converges to round or square discharge end. Hopper walls are steeply sloped to prevent dust components for use in houses.
accumulation in the side wall. There are different hoppers for each section of ESP. Screw conveyer or • Wood substitute door panel by RRL, Bhopal.
pneumatic conveying is used to remove ash from the hopper.
• Ceramic tiles (containing 35% ash) by CGCRI, Ahmadabad.
12.6.4.4 Advanta g es and Disadvantages of ESP o Fly ash granite (60% ash) by BHEL.
ESP is a very efficient dust separation unit used in Boilers. ESP is having some advantages and
• Sintered aggregates (70-85% ash) by RRL, Bhubaneswar.
disadvantages as discussed below.
Advantages: Other than this, fly ash bricks and blocks are produced by local suppliers.
• Pressure drop of flue gas across ESP is very less. Above discussion indicates the seriousness of Govt. of India for utilization of ash.
ESP can have collection efficiency up to 99%. Ash is collected in three ways from coal fired Boiler. This has been discussed earlier. These are :
•
o Silicon control rectifiers (SCR) and other modern control devices allow an ESP to operate • Bottom ash
automatically. o Fly ash
• Maintenance cost is low. • Pond ash ( ash collected from settling pond)
Disadvantages : These ashes may be used in different ways as discussed below.
• The size of ESP is large. 12.7.1 Construction of embankments and fills
• It is prone to corrosion if temperature of any part exposed to flue gas drops below acid dew point. The geo- technical properties of ash is suitable for fill and embankment construction. Indian
• ESP is designed for a particular type of fuel. If fuel characteristic changes performance of ESP also road congress (IRC) has issued guidelines for use of ash in road embankment. Merits of ash for this purpose
are :
changes.
•Ash is lighter than soil. Density of ash is lower than soil. So it minimizes transportation cost.
• Capital cost of ESP is high.
o Ash is suitable in weak/clayey sub soils.
• For heavy dust load, suitable pre cleaner may be required.
o Low compressibility, so negligible subsequent settlement within the fills.
o As it operates at high voltage so it requires proper skill to handle.
• During rainy season also work can be done as ash is having quick draining properties.
o If any combustible particle enters in to ESP 'and a spark is initiated, there is chance of explosion.
• It is Eco friendly as soil is not to be taken out from agriculture land.
12.7 Utilisation of ash :
12.7.2 Road construction
Indian coal contains high percentage of ash. In thermal power plants huge amount of ash is
produced. So lot of space is required to dump this ash. Also it crates lot of dust nueincience. For this, it is Bottom ash, fly ash and pond ash can be used for road construction. Bottom ash can be used
for sub base of road, fly ash and pond ash can be used with soil/lime/cement/moorum for base or sub- base
required to use as much ash as possible in a better way.
purpose. Fly ash can be mixed with cement concrete for rigid final layer.
Govt. of India is very serious in this regard. Ministry of environment and Forest has brought a
draft amendment on 6th Nov. 2002 for utilization of this ash. As per this Gazette, construction company 12.7.3 Pozzolana cement manufacturing
like- Housing Boards, Hotels etc. are required to use a certain minimum percentage (by volume of their Fly ash based Portland pozzolana cement (FAPPC) is found to be more effective than ordinary
total consumption) of ash products like—bricks, blocks, tiles etc., those which are situated within 50 to 100 Portland cement (OPC). Fly ash contains approx. 44% silica (Si0 2), 21% alumina (Al203 ) and 17% ferric
KM from a coal fired thermal power plant. oxide (Fe203).. Silica present in fly ash reacts with lime (calcium hydroxide — Ca (OH 2 )) in presence of water
Fly ash utilization program (FAUP) has started its activity in India with the help of Ministry of and forms calcium silicate hydrate gel, which is a binding material. Otherwise this calcium hydroxide would
not be utilized.
science and technology, Ministry of power and Ministry of Environment and forest. Lot of initiatives has
been taken by Technology information, forecasting and assessment council (TIFAC). Fly ash based Portland pozzolana cement (FAPPC) is produced by grinding Portland cement
With the help of Fly ash mission (FAM), Fly ash utilization program( FAUP) and other Govt. clinker, fly ash and gypsum in certain proportion.
Institute, Govt. of India had organized International congress on fly ash- 2005 at New Delhi during 4'h to 12.7.4 Cement concrete and mortar
7th Dec. 2005.
While preparing cement concrete or mortar, up to 35% of fly ash can be used in place of cement
National highway Authority of India (NHAI) is using 60 lac M3 of ash in it's on going projects and sand. It improves the strength, workability and reduces cost. This can be used for foundation, walls,
and has taken initiative to use around 67 lac M3 of ash in its proposed projects. floors etc.
Start Boiler feed pump keeping the discharge valve closed. Observe pump vibration, temperature, 13.3 Boiler Start up
•
sound and current taken. After taking water in to Boiler, fuel firing may be started. This is called as Boiler light up.
Open pump discharge valve slowly and notice change in vibration, sound, current taken, suction There are two types of start up depending upon hot condition of the Boiler. If it is started from cold
•
condition, it is called as cold start up. If it is started on hot condition (Boiler is in pressurised condition),
pressure etc. it is called as hot start up. Some time it is called as hot restart also. This situation come when Boiler is
• Ensure economiser air vent and steam drum vent are in open condition. to be started after a short duration of stoppage. These two types of start up are discussed separately.
• Start taking feed water in to economiser slowly by opening feed water control valve. If feed water Starting procedure for different type of Boiler is different. In this section proper care has been
is hot, it should enter in to economiser slowly to avoid thermal shock. takento cover normal starting procedure for all types of boiler. Still Boiler Operation manual supplied by
After some time when water is filled up in economizer, water will start coming out from economiser Boiler manufacturer may be most helpful. Operating personnel are required to be familiar with Boiler
•
system. He should have idea about safe operating limits of different parameters.
vent.
When water comes out from vent in pressure then stop vent valve. Flow of water to the Boiler may 13.3.1 Cold start up
•
be controlled by feed control valve. As mentioned earlier, in this type of start up, Boiler is started from complete cold condition to
Now water will start entering in to steam drum. From steam drum this water will come down normal working condition. In this situation Boiler is started after a long period of stoppage, after repairing
•
through down comers and water wall tubes/evaporators will be filled up gradually. and inspection. Lot of care is required to be taken in this condition. Step by step it is discussed in details.
• When all water tubes are filled up, drum level will start rising. 13.3.1.1 Pre start up checking
o Keep the drum level below normal working level. When Boiler is fired, temperature of water will Some special care is to be taken during start up of Boiler, particularly during cold start up.
increase and hence the volume. Water level will swell when it is heated. This is called as swelling. Mostly after maintenance and repairing, Boiler is started as cold start up. So careful checking of complete
Drum level may be adjusted after swelling. system is required. To avoid chances of missing any point, a check list may be used. A sample pre start up
check list is given here. A person after checking a point may put his initial, if he found this point is healthy.
Mostly this procedure is followed in all boilers for feed water fill up. During starting of a Boiler lot of activities are involved and always there is pressure from top officials to start
For hydro test, all the pressure parts of Boiler are to be filled up with feed water. Super heater the Boiler quickly. This type of checklist will ensure chances of overlooking any point.
coils can be filled up after filling the drum fully. In that case, drum is filled till water comes out from drum
air vent. When water came out in pressure from this vent, then this vent is to be closed. Now water will start Pre start up check list
entering in to super heater coils. For filling super heater, super heater vent valve is to be kept open and drain Sr. No. Check points Condition. Checked by
valve is to be closed. When water comes out from super heater vent then this valve is to be closed. Now the Healthy or not
feed control valve may be closed, otherwise pressure of the pressure parts will start increasing.
1 Entire Maintenance job is complete. ---------------
Hydro test procedure will be discussed later on.
Steam drum Steam Drum Super heater 2 No work permit is pending with Elect./Mech./C&I.
vent A A A vent
3 Trail run of all auxiliary equipments are taken.
Economiser
vent 4 Boiler area is clean. ---------------
A
5 No foreign material likef scaffolding material is
Main
steam inside the Boiler. --------------- ---------------
stop
valve 6 No foreign material like — welding rod, cotton
waste etc. are present in pressure parts,
Super heater particularly inside steam drum. ------ --------
Deaerator 7 All access doors on the air path and flue gas ducts
are closed. ---------------
166 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 167
In a modern Boiler, most of the above activities are performed automatically with help of Some abnormal conditions and Emergencies are listed below.
sophisticated automation system. Most Important job is to check healthiness of all support system regularly. Combustion system :
For this some routine checking is to be carried out. Here is an example of routine checking schedule of a o Loss of igniter
Boiler. Depending upon the requirement this may be modified. At least once in every 2 hours these points • Loss of burner
may be checked.
• Loss of pulveriser/feeder
Routine checking of Boiler during normal operation
• Loss of primary air
•-- Sufficient fuel is available and fuel handling system equipments are healthy. --•---Loss of coal feeder
• Ash handling system is working properly. There is no jamming and problem in the system. • Loss of fuel
• Field equipments like- ID fan, FD fan, Boiler feed pump, ESP Bag filter, Dosing pumps, Pulverisers,
• Master fuel trip
Feeders, Instrument air compressor, etc, are running smoothly.
Combustion air and flue gas system :
• Water level at gauge glass is at normal range and matching with remote water level.
o Loss of ID/FD fan
• No leakage at steam, feed water, flue gas and fuel system.
• Loss of air heater
• Sufficient dosing chemical is available in dosing tank.
• Failure of dampers
• Feed water, Boiler water, saturated steam (steam from drum), superheated steam quality is tested
at laboratory and the results are within limit. • Blockage in air/flue gas duct
• Sufficient DM water is available at DM Dank. Feed water system :
• Automatic control system is working properly. o Loss of feed pump
• All abnormality condition, initiated by alarm, has been taken care. • Problem in feed water heater
• Firing condition of the furnace is normal. o Low deaerator temperature
• Cooling water is available to all the coolers. o Malfunctioning of feed control valve
• All field instrument readings are matching with remote readings. • Low suction pressure of feed pump
• Position of all control valves/isolation valves are as per desired requirement. Boiler General :
If any abnormality is found this is to be rectified as and when situation permits. o Economiser, water wall, super heater tube leakage
For this a defect register may be maintained where any defects noticed can be noted for further rectification. • Safety valve leaking
Soot blowing is to be carried out whenever required. When soot is deposited on the tube, heat
• Low super heater temperature
transfer is affected. Exhaust flue gas temperature increases. Soot blowing schedule depends upon type of
• High super heater temperature
fuel used in the Boiler.
During any abnormality in Boiler, audible and visual alarms are initiated at the control panel. • Low steam pressure
Proper action is required to bring back the system to normal. o High steam pressure
A log book is supposed to be maintained to note down important parameters. • Low/high water level
This log book is helpful to monitor the system. In modern control system, most of the DCS and PLC are
having trending facility of the parameters for effective monitoring program. In addition to that, manual • Loss of ash handling system
logging at an interval of 1 to 2 hours may be helpful. Following main parameters may be logged. • Problem in soot blowing system
Rate of fuel feeding, Steam generation (flow), Final super heater steam temperature, Final Some of the emergency situations are discussed here along with action to be taken to familiarize
steam pressure, Air supply, Air temperature, Draft at various zones, Flue gas temperature at various zones, Boiler operation Engineer with these situations.
Feed water inlet temperature, drum level, current taken by various drives, ash hopper level, coal feeder
13.7.1 Low water level
speed, grate speed, bed temperature, Pressure drop across fuel bed etc. Other parameters may be added as
per requirement. It is known that, amount of feed water required in Boiler is equal to amount of water evaporated
and drawn from Boiler plus blow down and losses in the system. If due to any reason, sufficient amount of
13.7 Abnormal operating conditions and Emergency situations
water could not be pumped in to the Boiler, water level of the Boiler come down. Following problems may
Apart from normal situation it is required to handel the Boiler during abnormal situation and
lead to low water level in the Boiler.
Emergency. Boiler mostly supply steam to Turbo Generator set for power generation. Abnormality in steam
generation may cause tripping of the set causing huge loss. Also Emergency situation may lead to a sever • Failure of Boiler feed pump
accident to man and machine. ° Leakage in feed pipe
168 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 169
Water tube Boiler contains lot of tubes. High pressure water and steam flows inside these tubes. When Boiler is to be kept out of service for a longer period, some special care is required to be
In case of tube leakage this water and steam mix with flue gas and escape to atmosphere. So to maintain taken to avoid corrosion of pressure parts. Boiler tube corrodes rapidly in presence of oxygen and moisture.
water level, more make up is required. If tube leakage is not attended earlier it may damage the adjacent Soto avoid corrosion, it is required to eliminate either oxygen or moisture from Boiler tube. There are two
tube by steam impingement and erosion. So it is wise to shut down the Boiler when leakage is found as methods of preservation of Boiler.
early as possible.
In first method, care is taken to keep the Boiler tube moisture free. This method is called as dry
There are so many reasons for tube failure. Some of-them-are mentioned below preservation. In this method dry air is circulated continuously through the empty Boiler tube.
• Flue gas side erosion due to soot blowing and high flue gas velocity.
In second method, care is taken to eliminate oxygen from the Boiler tube. This method of
o Steam side corrosion of tube. preservation is called as wet preservation. Total Boiler pressure parts (economiser, steam drum, water
• Impingement of flame on tube surface. wall, super heater tube) are filled with feed water having high concentration of Hydrazine (200 PPM). Such
high concentration of hydrazine ensures, there is no dissolved oxygen available in feed water. Boiler is kept
• Welding defect. under pressure, so that atmospheric air can 't enter in to Boiler pressure parts.
o Flue gas side corrosion of tube.
Wet preservation is preferred over dry preservation. This method is easier and most effective.
• Uneven temperature. Now a day, due to complex design and more number of bends in Boiler tube, it is not always possible to
• Water side and gas side scaling of tube. keep the circuit dry in dry preservation method.
• Design defect.
13.9 Hydrostatic test
• Frequent start up and shut down of Boiler.
In some cases, due to improper design, tube failure noticed at a particular zone. To avoid this, In a Boiler hydrostatic test (commonly called as hydro test) is conducted to ensure the pressure
proper care is required at the design stage. Some precautionary steps as mentioned below may be taken to parts can with stand working pressure continuously. Also by hydrostatic test any leakage in pressure part
can be detected. This test is conducted at least once in a year during annual inspection or after each
avoid tube failure.
repairing job in the Boiler pressure parts. For . hydro testing, Feed water is filled up in entire pressure parts of
• Measure tube thickness regularly during Boiler shut down. Replace the tube if thickness reduces by the Boiler and pressure is raised by help of a high pressure pump.
30% of the new tube thickness. Following steps are followed for hydrostatic test.
o Use dry steam with required pressure for soot blowing, as advised by Boiler manufacturer.
• Remove safety valves and make the flanges blind. Otherwise the safety valves are to be gagged.
• Maintain draft in all zone of the Boiler within limit as specified by the Boiler ranufacturer.
o Close main steam stop valve and all drain valves.
• Improve combustion condition.
• Arrest all support hangers to take up additional load due to water filling in the line.
o Avoid frequent start, stop of Boiler.
• Fill up the drum up to normal working level as per Boiler fill up method discussed earlier.
• Maintain feed water and Boiler water quality.
• Allow more water into the drum through the fill up pump or Boiler feed pump.
• In area where erosion is high, tube shields may be used.
o Close drum vent when water came out from this vent. Now water will enter in to super heater.
• Adjust flame to avoid flame impingement. Ensure super heater vent is open.
• Avoid sudden change in tube metal temperature to avoid thermal shock. • Stop super heater vent when water comes out from this.
o During shut down, check tube is free for expansion. If the tube is not free then it will bend like a • Regulate flow rate to the Boiler. Pressure will start increasing gradually once super heater is filled up.
bow, when heated. This is called as bowing of tube. • Some Boiler manufacturer recommends to fill the Boiler through super heater drain or vent, for
When tube leakage is small and water level can be maintained, Boiler shut down is to be taken hydro testing. In this case water will overflow to steam drum once super heater is filled up.
as early as possible for repair. "Shut down to cold" method may be followed in this case. Continue fill up till water comes out from drum vent. Then stop the vent.
When leakage is sever and water level can't be maintained, at that condition fuel supply is to be o Feed water to be used for hydro test should be at atmospheric temperature.
cut immediately. Water supply to the Boiler to be stopped and Boiler to be cooled by maintaining sufficient • Once Boiler pressure parts filled up completely increase the pressure gradually through hydro test
air flow. pump or through Boiler feed pump with throttled discharge valve.
Tube leakage in water wall and super heater can be detected by monitoring regularly the feed • Rate of raising the pressure in the Boiler should be maximum 10 kg/cm 2 per minutes.
water make up. Economiser tube leakage produces sound. So this can be detected by sound and increased • Check the pressure tightness of the pressure parts. If there is any leakage water will start leaking
consumption of make up water. there.
172 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 173
• Hold pressure raise intermediately and notice if there is any pressure drop. If there is leakage,
pressure will start dropping once pump is stopped.
• If no pressure drop noticed, raise the pressure gradually till hydrostatic test pressure. Hydrostatic
test is normally carried out at a pressure equal to 1.5 times of the design pressure for a new boiler.
• At hydrostatic test pressure stop hydro test pump/Boiler feed pump or close filling valve. Maintain
pressure for 10 minuets and watch for any abnormal drop of pressure or any leakage.
\ur cur vv )
Hydro test issuccessful if pressure parts with stand the test pressure for 10 minuets without any
leakage.
• After successful hydro test, reduce the pressure at a rate of 10 kg/cm 2 per minute. Pressure may be
Steam Steam
reduced by opening sampling line valve or blow down valve one by one to flush the line. supply ) supply
(
• When pressure drops to 2 kg/cm2 open drum vent and allow pressure to drop to zero.
• Open blow down valve and maintain normal working water level.
• Open super heater drain to completely drain out water. (a) Rotary Soot blower (b) Long retractable soot blower
• Fit back safety valve or open gagging.
Fig. 13.3 Soot blowers
13.10 Soot blowing
Retractable blower is installed at high temperature zone and rotary blower or fixed blower is
During normal Operation of a Boiler soot is deposited on the Boiler rube. Due to this soot installed at lower temperature zone like air heater and exit end of economiser. If fixed rotary blower is
deposition, heat transfer rate decreases. So flue gas temperature increases. Exit flue gas temperature can installed at high temperature zone the noizle and pipe will be damaged due to high temperature.
indicate soot deposit condition on the tube.
All the soot blowers are connected to common soot blowing steam line. Soot blowing is started
When soot deposition is more in the furnace wall tube, heat transfer in the furnace decreases. one by one in the direction of flue gas flow. Normally blowing is done sequentially once it is started.
So furnace out let flue gas temperature increases and hence super heated steam temperature increases. Otherwise this can be done manually one after another in the flue gas direction. Steam used should be dry.
It is required to clean Boiler tube regularly for effective heat transfer. This is an activity done Steam is supplied to that particular blower when it is in service. Steam is cut off automatically through a
during normal operating condition. This is called as soot blowing. Frequency of soot blowing depends upon poppet valve, when blowing of that blower is finished. Movement of the blower is controlled through limit
type of fuel used. Coal is used as powder condition in Pulverised coal fired Boiler. So lot of soot is deposited switches. Soot blowing is preferably done at a load above 50% of MCR (Maximum continuous rating).
in this type of Boiler. Frequent soot blowing at an interval of 8 to 10 hours may be required in
Following important steps are followed during soot blowing.
this case.
• Open the isolation valve of soot blowing steam line.
In case of oil and gas fired Boilers, ash percentage in fuel is very less, soot deposition is very
negligible in this case. Soot blowing may be required once in 10 to 12 days. • Open drain valve of this line to drain out condensate if any. Allow steam to flow for some time
Normally superheated steam at 10 to 12 kg/cm 2 is used as blowing medium. Soot blowers are through this valve to increase temperature of that line.
placed in the flue gas path to clean some portion of the tube. When blowing is started this high pressure • Put the control valve of the line in auto mode to get 10 to 12 kg/cm 2 pressure.
steam comes out in high velocity from the nozzle of blower. This high velocity steam clean the soot
deposited on the tube. The blower rotates by 360° (some time 180° also) by means of an electric motor. So • Check all retractable blowers are in withdrawn position.
the high velocity steam can clean tube surface around it. Dislodged soot is taken out by flue gas due to • Increase the draft a little higher.
negative pressure.
• Start the sequence. Blowing will be started one by one. In case of manual system start blowing one
There are two types of soot blowers. These are Rotary soot blower (RSB) and long retractable
by one in the direction of flue gas flow.
soot blower (LRSB). Rotary soot blower rotates at a fixed position. In long retractable soot blower, there is
a lancer, which is kept out side when blower is not in service. During Operation of this blower, the lancer • After completion of blowing sequence, bring back the draft to normal and close the steam isolation
enters in to flue gas path and also rotates like rotary blower. Movement of lancer and rotation of blower is valve.
done trough a motor.
13.11 Inspection of Boiler
Boiler generates high pressure steam at high temperature. Any abnormality in Boiler may lead to
a sever accident causing heavy loss to man and machine. So it is required to inspect the Boiler at regular
Efficiency (LCV basis) =100 x (809 — 140) / (23 x 3200) = 88% Calculate all heat losses as mentioned below.
A. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
13.12.2 Heat loss Method or Indirect Method
100 percent of the heat supplied to the Boiler by fuel is not utilised for generation of steam. This loss can be calculated as - m x Cp (TF — TA)
x 100 / GCV of Fuel
Various losses take place in the Boiler. In heat loss method or indirect method, various losses are calculated Where "m" is mass of dry flue gas in kg/ kg of fuel and "C F " is specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg)
and the efficiency is calculated by subtracting these heat loss fractions from 100. Mass of dry flue gas can be calculated as — mass of actual air supplied + 1(mass of fuel supplied)
Principal heat losses that take place in a Boiler are listed below. B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
A. Heat loss due to dry flue gas This loss can be calculated as — 9 x H2 {584 + Cp (TF y- TA)} / GCV of Fuel
B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
Where H2 is percentage of H2 in 1 kg of fuel
C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
D. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air Cp is specific heat of super heated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
E. Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
This loss can be calculated as — M {584 + Cp (TF — TA)} / GCV of Fuel
Also some heat is added to Boiler other than fuel. These are called as Credits. Some of the
credits are- Where M is percentage of Moisture in 1 kg of fuel
• Heat in feed water Cp is specific heat of super heated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
• Heat in combustion air D. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air
• Heat from auxiliary equipment
This loss can be calculated as —Actual mass of air supplied x humidity ratio of air x Cp (TF — TA)
• Sensible heat on fuel x 100 / GCV of Fuel •
For calculation of efficiency in Indirect method, following Data are required.
E. Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2 , O2, C, S, Moisture %, Ash%)
• Percentage of 02, CO, CO2 in flue gas This loss can be calculated as — Ash collected per kg of fuel x GCV of Ash x 100 / GCV of Fuel
• Flue gas temperature at boiler exit ( TF °C) F Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
• Ambient air temperature (TA °C) and humidity This loss can be assumed according to surface condition and size of the Boiler. For smaller Boiler
• GCV of fuel (kcal/kg) this loss may be assumed as 1% to 2%. For larger Boiler this can be assumed between .2 % to 1%.
• Percentage of unburnt fuel in ash Step -4
• GCV of ash (kcal/kg)
Calculate Boiler efficiency.
Boiler efficiency = 100 — sum of all above losses
= 100 — (A+B+C+C+D+E+ F)
= Actual mass of air supplied x humidity ratio of air_x C(T F — TA) jt 100 /
i. Ultimate analysis of coal — H2- 2%, 02 — 5%, C — 38%, S — 1%o, Moisture — 5 %, GCV of Fuel
Ash - 47%)
= 5.75 x .04 [0.45 (140-40) ] x 100 / 3400 = 0.3
ii. Flue gas_ analysis — 02 -3%
E. L oss due to un burnt fuel in ash
iii. Flue gas temperature at boiler exit — 140 °C
iv. Ambient air temperature — 40°C, Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash
v. Humidity ratio — .04 kg/kg (Relative humidity -80%) = Ash collected per kg of fuel x GCV of Ash x 100 / GCV of Fuel
vi. GCV of fuel (kcal/kg) — 3400 kcal /kg = 0.47 x 200 x 100/ 3400 = 2.76
vii. Ash generation — .47 kg/kg of fuel F. Heat loss due■to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
viii. GCV of ash (kcal/kg) — 200 kcal/kg
Step -1 This loss is assumed depending upon type of Boiler. In this case let this be 1 %
Step -4
Theoretical air requirement for combustion of per kg of coal
= 4.35[( 8/3 C+ 8H2 + S) - 02] /100 kg / kg of fuel Boiler efficiency = 100 — sum of all above losses
= 4.35 [ (8/3 x 38 + 8 x 2 + 1) - 5] /100 = 4.93kg/kgofcoal
=100 — (A+B+C+C+D+E+ F)
Step -2
=10 0—(4.56+3.33+0.925+ 0.3+2.76+1)
Percentage of excess air= 02 x 100 / (21 — O2) = 3 x 100/ 21-3 = 16.67%
=100—13= 87%
Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel —
(1 + Excess air %/100) x theoretical air = (1 + 0.1667) x 4.93 = 5.75 kg/kg
Step -3 000
Calculate all heat losses as mentioned.
A. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
Mass of dry flue gas = mass of actual air supplied + 1= 5.75 +1= 6.75
Dry flue gas loss
=mx CP (TF — TA) x 100 / GCV of Fuel
= 6.75 x 0.23 (140 — 40) x 100 / 3400 = 4.56
B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
Loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
= 9 x H2 {584 + CP (TF — T A )} / GCV of Fuel
= 9 x 2 [584 +0.45 (140 — 40) ] / 3400 = 3.33
C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
Loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
=M{584+CP (TF —TA)}/GCV of Fuel
= 5[584 + 0.45 (140-40) ] /3400 = .925
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings 183
The wall thickness for different size pipe for different schedule number, as per ANSI B 36.10 14,3.1 Nominal Bore (NB) of Pipe
standard is given in tabular form.
Size of a pipe indicates approximate inside diameter (ID) of a Pipe. As the dimension is
N N CO N ,: cpV
n approximate, so the diameter is called as nominal diameter (DN) or the bore of the pipe is called as
m
N
o
C^
CO
^ O V M WCO Mti
co co Q C^ c0 CD
r tD^ ^l ^
t`` co N. f^
O, W O
Xx O O O q . 0 0 I o O o nominal bore (NB). In metric system it is expressed in millimeter.
Pipe size is also expressed in inches called as Nominal Pipe Size (NPS). A 1/8 NPS Pipe means,
LQ C A
N N
c.st
C O
N co co
CO
Lo
N
I cO
O
ti
CD
a)
N ^ 0 0))
M '7 LC)
O1 CDD V
C7 ID of the pipe is approximately 1/8 inch.
CD 6 0 ° 0 0 6 6 O 0 6 r N
° ° 0 0 ° ° 0 0 0 0 0 ° 0 0 0
0 C) CD 15 1/2 500 20
I)W
to r` 7. m
i
CO co CO is OLO
20 3/4 550 22
.0 CD cO Ln LO LO t0 Ll) LO In.
t` M r M In f` M c(7 lO In
jp
m
O
r
r
N
r
7
r
to n
r
a1
r O
N I NI N
0 M M C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 C) C) 0 25 i i 600 24
X 0 0 0 O O O O ICoI O 0 0 0 0 0
32 1 1/4 650 26
CO N M O N CO
CO LC) r, 40
d r N 0 LO CCD CO 0) 1 1/2 700 28
0 0 0 ° 0 0
U.) CO
C) 0
50 2 750 30
C) co
N
N. 65 2 1/2 800 32
COD CO O ^ 0 0 nC +) LO O N N C°D M LD CND O)
t O O O r r r r r N N M M O
V, V 0 L0. LO.
a
C) o o 0 0 ° CD o o .o
N
o o
N N
O ° 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 3 900 36
CL
Na
t's
100 4 1000 40
N c`c) V ^ N: O N 'd^ ^ h h h 'h h h h h ti
O: O O r r
M
r
V
r
L
r
O O
N ,CN N N N N ff M M M M. M C7 M .M M
O
Co : M
0 I■ 0
M eh
0
M.
150 6 1100 42
0 ;0 0 ° 0 0 0D 0 0 0DJ x_ 0 0 0 _0 0 0 0 0 O
- V1 0: 0 0
200 8 1200 48
h- hs LO LO
t N
°
f+ 7,
M
. C
c) CI
LO
N CO
N
250 10 1400 54
CD 0 0 1i
° 0 0
300 12 1500 60
Ln 0 l0
N N N LC) Lq
r LC)
LO Lc)
N N N M co co co co
0 0 0 14.4 Different Standard Specifications for Tube & Pipe
o o ° 6 6 6 0 0
NN
-
There are different standards followed for Pipe and Tube, throughout world. Among them following
a) Lp LO M M A O) a) a) "4- co CO Lo ,r,ho Lo ch N
standards are well known.
g CD CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 M M
r
7 O
r
r N N N N N M M
p
0 ° O O r ^- r r
° 0 0 0
r
0
'-
O O 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
cAr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
t LO
CO
0) 0) LO LD
CO
LD
CD
N
CO
N
CO
LO
O
CO
O
CO
O
M
O
M
OD
0)
0
0)
C)
4)
O
d
CO
LD
CO API ' American Petroleum Institute
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^ r r .-
0 0 0
tn^
0 0
0 0
0
C) C)
0
0
0
0 C) 0 0 0 O O O BSI (BS) British Standard Institute
co c) CO
C M DIN Deutsche Industrie- Normen
N N O
01QL O h L0 co L0 '- Ln C
COO N N N r r h er CO CDO V CO
r
d 0V
V d
0 ^ cr:=!
