The Healthy Dancer Workbook 2017 IAB PDF

THE HEALTHY
DANCER
2017/2018
MODULE LEADER: GREG MCPHERSON SEWARD

g.mcphersonseward@ljmu.ac.uk
The Healthy Dancer 2017 GMS 1

Welcome to The Healthy Dancer. During this module you will study a range of
different topics from Anatomy right through to Nutrition. The aim of this module is to
provide you with some knowledge and understanding of the dancer´s body and a
practical awareness of the issues surrounding maintaining a healthy, injury free
career as a dancer.
This module will give you the ability to demonstrate and identify a basic
understanding of anatomy, physiology and kinesiology. It will also help you to identify
any weaknesses you may have as a dancer and how to address these properly
among many other useful pieces of information.
The module will be delivered via a once per week lecture as well as a once per week
practical class.
At the end of the module you will be assesed on a written report and verbal
presentation of your individual progress from a Dance Science perspective as well
as a multiple choice exam paper based on the information in this handbook and the
lecture series which supports this.
There will be