0 0 r r r
cc? Cy d d 10 D CD CO CO CO_ O = r r rN N
N N LO CO Is CO 0 r
(German Institute of Standardisation)
JIS - Japanese Industrial Standard
vt N
aN^
,_
E,_ .
O
0`p
r
a
r M
O
O^
r
^
M
T r
N ^ T' et
r ^
CO M
0
e-a-
CO 0
N N GOAST Gosudartsvennye Standarty
NM
O aNv r N M
z (State Standards of Russian Federation)
184 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
185
Among all above standards ASTM standard is mostly used in Boilers in India. So we will discus As per American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) -" steel is considered to be carbon steel when
about this standard. In ASTM standard "SA' or only "A" is prefixed before the standard. For example- no minimum content is specified or required for Chromium, Cobalt, columbium (Nobium), Molybdenum,
standard SA210 or A210. Nickel, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium or Zirconium or any other element to be added to obtain a desired
alloying effect.
For pipes and tubes of Boiler, there are different ASTM standards. We will discuss about most
commonly used standards for tube and pipe. Following standard tubes and pipes are found to be used in By changing percentage of carbon in steel, property of steel is changed. Steel with increased
India. These are carbon is harder and stronger but less ductile.
Alloy steel--
Tube standards
Any steel which contains more than 1.65% Manganese or more than .6% copper or a guaranteed
SA178 - Electric - Resistance:- Welded carbon steel and carbon manganese steel
minimum amount of any other metal is called as alloy steel. Elements most frequently used for alloying are
Boiler and super heater tube. Nickel, Chromium, Molybdenum, Vanadium and Manganese.
SA192 - Seamless carbon steel Boiler tube for high pressure use. Alloy steel posses higher thermal, mechanical and chemical properties than normal steel. Due to
high temperature in Boiler, these properties are most important. Particularly super heater tube of the Boiler
SA209 - Seamless carbon - molybdenum alloy steel Boiler and super heater tube. is exposed to high temperature. Also there is chance of erosion due to high velocity of dust particle. So alloy
SA210 - Seamless medium carbon steel Boiler and super heater tube. steel is mostly used in this case. Carbon steel can not be used here as it sacrifices ductility to increase its
strength.
SA213 - Seamless ferritic and austenitic steel Boiler and super heater tube.
Merits of the alloying elements are discussed below.
Mostly SA210, Grade Al & C (Seamless Medium Carbon Steel Boiler and Super heater tube) Manganese
and SA213, Grade Tl l& T-2 (Seamless Ferritic and austentic alloy steel, super heater and heat exchanger
Manganese reduces oxides and counteracts harmful influence of iron sulfide. Manganese is used
tube) are used in boiler. Carbon steel is used in economiser evaporator and other low temperature tubes and
to reduce carbon content to get steel having same tensile strength but improved ductility.
alloy steel is used for high temperature super heater tubes.
Nickel
Pipe standards
Nickel lowers eutectoid temperature. It also increases rate of cooling of steel. Mechanical properties
SA106 - Seamless carbon steel pipe for high temperature service. changes with nickel content. Steel with .5% nickel is similar to carbon steel but is stronger on account of the
finer pearlite formed and the presence of nickel in solution of ferrite.
SA335 - Seamless ferritic and austenitic alloy steel pipe for high temperature service.
Chromium
SA358 - Electric fusion welded austenitic chromium- nickel alloy steel pipe for high Temperature
service. It makes steel resistant to wear, corrosion resistant and increases hardness. Chromium forms an
inert passive film on the surface of the tube, which resists attack by oxidising reagents. Chromium is used
Mostly SA106, Grade A, B & C (Seamless carbon steel pipes for high temperature service) and as a carbide stabiliser.
SA335, Grade P11 & P22 (Seam less ferritic and austentic alloy steel pipe for high temperature service) are
Nickel steel has hic.h strength, ductility and toughness, while chromium steel has high hardness
used in Boiler house.
and resistant to wear. Combination of nickel and chromium makes the steel having all these properties. So
Some time DIN2391, BS3059, API 5L etc. standard tubes and pipes are also used. mostly, nickel and chromium are used together for alloying.
Carbon Steel Molybdenum forms complex carbides. It increases strength of steel at higher temperature, makes
steel more heat resistant. Molybdenum minimizes temperature brittleness and reduces mass effect. It is
Depending upon the percentage of carbon in steel, gradation of steel is done as Low carbon, normally used in combination with other alloying elements.
Medium carbon and High carbon steel. Low carbon steel contains less than .3% carbon, it is also called as
mild steel. Medium carbon steel contains .3% to .45% of carbon. High carbon steel contains .45% to .75% Vanadium
of carbon. Carbon steel also contains less than 1.65% manganese, less than .6% cooper and small amount Vanadium acts as a scavenger for oxides. In the presence of other elements it forms carbides and
of silicon, sulpher and phosphorous. has a beneficial effect on the mechanical properties of heat treated steel.
186 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
187
Tungsten
Tungsten refines the grain size and produces less tendency to decarburisation during working.
Like Molybdenum, it makes steel heat resisting.
Silicon
Silicon dissolves in ferrite, of which it is an effective hardener. It contributes oxidation resistance
in heat _resisting steels. This is a general purpose de oxidizer.
Titanium and Nobium
These elements prevent intergranular corrosion of steel.
aj In a boiler house steam and feed water flows through pipe. So some basic knowledge regarding
Main purpose of the piping system is to supply fluid at correct pressure to the point of use.
c
m Two types of fluid can flow
in a pipe. First is compressible and second is incompressible fluid. When fluid
N volume is directly related to pressure and temperature of the fluid, it is called as compressible fluid such as
N C_ C_ _C C C_ C C_ C C C C C C
2 steam. Where, volume of fluid remains relatively constant with change in pressure and temperature, fluid is
2 rG
CD CD CD N N N N N N N N
N N r - - ._ _.__. _ — called-as-incompressible fluid.
H m _.. co
m v v v v - r
^r" ^r ^t
,
W O
y CD X COO CO N Flow in M3 = Cross sectional area of a pipe (A) X flow velocity (m/sec)
,^ CO o_o RS _0C) -
a)5 ZOOQo2 UOO>oo
When any fluid flows in a pipe some mechanical energy is lost due to friction at the wall of pipe.
N • o .. o 0a) 0o
0 co p = Fluid density (kg/m 3 )
C
Pressure or head loss due to friction in a straight pipe is given by Darcy – weisbach equation. As
L
a)
N O 4fl 2
N N N X per this equation hf = 2SD
N x N X
®
. , . . . . . . . N x
as
N X
oro • oro om o
14- Where
C
Q N x
hf = head loss due to friction in meter
. , . om O CXG
. . , • . . , . . f = friction factor (dimension less)
, .
W 2
I = length of pipe in meter
L.
The friction factor in a pipe depends upon the Reynolds number and roughness of pipe inner
. . . .. .. . . .. .
surface. Friction factor can also be found from Mody chart.
fluid in pipe. There are different types of flow regimes. These are – plug flow, laminar flow and turbulent
flow. Also Reynolds number is a factor of pipe diameter, velocity of fluid, fluid density and fluid viscosity.
.. ..
.. .. ..
It is given by
m
N N N
CA
a R = per
a d d a
(7 < M .0 a d a a.
o
When Re is below 2000, flow is called as laminar. Flow is calm and regular in this case. When Re
as
°^v "^°
ri- is more than 4000, flow is called as turbulent. Flow in this case is in form of swirl and movement.
Head loss in pipe is calculated by above method is for straight pipe line.
N
• In steam pipe, more condensate is formed due to greater heat loss. More traps are required for Pipe line used in a Boiler house carries hot fluid, so it must be allowed to expand. Pipeline is
removal of this condensate. subjected to large variation in temperature during fluid flow and no flow. "U" loops or expansion loops are
provided in the pipe line to take care of this thermal expansion. This expansion loop allows piping system
Under size
to absorb the force generated by expansion, without doing any harm to pipe line.
o Pressure drop is more, so less pressure is available at the load end. Other than expansion loop, 90° bends, "U" bends and offsets are used to reduce expansion stress.
o There is risk of starvation due to excessive drop. The effect of expansion is usually absorbed by the system at changes of direction in the pipe.
• Greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise due to high velocity.
Pipe Dia (NB) Gate Valve Globe valve Tee 90°Bend 45°Bend
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
195
14.12 Insulation of pipe It is required to lay the pipe line as straight as possible to minimize pressure drop. Pipe should be
When hot water or steam flows in a pipe a considerable amount of heat energy is radiated out laid with a fall of around 1: 100 (1 meter fall for every 100 meter run) in the direction of steam flow.
from the pipe surface to surrounding atmosphere and the fluid temperature drops. To minimize this loss, This slope facilitates condensate to move towards trap point.
pipe line is insulated to prevent radiation of heat from pipe to the surrounding. When diameter of the pipe line is required to be changed, reducers are fitted. Use of eccentric
Different types of insulating materials are used for insulating the pipe. Mineral wool and fiber reducer is more suitable than concentric reducer to avoid water hammer.
glass 'or glass wool insulation with support wire mesh netting and aluminum cladding is used normally in When branch pipe line is to be taken from main pipe line, it should be taken out from top of
pipe lines. Steel wire mesh is used to provide strength to the insulation. And aluminum cladding is provided main line, not from bottom of the line. If it is tapped from the bottom, chance of entry of condensate is
for mechanical protection and water proofing. Insulation slab is available in market in different thickness. therein to the branch line. Suitable isolation valve is to be provided for each branch line.
It is cut as per requirement and fitted.
Mineral wool (rock and slag wool) is un combustible and having high melting temperature (1800 Sufficient support and proper expansion facility is to be provided to take care of thermal expansion.
°F — 2000°F). It has excellent thermal resistance. Its conductivity is 0.036 kcal/mhr°C and average density Other than all these above points, following points are to be considered for a perfect pipe line lay out.
is about 100—200 kg/M 3 . Glass wool is having thermal conductivity 0.045 kcallmhr°C and average density • Operating and control points are easily accessible.
is about 80 — 100 kg/M 3 . • Pipe line should have sufficient clearance to facilitate maintenance and replacement of fittings.
Now days, pre-casted insulations are available for different size pipes, valves and flanges.
• All pipe line supports are to be accessible for inspection.
Thickness of insulation on the pipe is decided upon following factors.
• Safety of operating and maintenance people is to be considered.
• The heat carried by the fluid.
• Diameter of the pipe. In some cases more than one incoming steam line is connected to a common pipe line. In this
case the incoming pipe lines should be provided with isolating valves.
• Temperature of the fluid.
Thickness of the insulation is so selected that the surface temperature is around 60°C. Normally 14.14 Water hammer
the insulation up to 65mm thickness is done in single layer. If the required thickness is more, then insulation
is done in multi layer. Due to heat loss in pipe line, steam is condensed. Velocity of steam flowing over the accumulated
Most of the time engineers neglect pipe insulation. Damaged insulation can cause significant loss condensate causes ripples in the water. Turbulence builds up until the water forms a solid mass or slug.
in the system. So proper care is to be taken to keep the insulation in proper condition and ensure the When this slug of condensate collides at high velocity in to pipe wall or fittings then noise and vibration is
insulation is not damaged in any location. produced called as water hammer. In some cases the strength of water hammer is so high that it can
Mostly Insulation degradation takes place due to flowing factors. fracture the pipe line, leading to a sever situation.
• Insulation is damaged during repair of pipe line components or fittings. Steam
(a) Elbow
(a) 90° Bend
Fig. 14.8 Pipe fittings
Fig. 14.11 End Cap
Tee and Cross are used for branch connection.
(a) Cross
Reducers are used to join pipes of different sizes. There are two type of reducer- concentric and
eccentric
k-- R
15.1 Introduction
Pipe line have different fittings and Ancillaries. In the previous chapter we have discussed about (a) Socket Weld flange (b) Slip on Flange
some fittings. In this chapter we will discuss about some commonly used fittings and ancillaries like-
Flanges, Valves, Traps and Strainers. Fig. 15.2 Socket weld and slip on flange
Practically in a boiler house, much attention is not paid for these fittings and ancillaries. Slip on flange :
These small pipe line components play major role for smooth transportation of fluid in the pipe line. In this This flange fits over the pipe and then welded in position.
chapter, it is tried to provide some detail input to the reader about these components. Depending upon face type, flange is classified as :
15.2 Flange o Flat faced flange
A flange is used to connect two pipes mechanically or to connect a pipe to a valve, tee or other • Raised faced flange
piece of equipment.
Principle of a flange is to use mechanical force ( exerted by tightening bolts) to pre load the
gasket sufficiently, so that when internal pressure is applied due to fluid pressure, there is enough contact
stress between the flange and gasket to maintain a seal.
Flange is required to be fixed to the pipe. This is done by welding, threading and other weld less
connections. Flanges are manufactured by forging, casting or from plates.
There are different types of flanges. These are classified as per their attachment to the pipe.
• Threaded flanges
• Socket welded flanges (a) Raised faced flange (b) Flat faced flange
• Blind flanges Fig. 15.3 Flange Face
Slip on flanges Normally for high pressure steam and feed water pipe line, Socket Weld Raised Face (SWARF)
o Lapped flanges and Weld Neck Raised Face (WNRF) flanges are used. Some time, Slip on Raised Face (SORF) flanges are
• Weld neck flanges found in use also.
Welded neck flange : Flanges are manufactured as per ANSI standard B 16.5. The material specification for flanges
This is recognized by its long tapered hub. This type of flange is mostly used in high pressure as per ASTM standard is given below for different flanges.
application.
Product form
Steel Forging Casting Plate
Carbon steel A 105 A 216 A 515
A350 A516
Fig. 15.1 Welded neck flange` A 537
Alloy steel A 182 A 217 A 387
[198]
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 201
Flanges are classified in to seven classes named as 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 and 2500. 15.3 Trap
More the class number means, the flange is more stronger. Class indicates maximum pressure in Psig.
When temperature of the fluid increases, maximum working pressure of a particular class flange reduces. When steam in the pipe line cools, condensate is formed. It is required to drain out this condensate
from the system to avoid further cooling of steam and water hammer. For this, traps are used in pipe line.
Temperature and pressure range of different class of carbon steel forged (A-105) flange is given
Main function of steam trap is to discharge condensate and not permitting steam to escape. During start
for refernce. From this example it will be easier to understand about the class and its working range for up, pipe space is filled with air, so the trap should capable to release air. Thes e traps are automatic valves.
different pressure and temperature. The trap is expected to have following characteristic.
Gauge pressure (KPa) / Flange class • Steam loss should be minimum
Temperature °C 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 Have trouble free operation with less maintenance
There is a disc which opens and closes the outlet port. When disc moves up due to incoming
pressure of the condensate the outlet opens and condensate is discharged. Fresh hot condensate enters in
to the trap chamber. As the pressure of this hot condensate drops at the chamber flush steam is released.
This flush steam builds pressure above the disc and moves it down. Down ward movement of the disc
Fig. 15.4 Flange bolt tighiting sequence closes the outlet.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 203
Again after some time, the flash steam acting above the disc condenses and pressure drops. Ball float trap
So disc moves up due to pressure of condensate and it is discharged. The disc closes when flush steam is
formed again. Like this cycle repeats. Rate of operation depends on steam temperature and ambient In this type of trap, opening and closing of outlet valve is achieved by floating of a ball in the
condition. condensate. When condensate level in the trap charnber become high, the float ball raises and opens the
valve. Condensate is discharged and level of condensate come down. Due to lower level of condensate,
This type of trap has following advantages.
float drops and closes the valve. Again condensate level starts rising and the cycle continues.
o It works across its entire working range without any adjustment or change in internals.
Auto Cock
• It can be used on high pressure super heated steam line.
• As disc is the only moving part so maintenance is easier and can be-carried out in position.
• It is compact, simple and light weight.
15.3.1.2 Thermostatic Trap
This trap opens and closes with the movement of a temperature sensitive element. Opening and
closing of outlet port of the trap is done by a thermostatic bellow element. Float
During starting, bellow element is fully contracted and outlet port is in open condition. The
condensate is discharged out. When temperature inside the trap increases due to flow of steam, it heat up
the bellow element and bellow is expanded. Expansion of below closes outlet port of the trap.
Again when the temperature inside the trap drops the bellow contracts and opens outlet port
allowing condensate to discharge. Like this cycle continues. Fig. 15.7 Ball Float Trap
In this type of trap, outlet valve is always sealed with condensate. So air can not be vented in this
type of trap. For this a little modification is done in ball float trap. A thermostatic air vent is provided in it. This
modified trap is called as float and thermostatic trap.
Float and Thermostatic Trap
As discussed before, this is a normal ball float valve with a thermostatic element placed at steam
space of the trap. When non condensable air increases at steam space, temperature of air/ steam mixture
reduces. So the bellow contracts and opens a valve to release air. When temperature of this mixture
increases, bellow expands and closes valve and stops air release.
Air release
This trap is suitable during start up, as it remains in open position during cold.
Liquid expansion steam trap, balanced pressure steam trap and bimetallic steam trap are also
belong to thermostatic group.
15.3.1.3 Mechanical Trap
Operating principle of this type of trap is difference in density between steam and condensate.
'Mainly two types of trap in this group are used.
• Ball float steam trap
Fig. 15.8 (a) Float and Thermostatic trap
• Inverted bucket steam trap This type of trap is ideal as it can remove condensate and non condensable gasses.
204 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 205
Inverted bucket Trap 15.4 Valve
Inverted bucket steam trap (some time called as Armstrong converted submerged bucket. Valve is provided in a pipe line to Isolate, regulate and control the flow of fluid. Isolating valve is
Introduced by Armstrong in 1911) is a mechanical trap, which operates on the principle of difference in used when full open and close position is required. Regulating valve is used in any position between full close
density between steam and water. to full open. Control valve is power operated or pneumatically operated to control flow rate in a pipe line.
In this trap, an up side down or an inverted bucket is attached to an operating leaver which - -Isolation valve is provided for fo ll owin g reasons.
opens and closes a valve. A small hole is provided at the top of the bucket for air vent. • Facilitate maintenance.
• Allow removal of equipment.
• Allow shutdown of the plant.
Valves are available with different end connections for fixing in to a pipe line. These are either
Flanged end (FE) type, Socket welding end (SW) type or Butt weld end (BW) type. Valves are manufactured
by either casting or forging process.
Depending upon operating motion of the closure device, valve is classified as linear movement
valve or rotary movement valve. Gate valve, Globe valve and Diaphragm valves are example of linear
movement valve. Ball valve and Butterfly valves belong to rotary movement valve.
We will discuss here about Gate, Globe and Diaphragm valves. Control valves and non return
valves will be discussed later on.
Fig. 15.8 (b) Inverted Bucket Trap 15.4.1 Differenf type of Valves
During starting, bucket :;inks in the condensate causing the valve to open. So condensate is Gate Valve
discharged in this condition. When steam enters in to the inverted bucket, it floats, causing the valve to close.
In this valve, a gate slides between the seats of the valve. Movement of the gate is at right angle
Valve remains close until the upward thrust of steam decreases due to condensation of steam.
to flow of fluid. By opening the valve, flow path is enlarged in a highly non linear manner with respect to
Once the steam condenses, bucket sinks again and the operating cycle continues.
percentage of opening. Repairing such as lapping and grinding of seat and gate is difficult in this valve.
This type of trap withstands high pressure and has good tolerance to water hammer. When there Gate valve is normally used for isolation application, where only fully close or fully open position
is a failure in the trap, it usually remains in open condition and avoids accumulation of condensate. is required. The gate fully retracts in the bonnet. So pressure drop across the valve is low. This valve is
The trap may malfunction when there is insufficient water seal. suitable where frequent opening and closing is required.
15.3.2 Problems, losses and testing of Traps
Steam traps are provided in steam line to remove condensate. In some cases, when trap fails, it
discharges steam continuously. This is called as leakage trap. Steam is a costly fluid. So leakage of steam
from detective trap costs a lot and makes the system inefficient. .
Some time the trap may remain inoperative causing accumulation of condensate and water
hammer. This is called as blockage trap.
Most of the time people ignore a faulty trap. Leaking or blocking of trap, both are undesirable.
Impurities, Corrosion, water hammer and poor maintenance practices are the most common causes, Bonnet
responsible for trap failure. So, proper inspection and maintenance practices can help to detect leaking or
blocking trap. Accordingly, initiative can be taken to repair or replace the trap.
Trap may be inspected by three methods to detect any faulty trap. These methods are visual,
thermal and acoustic.
In visual method, the trap is inspected to find whether it is discharging condensate or steam.
Thermal inspection relies on the upstream and downstream temperature variation across a trap.
Various methods like pyrometer, infrared etc. are used to measure the temperature. In a blocked trap,
temperature at the down steam in less.
Acoustic technique requires to listen to detect steam trap operation and malfunctioning. The listening
device may be Engineers stethoscope, screw driver, and ultrasonic detection instrument.
Appropriate record keeping is helpful to compare the condition of trap.
Fig. 15.9 Gate valve
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 207
Main component of the valve is body, bonnet, gate, hand wheel and stem. Disc of the valve, needs to move a small distance from its seat, to allow full flow. Main advantage
of this valve is, it can be used for throttling purpose and where positive shut off is required.
The fluid has to change its direction of flow in this valve. So the resistance to flow is high in this
case and causes high pressure drop across the valve. The disc and seat is simpler for lapping and repairing.
Pressure of the fluid acting overthe disc generates an axial thrust on the stem. So, higher force
is required for closing this valve. In large size valve it is difficult to open the valve as the differential. pressure
across the valve is high. In this case balancing plug is used to overcome this effect.
There
__
are three types of body design in case of globe valve. These are Z- body, Y-body and
angle body.
In Z-body design, movement of stem is at right angle to the pipe axis and the valve seat is at
horizontal position. In this case, pressure drop is high.
In' body design, stem and seat of the valve are angled at approximately 45°. The angle facilitates
a straight flow path during full opening. so in this design pressure drop is less.
-a Wheel
Bonnet
Diapharagm
Butterfly Valve
This is a rotary motion type valve. The disc rotates 90° from full close position to full open
Gland Packing '
position. This valve can be used to open, isolate and regulate the flow. Specifically this valve is suitable for
large volume application with less pressure. The disc may rotate on either a vertical or horizontal axis.
Atmosphere end packing material is subjected to higher pressure. So it fails faster. It is required
to only replace first two or three layers of packing regularly.
15.4.2.1 Gland packing material
For sealing of valve stem, gland packing is required. Soft packing material is compressed by
external force. By tightening gland flower bolt, radial pressure is produced hence effective sealing of stem is
done. Radial pressure can be adjusted by adjusting gland bolt. Gland bolt should not be tightened more to
avoid over compression of soft packing, otherwise it may lead to excessive friction, stem wear and premature
packing failure.
Soft packing material contains lubricant to increase density, dissipate heat and lubricate. Due to
compression or overheating in service, packing volume is lost and effective sealing is affected.
Fig. 15.15 Needle Valve Some of the main required properties of a packing material are mentioned below.
Fig. 15.14 Butterfly valve
• Compatible with working fluid.
Needle valve • Should be capable to withstand operating temperature.
This valve is used for fine adjustment of fluid flow. The disc of the valve is tapered one, like ' Should be non abralive to minimise stem erosion.
a needle. • Non corrosive to avoid damage to stem and housing.
Also there are other type of valves like- Ball valve, Plug valve etc.
• Wear resistant.
' Retain properties over time.
15.4.2 Stem Sealing
For soft packing following materials are commonly used.
Liquid, flowing in the pipe may leak from around the stem of a . valve. Particularly in high Fibers :
pressure system this leakage is sever. So stem sealing is required. This sealing is done by gland packing.
Mineral Asbestos
Gland packing material is packed tightly between the steam and bonnet of the valve to prevent leakage.
Vegetable Cotton
If the gland packed valve is not used for a significant period, gland pack may stiffen and leakage may take
Flax
place, next time the valve is operated.
g Jute
Packing material is packed in the gland by layers. Pressure is applied from the top by tightenin Synthetic Glass
gland flower. Packing material is compressed and makes the stem leak proof. Practically it is noticed,
Graphite filament
pressure on all the layers of packing material is not equal. It is more at atmosphere end and less at
Nylon
pressure end. Poly tetra fluroethylen (PTFE)
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries
211
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries
213
Working Pressure of different Class of Valves, There are different types of NRV available. But the basic principle of operation is same for all
(ASTM A217 Gr WC6) NRV. NRV is operated by the reverse flow of flowing fluid in the pipe line. It does not require any external
actuating force to operate. Pressure of the fluid opens the valve and allows fluid to flow. While there is
Temp. °F Working Pressure in "psi"/Class reversal of flow, it closes the valve and stops flow. Closure of valve is accomplished by weight of check
mechanism, back pressure of the fluid or spring. -
150 300 600 900 1500 2500
Some of the common types of NRVs are Swing check valve, Lift check valve, Disc check valve,
-20 to 100 290 750 1500 2250 3750 6250
Split disc check valve, Tilting disc check valve, Piston check valve, Butterfly check valve etc. We will discuss
2C0 260• 750 1500 - - 2250 3750 6250 aboutsome-important type check valve.
300 230 720 1445 2165 3610 6015
15.5.1 Swing check valve
400 200 695 1385 2080 3465 5775
1330 1995 3325 5540 This type of check valve has a disc hangs down in the flow path with a hinge. When fluid flows
500 170 665
in forward direction, pressure of the fluid pushes the disc upward allowing the fluid to flow. Reverse flow
600 140 605 1210 1815 3025 5040
drops the disc and seals against the seat. So the flow stops in reverse direction. During no flow,
650 125 590 1175 1765 2940 4905 valve remain is closed position due to its own weight. In some cases weighted lever is used to assist
570 1135 1705 2840 4730 the closing.
700 110
750 95 530 1065 1595 2660 4430
800 80 510 1015 1525 2540 4230
850 65 485 975 1460 2435 4060
900 50 450 900 1350 2245 3745
950 35 320 640 955 1595 2655
1000 20 215 430 650 1080 1800
1050 20 145 290 430 720 1200
1100 20 95 190 290 480 800
1150 20 60 125 185 310 515
Normally this type of strainer is used in feed water line. In this type of strainer screen is put in a
vertical oriented outer chamber. The straining area is more in this case. So it is preferred in liquid pipe line.
_If it-is used in steam line suitable draining is required to remove condensate.
SEAT
Some times duplex arrangement of basket strainer is preferred. Second strainer is placed in
parallel with main strainer. Suitable change over arrangement is provided for diverting fluid flow from one
strainer to other. One of the strainers is kept in operation while other one is kept as stand by.
Strainer screens :
Two types of screens are used in strainer. These are perforated screen and Mesh screen.
Fig. 15.18 Lift check valve Perforated screen is formed by punching a large number of holes in a flat sheet and then rolled
in to tube and spot weld together. This type of screen is suitable to remove general pipe line debris.
Fluid enters in to NRV below the seat. Pressure of upward flow of the fluid lifts the disc from seat
and allows the flow. When flow stops or reverses the disc seats on the valve seat and stops flow. Mesh screen is formed by layering fine wire mesh over a perforated screen. Perforated screen acts
as a support cage for the mesh. Smaller particles can be removed in this screen.
15.5.3 Disc check valve
Flanged end or Weld end strainers are available to use in pipe line.
This type of check valve is having a disc which closes by the action of spring. When fluid enters
in to the NRV in forward direction, due to fluid pressure, force is exerted on the disc. When this force is
more than the spring force, the disc is forced to move from the seat in the flow direction and allows fluid 0 0 0
flow. When pressure of the fluid become low or during reverse flow, due to action of spring, the disc back on
to its seat and stops flow.
15.6 Strainer
Strainer is a low cost device which removes solids from flowing fluid. Most Engineers over look
this simple equipment. But this small equipment provide invaluable protection to pumps, Turbines, meters,
control valves, spray nozzles, steam traps and other pipe line equipment.
A pipe line strainer is a device which removes solids, present in the flowing fluid mechanically by
perforated or mesh wire straining element. Strainer protects the down stream equipment by removing pipe line
debris such 'as scale, rust, jointing compound, weld metal and other solids from the fluid. Otherwise, these
debris may find their way in to the pipe line system.
Strainers are available in two types as per their body configuration. These are "Y" type and
Basket type.
Y type Strainer:
This type of strainer is universally used. It has a compact cylindrical shape and is very strong.
This can be used in high pressure pipe line. But it has less dirt holding capacity and needs frequent cleaning.
Where significant amount of debris are expected, a blow down valve can be fitted in the strainer cap. By
opening this valve, this can be cleaned by the fluid pressure. In steam and feed water line, cleaning is not
a problem except during commissioning. During commissioning strainers get chocked frequently.
Interior of a turbine consists of several sets of blades. Some set of blades are fixed at the casing and
some set of blades are fixed on the rotor. Blades fixed in the casing are called as fixed blades and blades fixed
on the rotor are called as rotating or moving blades. Two sets of blade intermesh within certain minimum
clearance. Steam is allowed to expand in these blades.
Fixed-blades-convert potential energy of the steam in to kinetic energy and direct the flow to
moving blade. Moving blade convert this kinetic energy in to force, caused by pressure drop and results in .
the rotation of turbine shaft. Steam turbines are mostly axial flow type. Steam flows over the blades in a
direction parallel to axis of the wheel.
Modern turbines are mostly multistage type. There are number of stages of fixed and moving
blades to increase efficiency of turbine. Depending upon how energy is exerted from the blades, turbine is
16.1 Introduction classified as Impulse or Reaction Turbine.
Steam is allowed to enter in to the turbine through control ;valve. This steam, after passing
Sir Charles Algernon Parsons (1854-1931), a British engineer, patented modern steam Turbine in
through different stages of blade sets, is allowed to exhaust. This exhaust steam from turbine may have
1884. The crude form of steam Turbine was made by Hero Alexandria around Pt century AD, called as
some useful heat content and may be used for some other purpose. This type of turbine is called as back
Herds ball (Aeolipile). It was the first form of reaction steam turbine. This was a device consisting of an air
pressure turbine. In some design, exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser. This type of turbine is called
tight chamber (Sphere) with bent or curved pipes, projecting from it at opposite direction. When Steam is
expelled from the curved pipes, the sphere starts rotating. as condensing turbine.
16.2 Impulse and Reaction Turbine
On the basis of operation principle, steam turbines are classified 4 Impulse and Reaction turbine.
Impulse turbine uses impulse force of the steam on the blade tb move the rotor. In reaction
turbine, as the name implies, shaft is rotated by reactive force rather than by a direct push or impulse.
Impulse Turbine :
In impulse turbine, instead of set of fixed blades, a set of nozzles are fitted in the casing.
Pressure drop of steam takes place in these nozzles. Hence velocity of steam increases. This jet of steam
contains significant amount of kinetic energy. This high velocity steam is passed through a set of moving
blades, where pressure of the steam remains constant and velocity decreases as shown in the figure.
Moving
Blade Roter
Fixed
Nozzle.
Moving Blade
Fixed
Nozzle
First model of parsons Turbine was connected to a small dynamo to generate Electricity. Now
day's huge steam turbines are used to generate some hundred Mega watts of electricity.
Steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
converts it in to useful mechanical work. It generates rotary motion directly.
[216]
Fig. 16.2 Impulse Turbine
218 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 219
To reduce rotational speed of the turbine, multistaging is done. than one set of nozzles and
More
moving blades are fixed in series. This is also called as compounding. Either steam pressure or steam
velocity is dropped in these stages depending on type of compounding.
Compounding of impulse turbine is done in three ways.
1. Pressure compounding
2. Velocity compounding
3. Pressure velocity compounding.
In pressure compounding impulse turbine, total pressure drop of steam is achieved step by -a 9
step. Pressure drop across several stages is shown in Fig 16.3. Nozzles and moving blades are fixed at every Nozzle — ° m co
co
stage. Steam passing through first stage of nozzles is directed to the first row of moving blades. Exhaust Inlet Steam ^o'
Pressure o
steam of this moving blade row enters in to second stage nozzle set and diverted in to second row moving
blades and continues till exhaust pressure is reached.
N \ Exhaust velocity
Inlet Steam
Ve ocity
H
In case of pressure, velocity compounding turbine, pressure droop takes place at different nozzle
sets and velocity drop takes place at different moving blade sets as shown in fig 16.5.
$o m m a ri N
In velocity compounding, pressure is dropped in a set of nozzle. Total pressure drop takes Inlet ;t eam Pressure
place in this set of nozzle. But velocity drop takes place through different stages of moving blades as shown Exhaurt velocity
in Fig. 16.4.
High pressure steam enters in to a set of nozzles. Pressure of steam decreases -and velocity
increases there. The steam coming out from this nozzle set is directed to a set of moving blades On these Inlet Steam
Velocity
blades velocity drops. Steam coming out from these blades is guided back by another set of fixed blades.
Neither pressure nor velocity drops on these fixed guide blades. Steam from these guide blades enters in to
second stage of moving blades. Here velocity of the steam reduces further. This process continues till velocity Fig. 16.5 Pressure, velocity compounding of Impulse Turbine
of steam drops significantly.
220 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 221
Velocity triangle of impulse turbine
Rotor
Nome Moving
blade
Moving blade
Fixed blade
O
Steam
Pressure
I
Vwl Inlet Steam
Pressure Exhaust Steam
Fig. 16.6 Velocity triangle of Impulse Turbine Velocity
In the above fig. steam enters the curved blade at point C from nozzle. For shock less entry and
exit, jet of steam enters at the blade and leaves the blade tangentially. Steam leaves the blade at Inlet Steam Velocity f
Exhaust Steam
point D' Pressure
Fig 16.7 (a) Reaction Turbine
Various vectors shown are
Reaction Turbine :
In reaction turbine, fixed blades are fixed at the casing. Shape of these blades is such that, the
space bepeteR the blades has cross section same as shape of nozzle. Moving blades are fixed to the rotor.
Fixed blades guide the steam to moving blade. Blade shape is so designed that steam glides over these
blades. Steam, while gliding over moving blades, produces reaction on the blade. This reaction force „
Fig 16.7 (b) Compounding of Reaction turbine
produced, rotates the rotor. Steam is diverted in to rotor moving blades by fixed bTadesmounted on the
casing. Pressure drops across both moving and fixed blades as shown in Fig. 16.7.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine
223
Velocity triangle of Reaction Turbine D. According to pressure of turbine
1. High pressure Turbine
2. Low pressure turbine -
3. Medium pressure turbine
E. According to Application
1. Utility turbine
2. Industrial turbine
3. Marine Turbine
F. According to point of steam entry
1. End admission turbine
2. Center admission turbine
G. According to steam extraction or admission
1. Extraction turbine
2. Admission turbine
Some of the important types of turbine are discussed below.
I. Straight condensing Turbine :
In this turbine, steam enters the turbine through a Governing valve. After doing work inside
Fig. 16.8 Velocity triangle of Reaction Turbine
turbine, pressure and temperature of steam decreases. Steam can't be expanded further as it become wet
From fixed blades, steam enters in to moving blade at end C. Steam jet glides over the surface towards last stage blade. This steam is called as exhaust steam. Exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser
of the moving blade and leaves at point D. Like impulse Turbine, steam enters and leaves moving blade and the condensate is used further at boiler for formation of steam.
tangentially to minimize shock. During expansion in various stages, pressure of the steam decreases and volume increases
Different vectors shown on the above fig. are correspondingly. So the blade size of the turbine increases in each stage starting from 1st stage to last stage,
Vb = Linear Velocity of moving Blade
to handle this increased volume of steam.
V = Absolute velocity of steam entering the moving blade
Vy = Relative velocity of steam jet and moving blade
V1 = Vertical component of inlet steam velocity
V= Horizontal component of inlet steam velocity
V1,Vr1,Vf1,Vw1=
corresponding values at exit.
16.3 Classification of Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are classified into various types depending upon their mode of operation,
constructional features and steam parameters. These are classified normally in to following types
A. According to blade design.
1. Impulse Turbine Exhaust Steam
2. Reaction Turbine
3. Impulse — reaction Turbine
B. According to steam flow
1. Axial flow Turbine
2. Radial Flow Turbine
C. According to exhaust condition of turbine
1. Straight condensing or closed cycle turbine
2. Non condensing or back pressure Turbine
Fig. 16.9 Straight Condensing Turbine
3. Partial condensing or Extraction turbine
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 225
II. Back pressure or non condensing Turbine . IV. Center admission turbine
In this type of turbine steam is not expanded fully inside the turbine. After utilizing the heat Now day's large size turbines are manufactured with higher capacity. In traditional end entry
energy of steam partially in turbine, entire steam is exhausted with certain pressure and temperature. turbine design, steam enters at one end and allowed to expand till it is exhausted , at the exhaust end. In this
This steam is used else where for process heat requirement. This exhaust steam parameter is as per the case large amount of axial thrust is produced on the rotor, as it tends to move along with the direction of
process requirement. steam flow. Thrust produced is taken care by thrust bearings. But for larger size turbine this thrust is so high
to be taken care by thrust bearings. So center admission turbines are used. Steam flows towards both the
ends and axial thrust produced is minimized.
Hp Section
Suction Surface
Profile
Chord
Trailing angle or
tail
14— Axial
Fig. 16.13 Turbine rotor ' Chord
Fig. 16.14 Moving blade
228 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 229
H • Machined construction
' Built up
• Fixed body blades
Fig. 16.15 Roots of Blade
16.4.5 Steam sealing system
16.4.4 Fixed blades and Diaphragm
Mostly labyrinth sealing is adopted in modem steam turbine. Labyrinth is defined as a complicated
As discussed earlier, fixed blades facilitate expansion of steam and guide it to flow over subsequent network of passage. It prevents easy passage from entry to exit. Sealing depends on the labyrinth gap and
moving blade row. Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are called diaphragms. It holds
length of leakage path. Cross section of different type seal fins are shown in the figure.
the vane-shaped nozzles or fixed blades. Fixed blades are attached to it. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted
into the top casing and other half into the bottom. Mostly the diaphragm is split at the horizontal for
facilitating assembly. These diaphragms are fixed to the casing by suitable arrangement.
Like moving blade, the diaphragm comprises three main portions.
• Outer ring
• Blade ring
Inner ring or web
I. Outer ring
Fig. 16.17 Labyrinth Seal fin
Outer ring can be compared with the root of the moving blade. Through outer ring, diaphragm
is fixed into the turbine casing. Main feature of seal strip is
II. Blade ring Its thickness "b" should be sufficient to withstand stress induced due to pressure drop across it.
•
This portion of the diaphragm contains fixed blades or nozzles. Profile and orientation of these
blades are such that it directs the steam to the next moving blade row. Profile of the fixed blade is mostly • It should have very thin tip "x" to ensure the strip should wear without damaging and creating
same as moving blade. But tolerance of fixed blade is less as compared to moving blade, as stress induced excessive heat if rubbing.
in case of fixed blade is less.
230
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 231
There are various type of labyrinth sealing system as discussed in following sections. Some time multi teeth seals are inserted in to parent material with suitable root design like blades.
I. Straight through type seal
In this type, successive strips are arranged to throttle steam between strip tip and body having
clearance of "C" as shown in the fig. below.
Fig. 16.18 Straight through type seal Steam entered into turbine is guided in by fixed blades and directed to moving blades.
Entire steam should pass over fixed blade and moving blade sets. Pressure difference between each stage of
II. High low type seal
moving blade and fixed blade sets is different. So there is chance of steam leakage from one stage to
In this arrangement, higher and lower length fins are provided alternatively to perform successive another, resulting in lower efficiency of the turbine.
throttling. As the height of the fines are different so more turbulence is created resulting a better sealing. It is required to provide sealing arrangement between moving and fixed parts of the turbine to L
Fixed part restrict steam leakage from the blade system.. Multiple labyrinth-seals are provided at the inner faces between
diaphragm and rotor. In case of moving blades labyrinths seal is provided at the casing to restrict steam
leakage from moving blade and stationary casing. Seal strips are fixed . in the rotor in the grove provided for
diaphargm sealing. This sealing arrangement is called as inter stage sealing.
Turbine rotor is expanded out of casing at both ends to provide bearings and for coupling.
—^ Fins
This portion is called as gland. At these ends there is chance of high pressure steam leakage from the steam
entry end and air ingress at the exhaust end where vacuum exists. So sealing of gland is very important.
Ineffective sealing results steam leakage and hence lower efficiency
Moving part Labyrinth sealing arrangement is done at gland portion to avoid steam leakage and air ingress.
Fig. 16.19 High Low type seal
This sealing arrangement is calledas gland sealing. Along with labyrinth seal arrangement, steam is also
III. Alter arrangement type seal used to assist sealing. This will be discussed later.
In this type of arrangement, strips are fixed alternatively in rotating and fixed parts. Clearance of 16.4.6 Bearings .
the upper and lower teeth mostly kept constant. In this case fines are inserted into rotating shaft in the Rotor of the turbine is required to be supported at both ends. Normally extended. portion of the
shaft is supported at both ends at front and rear bearing pedestal. Mostly journal bearings are provided at
groove provided. Fines that are fixed at rotor are subjected to higher stress due to centrifugal force.
these bearing pedestals to support the rotor. Also thrust bearing is provided to take care of axial shift of the
These fines are inserted in to fixed or moving portion in various methods. Some time strips are rotor in both directions and keep the rotor at desired position. These bearings plays vital role for smooth
directly inserted in to parent material. Some time the fines are bent to Lshape and inserted in to specially ,operation of the turbine. The function and principle of these bearings are discussed below.
prepared grooves.
I. Journal bearing
Fixed part
Journal bearing is a cylinder, which surrounds the shaft and is filled with some form of fluid
cz, a.i..i..1//7.iii.iii lubricant. It consists of a split outer shell of hard metal and a soft metal at the inner cylindrical part. In this
bearing a shaft (rotor) or journal rotates inside the bearing over a layer of lubricating oil, separating the
—^ Fins
shaft and bearing through fluid dynamic principle.
This lubricating oil layer supports the shaft preventing metal to metal contact. Oil is pumped in to
the bearing through oil pump. When rotor rotates, lubrication oil is drawn up around the journal due to hydro
Moving part dynamic effect of lubrication. When lubrication is introduced between two surfaces of rolling contact if
creates a large increase in pressure. As viscosity is exponentially related to pressure, a large increase in viscosity
Fig. 16.20 Alternate arrangement type real occurs between journal and bearing creating a thin oil film preventing contact. It-creates an oil wedge that
supports the shaft and relocates it within the bearing clearance. This oil wedge lifts and supports the shaft.
234 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 235
Normally two sets of thrust bearings are provided in front bearing pedestal at both side of the Strainer
shaft collar. Proper oil supply provision is made for proper lubrication.
- Spring
16.43 Gland
00000
In a turbine, rotor rotates in side the casing. Rotor is extended out side the casing at both front and
rear ends. The portion from where the rotor exists the turbine casing is called as Gland.
Steam to
Turbine
There is chance of steam leakage and
atm ospheric air ingress to the casing at front 00000
and rear gland respectively. So it is required
Inner Labyrinth ' .
to seal this portion to prevent leakage of
Outer LABYRINTH
Rings (Packing) Rings (Packing) steam and atmospheric air ingress. Gland at Oil Inlet
the front end of the turbine is called as front
gland and that of rear end is called as rear
gland. To reduce pressure difference between
Inlet steam
atmosphere and inside casing, sets of
labyrinth seals are provided. As discussed Fig. 16.26 Emergency Stop Valve
earlier, these labyrinth seals causes pressure As shown in the above figure the valve cone is operated by a spindle which is connected to a
drop along the rotor. piston. This piston is operated through a spring. To open the valve hydraulic pressure is applied against the
spring. To close the valve this pressure is reduced by draining the hydraulic fluid. This valve is a quick closing
But only labyrinth packing is not sufficient to valve and stops steam entry in to turbine immediately in case it closes.
prevent leakage of steam or air. So, gland
Turbine In most of the stop valve, a strainer is provided to restrict entry of any foreign material in to the
Rotor
sealing steam is used to prevent leakage. Low nozzle of turbine.
Shaft pressure steam is supplied at the final sets of
Vent and drain point is provided in the gland area of the stop valve to vent out leakage steam
labyrinths. Arrangement is done to vent the
and to drain out condensate formed.
excess gland steam. To drain out the
In some design, this valve is opened and latched hydraulically. The latch realizes when hydraulic
condensate produced due to cooling of this
pressure drops and the valve closes instantly. In some cases built in test facility is provided to test function
gland steam, drains are also provided,' of the valve during turbine running. This facility ensures the moving mechanism is free and ready to shutoff
Fig. 16.25 Gland
the valve during emergency. Valve body is normally forged from alloy steel or carbon steel as per the steam
Details about gland sealing will be discussed later on. parameter of turbine. Inlet steam pipe line is fastened to this valve without any piping stress.
16.4.8 Exhaust hood 16.4.10 Governing valve and control valve
Exhaust hood of the turbine is a structure that connects the space just after the last stage of the Control valve regulates steam flow to turbine. This valve in placed inside the steam chest of the
Turbine. It is operated by a governing valve which in actuated mostly hydraulicaly. Operating signal for
turbine blade to the condenser. It is fastened to the neck of condenser. An expansion bellow is provided in
governing valve is obtained from turbine governing system. In actual practice combination of Governing
between to absorb any shock. Exhaust steam from turbine is diffused in this area and canalized to condenser.
valve and control valve is known as govering valve.
It is designed to minimize pressure loss. One inspection door is provided at the exhaust hood to inspect
condition of blade (last stage) and top portion of Condenser tube. In some turbine, water spray arrangement Operating lever of control valve is connected to the governing valve. There are more than one
is provided at the exhaust hood to control exhaust steam temperature. For this purpose condensate of main valves connected to this lever to control steam entry to turbine. These valves are placed at steam chest of
condensers pumped by CEP is sprayed at this area. Tapping to measure exhaust steam pressure and the turbine. The valves are fixed to the lever in such a way that, a particular valve opens or closes at a
temperature are provided in this area. particular lever position. More number of valves makes the steam flow control more effective and minimizes
throttling loss. Depending upon the steam requirement of turbine i.e. different load condition, different
16.4.9 Emergency Stop Valve (ESV)
valves are opened and steam flows to different nozzle sets of the turbine.
This valve is normally hydraulically operated. The valve opens hydraulically against a spring Now days mostly, electro hydraulic governing system is used. Electrical signal from the governor
force. To close the valve, hydraulic fluid is drained and valve closes immediately, due to force of spring. This is transferred to hydraulic pressure in an I/P converter. This hydraulic pressure operates the actuator and
valve is normally fully open or fully close type.
hence the lever of valve sets.
236 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 237
Details about governing system will be discussed later on.
Time
we, spur
Steam
Chest
A
Confrolvalve
Low idle
speed —,
!--^ Rated speed
Barring Critical
speed Band High idle
speed
Governing Valve Fig. 16.28 Turbine start up curve
In most of the cases, the rear side pedestal of turbine and hence casing is rigidly fixed to base
plate. But the front side pedestal is fixed in such a way that, it can expand towards front.
Steam Turbine nozzle sets
Temperature of the rotor varies according to steam flow. So it is subjected to frequent thermal
Fig. 16.27 Governing valve and control valve expansion and contraction and it is first in comparison to casing. For smooth operation of turbine, it is
required to monitor expansion of casing and rotor. For this differential expansion of casing and rotor is
In controlled extraction turbine there are more than one governing valves. In single extraction
there are two sets of governing valves in HP and LP sections. measured. Eddy current type measuring probes are normally used to measure rotor expansion or contraction.
Through these probes the gap voltage between probe tip and rotor part is measured. The rotor axial thermal
16.5 Thermal expansion of Turbine
growth with respect to turbine foundation is measured. This is the relative measurement of rotor axial
Steam turbine is subjected to high temperature. During exposure to high temperature, the rotor
thermal growth with respect to casing.
and casing of the turbine expands. Turbine rotor and casing expands/contracts at different rate due to
difference in their mass. As casing wall, is thick and its mass is more than rotor so it expands and contracts 16.6 Gland sealing System
at slower rate than rotor. As, clearance between fixed blade and moving blade inside the turbine is less, so,'
In earlier section it is discussed about gland. Low pressure steam is supplied at gland area.
expansion of casing and rotor is required to be uniform. Otherwise, there is chance of rubbing of fixed and
moving parts of the turbine due to unequal expansion of casing and rotor. Special care is taken for smooth This steam seals the gland and restricts high pressure steam leakage from gland area of front gland and
expansion of casing and rotor during startup, load variation and shutdown. Thermal condition in turbine atmospheric air ingress at rear gland area. Before rolling of turbine and building vacuum in the condenser
changes during starting, stopping and load change. gland steam is charged.
For smooth expansion of casing and rotor during starting, turbine starting curve is followed. During starting of the turbine, steam from auxiliary steam source or motive steam is used
Time is given for expansion of these parts. This is called as "socking" of turbine. More time is given to
for gland sealing. Superheated steam at a pressure of about 2kg/cm 2 is maintained at the gland steam
bring the turbine into full speed from cold condition. In hot start up the turbine is already in hot condition.
header.
So the time requirement is less.
A typical startup curve is shown below. It will be discussed in brief later on.
238 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 239
Auxiliary
16.7 Barring device
CV-A CV B
Steam Gland Steam header Mass of rotor of the turbine is high. It is subjected to high temperature also. So it is not advisable
' To Condenser
to keep the'rotor in standstill position after stoppage of turbine. It is required to rotate the turbine shaft at
Fig. 16.29 Gland Sealing System
low speed continuously after stoppage of the turbine. Otherwise due to heavy mass, shaft may deform or
As shown in the Fig.; through control valve CV-A, steam is supplied to the glands seal header. sagging may take place. In cold condition also the shaft is required to be rotated intermediately to avoid
When this valve is opened steam enters to both the glands. Steam can be seen at both gland vents. Gland rotor deformation.
drains are kept open to drain out condensate. The gland is charged slowly by opening CV—A, during cold To avoid sagging or deformation, barring device is provided in the turbine to rotate rotor at slow
condition of turbine. Through control valve CV-B the gland steam header pressure is maintained. In case speed. In some turbine this is done by a motor with suitable reducing gear at shaft. In some cases shaft is
rotated through hydraulic arrangement. Hand barring arrangement is also provided to rotate the shaft at
the header pressure raises, this control valve opens and allows excess steam to flow to condenser. A safety
emergency incase of failure of above arrangement. In the motor driven barring device; clutch provision is
valve is provided at the steam header to protect gland from excess steam pressure due to failure of any made so that the barringdevice can be declutched automatically above certain speed, during starting of
control valve. turbine.
During running of turbine, once high pressure steam is admitted into turbine, high pressure steam It is to be ensured that lubrication oil is available to all the bearings during barring operation.
starts leaking through front gland and flows in backward direction and increases the header pressure. In this Suitable interlocking is provided to stop barring operation in case of failure of lubrication oil supply.
condition, control valve CV-A closes automatically. Leakage steam from front gland is used to maintain In bigger size turbine jacking oil is applied at both end of the shaft to lift the rotor up to some
header pressure and hence supply steam to rear gland. Both control valve CV-A and CV-B are kept in auto extent. Jacking oil is high pressure oil, required during starting only. So, before staring of barring, shaft is
mode, lifted a little.
In most cases, to utilize leak off steam of both the glands, gland seal steam of front and rear 16.8 Governing system
gland is not vented to atmosphere. This is collected at gland seal condenser. Main condensate from CEP is Governing is a system of a turbine to control the speed automatically. It controls the energy input
(steam) to the turbine. Main function of the governor is to adjust steam entry into turbine to maintain the
passed through this gland seal condenser and condenses gland steam here and heat of that steam.is utilized
speed at desired level. Indirectly governor also control load, exhaust steam pressure etc. Desirable characteristics
to raise temperature of main condensate. Condensate produced here is drained to main condenser. of a good governing system are:
240 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 241
• Quick response to small speed change Load on the car decreases. So speed of the car increases at that particular accelerator position.
Driver has to decrease accelerator to achieve desired speed.
• Adjust control valve with minimum overshoot From the above example we can conclude-
• Have sufficient power to overcome the back force of control valve • Set speed of car is 50 km/hr
•— Speed of car varies according to load
• Very little speed fluctuation under constant load and steam condition
Function of the governor can be understood from the example discussed below. o Actual speed is measured in speedometer.
• Set speed and actual speed is compared.
• Incase there is difference, accelerator is adjusted to control the fuel in to engine
of car.
• Driver of the car performs above function.
In governor of the turbine same principle is applied. Driver of the car can be compared as
governor of the turbine. Speed of the turbine is set at the governor. Actual speed is measured and compared
by the governor. Governor gives signal to the governing valve to adjust steam input to the turbine to achieve
Fig. 16.31 Car on plain road set speed. This function takes place in governing system automatically through closed loop system as
shown in the fig. Amplifier .
Suppose a driver is driving a car on a plain road. His speed limit is say 50 km/h. From the
speedometer of the car, he observes actual speed of the car and adjust accelerator to match speed of the
Set Speed Governer
car to 50 km/h. In case speed raises, he lowers the accelerator and when speed lowers he increases the
accelerator. When speed matches to 50 km/h, he holds the accelerator in steady position. Governing Inlet steam
valve
Control valve
Turbine
Speed measuring
device
Fig, 16.34 Turbine Governing System
Fig. 16.32 Car moving up Governing system of the turbine consists of
Suppose at the same accelerator position the car is required to go up on a hilly road. Load on I. Speed sensing device
the car increases, so speed of the car decreases. Driver observes speed from the speedometer and increases II. Governor
accelerator to achieve desired speed. III. Amplifier or converter
IV. Governing valve and control valve
Suppose, again in the same accelerator position the car is required to come down on the hilly
Main required features of any governing system is
A. Should have better steady state stability. So that variation in speed or fluctuation from the
speed setting under steady state operating condition is very small.
B. Less response time. Time required to sense deviation in speed and bring back to normal
level within shortest possible time.
C. Better stability. Should control the system within shortest time without oscillation.
There are different types of governor depending upon the mode of their operation.
I. Mechanical governor
II. Hydraulic governor
Fig. 16.33 Car moving down III. Electro hydraulic governor
siefilmiatzaiw,
Governing
valve
Turbine-
-------- -------
Electro hydraulic
converter
Magnetic
Pickup
Unit
r
Fig. 16.36 Electro hydraulic governer
Speed sensor – magnetic pickup unit
This is used to measure actual speed of the turbine. Output of this sensor is directly proportional
to speed of the turbine. A coil is rapped around the pole piece of a permanent magnet. When any magnetic
material passes through the magnetic end of the MPU, a voltage is generated.
Connection
to This sensor is fixed in such an area that a gear attached to the turbine rotor rotates radially.
Turbine Shaft Air gap between MPU and the gear is kept very small. Frequency of the voltage generated is proportional to
speed of the rotor teeth and hence speed of the rotor. Output of MPU is connected to Electronic governor.
Normally two MPUs are used to measure the speed. Governor generates a trip signal to stop the turbine
Fig. 16.35 Mechanical Governor
automatically, if signal is not obtained from any one of these sensors.
Ferromagnetic wheel
Two fly balls are attached into the shaft of turbine. When speed of the shaft increases, due to
.centrifugal force the balls tries to move up and the lever attached closes the control valve. So steam entry Magnet
to the turbine reduces. These governors are not used now days.
16.8.2 Hydraulic Governor
A
In this system, governor operation is totally hydraulic. Hydraulic oil is obtained from main II1I11Il11I
1I 1111IItII
lubrication oil system of turbine. 11111111111
II 11111111 I
IIIII111111
One oil pump is mounted at the front rotor end of the turbine, which pumps primary oil.
Pressure of primary oil depends upon speed of the turbine. According to this primary oil pressure, secondary
oil pressure varies, which changes position of control valve. This governing system is also having speed
setting arrangement. Output .
SR IV type governor made by Woodward is the example of this type governor. This type governor
is also not used now days.
Fig. 16.37 Magnetic Pick up unit.
244 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 245
Microprocessor based Electronic Governor
• Valve limiter
This is a microprocessor based electronic controller having lot of inbuilt facilities. Turbine speed
• Actuator demand
can be set. Programming can be made for automatic startup keeping in view the start up curve, critical
band avoidance of the turbine as per the turbine design. It has three PID controller likes- Speed controller, • Controlling parameter
Auxiliary controller and cascade controller. Also limiter function can be programmed. In auxiliary control - Peak speed
mode it can control Generator power, Exhaust Pressure, Inlet Pressure, Plant import/ export level etc. • Last trip
Also generator breaker contacts can be programmed to change the governor from speed control
In some electronic governing system, instead of separate governor, the governing system
_mode to Auxiliary mode ox_vise versa. It has over speed setpoint and mechanical-over speed-test-facility4---
20 mA electronic signal is obtained from this governor. programming is loaded on main plant DCS with suitable operator interface module. Governor program
runs in conjunction with plant control program. In this case also all the facilities like- auto start mode,
Woodward 505 is example of this type of microprocessor based governor, used widely in turbine critical speed avoidance etc. are available. Programming can be done to follow turbine startup curve and
governing system. This governor can be connected to plant DCS easily.
other requirements.
Woodward 505 governor is having following features.
Programming of Electronic Governor
• Critical speed avoidance
Programming of the governor is made as per requirement of Plant operating condition and
' Auto start sequence Turbine manufacturer. Governor follows this program to produce corrective action.
• Valve limiter Programming is done to get the desired starting curve and to avoid critical speed band for auto
Password protection in programming mode start mode of the turbine. Valve limiter and over speed limit is also programmed for safety of the machine.
• First out trip indication PID values of different controller are set during programming.
• Zero speed detector Following Important information's are required for programming of governor.
• Peak speed recording ' Mode of start
• Remote and front panel set point • Rate of speed raise to minimum idle speed
• Front panel display • Idle speed
Depending upon the set value and actual value of the parameter to be controlled, an electronic • Idle time
signal of 4-20 mA is generated. This signal is used further to adjust the control valve position.
o Cold start time
Various inputs as mentioned below are required in Electronic governor.
• Hot start time
• Actual speed measurement
• Teeth seen by MPU
• Actual power generated by the Generator
• Gear ratio
• Generator Breaker contact
o Maximum speed limit
• Utility breaker contact
o Maximum governing speed
Breaker contact provides information to the governor about solo or parallel mode of operation
of the generator. Accordingly governor acts as speed controller or auxiliary KW controller. The speed and • Minimum governing speed
auxiliary controller set points can also be changed from remote control desk. • Critical speed
Electronic governor also displays various parameters like • Critical speed rate
• Speed set point • Extraction or admission
• Actual speed Programming is done during turbine stop condition. For safety, programming mode is password
• KW setting protected.
• Actual KW Governorfor extraction turbine
• Output signal In extraction turbine, two electronic signals are obtained from the electronic governor. These two
• Idle/ rated status signals are used in two different I/P converters to regulate control valve of HP and LP side as shown in
• Auto start timer time remaining the figure.
Governing oil
Pressure oil
for servometer
operati on
Trip Solenoid valve
Electronic
Governor
Magnetic
Pickup To condenser
I Oil filter
Unit Holding oil
• Extraction of emergency Stop valve
Speed set point
Secondary oil for
Oil "P Servomotor operation
drain
Fig. 16.38 Governing System of Controled extraction Turbine
1 Signal from
Electronics
Governor
I/P Converter :
Fig. 16.39 Control oil System
In this converter, electronic signal obtained from electronic governor is converted into hydraulic
signal. Trip oil from the main control oil system is used in this converter. The electronic signal of the .
16.9 Turbine Protection system
governor throttles drain of the converter to build up secondary oil pressure. At 4 mA signal, drain of the
Turbine is a very critical machine in any power plant. So protection of this machine is an
converter is opened fully. When signal rises, it throttles the drain, so secondary oil pressure increases. important consideration. There are different protection arrangements. Some of the protection system is
This secondary oil is used to adjust actuator position and hence control valve. incorporated in the main plant automation system. Any abnormal operating condition produces a trip
signal and shutdown the set. Apart from these protections, there are some inbuilt mechanical protection
Normally "Woodward" make CPC or "Voith" make I/P converters are used for this purpose. systems in the turbine, which stop the turbine in case any deviation of turbine operating condition. We will
Actuator or Servomotor (Governing Valve) : discuss these inbuilt protection systems here. Others will be discussed latter on.
Main inbuilt protection systems of the turbine are
Actuator is a hydraulic power cylinder. The piston of this cylinder moves upward or downward as
• Over speed
per the hydraulic signal obtained from I/P converter. This piston is connected to the arm of turbine control
• Excess axial movement of the turbine shaft
valve.
• Low vacuum
Function of the turbine control valve is already discussed in earlier section.
1. Over speed protection
16.8.4 Control oil system This protection stops the turbine incase speed of turbine becomes abnormally high.
A mechanical over speed trip arrangement is provided at the turbine shaft. Trip oil of governing system is
Control oil is obtained from main lubrication oil system of turbine. Oil from main oil pump is hold in this over speed protection device. In case there is over speed of turbine, a pin which is fixed at the
used for this purpose. But this oil is not filtered or cooled at main oil filter or oil cooler. Distribution of this shaft of the turbine, comes out due to centrifugal force and hit the lever of the trip device which hold this
oil system is shown below. trip oil. So, trip oil is drained. In the absence of trip oil (which is used to keep stop valve in open condition?
stop valve closes and turbine stops. The rpm at which this pin comes out can be adjusted by adjusting a
screw which holds this pin.
248 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 249
over speed pin To measure vibration, vibration probes are fixed at the bearing housing through suitable fixing
Fig. 16.40 Mechanical over speed protection arrangement. Normally two vibration probes are placed 90° apart to measure vibration. Probes are fixed at
H. Excess Axial movement protection both front and rear ends. Also vibration probes are fixed to measure shaft vibration of gear box and
Excess axial movement of turbine shaft in not desirable as closely spaced rotating and fixed generator rotor.
parts may come in contact and damage turbine internals. Axial shift at either direction is restricted. During standstill condition of turbine, these probes are fixed. So that, proper gap can be maintained
between probe tip and rotor. Vibration probes acts on eddy current generation principle.
Trip Lever
I
L. Ring
L—0-Shaft
HI. Low vacuum protection Voltage generated in the probe is directly proportional to gap between probe and rotor.
Low vacuum in the condenser creates back pressure on the turbine blades. So this protection is This measured voltage is scaled down to measure vibration of the rotor.
essential for safety of the turbine. Now days, low vacuum tripping is done at plant automation system Limits are set suitably to generate alarm and trip signal, when vibration of any point exceed this
through tripping contact of high pressure limit switch or transmitter. But in some turbine, this is done limit. Alarm signal is generated if the value exceeds alarm level set point. If the vibration increases further
mechanically. Trip oil is hold in a low vacuum device, located near condenser neck. Trip Oil is hold with and exceeds trip limit then trip signal is generated and turbine trips.
help of a piston, which is closed when there is vacuum up to desired level inside the condenser. When
vacuum drops, this piston move downward and drain out trip oil to trip the turbine. II. Bearing Temperature
16.10 Turbovisory Due to friction, heat is generated in journal bearing which is cooled by help of lubricating oil. At
higher temperature, babbating material of the bearing damages. So it is required to keep the bearing
Turbovisory system is the monitoring system of turbine. It supervises condition of turbine and
temperature within safe limit. For this, temperature of bearing is monitored continuously.
informs operating person. It also ensures that the monitored parameter does not exceed beyond maximum
permissible limit. Before that, the system stops the turbine. In Turbovisory system, following important RTD,s are embedded in the journal and thrust bearings and placed just below the babatting
parameters are monitored. material to get actual reading of the babatting material. Through RTD,s, bearing temperature of all the
Vibration journal and thrust bearings are measured. Like vibration, limits are set for bearing temperature, to generate
•
alarm and trip signal.
Bearing temperature
During replacement of bearing, special care is taken, so that RTD,s are not disturbed or leads are
• Eccentricity not opened. If the RTD is damaged, it will not be possible to measure bearing temperature and hence it will
• Axial position be dangerous to run the turbine.
To Condenser
L Bearing Rotor
Fig. 16.45 Uncontrolled Extraction
Fig. 16.44 Location of probe for Eccentricity measurement Quantity of steam extraction is not controllable in this case. A fixed quantity of steam can be
IV. Axial position extracted after certain load on the turbine.
Axial position is required to be measured to know the exact position of rotor with respect to II. Controlled extraction :
casing. For this eddy current probe is used. This probe is placed in axial direction to the rotor, few milimeter This type of turbine is used at process industries, where steam is extracted from turbine after
away. When rotor moves towards the probe, eddy current signal is more and when it moves away, the certain stage at desired pressure and temperature. Quantity of the steam can be adjusted as per requirement
signal is weak. Calibration is made in such a way that, when the rotor is at exact center with respect to in this case. Single extraction turbine has two stage, i.e. HP stage and LP stage. Two sets of governing
casing, the reading indicates zero. When it moves towards front it shows positive and when it moves away
valves are there. HP Control valve LP Control valve
it shows negative reading.
Like vibration and temperature, maximum permissible limit is determined to generate alarm and
Inlet Steam
trip signal.
16.11 Turbine casing draining system
Steam is expanded at various stages of fixed and moving blades. So, there is chance of condensation
of steam, particularly during starting. Accumulation of condensate inside turbine can damage turbine. It is
required to drain out this condensate during starting. For this, drain points are provided at turbine lower
casing. Also drain points are provided at the gland portion and emergency stop valve. All these drains are
connected to condenser. Orifice of suitable size is placed in the drains to avoid steam flow in these drains.
16.12 Extraction System
In a extraction turbine some part of steam in extracted from Turbine after expansion at some Extraction To Condenser
stage of blades. There are two types of extraction. Fig. 16.46 Controlled Extraction
The arrangement is like two turbines connected in series. Total work done is the sum of work
done at HP and LP stage.
To get more extraction steam, HP control valve is opened more and more steam enters to HP
stage. So, more work is done at HP stage. To maintain same mechanical output LP control valve is
throttled accordingly. Total work done in this case remains same and extra steam is available at extraction. AUXILLARY SYSTEM STEAM
Like this to reduce extraction, HP control vale is closed and LP control valve is opened more. To
increase mechanical output. both HP and LP control valves are opened. Opening and closing of these
control valves are done through governing system.
To get two controlled extraction steam at different temperature and pressure, 3 sets of control
valve are used.
17.1 Introduction
In a power plant, other than turbine, there are other associated systems. These systems are
required for running of a turbine. Most of the important components and systems of turbine proper are
discussed in previous chapter. Here we will discuss about auxiliary system which helps to run the turbine.
Each system is having its own importance and can't be left alone. Like various systems of boiler, turbine
auxiliary systems are discussed in this chapter. This will give a clear idea about functioning of steam turbine
as a whole. Some of the important auxiliary systems are :
• Oil tank This pump is driven by a DC motor. In case of black out or non availability of either MOP or
AOP this pump is started automatically to continue oil supply to bearings. Normally this pump is a low
o Oil pumps
capacity pump. So it supplies oil only for bearing lubrication. Governing oil is not supplied by this pump.
o Oil cooler
This pump is required to run during emergency (black out situation). So it should be kept available,
o Oil filter once turbine is in operation.
• Oil centrifuge
17.2.3 Oil coolers
Oil overhead tank
Normally two oil coolers of 100% capacity are provided to cool down entire oil supplied to
o Accumulators
turbine bearings, gearbox, and generator bearings for lubrication. Governing oil is not cooled at oil cooler,
17.2.1 Oil tank This oil is taken out before oil cooler. One cooler is put on line and another one is kept as standby. Online
Total oil for the system is stored in this tank. The tank is having adequate capacity to hold changeover facility is provided to take the standby cooler in to service, without interruption of oil supply,
while turbine is running.
sufficient oil during running and stop condition. The tank base is made sloped to one side, so that the
sediment in oil can be collected in the lower area and can be drained out by opening drain valve. The tank Before changeover, it is to be ensured that the standby cooler is filled with oil and air is vented
is having level measurement facility to give alarm for low oil level. Also a level glass is provided to find out out properly. Otherwise there will be air lock and oil supply to bearings may interrupt.
tank level at any instant. Suitable tapings are provided to facilitate oil suction for oil pumps, draining of .Oil cooler is a shell and tube type heat exchanger. Cooling water flows inside the tube bundle
return oil from bearings and governing system, connection for oil centrifuge, fill up of fresh oil etc. and oil flows at the shell side. Cooling water for oil cooler is obtained from main cooling water system of
One oil mist fan is provided on the tank to vent out any oil vapor and keep the tank slightly power plant. Regulating valves are provided at the inlet and outlet of the cooling water supply line. To
increase or decrease oil temperature, cooling water flow is decreased or increased respectively through these
below atmospheric pressure.
regulating valves. Always the cooling water outlet valve is regulated to v„pry flow of cooling water. At any
17.2.2 Oil pumps case cooling water inlet valve . is not to be throttled as sufficient, cooling water will not available inside tube
To pump oil from the oil tank to various lubrication points and controlling purpose, oil pumps and tube may damage.
are provided. Normally three pumps are provided. These pumps are Drain point is provided at the cooler to drain out settled sediment at bottom of the cooler.
° Main oil pump( MOP) 17.2.4 Oil filters
• Auxiliary oil pump (AOP)
Emergency oil pump (EOP) Oil coming out from cooler is passed through oil filter to remove any contaminated particle or
debris. Filter is normally basket type with removable filter cartridge. Like cooler there are two filters of 100%
1. Main oil pump
capacity each with suitable online changeover arrangement. The oil is filtered upto 20 - 25 micron level on
Main oil pump is used during running of turbine. In some turbine, main' oil pump (MOP) is these filters before circulating in bearings.
coupled Mechanically to the main shaft of turbine. This is a gear pump which ensures oil supply to bearings
as long as rotor is rotating. This is useful for safe costing down of turbine in case of failure of emergency oil Differential pressure acress the filter is measured which indicates the chocking condition of filter
pump. When turbine is stopped or trips, rotor does not come to standstill immediately from full speed. cartridge. If differential pressure is high it indicates, filter is chocked and needs cleaning.
Rotor requires some time to come standstill as the mass of the rotating part is high. Slow de acceleration of Before changeover of oil filter when turbine is in operation, it is to be ensured, standby filter is
turbine speed is called as coasting down. completely filled and no air is trapped inside. Filter cartridge of stand by filter is always to be kept clean, so
Failure of oil supply to bearings, during coasting down is dangerous. This may damage bearings. that at any moment this can be taken in to line, if required.
Mechanically coupled main oil pump is a safer arrangement from this point of view. 17.2.5 Oil centrifuge
In some case, main oil pump is an ordinary electric motor driven pump like Auxiliary oil pump.
In this case for safe costing down, over head oil tank provision is made to ensure continuous oil supply to Oil centrifuge is a machine used to keep lubricating oil clean. This is a separator to separate
bearings in case of failure of emergency oil pump. liquid mixture having different density or to separate heavier solid particles from the liquid.
There is possibility of leakage of steam in to the lubricating oil system at bearings due to failure
H. Auxiliary oil pump
of labyrinths. Also there is chance of mixing of cooling water in the lubricating oil at oil cooler, in case of
This is a motor driven pump. During starting of turbine (incase of mechanically coupled MOP),
puncture of any tube. If there is puncture of tube in running cooler water is not mixed with oil rather oil is
oil is supplied through AOP. Once turbine reaches full speed and oil pressure is developed by MOP AOP is
mixed with cooling water, as the pressure of oil is more than cooling water. But at the standby cooler,
stopped.
In case of motor driven MOP either AOP or MOP can be used interchangeably. In this case, one leaking tube may lead to mixing of water into oil. Oil is contaminated with heavier metallic debris, dust and
pump runs and other is kept standby. dirt. So it is required to separate water and solid particles from the oil to keep it clean and increase its life.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 257
Centrifuge is a machine which separate water and solid particle from oil. This is achieved by
centrifugal force of a high speed rotating bowl inside the separator. Due to centrifugal force, heavier particle
Over flow oil Over head
is displaced towards the outer periphery of the bowl and the lighter oil is displaced towards center of the Tank
bowl, where it is collected and sent back to main oil tank.
Main oil Tank
Sight Glass
Heater
Centrifuge. C Quick
filling .. -
valve
4=
Motor
Clean oil
to oil tank
to Control
oil
Cooler Filter
Dirty oil for Main oil tank Lubricating oil
to Bearings
Fig. 17.1 Oil Centrifuge Fig. 17.2 Lube oil overhead tank arrangement
Centrifuge is connected to main oil tank as shown in the figure. Inlet of the centrifuge is connected General arrangement of overhead tank is a shown in the figure.
to the lowest slope of the tank, so that dirty oil can be collected for cleaning. Pump of the centrifuge pumps Oil after oil filter is taped to overhead tank. During normal operation, oil enters to the overhead
dirty oil and circulates through an indirect heater. Hot water is`used to heat the oil at indirect heater. Also tank through the orifice continuously. Oil, overflowing from overhead tank is drained to main oil tank. In
heater can be by passed if required. Oil is passed to the rotating bowel which rotates at high speed. this line a sight glass is provided to check whether oil is overflowing continuously or not. When oil pumps
Bowel of oil centrifuge can be adjusted to perform these two functions. are running, pressure in the main lubricating line is more, so oil from overhead tank is not allowed to flow
I. Purification by gravity through NRV. When oil pump fails, oil pressure drops in the line. In this case oil from overhead
tank start flowing through NRV, by gravity and supplied to bearings. Drain oil from bearing is again routed
In purification mode, centrifuge is used to separate different density liquid mixture (oil & water).
to main oil tank as usual: So the main oil tank should have enough capacity to accommodate entire oil of
Simultaneously this can remove solid particle also. For this purpose water seal is provided to prevent light
overhead tank. Over head tank capacity is so designed that it can supply oil to bearing for 20 — 30 minutes.
density oil to come to water outlet side. Heavier solid particles separated are collected at the outer surface
of the bowl, which can be cleaned regularly. During starting, oil can be filled up at this tank by opening quick filling valve. Interlock provision
is given, so that turbine can't be started if this tank is not filled up. Also level switch is provided to initiate
II. Clarification
alarm if tank level becomes low.
In clarification mode only solid particles are removed. Rotating bowel is adjusted for this. Removed
sludge from the oil is collected at the outer periphery of the bowel which is cleaned regularly. Sealing water This system is very safe for turbine. So along with emergency oil pump this system is adopted in
is not required in this mode of operation. most of the cases.
Through centrifuge oil is circulated to the oil tank again. So, centrifuge can be used to clean 17.2.7 Oil accumulator
certain amount of oil, whether turbine is in operation or not. Centrifuge is having a top up connection
through which fresh oil can be transferred through centrifuge to main oil tank. Oil accumulator is provided on the governing or control oil line of the turbine. This accumulator
maintains oil pressure in the line during momentary fluctuation of oil pressure during oil pump change over
17.2.6 Overhead tank or sudden operation of servomotor of governing valve.
Lube oil overhead tank is used for the safety of turbine. A tank is placed at a height and oil is In the accumulator an inert gas filled bladder is provided. Gas pressure inside the bladder is
always filled on this tank. Incase of failure of oil pumps, automatically oil from this tank start flowing by maintained slightly below the normal oil pressure of the line.
gravity and supply oil to bearings. This system ensures supply of oil h to turbine bearings in spite of failure of During normal operation, oil pressure of the line compress the bladder and oil is occupied in the
oil pumps, particularly emergency oil pump, during coasting down. oil space of the accumulator. When, pressure at the line drops, the bladder is expanded, due to inside gas
pressure. So it pushes out oil of oil space to the oil line and takes care momentary oil pressure fluctuation.
Heater
Oil Space
260 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 261
Condensate from CEP also passes through LP heater to gain heat from the extraction steam of When high pressure steam is passed on a convergent —divergent nozzle, a low pressure is created
turbine and finally sent to Deaerator. Again from Deaerator, through feed pump, this condensate is fed to at the throat. So, when steam is passed through Ejector -1, it pulls non condensing gas from condenser.
boiler. Steam along with this gas mixture is passed to inter stage condenser. At this inter stage Ejector condenser,
In case there is leakage in condenser tube, cooling water may be mixed with the condensate. condensate from CEP flows inside the tube. The motive steam and gas mixture is condensed at this inter
In this case, hot well level goes high.-Condenser tube leakage can be detected by testing hardness of the stage condenser and condensate produced is drained to condenser through a "U" loop tube. `U' loop is
condensate. On-line hardness testing meter at the condensate line is helpful to detect condenser tube used to maintain some head in the line to avoid air ingress to the condenser. In this way heat of motive
leakage instantly. steam is utilized to increase the temperature of main condensate.
When vapor load is more, ejectors are connected in stages. In the figure a two stage ejector is
17.4 Gland sealing .system shown. Vacuum is again created at the inter stage condenser through Ejector -2, like ejector -1 as discussed
Gland sealing system is already discussed in section 16.6. For initial charging of the gland, steam above. Non condensing gas and steam mixture of inter condenser is passed to after condenser, where it is
from PRDS is obtained. Gland seal condenser is used to increase plant efficiency and save DM water. condensed again with the help of main condensate. Finaly non condensing gas is vented out to atmosphere
17.5 Steam ejector and vacuum system through a vent. A Rota meter is fitted at the vent to measure quantity of non condensing gas vented to
As discussed earlier, vacuum is maintained in condenser to facilitate easy flow of steam from atmosphere. Condensate produced;at the after cooler is sent to main condenser through a trap.
turbine and to condense exhaust steam easily. Also steam can be expanded more in turbine to get more A trap is placed so that only condensate can go to condenser.
work done. Steam ejectors are classified as':
Vacuum is maintained by continuously evacuating non condensing gases from the condenser
• Single stage or multi stage ejector
with help of air pump or Steam ejector. Pressure of non condensing gases decrease condenser efficiency
and hence plant efficiency. • Condensing or non condensing ejector
For removing non condensing gas or to create vacuum in the condenser, normally steam ejector During starting of turbine, when more vapor to be extracted from condenser, starting ejector is
is used. It is also called as steam jet ejector or venturi pump. This is like a pump in which, venturi effect of taken in to service. Starting ejector is a single stage non condensing ejector. Here, air and steam mixture is
a converging and diverging nozzle is used to convert pressure energy of steam to velocity energy, to create vented to atmosphere without condensing. Once vacuum is obtained, main ejector is taken in to line.
suction effect. Steam Ejector is having no moving part.
Working principle of ejector :
A high pressure motive steam enters to ejector chest through nozzle and then expanded. Pressure
Non Condensing
Gas from Condenser energy of steam is converted in to velocity. Increased velocity causes reduced pressure which socks vapor.
Diffuser section then compress the steam vapor mixture and exhausted to a condenser where this mixture
Ejector-2 Vent is quickly condensed.
Rotameter
Ejector -1
Motive Steam
Nozzle
Auxiliary Converging Diverging
steam tf Intel Outlet
II II II
II u n Nozzle t Diffuser
II After Condenser Motive
II , ll I ,I( Il i Steam Outlet
u I.1 II
Inter Condenser -Trap :
To Diffuser Throat
To Condenser
Condenser
Air from Condenser
Condensate
out Fig. 17.7 Ejector
Condensate
In Merits of Ejector
Fig. 17,6 Steam Ejector system • Simple construction
Steam ejector arrangement is shown in the figure. This is a multi stage condensing ejector. It can • Easy installation
be seen that there are two ejectors connected back to back. Ejector connected to the condenser air line is • No moving parts
called as inter stage ejector and the other ejector is called as after ejector. One condenser is connected
• Long useful operating life
to both the ejectors as shown, to condense the motive steam used for vacuum creation. Condensate
produced by this steam is sent to condenser. • Easy to operate.
262 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 263
Operating procedure of Ejector system : Steam, from turbine, flows at the shell side of condenser and cooling water flows inside the tube.
• Circulate condensate through ejector condenser Main components of a surface condenser are shown in the figure.
• Open steam of ejector -2. So it will crate vacuum in inter ejector condenser. Exhaust Steam from Turbine
Open steam of ejector -1 Flange
Expansion
Open air valve of condenser Tube Joint
Flanges Tube
Vent Sheet Flange
Stet Vent Flanges
17.6 Condenser
t t
Condenser is an important Auxiliary equipment of any steam turbine. Exhaust steam of turbine Tubes
Inlet Outle a
is exhausted in to condenser, where it is condensed in vacuum. As discussed earlier, by maintaining vacuum Water Box Water B ox 10
r CO
in condenser, maximum energy can be extracted from steam and turbine efficiency increases. Condensate
obtained is utilized again at boiler for steam formation.
There are different types of condenser. Some of the important type condensers are listed below.
r
• Jet type condenser I.
• Air condenser Holwell
• Surface condenser 1
r.^ --- Condensate Drain
I. Jet type condenser v
Circulating Circulating
In this type of condenser, cooling water come in direct contact with steam to be condensed. Inlet Water • Outlet Water
To
Exhaust Steam Condensate
I / Cooling Pump
water inlet Fig. 17.9 Surface Condenser
Main components of a surface condenser are :
• Shell
• Tube
• Water box
• Hot well
o Air outlet
o Rapture disc
Shell
Shell is the outer most body of the condenser -and heat exchanger tubes. It maybe cylindrical or
Fig. 17.8 Jet type Condenser rectangular in shape. Shell shape is determine by size of the condenser, plant layout and manufactures
design preference. It is fabricated from steel plates. Baffle plates are provided to get the desired flow path
This type of condenser is not used in power plants, as the condensate produced is confaminated of cooling water. Tube sheet and intermediate plates are provided for fitting and provide support to long
with cooling water and can't be used in boiler. condenser tubes.
II. Surface condenser In some design, condenser is partitioned into two halves. Each half is having independent cooling
This type of condenser is widely used at power plants. Cooling water is not mixed with condensate water in let and out let system. In this design, one half of the condenser can be taken out of service for
in this case. Condensate obtained is pure and can be used in boiler. This is a shell and tube type heat maintenance keeping other half in operation. In this condition, load is reduced as condensing capacity of
the condenser reduces.
exchanger. Shell of the condenser is closed. Tubes are arranged inside the shell in which cooling water
flows. Condenser neck is connected to the exhaust hood of turbine. Ar'i expansion joint is provided in Water boxes, cooling water inlet and outlet piping, air pipe and steam inlet neck are welded to
between to facilitate thermal expansion. the shell of condenser.
264 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 265
Tube The law sates- "The pressure of mixture of gases (here it is air and steam) is equal to sum of
Tubes are fixed in condenser by expanding both ends at both side tube sheets. Normally tubes individual gas pressure. Where individual gas pressure means, pressure would be exerted, if it would occupy
are made of stainless steel, brass or bronze. Cooling water flows inside these tubes. There is chance of scale the same place by that gas alone " .
formation at the waterside of the tube, if cooling water quality is not maintained properly. This scale formation Pc = PA + PS
reduces heat transfer and hence efficiency of condenser. So, the tubes are required to be cleaned regularly. ---
Close spaced tubes are provided at the air outlet. By this arrangement, air extracted by ejector is Pc = Pressure of air and steam combination
cooled. This section is called as air cooling section. Suitable baffle is provided to ensure that steam is not PA = Partial pressure of air
extracted along with air. -- PS- Partial pressure of Steam
Water Box Example :
Water boxes are the end portion of the condenser. In this area, water is entered, exit and turn the Suppose in a condenser, the vacuum gauge reading is 0.92 kg/cm2 (vacuum) and the condensate
direction. By opening water box tube ends are exposed for cleaning. Water box cover is tightly fastened with temperature is 35°C. We have to calculate the partial air pressure and volume of air present inside the
shell to ensure there is no leakage of cooling water. There is chance of settling of sludge at this area. So, condenser.
drain points are provided. To vent out any air present in the water box, vents are p°ovided.
Condenser vacuum gauge reading is 0:92 kg/cm2
Hot well So, Absolute pressure (Pc ) = Atmospheric pressure — vacuum gauge pressure
Bottom portion of the condenser is called as hot well, where condensate is collected. Level of = 1.0332 - 0.92 = .1132 kg/cm2
hot well is maintained with control valves as discussed earlier. For filling hot well initially, a make up point From steam table,
is provided. Level gauge is provided to measure hot well level.
corresponding to 35°C the steam pressure (P s ) is 0.057 kg/cm2
Air outlet
So, PA = 0.1132 — 0.562 = 0.0562 kg/cm2
As discussed earlier, air extracted by ejector is cooled at air cooling section. In two section Volume of air per M3 of condenser volume can be find out as per Ma = PAV / RT
condenser, two air outlet pipes are connected to two sections of the condenser. These two pipes are
,! = 0.0562 *104*1 / 29.27 *, (35 +273) =0.0623 M3
connected together before going to ejector with suitable isolation facility for both sections. By this arrangement,
one section can be isolated during maintenance of that section. Where R = gas constant. For atmospheric air it is 29.27kg-m/k/°K
268 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 269
Water is made droplets with help of nozzles. Water is distributed throughout the mixing area with
help of perforated trays or wooden fills. It falls down to cold water basin by gravity.
Mist eliminator
When fan is started air is entered through the louvers and flows in the cross direction to the
Distribution system
falling water droplets. It moves up due to suction of fan through drift eliminator which helps to separate
Spray nozzles water m ist.
Air velocity and hence cooling can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing
Fill material
fan speed.
_ Fan blade is made of cast aluminum or fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), attached to a hob and is
connected to a driving motor through a suitable reducing gear. Variable speed drive can be used to increase
or decrease fan speed as per requirement. As bigger size fans are used, so there is chance of heavy
vibration. Vibration switches are provided to stop the fan in case of excessive vibration. To check oil level
and top up oil in gearbox, provision is made outside of the tower.
Where,
III. Wet bulb temperature
Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb covered in wet C = circulation rate in M3 per hour,
muslin. This is the minimum temperature which may be achieved by purely evaporative cooling of a water- 0 T = temperature difference between hot and cold water in °C.
wetted ventilated surface. C, = Specific heat of water (1 kcal/kg- °C)
Wet bulb temperature is always lower than dry bulb temperature. Hv = Latent heat of vaporization of water (540 kcal/kg)
IV. Dry-Bulb Temperature
Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry Bulb" 2. Windage or drift loss
because the air temperature is indicated by a normal thermometer, not affected bu rnoisture-o t e air.—-h
This is a relatively small amount of entrained water lost as fine droplets in the air discharge from
V. Drift a tower. Windage carries solids of circulating water with it and reduces dissolved solids in the circulating
water.
Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air is called as drift. Drift
droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the circulating water of the tower. The approximate drift loss (W) of different types cooling tower is given below.
VI. Drift Eliminators About 0.3 to 1.0 percent of circulation, for a natural draft cooling tower without drift eliminators.
Drift loss rate is normally reduced by putting baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through
• About 0.1 to 0.3 percent of circulation for an induced draft cooling tower without drift eliminators.
which air has to travel after leaving the fill and spray nozzle zones of the tower.
VII. Fill • About 0.005 percent of circulation for an induced draft cooling tower with drift eliminators
Inside the tower, fills are arranged to increase contact surface as well as contact time between air 3. Blow down loss
and water. It provide better heat transfer and efficiency of the tower increases. Film type and Splash type
In the evaporation process non volatile impurities of make up water are concentrated in the
fills are used.
circulating water. Te minimize excessive concentration of these impurities, some quantity of circulating
VIII. Capacity water is removed from the system. This is called as bleed off or blow down. Amount of bleed off can be
The amount of water (M 3/Hr) that a cooling tower can cool through a specified range, at a determined from following equations:
specified approach and wet-bulb temperature is called as capacity of the cooling tower. % B (blow down) + % W(windage) _ % E (evaporation) / ( cycles of oncentration-1)
IX. Makeup 17.7.2 Cooling water treatment
The amount of water required to replace normal losses caused by blow down, drift, and evaporation.
Condenser of a turbine is a critical component in power plant. Cooling water is circulated in its
X. Heat Load . tube. Scale deposit in this tube may affect heat transfer. So it is very important to avoid scaling of condenser
The amount of heat to be removed from the circulating water in a hour is called as heat load of tube. Cooling water circulation may result corrosion of water box and tube. There may be growth of algae
the cooling tower. Heat load is equal to the rate of water flow per hour multiplied by range. and bacteria in the water. This growth may choke the circulation system.
XI. Cycle of concentration (COC) To get optimum life of the condenser and better efficiency, quality of cooling water is required to
As pure water is evaporated, minerals are left behind in the circulation water. As evaporation be maintained strictly. For this, various chemical treatment is carried out. Some of the chemical treatment
continues, water becomes more concentrated than original make up water. The ratio of level of solids of the is discussed here.
circulating cooling water to the level of solids of the original raw make up water is called as cycle of I. Anti scale and corrosion treatment
concentration (COC).
Deposit of scale in cooling water system reduces efficiency of heat transfer and restricts water
Water balance in cooling tower
distribution pipe line. Scale is deposited by precipitation and crystal growth at a surface in contact with
During continuous operation of cooling tower, water is evaporated continuously. As water is
water. Salts of calcium and magnesium are responsible for scale formation. Suitable anti scaling chemical
evaporated, minerals are left behind in the circulating water. Concentration of solids in water become more
is added in the cooling water to minimize scale. Anti scale chemicals prevent scale forming compounds
than the original make up water. So, blow down is required to remove a portion of concentrated water,
present in the cooling water to precipitate.
which is replaced with fresh make up water. Term cycles of concentration (COC) is the ratio of solids of the
circulating cooling water to the level of solids of the original raw make up water. If the circulating water has To avoid corrosion in the cooling water system corrosion inhibitor is used. Corrosion inhibitor is
five times the solids concentration than that of the make up water, then the COC is 5. a chemical which effectively decreases the corrosion rate when added to cooling water.
Required Make up is the sum of following three losses. There are different anti scaling and corrosion inhibitors available in market supplied by different
1. Evaporation Loss water treatment companies with different brand name. These chemicals are dosed in to cooling water
regularly.
Evaporation loss (E) = C* A T *Cp I H„
• Ozone
• Hydrogen Peroxide
Non-Oxidizing Biocides
A non-oxidizing biocide is one that functions by mechanism other than oxidation, including
interference with cell metabolism and structure. Non oxidizing biocides are mostly organic based biocides.
Combination of oxidizing and non oxidizing biocides is frequently used. Methylene bisthiocyanate (MBT) is
a commonly used non oxidizing biocide. There are many water treatment companies supplying non oxidizing
biocide at their brand name.
18 5.
6.
7.
8.
Open the discharge valve.
Observe cooling water is falling on the cooling tower.
Open the vents provided at condenser water box to remove trapped air.
Increase speed or Start other pump to get required amount of cooling water flow at the condenser.
-- 9.-- Observe all the cooling water pumps are sharing load.
10. Once turbine is started and loaded, cooling tower fans can be started one by one as per requirement,
to get desired cooling water temperature.
18.1 Introduction
18.4 Operation of Lubrication oil system
Operation of steam turbine is a complex process. Before starting the rolling of a turbine, auxiliary
systems, discussed earlier are to be properly put in service. Special care is required to be taken for starting Before starting the turbine, the Tube oil system is to be started. Lube oil is required to flow
of Turbine, particularly during cold start. We will discuss about operation of individual systems one by one through each bearing. To start lube oil system following steps are to be followed.
so that it will be easier to understand the complete system. '1. Ensure lube oil tank level is normal.
Normally for start up of a turbine some sequence of operation is followed. We will discuss the 2. Valves provided at oil line at oil filter and oil cooler are in open condition.
operation of different systems as per sequence in subsequent sections. o 3. Cooling water outlet valve of oil cooler is in close condition.
4. Ensure suction and delivery valve of oil pump are in open condition.
18.2 Charging of Steam pipe line or Heat up
5 Start oil pump.
From Boiler, steam is carried to turbine by main steam pipe line. In cold condition special care
6. Adjust oil pressure by adjusting recirculation valve if any.
is to be taken to heat up this steam line and allow thermal expansion gradually, before getting full load on
7. Check oil filter differential pressure. If it is high, change the filter cartridge or change the filter.
the turbine.
8. Ensure oil is supplied to each bearing and governing oil is available. Adjust oil pressure at various
Drain points are provided at the steam line to drain out condensate, present in steam pipe line
bearings.
that is formed due to condensation of steam. First of all these drains are opened before charging steam on
9. Maintain oil temperature by adjusting cooling water outlet valve of oil cooier.
that pipe line. After the condensate is drained out, main steam stop valve of boiler is opened slowly (most
commonly the bypass valve). Some steam is allowed to flow through the pipe. Pipe starts gaining heat from 10. Keep the standby oil pump and Emergency oil pump ready.
the steam and steam is condensed. This condensate along with some steam is allowed to come out through 11. Ensure overhead tank is full.
drain. These drains are throttled slowly and closed when no more condensate but only dry steam is coming 18.5 Barring gear operation
out from the drain. Steam traps provided in the pipe line are kept in line once drains are closed.
Before rolling, turbine is required to be kept on barring operation at least one hour before. To put
If vent is provided at the pipe line before Emergency stop valve of turbine, then this is to be the turbine on barring operation, following steps are required to be followed.
opened to allow steam to flow, so that pipe line up to ESV can be heated up. 1. Ensure lube oil system is in service and oil is circulating at all the bearings and oil pressure is at
Main steam stop valve of boiler is to be opened slowly so that the line temperature will increase desired level. 1 . 5 . 5 10
gradually. Ensure the expansion is not restricted any where. Once the temperature of pipe line reaches 2. Start jacking oil pump, if provided to lift the rotor.
normal level, stop valve of boiler can be opened fully. 3. Engage barring gear clutch.
18.3 Operation of cooling water system 4. Start barring gear motor.
To circulate cooling water in the condenser, cooling water pumps are to be started. Following 5. Observe rotor is rotating at barring speed without increase in bearing vibration and temperature
steps are followed to circulate cooling water in the condenser. and there is no abnormal sound.
1. Ensure level of the cooling tower basin is normal. 18.6 Gland steam charging
2. Keep suction valve of the pump in open condition and discharge valve in closed condition. Once the above systems are in service, gland steam can be charged at gland. Care is to betaken
3 Ensure inlet and outlet cooling water valves of condenser arjd hot water distributor valves of while charging gland steam in a cold turbine. As the gland area of turbine is at normal temperature during
cooling tower are in open condition. cold condition, hot gland steam may produce thermal shock at that area. To avoid this, steam is to be
charged slowly and the condensate produced is to be drained out through gland drain. Following steps are
'[274] to be followed for gland steam charging.
I,-
r. oa ^f pari w
., o
Boiler Operation
276, Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 277
1. Ensure auxiliary or motive steam is available from PRDS at desired pressure and temperature. 18.7 Condensate system operation
2 Open gland steam header and gland drains. Exhaust steam of turbine is condensed at condenser with help of cooling water. The condensate
3. Open control valve CV 1 slowly. produced is evacuated from condenser by help of Condensate extraction pump (CEP). This condensate
Observe steam is coming out from gland steam header drain and front gland vent. passes through gland seal condenser and Ejector condenser to gain heat of the gland steam and ejector
4.
steam respectively. So the temperature of condensate increases there. Before feeding to deareator for
5. When gland steam header temperature is reached to desired level, close the header drain.
further use at boiler, this condensate is further heated at LP heater (if provided) by using LP steam extraction
6. Open control valve CV 1 more to achieve gland steam header pressure. --- of turbine. -
7. Observe steam is vented out from rear gland. To put this condensate system in operation following steps are required to be followed.
8. Put the control valves in auto mode with desired set value.
1. Ensure condenser hot well level is adequate. Otherwise fill the hot well with make up DM water.
Aux. Steam 2. Open suction and discharge valve of the pump. Ensure Differential pressure of the strainer is
1 normal.
3. Open condensate inlet and outlet valves of gland seal condenser, ejector condenser, and HP / LP
heater.
4. Open Pump gland cooling valve and Start the pump.
5. The condensate will pass through gland seal condenser and ejector condenser and through
recirculation control valve it should be re circulated to condenser again.
6. If level of hot well is more, then discharge valve can be opened otherwise the recirculation valve to
be kept open for recirculation of condensate.
7. Once steam starts entering into turbine, discharge control valve can be put in auto mode to
maintain level of hot well.
If the condensate extraction pump is to be started, when there is vacuum inside the condenser,
then the vacuum balance line valve is to be opened to avoid any air, trapped inside pump and pipe line.
11111111
18.8 Vacuum build up
Front
Gland Gland drain Before main steam is entered in to turbine there should be vacuum in the condenser. As discussed
drain earlier, during starting, the starting ejector is used to evacuate air from condenser. This is a single stage non
condensing type ejector. Following steps are to be followed to build up vacuum by starting ejector.
1. Ensure auxillary steam at desired pressure and temperature is available.
^ D^ Dti1 2. Ensure the vacuum break valve of the condenser is closed.
CV-2
Auxiliary Steam Drain 3. Ensure cooling water is circulating in the condenser and turbine gland is charged fully.
4. Open steam valve of the staring ejector.
5. Observe steam is vented to atmosphere.
To Condenser
6. Open ejector air valve.
Fig. 18.1 Gland steam System Observe vacuum inside condenser is increasing slowly.
7.
If there is gland steam condenser then this condenser is to be charged first. Before opening Through starting ejector, vacuum in the condenser can be obtained faster. But the steam used in
control valve CV 1. To charge gland following steps are to be followed. this ejector is not utilized. It is vented to atmosphere. So, main ejector is to be taken in to line, once turbine
is loaded and starting ejector is to be stopped. To put main ejector in line following steps are followed.
1. Circulate cooling water (discharged condensate from CEP) through gland learn condenser.
1. Ensure condensate extraction pump (CEP) is running.
2. Open motive steam of gland steam condenser ejector.
2. Open the cooling water (discharged condensate from CEP) inlet and outlet valve of the ejector
3. Open gland vent valve.
condenser, which is to be put in service.
278 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 279
3. Vent out air from water box of the ejector condenser.
4. Open the condensate drain valve of inter ejector condenser and after ejector condenser of that
ejector which is connected to main condenser. G
3500 RPM 5500 RPM
5. Open steam valve of after condenser ejector.
E
6. Open steam valve of inter condenser ejector. i 20 rpm/sec
7. Observe condensate is drained out from both the condenser (drain line will be felt warm if touched)
D
. Slowly open air valve of the ejector and observe vacuum-is increasing. 10 rpm/sec
When vacuum is stable then starting ejector can be stopped by closing air valve first then the
steam valve of that ejector.
To take out the main ejector out of service following steps are followed. 1000 RPM 100
A B rpm/
10 rpm/sec sec
1. Stop air valve of the ejector.
2. Stop steam valve of inter condenser ejector.
20 rpm/sec
3. Stop steam valve of after condenser ejector.
0
4. Stop drain valve of inter and after condenser. Barring
speed
5. Stop water inlet and outlet valve after the condenser is cooled.
t Time - ^
18.9 Turbine startup
Fig. 18.2 Turbine Statement up Curve
Once the above discussed systems are in operation and full vacuum is obtained inside condenser,
turbine can be started. Like boiler, turbine is required to be started in two different conditions. Example of a startup curve of a steam turbine is shown at above figure. This is example of a cold
start up curve of a 5500 rpm steam turbine having one critical speed zone. This is given here for discussion
I. Cold start up purpose only. Exact curve for different steam turbine is different and advised by turbine manufacturer. This
II. Hot start up startup procedure is to be followed either manually or auto governing system.
We will discuss one by one about this curve.
In cold startup, turbine is started from cold condition. In this case special care is taken for proper
0-A
heat up of casing and rotor for proper thermal expansion. As both rotor and casing are in cold condition,
it requires longer time for heat up. But in case of hot startup both casing and rotor are in hot condition. So This is the rate of speed raise up to low idle speed. After opening emergency stop valve, control
valve is opened slowly to raise speed of the turbine up to low idle speed of 1000 rpm at a rate of 20 rpm/
it can be started within a short period.
sec. Steam enters to the turbine at a slower rate.
Before discussing further, we will discuss about startup curve of the turbine. This curve gives an A-B
idea, how turbine reaches its full speed in cold and hot condition. This is the low idle speed of the turbine. At a speed of 1000 rpm control valve opening stops.
Startup curve Turbine continues to run at this speed for 10 minutes. This is called as socking time of the turbine. Turbine
is allowed for heat up for thermal expansion. In case of bigger turbine having heavy mass of rotor and
To allow proper thermal expansion of casing and rotor the turbine manufacturer advise to follow casing, more time is required. During hot startup, less time is required.
startup procedure. We should not enter steam immediately to turbine as it may damage the turbine due to B-C
uneven expansion. This is the rate of speed raise up to high idle. Turbine is allowed to ramp up at a certain rate as
All rotating shafts deflect during rotation. The Magnitude of deflection depends upon stiffness of advised by the turbine manufacturer. In this case it is 10 rpm/sec up to 2700 rpm.
the shaft and its support, total mass of the shaft and its attached parts. Turbine shaft material has its own C-D
natural frequency. When turbine rotates on such a speed that frequency of shaft become close to its natural It is the critical speed zone of the turbine. To avoid this zone, speed of the turbine is raised at a
frequency, machine causes noise & high vibration because of resonance due to matching of frequency. faster rate. In this case the zone starts from 2700 rpm to 3000 rpm and the rate of raise of speed is 100
rpn>,/sec.
Shaft became dynamically unstable and large vibration is developed. Running of Steam Turbine at this
D-E
speed is avoided. It occurs at a speed called as critical speed. Beyond critical speed vibration becomes
normal. After passing the critical zone again turbine speed is raised at lower rate up to high idle speed. In
this case the high idle speed is at 3500 rpm and the rate of raise of speed is 10 rpm/sec.
280 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 281
18.10 Turbine shutdown Due to failure of governing system, the turbine speed may become dangerously high. Rotor can
rotate momentarily, without damage up to 110 % of rated speed. At higher speed rotor stresses increases.
During shutdown of turbine also, proper care is required to be taken. The shutdown may be Due to high centrifugal force, the blades which are fixed to the rotor may come out due to failure of blade
normal/planned shutdown or emergency shutdown. In planned shutdown turbine is stopped in a planned root and cause sever accident and damage to turbine. To avoid dangerous over speed, turbine is provided
way. But in case of emergency shutdown turbine is required to be stopped immediately or it trips automatically. with mechanical and electrical over speed trip arrangement. Tripping limits are set in such a way that
In emergency shutdown it is to be ensured that tube oil supply to all the bearings are available during turbine speed does not exceed beyond 110% of rated speed. These over speed t ripping limits are to be
coasting down. In some emergency situation vacuum break valve of condenser can be opened to stop the checked regularly. Mechanical over speed device is to be set within safe limit and checked at suitable
turbine quickly. interval. At any circumstances over speed tripping limit is not to be by passed.
For planned shutdown of a turbine following steps are followed. 2. Failure of lubrication oil system
1. Reduce load of the turbine. If it is a generator, open the generator breaker after reducing load. Lubrication oil is used to lubricate and cool down bearing metal. In some incident the lubrication
2. Reduce speed of the turbine up to minimum governing speed. oil supply may interrupt due to failure of pumps, leakage in oil line, or chocking of oil filter. This condition
may damage bearings and gear box.
3. Stop ESV.
284 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 285
High steam temperature may damage turbine as the metallurgy of the turbine is designed for a HI. Exhaust steam loss
particular temperature. High pressure steam may damage internal sealing fines etc. This is the major loss in a steam turbine. Major portion of heat energy is wasted in condenser
13. Low condenser Vacuum which is taken out by cooling water. This is discussed earlier. The exhaust steam carries out huge quantity
of latent heat, which is then taken out by cooling water to condense the steam.
Due to vacuum in condenser the steam from turbine is easily exhausted in to condenser.
If vacuum inside the condenser drops it restricts exhaust of steam of turbine. Back pressure is created in IV. Radiation loss
side turbine. Heat always radiates from the outer casing surface of turbine. So the turbine outer casing is
Vacuum may drop due to failure in cooling water system, failure of ejector or leakage in condenser required to be insulated properly to minimize radiation loss. Damage in insulation or less thickness of
air line.The standby ejector or starting ejector is tote immediately taken in to line. Leakage in air line is _Insulating material may increase this loss.
be arrested promptly or cooling water supply to be increased. If vacuum is not improved the turbine to be 18.12.2. Internal loss
stopped immediately.
These are the losses take place inside the turbine.
14. Failure of cooling water system I. Nozzle loss
Due to failure of cooling water pumps or chocking in cooling water circuit, cooling water supply When steam travels through a nozzle, loss takes place due to friction and formation of eddies.
may be reduced or interrupted. In this case, turbine exhaust steam can not be conc'ensed. Pressure of the
II. Blade friction loss
condenser will increase and the rapture disc of the condenser may rupture. Heavy backpressure will be
created on turbine. Steam glides over the blade in a steam turbine. Due to blade profile surface finish this loss takes
place due to friction.
In this case load is to be reduced first and care is to be taken to normalize cooling water supply.
If situation does not improve then turbine is to be stopped. Ill. Dit,c or wheel friction loss
15. Failure of plant automation system The moving blade wheel is required to rotate inside steam in the turbine. Presence of steam
produces friction and creates resistance to the moving wheel.
In some incidence, it is experienced; plant automation system fails due to failure of control
power supply, failure of PLC or due to some other reason. In this situation, it is difficult to keep the turbine IV. Partial admission loss
under control. No parameter is visible nor any control system works. In this case the turbine is required to As discussed earlier, the control valve is so connected that the valve opens one after another to
be stopped in a safer way. The operating engineer should apply his mind to act accordingly. increase the load on turbine. Each valve is connected to a set of nozzles.
Now days most turbines are designed for fail safe operation. Turbine automatically trips incase
of any malfunctioning or fault in any system. Control valve
286 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 287
V. Inter stage leakage loss Then as per above discussion
There is pressure difference in each blade stage of Turbine. Due to leakage of steam between Gross Turbine heat rate = Heat added in the Boiler / Kilowatt out put of Generator
these stages steam passes to next stage having lower pressure, without doing any work. This loss increases = (Enthalpy of steam - Heat in feed water)/ Kilowatt out put of Generator
due to damage of fins at blade tip and inter stage seals.
= 200 x 1000(830-150) / 50 x 1000 = 2720 kcal/kwh
VI. Mechanical friction loss Net Turbine Heat Rate:
Due to friction at bearings this loss takes place. Heat generated due to friction is carried out by
Net turbine heat rate is determined in the same as gross heat rate, except that the boiler feed
lubrication oil and cooled at oil cooler. pump power input is subtracted from the generator power output before dividing into the heat added in the
VII. Residual velocity loss boiler.
Steam exiting from one stage carries lot of kinetic energy and this is carried to next stage. If the Plant Heat Rate:
axial clearance between stages is more then some part of this kinetic energy is lost. In Turbine heat rate only losses in Turbine and Generator set is considered. Plant heat rate
VIII. Wetness loss includes inefficiencies and losses external to the Turbo generator set. Inefficiencies of the Boiler and piping
systems, power required for pumps and fans and energy uses for soot blowing, air compression, and similar
When steam passes over different stages, energy is extracted from it. Towards last stage of blade services are considered to calculate Plant Heat rate.
the steam becomes wet, carrying water particle. The velocity of water particle is less than that of steam. So
Gross Plant Heat Rate:
the kinetic energy of the steam reduces.
This heat rate (kcal/kWh) is determined by dividing the total heat energy (kcal/hour) in fuel added
18.13 Heat rate to the boiler by the kilowatt output of the generator.
Heat rate is a means to express Rankine cycle efficiency or thermal efficiency of a power plant. 18.14 Some Latest Development in Power Generation Industries
Normally it is expressed as kcal/ kwh. Less Heat rate means the cycle is efficient. As discussed earlier,
Regenerative and Reheat cycle is used to increase thermal efficiency and decrease heat rate of Power Plant. Electric power is the main source of energy for any industry. Power is generated at power plants.
Installed capacity of thermal power plant in India is around 99861.48 MW ( as on 31/12/09), which is
Turbine heat rate is the ratio of total energy utilized in turbine (Kcal) divided by the electrical 64.6% of the total installed capacity. Fossil fuel fired Thermal power plants meet major portion of our
energy output (kwh). Energy utilized in turbine is the difference between energy inputs to turbine to energy power requirement. Bigger size independent power producers (IPP,$) meet most of the power demand of the
extracted from turbine. Energy input is the steam mass flow rate to turbine multiplied by inlet steam country. Still the power demand is not fulfilled and lot of initiative is taken by Govt. of India to add more
enthalpy. Energy extracted is the enthalpy of total extraction steam plus heat available in condensate. It is generating facility in the coming days.
easier to calculate for a single source of steam passing through the turbine to a condenser, but complicated
for a reheat turbine with multiple extractions. Huge quantity of coal is used at thermal power plants. Coal consumption can be reduced by
improving efficiency of Thermal power plants. Lot of carbon dioxide gas is emitted from power plants due
Some time terms like- GrosslTurbine Heat rate, Net Turbine heat rate and Plant heat rate are to burning of coal. Reduction in coal consumption. can minimize carbon dioxide emission. Increase in
also used to specify efficiency of Power Plant. Heat rate is expressed as either gross or net heat rate, superheat steam temperaturewby 20 °Cincreases efficiency roughly by 1%. So lots of researc an .
depending whether the electricity output is gross or net generation. evelopment programs are under progress to use high temperature steam at thermal power plants.
Gross Turbine Heat Rate : Depending upon inlet steam condition, Thermal Power plants are classified as Sub critical, super
Gross turbine heat rate is determined by dividing the heat added in the boiler between feed water critical and ultra super critical units. Units operated with steam pressure below 225 kg/cmre called as
inlet and steam outlet by the kilowatt output of the generator at the generator terminals. The gross heat rate subcritical unit
s. Steam pressure above 225 kg cm2 and'super heat /reheat temperature up to 593 °C are
is expressed in kcal per kWh. For reheat cycles, the heat added in the boiler includes the heat added to main called as Supercritical units where as Pressure above 225 kg cm2 and superheat /reheat temperature more
steam and through the reheater. It is discussed earlier; Feed water heating is done through extraction steam than 593 °C are called as ultra Supercritical units. Net plant efficiency of subcritical, super critical and ultra
to reduce heat rate. super critical units are given below.
Example: Following Parameters are noted in a power Plant. Sub critical units — 38% — 40 %
Feed water inlet temperature to Boiler -150°C Super critical units — 40% -42%
Feed water flow - 200 Tons per hour Ultra super critical units — 43% - 46%
Steam Generation - 200 Tons per hour It is possible to use high temperature steam up. to 620 °C due to development of modern
- 100 kg/cm2 chrome and nickel based super alloyed material (T 92 and P 92). Many Super critical units are in operation
Steam pressure
for quite long period. World's first super critical unit (Philo 6 Power Plant of USA- 125MW) was commissioned
Steam Temperature - 540 °C during 1957 and was in operation till 1979. Super critical units of 1300 MW capacity are in operation at
Enthalpy of Steam (at.100 kg/cm2, 540 °C) - 830 kcal/kg Japan and USA since 1970 (TVA Cumberland Power Plant). World's largest and first once-through unit
Generator capacity -50 MW (OTU) supercritical CFBC Boiler of 460 MW capacity commissioned in late June 2009 at £agisza power
19.3 Cooling system of Generator As hydrogen-cooled generator's internal is completely sealed from the atmosphere, so atmospheric
dust, humidity, salt or chemicals have no effect on the generator. Due to absence of oxygen, oxidation does
As high current flows on stator winding and rotor winding, losses take place in the generator.
not take place hence generator's high-voltage insulation life increases. This is a significant factor for generator
This loss varies with load and hence current of the generator. Major contributor of heat produced is copper
loss and is equal to 1 2 R. Where, "I" is the current and "R" is the resistance of winding. This loss is converted reliability.
in to he . Also loss due to mechanical friction and windage takes place. Eddy current loss also contributes Like closed system air cooling, hot hydrogen is cooled by cooling coils and circulated again for
owards heating of generator. To run the generator continuously at higher load this heat is required to be cooling.
taken out to save the generator from overheating. Insulation of generator is designed to withstand some 19.4 Excitation system
limited temperature. Maximum withstanding temperature of some of the widely used class of insulation, as As discussed earlier, C supply is required to be given to field winding of a generator. This DC
specified by National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) considering ambient temperature as supply is obtained from various sources. Supply of DC Power to field is called as excitation. Depending
40°C, is mentioned below.
upon sources of supply, generator is classified as
Class A – 105°C
' Separately excited generator
Class B -130 °C
• Self excited generator
'Class F -155 °C
an separately excited generator, DC supply to generator field is obtained from a different source,
Class H -180 °C which has no connection with generator's own generated supply. This type of generator is not used in power plan,
Cooling of generator is an important function. If generator efficiency is 99%, then balance one Un self excited generator, DC supply to field is temporarily given from other source. Once voltage
percent loss contributes to produce significant amount of heat.
is build up in the generator, this source is changed to generators own generating supply. In this system, field
For cooling of generator, closed system cooling method is adopted. The cooling medium may be supply is obtained either from an excitation transformer or from an exciter, mounted on the generator shaft)
air or hydrogen depending upon size of the generator. We will discuss closed system air cooling and closed
In the subsequent sections we will discuss about these two methods of excitation for self excited
system hydrogen cooling which are mostly used in power plants.
I. Closed system air cooling generators.
I. Field supply from excitation transformer or static excitation system.
In this system fixed volume of air is circulated inside the generator. Fans fitted to the rotor soaks air
(In this system, temporary DC supply is given to the generator field. It is called as field flushing.
from a closed system. This air is canalized through air gap, rotor air path and stator air passages and gain
Normally this supply is obtained from an external battery Bank. Once some voltage is generated in the generator
heat. It is guided in such a way that the hot air coming out is passed over a cooling coil. Again this cold air is
circulated in generator with the help of rotor fan. this source is cut off automatically and field supply is changed to own generation of the generator.
Cooling water is circulated in these cooling coils. Depending upon temperature of the stator coil, Main supply for excitation is obtained from an exciter transformer which steps down the generated
cooling water flow is regulated. voltage to field voltage level. Then it is rectified with help of a thyristor bridge and supplied to field winding
of the generator for excitation. This excitation transformer is connected to three phases out going bus of the
In this system air is circulated in closed system hence dirty atmospheric air is not allowed inside
generator and located before generator circuit breaker. So, field supply is available even if the generator
the system. So, deposition of dust inside the generator is avoided. The generator internal remain clean. As
moist air is not used, so insulation level of generator is maintained high. breaker is in off condition. Thyrister out put is feed to the.rotor through a set of slip ring and carbon brush.
Depending upon the size of generator and hence volume of air to be circulated, this cooling
system is designed.
II. Closed system hydrogen cooling Generator
Breaker Excitation transformer
I2R Loss is more in bigger size generator, hence more heat is produced. To take out so much heat,
very high volume of air circulation is required. This system will become uneconomical. So, hydrogen is used
as cooling medium in this case.
Hydrogen's low density, high specific heat and thermal conductivity make it a' superior coolant
for generator and it lends itself to a compact, highly efficient, reliable design --- P. Thyristor
Also as it is lighter, so less energy is required to circulate hydrogen and is very less as compared
to air Due to high thermal conductivity, cooling of generator is very effective. Lesser amount of hydrogen
is required to cool the generator. So, hydrogen cooling system is very compact and reliable.
Field Breaker
Though hydrogen does not support combustion still explosion may take place when hydrogen is
mixed with air in certain proportion(To avoid this explosion special care is taken so that air can not enter
inside the generator. Fratne of the generator is tightly sealed to prevent hydrogen leakage. Oil seals are Generator —^ o
^--4—
. From Battery
installed on the shaft at each end of the stator to prevent leakage of hydrogen. Hyc:rogen pressure, inside
Stator g
Slipring
L. Field flushing
Breaker
generator is kept little higher than atmospheric pressure, so that atmospheric air can not ingress into
hydrogen cooling system) L Generator field winding
Fig. 19.3 Static Excitation System
Excitation transformer is normally an air cooled transformer connected to each phase. This type AVR controls voltage of the generator in the same way as governor controls speed of the turbine.
of design was used few years back. Now a day's exciter is used widely in place of exciter transformer. AVR is a PID controller which gets feed back from the generator output voltage through a potential
transformer (PT) and generator current through a current transformer (CT). Accordingly an error signal is
H. Excitation through exciter generator or brushless excitation system produced which controls the firing of thyrister to control field voltage. Simple block diagram of an AVR with
In this system, a small generator, called as exciter is mounted on the generator shaft. Exciter exciter transformer is shown in the figure below.
generator arrangement may be with brush like static excitation system or brush lass.
In some design, exciter generator's out put is rectified like static excitation system and power is
supplied to field winding through slip rings. Excitation transformer
Now a day 's mostly brushless arrangement of excitation is used. In this arrangement, excitef
generator is a small generator having rotating Coil and stationary field. This arrangement makes excitation
system brush less. No brush is required to feed field current to main generator. So, it is maintenance free Voltage set point
and more reliable.
As told earlier, field of the exciter generator is stationary and coil is rotating. Voltage generated in
the rotating coil is rectified through a set of rotating Diode Bridge. Rotating diodes are mounted on an
insulated base. Rectified out put of this rotating diode bridge is connected to field winding of main generator
(rotating) through cable, which passes through drill way, made in the shaft of generator.
Slipring
Generator
Breaker L' Generator field
Supply to the stationary field of the exciter generator is obtained from AVR. A separate source
or a permanent magnet generator (PMG) is used for obtaining power supply for AVR.
For cooling of this exciter, cooling medium of main generator is used.
19.5 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
CAVR system of a generator controls out put voltage of the generator automatically irrespective of
any load on generator. By raising or lowering field current (excitation) out put voltage of generator can be
raised or lowered respectively. Raising or lowering of field current is done with the help of AVR. When load
on a generator increases its output voltage drops. By raising field current, voltage can be raised to normal
Main Generator Rotating
level. Like this when load on generator reduces, voltage of generator increases. In this case field current is Diode Bridge Exciter
required to be reduced Fig. 19.6 AVR arrangement in Brush less excitation system
Now a day's auto synchronization system is used in power plant which matches above parameters 2. Vector surge relay
automatically and synchronizes the generator. This relay is very effective for islanding of generator. This relay measures the vector angle of the
voltage wave.
Generator 305
304 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
To take care of this type of fault and to protect the generator and turbine, over frequency and
2. Earth fault protection under frequency relays are used.
Most of the time single phase earth faults are experienced in power distribution network. In this 9. Rotor earth fault protection
condition any one phase is short circuited to ground, resulting in higher current in that particular phase and Field coil of the generator is inserted in the rotor slots and DC current is supplied for excitation.
in the neutral of the generator. Earth fault protection relay is connected to detect and trip the generator This field winding is exposed to abnormal mechanical or thermal stress due to vibrations, over current,
incase of any fault that short circuits any phase with earth or leakage current to earth due to failure of choked cooling medium flow, etc. This may result breakdown of insulation between field winding and rotor
insulation. To limit the earth fault current of the generator, neutral point of the generator is earthed through body. The purpose of the rotor earth-fault protection is to detect earth fault in the field winding of generator.
a Neutral grounding resister (NGR)
Failure of insulation of rotor coil in one location is called as first stage rotor earth fault. First stage
3. Generator differential protection
rotor earth fault or single earth fault is not very dangerous and does not cause immediate damage, because
Differential protection is employed to detect any fault inside the generator winding and stop the the fault current is small due to low voltage. In this condition the generator may be allowed to run.
generator. This relay can sense any phase to phase or phase to earth fault, inside generator. If fault takes
But if further earth fault occurs at a second location, it is more dangerous and appears as a rotor
place outside generator then relay remains non operative. Differential protection is a very reliable method of
winding interturn fault and causes severe magnetic unbalance and heavy rotor vibrations, leading to severe
protecting generator from the effect of internal faults.
damage. This condition is called as second stage rotor earth fault. In this condition, generator is stopped as
In a differential protection scheme, current on both sides of the generator winding are compared. soon as possible. Normally, generator trips after a short time delay if second stage rotor earth fault is
Under normal condition, or during fault outside the generator, current on both sides are equal, so the relay detected.
does not operate. Incase a fault develops inside generator winding; these currents are no longer equal. In
Rotor earth fault relay is used to detect Pt stage rotor earth fault to initiate alarm and second
this condition only, the relay operates.
stage earth fault to trip the generator.
4. Reverse power protection
As the generator is required to run in parallel with other source, power may flow in reverse 10. Field failure or loss of excitation protection
direction and start to rotate the generator as a motor with turbine as a load on it. This condition is called Loss of field supply or loss of excitation may occur due to opening of field terminal or blown of
as motoring of generator and this may happen due to decrease or stop of steam supply. This is very field fuse or failure of diode. This condition is detected by field failure relay to stop the generator.
dangerous condition as it may damage the turbine. At any condition the generator is not allowed for
motoring action. To protect the generator from this situation, reverse power relay is used. Revere power 11. Stator over heating protection
relay is a directional power relay. It is operated when the power flows in reverse direction. If generator is not cooled properly or due to high current flow in generator, temperature of stator
5. Low forward power protection winding increases. To protect winding from over heating, embed resistance temperature detectors (RTD) are
This is a power relay which ensures the generator to supply certain minimum power. When the used in the slots below the stator coil. These detectors are placed at different points in the winding to detect
generator load falls below this specified limit then this relay operates to isolate the generator from the circuit temperature through out the stator. Alarm and trip signal is produced by these RTD,s when the temperature
by opening generator breaker. of any RTD exceeds set value.
6. Negative phase sequence protection
19.10 Different operating conditions of generator
Due to unbalance loading in three phases of a generator or during fault condition, negative
phase sequence component is produced. This negative phase sequence component produces a magnetic As discussed earlier the generator is,required to operate in parallel with other generator or with
field which rotates in opposite direction to that of main magnetic field. Due to this double frequency, the grid as well as it may supply load in isolated condition. This isolated condition of operation is called as
rotor is over heated. Negative phase sequence relay is used to detect and stop generator in case of this type islanding or solo mode of operation. In isolated operation mode, frequency of generator is maintained 50
of fault. hz irrespective of any connected load on the generator. This mode of operation is also called as Auto
7. Over voltage and under voltage protection frequency Regulation (AFR) mode or speed mode of operation.
The generator output voltage should be within specified limit. The out put voltage may increase
In parallel operation the generator is operated in auto power mode. Out put power of the
due to failure of AVR system. This over voltage may damage the insulation of generator. Due to problem in
generator is controlled where frequency of the generator depends upon frequency of connected grid system.
AVR or heavy fault condition in the system, generator output voltage may drop. Over voltage and under
This operating condition is called as Auto Power Regulation (APR) mode or load mode of operation.
voltage protection relays are used to take care of over voltage and under voltage respectively.
8. Over frequency and under frequency protection 19.10.1 Parallel, mode of operation
The generator is required to run at specified speed to generate voltage at 50 cycles per second. In parallel mode of operation, voltage and frequency of the generator depends upon that of
This frequency depends upon turbine speed. When speed of the turbine increases, frequency increases and connected grid. Load shared by the generator depends upon the load setting on the governor or steam input
vise versa. When generator supplies fault current to the faulty source, speed of the turbine drops and hence to the turbine. The load is maintained constant according to load set point on the governor. To increase
frequency. At this condition the generator breaker should open to protect the generator. Sudden load load on the generator, set point on the governor is raised, which ultimately increases governing valve
through or any problem in governing system may raise speed of the turbine and hence frequency. opening to increase steam input to turbine.
In this case increasing steam in to turbine does not increase speed of the turbine and hence
frequency. Rather it increases load on the generator.
Commissioning of boiler is a critical activity. It involves some statutory (IBR) requirement also,
like- hydro testing, safety valve setting, etc. Total boiler commissioning may be devided into following
activities. It will be easier to discuss each activity separately for better understanding.
Lot of welding work is carried out during erection of boiler pressure parts. X-ray test of some
welding joints are carried out to examine quality of welding. X-ray testing is also a statutory requirement.
Some percentage of total welding joints are tested by X-ray. As all welding joints can not be tested
[307]
through X-ray so, there is chance of welding defects in these joints. Initially these leakages can be detected
by filling the pressure parts with water. A small capacity pump is used for fill up the pressure parts.
DM water is used for initial fill up. Leakage from defective joint can be detected and rectified easily.
-Main Steam
During transportation, storage and erection some foreign particle may go inside the pressure
parts. So the pressure parts are required to be flushed thoroughly to remove any dust, dirt or foreign ®D4
Stop
particle. All individual drain points are to be opened to find out chocking if any. valve
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 311
After acid cleaning, the solution is drained out and then the pressure part loop is flushed with 20.2.8 Commissioning of Boiler feed pump
clean, warm water until the flushing water effluent is free of acid and soluble iron salts
Before commissioning of any equipment in power plant, electrical motor of that equipment is to
For acid cleaning normally hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid is used. be commissioned first. Direction of rotation and Current drawn is to be checked. Motor is to be left to run
II. Neutralization and Passivation on no load for some time on decouple condition. Then only coupling is to be done.
Once acid cleaning is over, an alkaline solution is circulated to neutralize the acidic effect in the Special care is to be taken while commissioning boiler feed pump. The dearetor is to be inspected
boiler tube. Ammonia, soda ash, tri sodium phosphate etc. are used for this. The cleaned surface of the and cleaned thoroughly, to avoid any foreign particle on the feed pump suction line. Suction strainer of the
boiler tube after acid cleaning is very reactive. So a thin uniform layer of passive cohesive iron oxide (FeO)
2 3
__ pump is to be cleaned. Cooling water should flow freely for gland and bearing cooling. Bearing should be
is formed. Formation of this iron oxide layer is called as passivation. properly lubricated and pump is properly aligned with the motor.
20.2.5 Alkali boil out Feed pump is to be started from local for the first time. Pump body temperature and any
abnormal sound, bearing temperature, motor current, discharge pressure, balancing pressure etc. are to be
Boiler is filled with normal DM water. Alkali solution, particularly soda ash or caustic soda is checked regularly.
added to the boiler drum. Normally the steam drum internals are removed and a temporary gauge glass is 20.2.9 Commissioning of fans
fitted to the boiler drum to avoid damage of original gauge glass due to chemical action. All the instrumentation There are various fans used in a boiler. These are ID, FD and PA fans. Before commissioning of
tapings are isolated.
these fans, the driving motors are to be commissioned first before coupling. Individual fans to be started
• As per the cold start up process, boiler is lighted up. Some time is allowed to dry out newly from local keeping dampers on required position. Proper care is to be taken to remove any foreign particle
applied refractory at the boiler furnace. After refractory dry out, pressure of the boiler is increased to get at the suction and discharge ducts of the fan. Once the fan is started for first time it is to be kept running
sufficient circulation of water inside boiler. for some time before putting it on normal operation on load. Then interlocks of these fans are to be
checked.
On regular interval, the water sample is tested. Boil out is completed when phosphate, oil 20.2.10 Commissioning of fuel handling system
particle, pH of the water stabilizes.
Like other drives of power plant, drives used for fuel handling system like- belts, crusher, screen,
After alkali boil out, boiler is cooled down and the water is drained out boiler internal is rinsed oil pumps etc. are to be commissioned one by one. The safety interlocks are to be checked. There should
with fresh DM water. not be any oil/ gas leakage from the fuel pipe line. For coal fired boiler, the system as whole should run
perfectly with all interlocks. Weigh feeder should indicate accurate weight.
20.2.6 EDTA Cleaning
Other auxiliary system of the boiler like- ash handing system, ESP, etc. are to be commissioned
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used now a days extensively for cleaning of boiler. before putting boiler in operation.
EDTA is circulated in the boiler pressure parts to clean the boiler tube inside surface. Circulation of the 20.3 Commissioning of Turbine
solution takes place due to natural circulation of water during controlled operation of boiler like alkali boil Like boiler, commissioning of turbine comprises different steps. These steps are discussed here to
out. Cleaning neutralization and passivation can be achieved sequentially with the single solution under give a little idea about the commissioning activity. The activity may vary from plant to plant depending
controlled condition. Hence the cleaning and passivation time reduces drastically. upon size and type of turbine. Still some common activities are discussed here for understanding.
20.2.7 Safety valve setting 20.3.1 Lube oil flushing
Lube oil is the life blood of any turbine. It lubricates the bearings. This oil is required to be very
Safety valve setting is a statutory requirement. As discussed earlier, there are three safety valves. clean and free from any suspended foreign particle and any contamination. Rust and dust particle are there
One is installed at super heater out let and other two are placed at steam drum. Super heater safety valve in pipe line before fabrication. During fabrication of lubrication pipe, welding debris may enter in to pipe
is set at lower pressure than drum safety valve. line. These particles can damage turbine bearings. So, the pipe line, storage tank and other connected
system of tube oil system are to be cleaned properly by circulating and filtering the oil before putting the
To set these safety valves, boiler is lighted up. The safety valve to be set is kept on service and turbine on line. Oil flushing is an important task of turbine commissioning.
other two are gagged.
Mostly the lube oil line is soaked in acid solution for internal cleaning. Fabricated pipe line is
Pressure on the boiler is raised slowly as per normal operation procedure of boiler. Fuel feeding removed from the position for this. After acid cleaning and thoroughly rinsing with fresh water it is fitted
rate is kept at minimum. The safety valve is required to lift and reset at desired pressure as per boiler again. By this any dust, rusting and scale is removed. The lube oil tank is cleaned properly and recommended
pressure rating. Accordingly it is adjusted to get the lift and reset pressure. grade of lube oil is filled in it.
During initial circulation of lube oil, oil is not permitted to enter in to Turbine bearing. Suitable
Like this all the three safety valves are set. All the gaggings are removed. Percussion is to be temporary arrangement is made for shorting the pipe lines for looping, so that oil can be circulated through
taken during initial pressure build up. The drum pressure gauge should be perfect and calibrated. If the entire part of pipe line without entering in to bearings.
safety valve does not lift beyond the set pressure then the pressure of the boiler is to be reduced and setting Filter cartridge of Lube oil filter is removed and oil pump is started for circulation of oil in the
to be done again.
pipe line. Any foreign particle in the pipe line is flushed out and returned to lube oil tank through return oil
g
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 317
o Generator protection system After checking above points physically, the panel bus bar is meggered thoroughly. Before charging
• Various electrical motors power on the bus bar, control supply is given to the panel and control function and interlock of the panel is
checked. Out going feeders are made off during this activity.
• Plant lighting system
Once all these points are completed bus is charged and kept under observation. Now one by one
• AC and ventilation system
outgoing feeders can be charged. Ensure that the protection system is in line.
• Emergency power or DG In this way HT and LT switchgears including power control centers (PCC) and motor control
o Station DC supply system Tie Breaker centers (MCC) are charged.
20.5.2 Commissioning of Transformers
After erection of transformer is over, transformer is filled with new transformer oil.
Unit Bus
Oil filtration is started to improve insulation resistance of transformer winding and break down value of
transformer oil. This filtration may take some days depending upon size of transformer and initial insulation
condition of the transformer. There should not be any leakage of oil from transformer body radiator or
bushings. Fresh silica gel is filled in the breather.
Unit Transformer
After oil filling in the transformer following tests are conducted.
Ratio test of transformer r•
318 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 319,
After checking above points, motor can be started from local in decoupled condition. Direction The value of PI generally should be above 2. In general, a high value of PI indicates good
of rotation is checked. There should not be any abnormal vibration, bearing temperature, current and condition of insulation. If the PI value is less then steps should be taken to dry the insulation and remove
sound in the motor. Motor is allowed to run on no load for some time. Interlock of the drive is checked. the contamination.
Motor trial is taken from remote or control room. II. Voltage build up
If a group of motors are required to run in interlock, individual motors are commissioned, by
Before voltage build up in the generator for the first time following points are thoroughly checked.
passing the interlock and then they can be tested with interlock.
• All the connection in the generator terminal is properly done.
Once no load trial run of a motor is found satisfactory then it can be coupled for load trail run
along with mechanical equipment. • IR and PI value of the generator winding is satisfactory.
20.5.4 Commissioning of generator protection system Hipot (Hi potential) test is carried out on generator stator winding (In most of the cases.Hipot test
is carried out at generator manufactures testing laboratory)
As discussed earlier, various relays are used for protection of generator. All CT,s and PT,s are to
• Neutral point of the generator is earthed through NGR.
be tested. Before trial run of generator, these relays are to be tested through primary and secondary test sets
and setting is to be done as per relay co-ordination. Control wiring of the protection panel is to be checked. • Generator protection system is in line.
That should be as per approved drawing. There should not be any loose connection at relay terminal or at • Protection and metering CT terminal is not open.
terminal box. The wiring of panel should be properly dressed.
• AVR function is tested independently with load.
Now control supply to the relay panel is charged. Tripping of each relay is simulated. The tripping
• Excitation system is thoroughly checked.
condition of generator and turbine should be tested along with annunciation with each relay operation.
• Turbine is running at full speed.
20.5.5 Commissioning of Generator
• Generator is properly earthed.
Commissioning of generator is a complex activity. This is the sum of some individual activity
from voltage build up at the generator to synchronization, loading and load shading on generator. Some of • Generator cooling system is in line.
the steps followed during commissioning of generator are discussed below. After above points are found satisfactory, field breaker can be closed. Voltage will build up
slowly. Now observe the out put voltage. There should not be any abnormal sound, spark, and smoke from
I. IR Value and PI value of winding
the generator, NGR, CT and PT panels.
Life of generator depends upon strength of the insulation. During transport, storage and erection,
At no load condition the generator should run for some time.
moisture may be absorbed by insulating material, which is required to be dried out.
With help of a megger the insulation resistance (IR) value of both stator and rotor winding is III. Open circuit and short circuit test
measured. IR test measures the resistance of electrical insulation between winding and core of the stator or In open circuit test of the generator, out put voltage is measured with various field currents during
rotor. Purpose of insulation is to block current flow between winding and the core. So, ideally this resistance 0
no load.
should be infinite. In practice, IR is not infinitely high. This value should be more than as specified by the
generator manufacturer.
Polarization index (PI) test of the generator winding is done to measure the absorption of current
due to polarization of insulation. PI is a variation of the insulation resistance with time. It is the ratio of IR
value measured after voltage has been applied for 10 minutes (R10) to IR value measured after voltage has
been applied for one minute (Rl).
Following procedure is followed during PI test.
• Remove all external connections to the generator and completely discharge the winding to grounded
machine frame.
• Through a 1000/5000 Volt motorized megger, apply DC voltage between the winding and ground.
• Continue to apply this voltage for 10 minutes. Field current
• Measure the insulation resistance and note it down. Fig. 20.5 Open Circuit Curve
o Stop the megger. The reading is plotted and the curve obtained as shown in the figure is called as open circuit curve..
• Completely discharge the windings to the grounded machine frame. In short circuit test the output terminal is shorted with a suitable shorting link. This link should be
• Start the megger and reapply voltage for 1 minute. capable to carry full load current of the generator, without over heating. Turbine is run at lower speed and
• Measure the insulation resistance and note it down. this speed is maintained constant through out the test. Small amount of field current is applied. As the
• Calculate the polarization index (PI) by dividing the 10 minute insulation resistance by 1 minute output terminal is shorted, so short circuit current will flow at a very less amount of field current. Now the
insulation resistance. field current is increased gradually, till full load current is circulated in the short link.
320 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 321
The curve of short circuit current verses field current is called as short circuit curve. This curve is 20.6 Performance guarantee (PG) test
shown in the figure. t o,
Performance guarantee (PG) test is carried out to measure the performance of the equipment as
guaranteed by the manufacturer. The manufacturer of Boiler, Turbine and generator claims some minimum
performance during offer for supply of the equipment. After erection and successful commissioning of these
equipments, these perforrriances are measured before hand over from the manufacturer to the power plant
owner.
For measuring performance, some parameters are measured. Before PG test, test procedure is
prepared. In this procedure the parameters to be measured and the means of measurement is decided. It is
mutually agreed for how much time this test will be conducted. In some case it is carried out for one hour,
in some case it is conducted for one day. The frequency of measurement is also decided prior to
commencement of PG test.
Complete testing procedure is detailed as following.
Field current
^ Testing methodology : reference is often made to standard testing methodologies.
Fig. 20.6 Short Circuit Curve
Mostly these two tests are carried out at the factory of generator manufacturer. Still open circuit ^ Testing equipment : who has to provide it; where it is to be located; how sensitive must it be?
test is carried out during commissioning for checking and for future reference. ° Tolerances : what is the margin of error
After these two tests, the generator is ready for synchronization and loading. Before synchronization
of generator for the first time, phase sequence is to be checked properly. Once the set is synchronized as per ' Ambient conditions : what atmospheric conditions are assumed to be the base case? Accordingly
the normal procedure discussed earlier, load on the generator can be raised. The winding temperature, testing results will need to be adjusted to take into account any variance from these ambient
cooling air temperature etc. are to be monitored regularly. conditions.
IV. Load throw test To measure the parameters, some standard measuring equipments or calibrated instruments of
In this test the generator is tested to find out the behavior of AVI? and Turbine Governing system the plant process control, is used. Which instruments are to be used for measurement of which parameter
during sudden reduction of load on the generator. The generator is allowed to run at more than 70% load. is decided prior to PG test. Once all these procedure is decided PG test can be carried out. Normally PG
Suddenly the tie breaker as shown in the figure below is opened. test procedure is supplied by manufacturer. It is preferred to conduct PG test as early as possible after
commissioning.
In the subsequent section we will discuss the PG test procedure of boiler, turbine and generator
separately.
20.6.1 PG Test of Boiler
Boiler manufacturer claims mainly the following performance which is checked during PG test.
• Specific fuel consumption per kg of steam.
• Purity of steam.
o Efficiency of boiler.
322 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 323
For measuring these parameters, normally the plant process instruments are used. Following To check these performances some parameters are measured. Following parameters are measured
parameters are normally measured to calculate above claimed performance. using process instruments or some standard testing instruments as decided mutually.
326 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 327
other suitable maintenance practices are to be followed. There may be some sporadic failure or breakdown IV. Lubrication schedule
even if other sophisticated maintenance practices are followed. In this condition breakdown repair may be For any moving equipment lubrication plays major role to get desired useful life of that equipment.
carried out. But if other maintenance practices are followed efficiently then definitely there will be drastic Proper lubrication program of any plant can minimize failure. Moving parts are required to be lubricated to
reduction in breakdown. minimize wear and tear. So each plant should have a well designed lubrication schedule. First of all each
21.2.2 Preventive or schedule maintenance points of lubrication in an equipment are identified. Types of lubricants to be used are decided as per the
In this practice maintenance is carried out on time based or machine running hour based schedule, recommendation of equipment manufacturer. Quantity of lubricant and frequency of lubrication is decided
to detect, to repair or replace, to control degradation of components and to increase useful life of machine. upon running pattern of the equipment, lubrication condition and past experience. Like this each point of
Through this maintenance practice, reliability, machine useful life and-availability increases-_ _- —lubrication of all equipments are considered and a schedule is prepared.
Breakdown is minimized by avoiding degradation. Though this maintenance practice is not fully helpful As per the lubrication schedule lubrication is carried out and recorded. Lubricant used should be
and efficient, still it is more acceptable than breakdown maintenance practice. free from contamination.
In this practice a maintenance schedule for each equipment is prepared. This schedule may be Merits of schedule or preventive maintenance
time based (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly) or machine running hour based (1000 hours, 5000
Preventive maintenance is a planned maintenance program. The component to be changed is
hours etc.). Necessary maintenance like checking, inspection, lubrication, bearing replacement, oil changing
etc. are carried out as per schedule. planned well in advance. The job to be carried out is well known. So man power requirement can be
forecasted easily. As the maintenance is carried out periodically, so rate of failure of equipment reduces and
Some of the terms used in preventive maintenance are discussed below.
hence loss of generation can be minimized. Equipment life and availability increases.
I. Maintenance schedule
21.2.3 Predictive maintenance
This is simply a chart that shows various maintenance activities, and how often it should be done.
Maintenance frequency of any equipment is decided upon following factors. In preventive or schedule maintenance practice maintenance is carried out at a predetermined
• Age of equipment interval without considering actual condition of the equipment. Most of the time unnecessary repairs are
• Criticality of equipment carried out which is not required at all, as per actual condition of the equipment. Fo maintenance cost in
schedule maintenance is more.
• Past history of failure
• Manpower availability Suppose the bearing of a pump is to be replaced after 10,000 running hours. It is not considered
Schedule of maintenance for more critical and old equipment having more failures in the past that the bearing may be in better condition and can be used for another 5,000 hours. The bearing is
may be planned at smaller interval. For new, non critical equipment, maintenance schedule may be planned replaced by a new one without considering actual bearing condition. In this case, maintenance cost can not
at longer interval. be optimized. Also the bearing may fail well before its schedule.
All the equipments of power plant may be covered in this schedule. Different maintenance But in predictive maintenance practice, actual condition of the equipment is checked regularly.
frequency is marked differently in the chart. Once a schedule is prepared, it can be translated to actual Degradation is measured with help of diagnostic equipments and Maintenance is carried out accordingly to
dates to plan when to perform various preventive maintenance activities. Different type of maintenance is eliminate this degradation and avoid significant failure. Maintenance is not time based but based upon
carried out during different schedule as per the predetermined job list mentioned on the check list. After actual condition of the equipment in this case. So the maintenance cost can be optimized by using
completion of that particular schedule maintenance job, chart is updated. Frequency of maintenance may equipment parts optimally.
be revised depending upon machine condition during last maintenance. Merits of predictive maintenance
II. Check list • Reduces spares and inventory
A check list for each equipment, listed on the schedule maintenance chart is prepared. In this • The equipment is used optimally.
check list, list of jobs that are to be carried out during different schedule are described. Jobs to be carried
• Reduces unnecessary repairs.
out during, monthly maintenance is not same as yearly maintenance. Jobs to be carried out are decided
based on the factors described earlier. o Eliminates catastrophic equipment failure.
HI. History book • Reduces costly down time.
• Maintenance can be done during idle period.
Each. and every equipment should have a history book. Detail specification of the equipment
and spares used in it are listed in this history book. Jobs carried 'out on the equipment like — date of job In power plants this predictive maintenance practice is most suitable. Some maintenance engineer
done, nature of job done, condition of the equipment before maintenance, abnormality found, spares prefers to carry out maintenance thoroughly in a year during boiler annual inspection and avoid any plant
changed/replaced during maintenance, condition of equipment after maintenance, etc. are logged on stoppage in between. Also the condition of the equipments is monitored to check the healthiness of equipment
history book. From this history book history of failures of that particular equipment can be obtained and and if required maintenance is carried out during minor stoppages or idle period.
Mean time between failure (MTBF) can be find out easily. It provides lot of information about past failures
The maintenance practice of any power plant is to be decided on the situation and flexibility of
and the repair methods. For inventory planning also this is helpful.
the plant.
328 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 329
21.2.4 Condition based maintenance (CBM) TPM is a proactive approach that aims to prevent any kind of failure before occurrence.This is a maintenance
program which involves a newly defined concept for plant and equipment maintenance for optimizing the
Condition based maintenance practice is nothing but a predictive maintenance practice.
productivity of equipment through systematic equipment maintenance involving employees at all levels.
Degradation of the equipment is measured by sophisticated instruments. Equipment condition is monitored TPM focuses maintenance as a necessary and vitally important part of the plant. In TPM, Maintenance is
and suitable maintenance is carried out before any breakdown, preferably in the next available idle or low no longer considered as a non-profit activity.
load period. Condition of the equipment is monitored through various condition monitoring instruments.
TPM can not be implemented overnight. Normally it takes at least two- three years to implement
Vibration, temperature, thickness, debris analysis and thermography are some of the condition monitoring
an effective TPM system. TPM activities are carried out in small teams with specific tasks. Under TPM,
methods adopted.
__ everyone is involved in keeping the equipment in good working order to minimize production losses from
For example vibration measurement of any bearing can indicate bearing condition. Debris analysis equipment repairs, assists and set-ups. TPM aims to eliminate 6 big losses :
report of turbine oil can indicate any metal particle and hence operating condition of bearing. Raise in stage Breakdowns, which can result in long, expensive repairs
pressure of the turbine indicates deposition on blades. Tube thickness of boiler can be measured to analyze Set-ups, conversions, and changeovers
tube condition. Condition analysis can provide information if a trend is prepared and analyzed. Idling and minor stoppages
Reduced equipment speed
Defects and Rework
r
Start-up Losses
5S:
First step of TPM implementation is 5S. 5S stands for five Japanese words that start with the
letter `S': Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, and Shitsuke. It is translated into English, starting with Alphabet
"S". 5 S stands for workplace organization methodology. Problems cannot be clearly seen when the work
Equipment place is unorganized. Cleaning and organizing the workplace helps to uncover problems. Making problems
failure visible is the first step of improvement in maintenance.
SEIRI - Sort out :
Time ----O.
The first step of the "5S" process is "Seiri" or sorting out. It refers to the act of sort out all
unwanted, unnecessary, and unrelated materials in the workplace by organizing the items as critical, important,
Fig. 21.2 Equipment Condition monitoring frequently used items, useless, or items that are not need as of now. Unwanted items are thrown out.
Critical items.for use are kept nearby and items that are not be used in near future are stored at some other
Equipment condition in any power plant is to be monitored properly. Trends of these parameters place. This is done to ensure that everything left near the workplace is related to work. Also number of
are to be prepared to decide what type of maintenance is to be carried out. necessary items in the workplace are kept as minimum as possible.
21.2.5 Proactive maintenance SEITON - Systematic Arrangement:
Proactive maintenance practices aims to eliminate the root cause of the failure. So, it is one step The concept here is "A place for everything and everything in its place". By putting everything in
ahead of other maintenance practices. Any failure is having some root cause. For example- turbine failure an assigned place it can be located quickly, as well as kept at that place quickly. Every single item is
due to failure of bearing can be eliminated by maintaining the quality of turbine lubrication oil. So, in allocated its own place for safekeeping, and each location is labeled for easy identification of what it's
proactive maintenance emphasis is given to the clean ness of lube oil not to the bearing failure. for. To identify items easily, name plates and colored tags are used. Vertical racks are used for this purpose,
Proactive maintenance has following three steps. and heavy items are stored at the bottom position in the racks.
I. Setting a quantified target relating to root cause of failure like lube oil clean ness SEISO - Shine:
Il. Implementing maintenance plan to keep this root cause within target level like routine filtration of This involves cleaning the work place free of burrs, grease, oil, waste, scrap etc. No loosely
oil, removal of contaminants. hanging wires or oil leakage from machines. "Seiso" focuses on not simply cleaning the working environment
III. once, but keeping it clean every day to maintain the facility and equipment long term.
Routine monitoring of root cause with suitable technique like- testing of oil.
SEIKETSU - Standardization:
As the root cause of the failure is taken care so, probability of failure reduces.
"Seiketsu" consists of defining the standards by which cleanliness can be measured and
21.2.6 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) maintained'. It encompasses both personal and environmental cleanliness. Standardization is helpful to
detect abnormalities and unusual situations, so that people can react immediately.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a Japanese concept. It is a Corporate Cultural Change
SHITSUKE - Self discipline :
Programme", developed by Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance (JIPM), It is an approach to bring
changes in the culture and performance of plant operations by adopting structured Maintenance practices. It denotes commitment to maintain orderliness and to practice the first 4 S as a way of life and
bring about self-discipline.
330 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 331
TPM has 8 pillars of activity each being set to achieve a "zero" target. awareness among people, slogans, Quiz, Drama, Posters, etc. related to safety, health and environment is
PILLAR 1 - Jishu Hozen (Autonomous maintenance): organized at regular intervals. Target is fixed to attain
This pillar focuses towards development of operators. They should be able to take care of small 1. Zero accident,
maintenance tasks. Operators are responsible for daily maintenance activities of the equipments on which 2. Zero health damage
they are working, to prevent it from deterioration and skilled maintenance people are utilized for more value 3. Zero fire.
added activity and technical repairs.
21.3 Failures in power plant
PILLAR 2 - Kaizen:
As discussed earlier each equipment fails during its operation due to degradation of its components,
"Kai" means change, and `Zen" means good (for thebetter). Basically kaizen is small improvements__
due toabnormal operating conditions or due to faulty design. Failure of any equipment in power plant
on continual basis. Kaizen requires no or little investment. A very large number of small improvements are leads to huge loss due to stoppage of plant. Some time failure may lead to sever accident. High temperature
more effective in a plant than a few improvements of large value. This pillar aims to reduce losses in the and pressure steam is used at power plant. So failure in boiler or pipe line may create dangerous situation
workplace that affect efficiencies
for man and machine. Also failure of turbine may take longer time to repair and the repair cost is very high.
PILLAR 3 - Planned Maintenance:
In power plants, different types of failure are experienced. Among them some are repetitive in
It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments. With Planned Maintenance, focus is nature and some are sporadic. Maintenance staff of the plant are acquainted with repetitive nature of
shifted from reactive to proactive method of maintenance and use trained maintenance staff to train the failure like oil leakage, steam leakage. But failures which are very rare, requires higher skill to handle. These
operators to maintain their equipment in a better way. sporadic failures are to be handled properly. All these failures are to be analyzed and the root cause of
PILLAR 4 - Quality Maintenance: failure is to be find out.
This pillar focuses on maintenance for quality. Through this, defects are eliminated in a systematic In the subsequent sections some major failures in power plant equipments are discussed.
manner, using techniques such as prevention of defects at source, mistake-proofing and effective introduction Failure in boiler
of operator quality assurance. It is believed, maintaining perfect equipment helps to maintain quality
Various types of failures are noticed in a boiler. For some small failures boiler is not required to
products. Condition of the equipment is set and is checked / measured regularly to conform values are be stopped. It can be attained while boiler is on operation. In sorne cases boiler is to be stopped to attain
within standard. Through this, possibilities of defects are predicted before occurring and counter measure is
this failure. Some of the major failures in boiler are discussed here.
taken before it takes place.
21.3.1 Boiler tube leakage
PILLAR 5 — Initial Flow or Early Equipment Management:
Leakage of water tube is commonly observed in a boiler. For attaining this problem boiler is to be
The knowledge which has been developed to achieve improvements in equipments through TPM
stopped and the leakage tube is to be replaced or repaired. Leakage can be detected by symptoms like-loss
implementation is directed towards the development, design and implementation of new equipments/
of water, noise in boiler or disturbance in boiler water chemistry etc. If the leakage is minor, boiler can be
projects which are to be procured and installed at plant. So, new plant and equipment is capable to achieve
continued to run for some time. If leakage is severe, immediately boiler is to be stopped and cooled down
its planned performance level immediately after commissioning.
to take repairing job. It is not advisable to run the boiler for longer period with leakage tube. It may damage
PILLAR 6 - Training:
some healthy tube also.
Work force is the assets of any organization. In this pillar of TPM, it is aimed to have multi-skilled
Leakage of the tube may take place due to following reasons.
employees with high morale having capability to perform all required functions effectively and independently.
Education and training is given to people to upgrade their knowledge and skill to create sufficient number o Scaling
of experts in the plant. It is the requirement to train them to "know why" instead of "know how". Employees • Erosion
are grouped in to following groups depending upon their skill level. • Corrosion
1. Do not know. Scale may form at fire side and water side of the tube. Fire side scaling takes place due to
2. Know the theory but cannot do deposition of combustion product at the outer surface of the tube. This deposition forms hard surface on
3. Can do but cannot teach the tube surface. Also due to poor water chemistry, water side scaling takes place. Presence of scale affects
4. Can do and also teach. heat transfer as it is bad conductor of heat. Tube fails due to over heating of tube material.
Training is imparted accordingly, to increase their skill level. Corrosion also takes place at both fire side and water side of tube. Due to aggressive surrounding
PILLAR 7.Office TPM: medium, the tube is corroded. Failure of protective layer leads to pitting of tube. Corrosion makes the tube
Administrative function is a support system to main plant production. Office TPM is followed to material thin and it may fail.
improve productivity, efficiency at administrative areas and identify and eliminate losses. This is possible by Erosion is a mechanical phenomena and take place due to process like friction, impact, turbulence
adopting suitable processes and procedures for better office automation. . etc. Due to abrasive combustion particles, tube is eroded and its thickness reduces, which lead to failure of
tube finally.
PILLAR 8 - Safety, Health and Environment:
Other than above reasons tube may fail due to corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking.
Aim of this pillar is to provide safe and healthy working place in the plant and taking care of
Tube may burst due to starvation and over heating. Opening of this burst looks like mouth of a fish. So it
environment. People are motivated to work safely and keep the working environment healthy. To create
is called asfish mouth opening.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 333
332
There may be corrosion at the lower temperature zone of air heater and economizer due to expose the tube material to corrosive flue gas. This type of failure is characterised as series cracks that
sulphuric acid vapor dew point. This is called as acid corrosion or low temperature corrosion. initiate on the outside surface of the tube and propagates in to wall. These cracks are developed over longer
period. These failures are normally observed at furnace wall tubes.
21.3.2 Failure mechanism of boiler tube
VII. Caustic attack
As discussed earlier, leakage of boiler tube takes place due to scale, corrosion and erosion. In this
section we will discuss some more failure mechanism responsible for tube leakage. These failures are to be Where there is excessive deposit inside the tube surface, water flow in contact with tube reduces,
eliminated to minimize tube leakage. To analyze the causes of failure following mechanisms are to be causing local under deposit boiling and concentration of boiler water chemicals increases at that area. If
understood clearly. the boiler water PH is high it results in a corrosive attack and break down protective magnetite layer. This
failureiiacharacterized as localized wall loss at the inside wall of the tube.
I. Pitting
VIII. High temperature oxidation
Due to presence of oxygen in feed water, pitting is normally formed. Oxygen reacts with tube
metal to form iron oxide. The tube internal surface is corroded in deep grove spots called as pitting. This This can occur locally in areas that have the highest temperature like super heater, when out side
can happen in running boiler due to excessive oxygen in feed water or due to improper passivation. surface temperature is more than oxidation limit of tube material.
Pitting is normally observed near economizer feed water inlet area on running boiler. Due to IX. Graphitization
improper passivation this can observed at non drainable surfaces. During long term operation, when tube material is exposed to excessive temperature, it experience
II. Stress corrosion cracking dissolution of the iron carbide in the steel and formation of graphite nodules.
Stress corrosion cracking takes place where combination of high tensile stress and corrosion fluid This takes place in carbon steel tube of high carbon content or at carbon molybdenum steel. This failure is
are present. The damage is in the form of crack, which propagates from tube internal wall. There may be characterized as brittle with a thick edge fracture.
trans granular or inter granular crack in the tube wall. Normally this is observed near higher external stress X. Erosion
areas like attachments. It is characterized by a thick wall, brittle type crack. Erosion occurs due to impingement on tube external surface. The erosion medium may be
III. Corrosion fatigue abrasive particle of combustion product or steam. Mostly this happens due to impingement of ash or during
This type of failure takes place due to combination of thermal fatigue and corrosion. It happens soot blowing. This is characterized by metal loss from tube outer surface. Damage is oriented on the impact
due to improper design, water chemistry, and oxygen content in feed water. Due to combination of these, side of tube.
protective magnetite layer of tube inside wall is damaged and tube wall is exposed to corrosion. Normally
21.3.3 Failure of auxiliary system of boiler
this type of failure takes place near to external attachments. This failure is characterized as wide trans
granular cracks. Failure of any auxiliary equipment of a boiler may lead to stoppage of boiler. These auxiliary
systems normally consists of
IV. Short term over heat
Due to insufficient fluid flow in the boiler tube, particularly in super heater, tube metal temperature I. ID, FD and PA fans
increases to dangerously high level and lead to ductile rupture of tube. This is characterized by an opening II. Boiler feed pump
called asfish mouth. III. Fuel handling system
IV. Ash handling system
Some of the commonly experienced problems of these systems are discussed below.
I. ID, FIS and PA fans
Every boiler is having fans to supply fresh air, evacuate flue gas and for conveying fuel etc.
In these fans following problems are normally experienced.
• Vibration due to misalignment, disturbance in static and dynamic balancing due to deposition in
Fig. 21.3 Fish mouth opening fan impeller, and failure of bearing.
• Failure of bearing
V. Long term over heat
Due to restriction in flow, scale deposits etc. tube metal temperature increases and continue to o Wear out of impeller and shaft
operate for longer period and tube fails finally. This type of failure is characterized by minimal swelling and • High bearing temperature due to insufficient lubrication and chocking in bearing cooling system
a longitudinal split that is narrower than fish mouth opening. Tube metal is often has heavy external scale etc.
build up and secondary cracking. This can be seen in super heater and furnace wall tubes.
• Failure of coupling
VI. Fire side corrosion cracking
Tube outside surface is exposed to corrosive flue gas and subjected to thermal fatigue. All the fans are to be inspected thoroughly at fixed interval. The bearing condition is to be
This thermal fatigue can initiate crack on the less elastic scales deposited on the tube external surface and monitored. Proper lubrication schedule is to be followed. Alignment is to be set right if it is disturbed.
Failure of blades of turbine take place due to following failure mechanism. VI. Creep
• Stress corrosion cracking Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly deform permanently to relive stress. This is
more severe when material is exposed to heat for longer period. As the turbine blades and casing is exposed
❑ Pitting to high temperature for longer period there is chance of creep failure.
• Corrosion fatigue
VII. Fatigue
• Solid particle erosion
• Deposits Fatigue is reversal of stress on the material. Due to speed change, change in load etc. stress on
• Creep turbine blade changes. This may lead to fatigue failure. Normally the blade root is experienced to damage
due to fatigue.
• Fatigue
340 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant
from the back surface. Incase any discontinuity exists on the wave travel path, some part of the wave is
reflected from the discontinuity and some part travels through the test piece, till it is reflected from the back • Bearing cover is opened. Bearing condition is inspected and clearance measured.
surface. The wave reflected from the discontinuity and back surface having traveled different path can be • Condition of coupling and alignment of turbine is checked.
indicated on a CRT monitor. From the CRT monitor, size, depsity and location of the discontinuity can be ' Visual inspection of gears of gearbox and barring device is done.
found. Time taken for the reflection can detect the thickness of the test pJece. °
Servicing of control system, adjustment of governing, protection and safety system is done.
This technique is adopted to detect any crack or flaw in boil s, turbine casing, bladertHT
• Radial run out of rotor is checked.
bolts etc. This technique is also used to measure the thickness of boiler tube.
• Axial play of rotor is checked by removing thrust bearing.
21.4.4 Radiographic test
• Any abnormality noticed during normal operation is attained.
In radiographic test electro magnetic waves such as X-ray and Gamma rays are used. Absorption
of these rays depends upon density and thickness of the material to be tested. A photographic film is used Major overhaul
to create an image to detect different density material. High density homogeneous portion, where absorption
is high, creates light areas on the film when developed. Where as, at the area of defect (flaw, crack, or Due to continuous operation of turbine, wear out of turbine internals and deposit on blades take
inclusion), where absorption is less creates black impression on the film, when developed. By observing the place. So, it is required to open the turbine casing and inspect turbine internal curing major overhaul.
film, the defect can be easily detected. Normally this type of overhaul is advised after 75000 to 100000 equivalent operating hours. Following
activities are normally carried out during this overhaul.
Radiographic test is widely used to inspect any defect at welding or casting, forging etc.
• Turbine casing is opened. Internal parts of turbine are inspected.
21.4.5 Metallurgical test
• Deposit on blades are removed by sand blasting.
Metallurgical testing is carried out to find out material chemical composition. A sample from the
test piece is taken to find out different composition of the material at laboratory. Also the material is tested • Damage seals are replaced.
through metallurgical microscope to check the grain boundary defects. • All the activities listed on minor overhaul, are carried out.
21.5 Different types of maintenance programme of Turbine • Governing valve seat lapping is done.
.^W Every power plant is expected to run continuously for years together. Turbine is operated It high o Any damaged component is replaced.
temperature and pressure condition. So, the stress developed on turbine is more. It has to operate finder o ND test is carried out to evaluate the condition of bearing, rotor shaft blades etc.
different condition like- load change, start, stop etc. Wear out and thermal stress reduces the efficiency and
reliability of the machine. So, it is advised to maintain the turbine on continuous basis, through suitable • Servicing of ESV is carried out.
maintenance and condition monitoring practices. Turbine manufacturer advises to carry out specific • Rotor balancing is checked.
maintenance other than regular inspection, checking and monitoring activities. This Specific maintenance is • Inspection of steam pipe line is carried out.
' on running hour basis.
To calculate the equivalent running hours, number of starting of turbine and operating hours are Apart from above overhaul activities, any abnormality found in between is attended .to keep the
taken into account. For every start, around 30 hours is added to the operating hours of turbine. Deterioration turbine healthy. Daily checking of bearing vibration, temperature, axial displacement, inter stage pressure,
created by one starting is equivalent to 30 normal operating hours. So the turbine, which is frequently gland steam requirement etc. can provide information about turbine condition. Proper start up procedure
minimizes unusual thermal stress on turbine.
started, requires maintainance sooner. The equivalent running hour is calculated as
Req =R+Nx30 21.6 Annual Inspection of Boiler
n
Each boiler which is in operation is required to be registered with concerned IBR authority of that
Req = Equivalent running hours state. Each boiler is assigned with a registration number. Normally this registration is required to be renewed
Rn = Normal operating hours every year. The boiler operation is monitored as per the Indian boiler Act- 1923 and boiler regulation -1950.
Some of the important sections of these Act and Rule are highlighted in subsequent sections.
N = Number of starts
As per Indian boiler act 1923, the boiler is to be inspected every year by I3R inspecting authority
Following two types of overhaul is advised by turbine manufacturer. for renewal of the registration. For this annual renewal, it is required to follow some procedure. Every boiler
• Minor overhaul engineer should be familiar with this procedure, as every year he has to take care of inspection and renewal.
• Major overhaul 21.6.1 Procedure for annual inspection
Minor overhaul As per section -8 of boiler act -1923, "The certificate for use of boiler shall cease to be in force
Mostly at every 20000 to 25000 equivalent running hours, this overhaul is advised. when-the period for which it is granted is expired". Normally the certificate is valid for one year.
In this overhaul, casing of the turbine is riot opened. Following activities are carried out during minor Following steps are followed for renewal of certificate.
overhaul. I. Intimation and deposit of inspection fees
342 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 343
Before expire of certificate, intimation regarding expected shutdown program of the boiler is VI. Final order
given to the concerned IBR authority along with required inspection fees. Inspection fee is deposited in the As the provisional order is valid for six months, before that final order is expected from appropriate
form of treasury challan. The amount is decided as per heating surface of the boiler. Inspecting authority IBR authority based on the inspection report of the inspecting officer.
fixes up a date for inspection of boiler after getting intimation and required inspection fees.
During annual inspection period, maintenance of other auxiliary equipments like fans, fuel handling
II. Cleaning of boiler system, ash handling system, ESP etc. can be carried out. This period is to be utilized efficiently to increase
After shutdown of boiler, boiler is made empty and cleaned thoroughly. Tube outside surface, the availability of above systems. As far as possible this opportunity is to be utilized fully to run the boiler
steam drum, mud drum etc. are cleaned. Out side surface of tube can be cleaned through wire brush or trouble free for next one year.
water jet. Furnace and water wall is cleaned thoroughly. All the man holes, hand he les are opened. All the 21.6.2 Repairing procedure of Boiler
boiler mountings are removed. Necessary arrangement is made to facilitate the inspector to inspect the Each registered boiler in use is having a memorandum of inspection book maintained by the
boiler thoroughly for any abnormality like crack, bulge, blister, corrosion, erosion etc. on the pressure part concerned IBR inspecting authority. In this book date of inspection, inspection note, hydraulic test details,
of the boiler. 24 volt hand lamp is provided inside the furnace for easy inspection. Scaffolding is made to pressure parts replaced etc. are noted. Each repair which is carried out on the pressure parts and the parts
get access to critical areas.
which affects the satisfactory performance of boiler is noted there. For any such repair, prior approval of
III. Open inspection of boiler concerned IBR authority is taken. Without permission of concerned authority, no repair, or alternation can
On the schedule date, boiler inspecting authority carry out open inspection of the boiler. He may be carried out in a boiler. But during operation, some deterioration may take place which require repairing
require boiler general arrangement (GA) and other drawings for his reference. All these drawings are to be like —fusion welding in pressure parts, pipe lines, headers, replacement of damaged pressure parts etc.
made available. For repair of boiler following procedure is mostly followed.
Duty of owner for inspection as per Indian boiler Act-1923 I. Intimation and inspection fees deposition
For inspection of boiler, the owner shall be bound Like annual inspection, intimation for repair is given to the inspecting authority. Required inspection
fee is deposited for inspection. On the fixed date inspector inspect the boiler to asses the repair job to be
a) To afford the inspector all reasonable facility for the inspection as may reasonably required by him. carried out. Some time it may be required to make access to repair the faulty portion. For this some healthy
b) To properly prepare the boiler and make the boiler ready for inspection in the prescribed manner. tubes may be required to be removed or cut. The inspector prepairs a detailed list of job to be carried out.
c) To provide drawings, specifications, certificates and other particulars as may be prescribed. II. Repair Order
On this day the inspector carry out open inspection of boiler. He mainly checks for any deformation The repair job is entrusted to a approved boiler repairer, who can satisfy the concerned IBR
of the boiler which may lead to failure of boiler pressure parts. He checks internal and external condition of authority regarding quality of welding and other repair done by him. For this, a registered boiler repairer is
the pressure parts for any abnormality like- crack, bulge, blister, corrosion, erosion etc. He may instruct to hired. A request letter is submitted to the inspecting authority to issue a repair order in the name of the
cut some of the header or tube to check the iot ernal condition of tube or header. He will verify the safety repairer selected by owner. After getting the repair order, repairing can be started.
valve-,-blow down valve etc. are overhauled or not. III Material inspection
IV. Hydrostatic test Materials which are to be used for repairing like- boiler tubes, fittings etc. are required to be
inspected by inspecting authority. For this, material test certificates and drawings are submitted. Inspecting
After open inspection of the boiler the man holes, hand holes etc. are closed. Safety valve flange
authority inspects all these materials for acceptance. The drawing is approved by him. Then only these
is made blind. Wier t is _fiilled in thj . boiler. There should not any air trapped inside boiler pressure parts. It
materials can be used for repairing.
is advisable to raise the pressure up to working pressure of the boiler as per normal procedure described
earlier before visit of inspecting authority for preliminary test to find out the tightness of joints. IV. Fit up inspection
During repairing work the inspecting authority may like to visit the site to inspect the quality of
At the presence of inspecting authority, pressure is raised normally up to 125% to 150 % of
job in progress. Mostly before final welding of tubes or pipes, he inspects the fit up. Once the fit up
working pressure of boiler. The pressure gauge of inspecting authority is fitted and this pressure gauge
inspection is done he may permit for final welding. He may require to test skill of the welder. IBR certified
reading is refered for hydraulic test.
welder is utilized by the repairer to carryout the repairing job.
Boiler should withstand such pressure satisfactorily, without appreciable leakage or undue deflection V. ND Test
or distortion, for at least 10 minutes.
To check the quality of welding, X-ray test is conducted. X-ray test report of welding is submitted
V. Provisional ordeir to the inspecting authority.
After successful hydraulic test of boiler, the inspecting authority issues a provisional certificate VI. Hydro test
authorizing the use of boiler. The *alidity of this provisional order expire after six months or after issue of Once the repairing job is completed, hydro test of pressure parts is conducted in the presence of
final certificate. inspecting authority as per the procedure discussed earlier.
After successful hydro test of boiler, inspecting authority permits to put the boiler in service.
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 345
344
R. Electrode
21.7 Welding
As told earlier, the electrode used in SMAW is consumed during welding process and it is covered
Welding is an important technique in power plant maintenance. Welding is a process that joins with flux to produce shielding gas and slag to protect the welding area from oxidation. These electrodes are
metal. Welding is done by melting the work piece and adding some filler material to form a molten pool. available in different core wire diameter and length. Diameter of the electrode decides welding current and
When this pool cools, it becomes a strong joint. In past days, riveting process was adopted in absence of hence thickness of the work piece to be welded.
welding. Now a days welding makes maintenance simpler and cost effective. So, welding technique is used
Depending upon the base material, type of electrode is chosen. These electrodes are available as
widely in power plants. Due to advanced welding technique, boiler design has became simpler. Repairing of
per American welding society (AWS) specification. Some of the AWS specified SMAW electrodes are
damaged boiler tubes, furnace, pipe lines etc. are done easily by welding.
-mentioned below.
Now a day's various types of welding techniques are used. Some of the commonly used welding
A 5.1 - Carbon steel electrode for SMAW
processes are discussed here.
A 5.4 - Stainless steel electrode for SMAW
I. Arc welding
A 5.5 - Low alloy ste.. electrode for SMAW
In this process, concentrated heat of an electric arc is utilized to melt the work piece, in to which
in power plants for welding of boiler tubes and pipes mostly A 5.1 electrodes are used.
some molten metal of consumable electrode, is added further. To create arc, direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC) is used, depending upon the material to be welded and electrode used. Gas metal arc welding These electrodes are designated as E-XXXX (E 6013, E7018, E 8018 etc. ). Most of the time
(GMAW) or metal inert gas(MIG) welding, Gas —tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten inert gas (TIG engineers are confused about these numbers. It is explained here briefly. The maintenance engineer should
welding), shield metal arc welding (SMAW), are example of Arc welding. know the meaning of each digit of electrode for proper selection of the welding electrode.
H. Resistance welding I. E—XXXX
In this process heat is produced by passing high current across the joints. Due to resistance E — Designates Arc welding electrode.
caused by the contact between two surfaces and high current passed through it, high heat is produced and H. E-..QXX
small pool of molten metal is formed. Spot welding and seam welding are two types of resistance welding. First two digits designate tensile strength of the electrode in thousand pounds per square inch
III. Energy beam welding (kpsi). In this case it is 60 kpsi.
These are new process of welding. High energy density beam is utilized in this process. In this Electrodes with various tensile strength like E 70XX, E 80XX, E 90XX are available. Mostly for
welding, the size of weld area is very small. Laser beam welding and electron beam welding are example of carbon steel pipes and tubes E 60XX and E 70XX electrodes are used. For alloy steel pipes and tubes E
this type of welding. 80XX and E 9OXXelectrodes are used.
We will discuss about some of the widely used Arc welding process which are mostly used for HI. E—XX1X
maintenance at power plants. Third digit of the electrode designates position of welding that can be done with the electrode. In case
of 1 — it is suitable for all position welding and for 2, it is suitable for flat position and horizontal fillets only.
X21.7.1 Shield metal arc welding (SMAW)
IV. E — XX1
Some time this welding is called as manual metal arc (MMA) or stick welding. This is the most
Last two digits designate the suitable power source and type of flux covering over the electrode.
common type of welding that we come across. In this process consumable electrode is used.
These specifications are mentioned below.
Either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) is used to produce Arc between a flux
Electrode Current source Flux covering
coated electrode and the work piece. When high current flows and arc is produced, both work piece and
EXX10 DC +ve only Organic
electrode melts. When the flux coating of electrode melts it produces gas that serves as shielding and
protects the hot welding area from oxidation. Also a layer of slag is covered over molten metal pool, EXX1l AC or DC +ve Organic
protecting it from oxidation. Later on, after cooling this slag is removed by chipping. As the electrode is EXX12 AC or DC -ve Rutile
consumed continuously during welding process, so, the welding is required to be stopped friquently to insert EXX13 AC or DC±ve Rutile
a new electrode in to holder.
EXX14 AC or DC±ve Rutile, iron powder (Appr. 30%)
A. Power source of shield metal arc welding
EXX15 DC +ve only Low hydrogen
To create arc during welding, either alternating current or direct current source of power is used,
EXX16 AC or DC +ve Low hydrogen
depending upon the welding material and electrode used. This power source is capable to supply high
welding current at lower voltage. For AC source, welding transformer is used. For DC source, welding EXX18 AC or DC +ve Low hydrogen, iron powder (Appr. 25%)
generator or rectifier set is used. Electrode is connected to power source through a holder and current ' EXX20 AC or DC±ve High iron oxide
carrying cable. The electrode may be connected to +ve or —ve terminal of power source depending upon EXX24 AC or DC±ve Rutile, iron powder (Appr. 50%)
the electrode specification. Work piece is connected to earth or +ve terminal of the source accordingly.
EXX27 AC or DC±ve Mineral, iron powder (Appr. 50%)
Handle of the holder is insulated, so that welder can hold without risk of electric shock. Welding cable is
made of flexible copper or aluminum conductors to carry required welding current without heating. EXX28 AC or DC +ve. Low hydrogen, iron powder (Appr. 50%)
Wire
Core Tungsten
Electrode
Weld Pool
Electrode...* Power
source
Electrode Argon
Cable gas
Cylinder
Workpiece
Fig. 21.5 TIG Welding
Ground
Clamp Ground Cable
Fig. 21.4 SMAW Welding
Preheating slows down cooling rate after welding, in the weld and base metal, producing more
• Visual inspection
•
ductile metallurgical structure. The welding joint is inspected visually to find out any crack, under cut, lack of fusion or porosity.
Before inspection, welding slag over the welding is removed.
21.7.4 Post weld Heat treatment (PWHT) .
• Non destructive (ND) test
Like preheating, post weld heating or stress reliving of weld area is carried out after welding of
thicker section base metal. Reason for PWHT are As discussed earlier, ND test is carried out to find out any defect in the welding. X-ray,
Die —penetration test, Magnetic particle test etc. are carried out. In power plants, mostly X-ray test
• It is used for stress reliving of the welding joint area. This process removes internal. stress that may is used to check any defect in the welding in tubes, pipes or headers.
develop during welding.
• It helps to obtain suitable metallurgical structure. 0 0 0
like- maintaining level, speed, temperature, pressure are done automatically through higher level of 22.3 Measurement of pressure
automation system. In the earlier chapter it is discussed about absolute pressure and gauge pressure. In power plant
Process measurement, measures the process parameters and show the operator exact condition it is required to measure the pressure of steam, water, air etc. For this measurement, pressure gauges are
of different process. used. For process control and measurement at DCS and PLC system, pressure transmitters are used. Various
principles are used for pressure measurement. Burdon tube and manometer are two important principle
It may not be possible to describe total scope of C & I in this Book. But sufficient care is taken
used for pressure measurement.
to describe some basics of C & I, to make the reader understand the function of C & I in a power plant.
22.3.1 Burdon tube Pressure gauge
22.2 Process measurement
Normally pressure gauges are installed at different locations of boiler and turbine field. Mostly
In a process plant it is required to measure various process parameters to know about current burdon tube type pressure gauge found in use.
process condition. The process measurement provides information about process value by measuring the
value of quantity or condition. Mainly process measurement comprises of three elements.
I. Sensor or input device
Pointer
II. Signal processor
III. Output device
For various process measurements, all these three elements may not be there. But for easy
understanding, we will discuss all these three elements. Burdon
tube
I. Sensor or input device
This is the device which is exposed to the process to be measured. For example thermocouples
and vibration probes. These sensors use various principles to convert physical quantity in to suitable signal.
Process
Output device
Fig. 22.1 Process measurement
Process Connection
[350] Fig. 22.2 Burdon tube pressure gauge
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
\I
This type of gauge has a tube, bertn a circular arc, called as burdon tube. One end of the 22.3.2 Manometer
burdon tube is fixed and is connected to the pressure to be measured. Other end of the tube is free. When,
Manometer is a simple device to measure pressure. It has a transparent U. tube. This tube is
pressure is applied to the tube, radius of the circular arc increases. The movement of free end of the burden
partially filled with either water or mercury. Water or mercury is used widely'as their specific weight for
tube is transmitted to a sector. This sector moves a pointer connected t it over a calibrated scale to give
various temperatures are known and they don't stick to the tube.
mechanical indication of pressure.
When this pressure gauge is used for measurement of pressure of hot steam, sufficient care is to P2 l P
be taken, so that burden tube does not come in contact with hot steam directly. For this water sealing
arrangement is made. Following two methods are adopted for installation-ofpressure gauge _on_hot__
steam pipe line.
Case -1-
In this case, the impulse line is connected to top of the steam pipe line and pressure gauge is
fixed at a lower level. Due to condensation of steam, water seal is always available. '
Impulse Line ,
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 355
In spring and piston method, pressure is applied to a piston, which moves against the compression In strain gauge principle, the mechanical movement changes in length of the element. This
of spring. The position of piston is proportional to applied pressure. movement of element can be utilized to change electrical resistance.
The mechanical movement obtained at above sensors is converted in to electrical signal. Following
methods are used to get electrical signal from mechanical movement.
Spring
I. - Piezo electric method
II. Capacitive method
Piezo electric method
In this type of pressure transmitter a piece of crystalline material is used. There are certain
substances which generate voltage when they are subjected to mechanical forces or stress. These substances
Piston are generally crystalline which are available in two types
• Natural
' Synthetic
t Pressure Natural crystalline are quartz and tourmaline and synthetic crystals includes Rochelle salts,
Fig. 22.6 Spring and piston type pressure sensor Barium titrate, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP).
Crystalline material produces an electric change on its surface when it is mechanically stressed.
When pressure is applied to a closed bellow, the bellow expands and produces mechanical This electric change is measured. The crystalline material is stressed due to mechanical movement of the
movement in proportion to applied pressure. sensor as discussed earlier.
Capacitive method
In this method, mechanical movement of the sensor changes capacitance of the electronic
component which produces output signal proportional to pressure applied.
22.3.4 SMART Transmitter
Now day's SMART transmitters are used widely in power plants for measurement and control.
This transmitter is microprocessor based. It has following features
• It has memory
• Can be programmed
• Can convert analog signal to digital
o Can perform calculation
Fig. 22.7 Bellow type Pressure Sensor
• Can diagnosis self faults
• Can communicate with remote location
Diaphragm type pressure transmitter is found mostly used for process pressure measurement.
• Less sensitive to effect of temperature and humidity
When pressure is applied on the thin diaphragm, it expands. This movement of the diaphragm is utilized to
This transmitter is more preferred over simple electronic transmitter. Both analog and digital out
measure pressure. Movement put signal is obtained from this transmitter at same time. Normally 4 - 20 mA out put signal is obtained
from this transmitter. This signal is less affected to electrical disturbances.
^ Diaphragms
Pressure Communicator
Fig. 22.8 Diaphargm type pressure sensor
Fig. 22.9 Block diagram of SMART transmitter
356 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
With help of a communicator, testing, configuring, feeding or acquiring data can be done on three types.
line. Communicator is a hand held interface device that allows digital instructions. The communicator can • Two valve manifold
be. connected directly to the SMART transmitter or in parallel any where in the loop. • Three valve manifold
Mostly variable capacitance (Diaphragm) and variable resistance (strain gauge or piezo electric) • Five valve manifold
methods are utilized for primary sensing of the transmitter. Two valve manifold is used for absolute or gauge pressure transmitter.
Electronic circuit
Transmitter
Output_
^ Drain /vent
^ Metalic Surface
PIE s22.11 Two valve manifold
Three valve manifold is used for differential transmitter. In this case when equalizing valve is
opened, pressure difference at both side of the moving diaphragm become zero. This valve is used to test
^ Movable sensing zero reading of the transmitter.
diaphragm
Transmitter
+ +
Port Port
Equalize valve
Fig. 22,10 Variable Capacitor type SMART Pressure transmitter
In the above figure, a variable capacitance transmitter is shown. When pressure is applied, the —^ Drain/vent valve
movable diaphragm deflects due to pressure difference between both sides of the diaphragm. The moving
diaphragm acts as a capacitance plate. Two metalic surface acts as the fixed plate of the capacitor.
When, the moving diaphragm deflects; capacitance between the moving and fixed plate changes. Fig. 22.12 T ree valve manifold
The electronic circuit measures variation of the capacitance between moving and fixed plate and generate Proper care is required to be taken while installing pressure transmitter. So that hot fluid is not
a signal which is proportional to differential pressure applied. directly applied to the moving diaphragm.
Variable resistance SMART transmitters are also used. The principle of operation is discussed earlier. 22.4 Measurement of Temperature
Absolute pressure, gauge pressure and differential pressure (DP) can be measured by these
Measurement of temperature is an important function in power plant. It is required to measure
transmitters. DP transmitters are also used to measure Level and Flow.
temperature of feed water, steam, flue gas, air etc. at various points. Temperature is a critical parameter to
Gauge pressure know about the process condition.
To measure gauge pressure, pressure is applied to one port of the sensor ,chile other port is kept
For measurement of temperature, various techniques are used. Like pressure measurement
open to atmosphere.
temperature measurement has main two elements i.e.- sensor and transmitter. The sensor is exposed to hot,
Absolute pressure fluid whose temperature is to be measured. Sensor uses following principles.
One port of the transmitter is closed (welded or vacuum sealed) when it is used to measure • Thermocouple (TC)
absolute pressure. When pressure is applied to the other port it indicates absolute pressure. • Resistance temperature device (RTD)
Differential pressure (DP) • Liquid expansion and vapor pressure
To measure differential pressure, pressure is applied at both the ports. Transmitter indicates the • Bimetallic
difference between two applied pressures. • Infrared
SMART pressure transmitters, are mounted over manifolds. The manifolds are available in • Pyrometer
358 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 359
In power plant, mostly thermocouple (TC) and resistance temperature device (RTD) sensors are A special type of resistance is used some times. It is made of small piece of semi conductor
found in use. Liquid expansion method is used to measure temperature of process fluid at site. In non material. In this case a small change in temperature produces large resistance change. This types of sensor
contact type methods like pyrometer and infrared techniques, sensor does not come in contact with is called as thermister.
hot fluid.
22.4.3 Infrared temperature measuring device
22.4.1 Thermocouple This is a non contact type temperature measuring device. Here measurement of temperature is
When two different metal wires having different electrical properties are joined at both ends and done by measuring thermal radiation emitted by a hot body. This thermal radiation is called as infrared.
one joint end is heated then a potential difference is produced between two junctions. This phenomenon is Wave length of this radiation is longer than that of visible light.
called as seebeck effect. This potential difference is proportional to the temperature difference between___ —22.4.4 Liquid expansion type temperature measuring device
two joints or junction points.
In this type, sensor is filled with liquid such as mercury or a liquid as used as refrigerant. When
The junction voltage is measured which is calibrated to temperature scale. The emf generated is
given by, sensor is heated the liquid filled inside produces expansion or evaporation. So, the sensor become pressurized.
The pressure inside the sensor varies as the temperature rises. This pressure raise is measured and converted
E= a(T iT2 )+R(T2 -Tfl in to temperature scale.
Where 22.4.5 Temperature transmitter
a and 13 are the constants and depends upon type of thermocouple. Like pressure transmitter, temperature is used now days for process measurement and control.
Out put of the temperature transmitter is digital and can be connected to plant automation system like-
Measuring junction Voltmeter
DCS or PLC. Without installing transmitter also the out put signal of thermocouple and RTD type sensor
(Hot) can be connected to DCS or PLC, as these signals are electrical quantity.
But for transmission of these weak "ohm" or "mV" signal without disturbance, transmitters are
preferred. In temperature transmitter these weak low level signal is converted in to high level analog signal,
which can directly interface with an indicator, recorder or DCS/PLC.
These transmitters are microprocessor based and h, 'e various advantages. It is required to
install temperature transmitter close to sensor location, to avoid any signal disturbance. Out put 4-20 mA
signal is connected to the control device.
Temperature transmitters are available in three mounting options.
o Rail mounting
Dissimilar metal wire
Fig. 22.13 Thermocouple • Field mounting
Thermocouples are available in several forms. For industrial use the sensor comes in a metal enclosure. • Head mounting
22.4.2 Resistance temperature device (RTD) Rail mounted transmitter is fixed inside a junction box. The transmitter is fitted in to junction box
through rail arrangement. Normally, many transmitters are fixed in the junction box to which sensor cables
Electrical resistance of a metal conductor changes as its temperature changes. Resistance increases
of various sensors are terminated. Out put of all transmitter are taken to DCS or PLC.
when the conductor is heated and decreases when it is cooled.
Field mounted transmitter can be mounted directly at field as its construction is robust and can
The relationship between resistance and temperature is given as withstand difficult industrial environment. This type of transmitter is mounted closure to the sensor.
R=R° (1+aT)
Head mounted transmitter is an integrated part in the housing or connection head of the
Where temperature sensor.
R = Resistance of the conductor when heated to, temperature T
22.4.6 Thermo well
R° = Resistance of conductor at 0°C
Thermo well is widely used in power plants. It is used to provide protection to the temperature
a = Temperature co-efficient of resistance sensors. The sensor is kept isolated from direct contact with the medium, whose temperature is to be
Resistor Element
measured. Thermo well also allows removing or replacing sensor without danger of leakage of hot medium.
22.5 Measurement of Flow
In power plants, it is required to measure flow of fluids like cooling water, feed water, steam, air
etc. Various types of flow meters are used for this. Some of the common types are
• Mechanical flow meter
• Differential flow meter
• Electromagnetic flow meter
Connecting RTD Housing • Ultrasonic flow meter
Leads
Fig. 22.14 Resistance temperature device (RTD)
• Rotameter
360 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 361
22.5.1 Mechanical flow meter Following elements are used as primary element of these type flow meters.
• Orifice
In this type of flow meter, there is a mechanism positioned at the path of flow of fluid, which
rotates continuously at a speed which is proportional to flow rate. Normally this type of meter is used to Nozzle
measure flow of liquid. Venturi
Mechanical flow meters are available in two groups. Theseelements actas anobstacle and placedat the flow path of the fluid, causing localized
1. Positive displacement type changes in velocity. This change in velocity produces change in pressure. The differential pressure is measured
through a DP transmitter.
• Reciprocating piston
_ _ This differential pressure on either side of the obstruction is tapped and measured. Flow is given
• Rotary piston by following equation.
• Nutating disc
e = KaP
• Helix type Where
H. Inferential type q=flow
• Single or multi jet type K = Meter constant
• Turbine type DP = Differential pressure
2
• Horizontal or vertical propeller type
Operating principle of displacement type is volumetric: Displacement of detecting element is
proportional to volume of liquid flow. Shaft of the meter rotates gnce for exact quantity of fluid is passed.
This rotation can be measured with mechanical or electronic device, which indicates the flow.
In inferential type flow meter, moving rotor of the meter rotates at a speed proportional to Flow direction
velocity of flow through the meter. Turbine meter is most commonly used meter in this type.
Turbine type meter has a rotor with multiple blades. The rotor spins as the liquid passes through (a) orifice di < d2
these blades. Speed of the rotor. is proportional to flow rate. This speed can be measured with help of
magnetic pick up tachometer or mechanical gear arrangement.
Magnetic
pickup
(b) Nozzle
Flow
direction
Flow direction
Rear (c) venturi
Front
ROtor Shaft Bushing Rotor
Support Fig. 22.16 Differential pressure type flow measurement
support
Fig. 22.45 Turbine type flow
• meter Orifice is popularly used primary device for DP flow measurement. This is a flat piece of metal
22.5.2 Differential pressire type flow meter with a specific sized hole bored on it. The orifice plate material•is suitable for pressure and temperature
This type of flow meter is widelyused in industries for flow measurement. In power plant, it is range of the fluid to be measured. The hole is concentric, eccentric or conical type. Orifice plate is inserted
used to measure flow of boiler feed water, condensate, steam etc. This meter is maintenance free as it don't in to pipe between two flanges.
have any moving part. Orifice plates are available in two designs.
Basic operating principle of differential. pressure flow, measurement is very simple. The pressure I. Thin orifice plate
drop across the meter is. proportional to square df flow rate or flow rate is proportional to square root of II. Sharp square edge orifice plate
differential pressure across the meter.
362 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 363
22.5.3 Electromagnetic flow meter Time of travel or transit type flow meter have transducers mounted at each side of the pipe.
This type of flow meter can measure flow of any fluid which is electrically conductive. The basic Speed of the signal wave traveling between transducers increases or decreases with the velocity of liquid to
principle of operation depends on faradays law of electromagnetic induction. When an electric conductor be measured. A time differential relationship which is proportional to liquid velocity is measured. The liquid
moves inside a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to its lines of force, an emf is generated which is whose flow is to be measured, should not have discontinuities as in case of Doppler type, so that there will
proportional to number of lines of force is cut by the conductor in unit time. be minimum ss^al scattering and absorption.
Here constant magnetic field is generated around the pipe by a magnet or energizing coils. I--^ Transmitter
The flowing liquid acts as a conductor. EMF is generated which is directly proportional to the flow. The I !_
1,1
generated emf is collected from two electrodes mounted at the pipe wall and is measured by some secondary
device; which-is then converted into flow.
Flow
Receiver
364 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
365
condenser hot-well level, Deaerator level as well as level of solids like coal bunker, ash hopper etc. are attraction. One side of the indicator is white while other side is red. When it is attracted by float magnet red
measured. In this section we will discuss about level measurement of liquid. Measurement of solid level will side is displayed. These flags are closely spaced and give a very distinct column corresponding to tank level.
be discussed later on.
Level measurement of liquid is of two types.
• Direct method
• Indirect method
Magnetised
Metal Flipper
Level measurement is obtained directly on this method. Mainly three types of level measurement
are used in this method.
• Sight glass type
• Magnetic level gauge type
• Float type
22.6.1 Sight glass type
This is a simple method of level measurement of any liquid in a tank. It consists of a scaled glass
Fig. 22.22 Magnetic level gauge
tube which is connected to lower and upper level of the tank with isolation valves. As level of the liquid in
the tank changes, level in the glass tube also changes. 22.6.3 Float type level measurement
This is a simple type of level measurement of a liquid tank. A float is used here. This float follows
the level of liquid due to its buoyancy. The float is attached to a cable on to which an indicating pointer is
attached. The pointer moves over a scale, which is calibrated in terms of level of the tank.
•*,,.:.,
... ....
—*Scale
.. . . ... .
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 367
22.6.4 Pressure gauge type applied sheathing of the probe acts as insulation between these two. As level of fluid changes the capacitance
This is a simple indirect method of level measurement. In this method the pressure exerted by a also changes. The measured capacitance is converted in to level of tank.
column or head of liquid in the tank is measured. A pressure gauge is fixed at the lowest level of the tank. 22.6.6 Differential pressure type
The pressure at this point changes with change in height of liquid inside the tank. The pressure measured is Differential pressure (DP) method of level measurement is used widely in power plants to measure
calibrated to height of the liqù level. level of various storage tanks.
DP Transmitter
Tank
Conducting
_y Non-conducting Medium
Medium
^ Ultrasonic wave
—^ Bare Metalic Probe Probe Insulation
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 371
For example let us consider the above tank. To keep the tank level always at 80%, we have to
Actuator consider close loop control system in this case.
or output device
Process parameter is measured by a measuring device or sensor which gives feed back to a
controller. Controller compares this input with preset value and-generates a signal, which actuates an—-
actuator or out put device, to bring back the process parameter to normal desired value.
Sensing device is discussed in the earlier section. Actuator or out put device will be discussed
later on. In this section we will discuss about controllers.
There are two types of control system. These are
I. Open loop control system
Level transmitter
II. Closed loop control system
Open loop control system
In this control system the out put device or actuator is actuated when the out put process value
is reached a preset value.
Fig. 22.31 Closed loop Control
ON/OFF
Controller Actuator
Signal In this case the level of the tank is continuously measured. When level falls below 80% then
controller generates a signal to open control valve to allow fluid to flow to the tank. When level become
Fig. 22.29 Open loop control system more than 80%, the controller out put closes the valve.
For exam le - Liquid is to be filled in the tank when the level of the tank falls to certain level. Continuously the out put is measured and used as feed back of the controller in this case.
Level switch of the t k operates when level becomes low and opens a valve to fill up tank.
Error Actuating
Set point signal Signal Output
--^ Controller Actuator
I
Feed back
Fig. 22.32 Closed Loop Control System
This measured feed back is always compared with the set point and control action is initiated if
there is any deviation. Difference between set point and feed back is called as error signal.
In power plant process control, this close loop control system is widely used to control process
variations. .
22.11 PID Controller
Most of the closed loop control system used now days to control process variations uses PID
Controller. This is a very simple controller having ability to control any difficult or complicated process and
with proper tuning, it can maintain the process value very close to set point.
Fig. 22.30 Open loop control
In PID controller "P" stands for Proportional, "I" stands for Integral and "D" stands for derivative.
Closed loop control system The error signal (difference of set point and feed back) is used to get out put signal from controller.
In the above example the tank can be filled up by a level switch. But the level in the tank can not In Proportional (P) element the actuating signal is proportional to this error signal. In interregnal
be maintained to certain level automatically. In closed loop control system it is possible. The level in the (I) element the actuating signal is integral function of error signal and in Jeri' alive (D) element the
tank can be maintained up to desired level with very little deviation. actuating signal is the derivative function of error signal.
372 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 373,
To get better control effect the PID elements are tuned separately. Microprocessors are used for 22.12.1 Pneumatically operated control valve
PID controller. PID controller has three display windows to display process value (PV), set value (SV) and
actuator position. Pneumatic control valves are mostly used in power plants for process control. Following process
PV SV ACT
control are done by these valves in power plant.
o Boiler drum level control
• Final steam temperature control
• Hot well level control
Deaerator level control
• Steam pressure and temperature control at PRDS
Mostly diaphragm type control valves are used. In this valve there is a pneumatic actuator which
operates a valve for final process control. Linier motion of the valve spindle is achieved due to upward and
down ward movement of the actuator. Upward and downward movement of the diaphragm is obtained by
compressed air.
There is a flexible membrane called as diaphragm. When compressed air is applied on this
diaphragm, force is resulted which is equal to air pressure multiplied by area of diaphragm. Due to this
force, the diaphragm moves against a spring. This spring keeps the valve in required position (open or close)
in absence of air supply.
As the air pressure increases, force on the diaphragm increases. Spindle starts moving against
n force of the spring. This movement stops where spring tension is equal to applied force on the diaphragm.
Raise Normally two types of valves are used depending upon the process it has to control. These are
Auto 0. Manual
• Air to open
• Air to close
Lower
Fig. 22.33 PID Controller
The choice between these two depends upon to what position the valve should back in case of
failure of compressed air supply. Should the valve close or be wide open in case of failure of air supply,
It has facility to tune P I & D elements. Buttons are provided to change the set point and to put depends upon the nature of application and safety requirements.
the controller in auto or manual control mode. Operating
Air
Now a days PID controllers are programmed in PLC or DCS system.
22.12 Actuator or out put device
As discussed earlier, actuating signal obtained from controller is used to correct the process AdIME
parameter through out put device or actuator. Actuator or out put device is the final correcting device in
process control. Some of the important out put devices found in use for process control in power plant are
listed below.
SpringMilt Diaphargm ,II IU
• Control valve
Operating
• Variable speed drive air
• Solenoid valve
• Pneumatic cylinder Valve Valve
• Electrically operated valve (a) Air to Close (b) Air to Open
• Motorized positioner In air to close type control valve, the valve remains in open condition during absence of air
supply. When air is applied from the top over the diaphragm, the force exerted compresses the spring and
Some of the above devices. are pneumatically operated and some are electrically operated. moves the spindle downward to close the valve. As the air pressure increases the valve plug moves progressively
Some time hydraulic operated actuators are also used. Main function of these devices is to control the and finally closes the valve. When air fails the valve spindle moves due to action of spring and opens
process parameter. the valve.
374 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 375
In air to open type control valve, the valve remains close during absence of air. Air is applied UP converter converts 4-20 mA electrical signal from DCS to pneumatic signal.
below the diaphragm. The force exerted, compresses the spring and moves the spindle upward to open the
valve. When air pressure increases the force on the diaphragm increases which compress the spring further
and opens the valve fully. When air fails, due to spring action valve closes immediately. A scale and pointer
is attached to the spindle to know the position of valve.
Basic design of any pneumatic control valve depends upon following aspects.
• _ Temperature of process fluid
• Pressure difference between upstream and downstream of the valve seat.
I/p
• Permissible leakage 4-20mA
Control Signal
• Fluid volume the valve has to handle Positioner
Positioner and I/P Converter
Above discussion provide us simple concept of pneumatic type control valve. Some time we will Air Supply
376 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 377
In positioning duty, the valve can be hold at defined intermediate position between Open Piston
or Close.
Modulating duty type valve can be used in closed loop process control system where the valve
position changes continuously to maintain the process parameter.
Spring
A motorized valve consists of following main components.
Road
A. Motor
Single phase or three phase motor is used as actuator. Some time DC motor is also used.Motor----
moves in forward or reveres direction as per requirement to open or close the valve. The motor is having Cylinder
higher torque to take care of sticky valves. As the valve is to be placed at very extreme working atmosphere, Operating air
so, the motor is not fan cooled. So, normally this motor is not continuous rating. The motor requires time
to cool after certain time. Fig. 22.37 Single acting Pneumatic Cylinder
373 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 379
• Cooling water pump- to control cooling water supply to condenser Rectifier unit consists of a 3q diode bridge. The applied 30 AC power is converted in to DC
intermediate power in this unit.
° Cooling tower fan- to control water temperature
The DC power obtained from the Rectifier unit is converted to 30 AC power again with required
• Condensate extraction pump- to control hot well level
frequency. Electronic switches and thyristors are used for this. Desired voltage and frequency is obtained by
° Boiler feed pump — to control boiler drum level switching on and off, DC out put of rectifier unit through these electronic switches and thyristers. The out
Variable speed drive or variable frequency drive is used to control speed of the drive by controlling put wave form of the inverter is closely approximates a sine wave.
frequency of power supplied to an AC motor. As the frequency is varied, so these drives are called as variable
Out put voltage is varied by changing the width and polarity of switched pulses where as out put
frequency drive (VFD). Some time this is also called as variable voltage and variable frequency (WF) drive.
frequency is adjusted by changing the switching cycle time. Out put of this inverter unit is connected to the
Speed of a motor is given by
motor which controls various process parameters.
RPM=120xF/P
Where — 22.13 Plant Automation
F — frequency in Hz Automation is a very complex system in a process industry. Meaning of automation is automatic
P — Number of poles of the motor process measurement, logical calculation and control to a desired value in totality of the plant operation.
Block diagram of VFD is shown below. Now a days the automation is very improved and plant operation is automatic to such an extent that
human interface is eliminated to certain extent. High speed data processing capability of microprocessor,
Input power Variable Frequency power
brought revolution in to day's industrial automation.
Detail on plant automation is beyond the scope of this book. Hence we will discuss some main
features and some basic idea about plant automation system.
AC Motor Now a day's mainly programmable logic control (PLC) or Distributed control system (DCS) is
Operator interface
used for plant automation. This system can handle lot of data and make decision, based upon the pre
Fig. 22.39 Block diagram of variable friquency drive
loaded programming, to control the plant process. This system can handle very complex process operation.
Normally 30 AC power is connected to a variable frequency controller. Depending upon the The speed and accuracy of PLC and DCS is very high.
operator interface signal or out put signal from process controller, variable frequency controller generates a We will discuss about PLC and DCS in the subsequent sections in details.
30 variable frequency power which is connected to a 30 AC induction motor. Speed of AC motor varies
according to the frequency, to change the process parameter to a new value. 22.13.1 Programmable logic control (PLC)
During starting of VFD normally low frequency and voltage is applied to the motor. So the high PLC is a special computer device used for plant automation. PLC belongs to computer family
starting current can be reduced. Then voltage and frequency can be increased at a control rate called as having inbuilt random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM) features. It has a central
"ramped up to accelerate", to obtain required out put. processor unit (CPU) for entire data processing. Single PLC can replace thousand of control relays.
Variable frequency controller PLC is programmed for a specific process control, which can be changed as per requirement.
This is the main part of the VFD. It changes the frequency of the power supply. This is a solid According to programming, PLC continuously measures process inputs and generate out put signals. PLC
state electronic power conversion device. For conversion of power the controller has two units. also provides process feedback and understands operator instructions. A simple block diagram of PLC is
• Rectifier unit shown below.
CPU Output Module
Input Module
° Inverter unit
r. ^
i 1
Output
Input
Motor
Programm
Logic
PLC is used now days in almost all industries for process automation in place of hardware
Rectifier Unit Inverter Unit control system. PLC is available in various sizes and shapes.
Fig. 22.40 Variable frequency controller
380 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
381
Small fixed type PLC In programming mode the program logic is downloaded from a PC to the memory of CPU,
Small fixed type PLC of smaller capacity is used for small control logic of some individual where it is stored. In run mode the program is executed to control the process. The program is stored at read
equipment, like- Compressors, Ash handling system, etc. The PLC used in this case is a smaller one, having only memory (ROM) which is backed up by lithium battery supply source. CPU scans input and update the
few inputs and outputs (1/0 s). The processor capacity is also low. output accordingly, based upon program. Scan time of CPU is very fast in the order of 1/1000 th of a
second or milliseconds.
All the components of this type PLC are mounted on a printed circuit board. Small logic program
is loaded to the PLC through computer. Most of the time, this PLC is used for a specific requirement. The CPU processing cycle is shown in the block diagram below.
PLC used for compressor is only look after the operational automation of compressor.
This type PLC has no slotted components. Defect on any circuit of PLC requires change of __
entire PLC unit. This PLC is used in small equipments and circuits, having lesser operational logic. Most of
the operational checks can be viewed on two or three line display window through scrolling push button
sets. This PLC can be mounted at any type of atmosphere close to the equipment. Scan Input Execute Update
Programm Logic output
Modular type PLC
This type PLC is used for complex process automation of a plant having critical logic with lot of
inputs and outputs (I/O s). All components of PLC are in the form of individual printed circuit board and Fig. 22.42 CPU Processing Cycle
housed within an enclosure called as module. These modules slide in to slots provided in the back plate. To Some time two CPU units are provided to get redundancy in processor.
facilitate connection of individual modules to back plate, slots are provided. Back plate is a large printed
22.13.2.3 I/O Module
circuit board. Different type of terminal blocks are provided to facilitate termination of input and out put
terminals. Input and outputs are connected to PLC through I/O Module. It provides physical termination
Mostly this type of PLC is mounted in Panels. This PLC is having larger process data handling between equipment and PLC. Different I/O Modules are used for different I/Os. Inputs and out puts are
capability depending upon the process complexity. classified as
Modular type PLC is widely used for plant automation. It has lot of merits. Some of them are • Digital input (DI)
listed below. • Analog input (AI)
o It is easier for trouble shooting.
o Digital out put (DO)
o Defective module can be easily replaced.
• Analog output (AO)
o Capacity can be easily expanded by adding more compatible modules.
• I/O modules can be expanded to add any further improved process control logic. In PLC various types of inputs and outputs are used. Some of them are analog signals, mainly
o 4-20 mA signals. Some of them are discrete or digital which give a signal that is either "ON" or "OFF".
Mounted in panels. So it can be located in a safe and controlled atmosphere.
Some time an isolation circuit is provided for inputs and out puts to keep the field signals isolated from
• Can be programmed at site as per requirement and can be updated time to time. the PLC.
• Larger capacity of PLC is possible. Different modules can be placed at different panels. Some important inputs and out puts are listed below.
22.13.2 Different modules of PLC Digital Inputs (DI)
As discussed earlier PLC is having different modules for different functions. In this section we will • Push button
discuss about some main modules of a PLC.
o Selector switch
22.13.2.1 Power supply module
o Limit switch
This module supplies power requirement of PLC. Some time two power supply modules are
used for redundancy in power supply. This module is some time also called as power pack. Power module o Relay contacts
contains a battery to supply power to the processor during failure of auxiliary power supply.
Analog inputs (AI)
22.13.2.2 CPU
o Pressure transmitter
Central processing unit is the main module of any PLC. This is the brain of PLC. CPU module • Flow transmitter
is fixed to base plate through sliding slots.
o Level transmitter
CPU consists of microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic,
monitoring and communication. • Temperature transmitter
382 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 383
Digital out put (DO) Ladder circuit of the above example is shown below.
o Pilot light
Ci
Rung Cc)
• Solenoid
• Relay coil CC?
• Motor starter
--Analog out put (AO)- - tI _fr (M)
C+ C2
• Pneumatic control valve
END)
• Variable frequency drive
• Analog meter
+ve -ve
o Hydraulic or pneumatic actuator
Fig. 22.43 Simple Ladder logic
I/O modules are available in 8, 16, 32 or 64 channels to facilitate connection of 8, 16, 32 or 64
inputs or out puts. These modules are arranged in such a way that, in future some more modules can be This is a simplest example of ladder logic. Left and right of the ladder indicate positive and
added. Cable from field equipment is termi; . :lie I/O module through suitable terminal block set. ground of power supply. The rungs represent wiring between different components.
Digital or analog inputs or outputs are terminated to the respective module. Large critical process logic can be written on ladder diagram method having many rungs.
22.13.4 Other features of PLC
Other than above main modules some more modules are also found. These are -
Other than process control, PLC is having other data handing facility, which is required for
Ethernet module assessing plant performance. Some of these features are -
This is used for communication between PLC and operator consol. Some time more than one • Data logging
PLC are used for plant operation and there are more than one operating stations and engineering stations. Process information
Communication between them is possible through Ethernet cable and Hub arrangement. Alarm handling
Profibus module Report generation
This module is also used for communication in between PLC and in between PLC and • Trending
I/O module. 1. Process information
Real time process data is visible at the operator console to inform operator about process status.
22.13.3 PLC programming 2. Trending
As said earlier the logic program of PLC is stored in the ROM of PLC. This is downloaded to the The process data obtained is shown in graphical form. Trend of variation of any process parameter
PLC memory from a PC. Normally This PC is called as engineering station. This PC is connected to PLC indicates process behavior in the past for certain duration. Trend can be obtained for 1 minute to some
weeks.
through networking or Ethernet. In programming mode the program can be modified or edited. But in run
3. Alarm handling
mode the program is run without scope of modification. Process logic is written in various methods. Some
of the widely used methods are mentioned below. This feature of PLC provides alarm in audible form incase any parameter goes beyond certain
desired level. This abnormal situation can be recorded for future reference.
• Ladder logic 4. Report generation
• Function block Different report is possible to be generated by putting different type of queries. Recorded data
available in PLC memory is used for this.
Ladder logic is a very simple and widely used programming method. It uses symbols instead of
words. The completed program looks like a ladder though it represents an electrical circuit. 5. Data logging
Let us consider following case for an example. Real time process data is stored for future use. Capability of data handling depends upon the
memory of PLC. Each PLC is having certain memory level. So, after some time interval, back up of the
When level of the tank lowers limit switch LS 1 closes and coil Cl picl s up to start pump M.
logged data is taken and the data is deleted from memory for further data logging.
when level of the tank increases to certain level limit switch LS 2 closes to pick up coil 2 and pump stops.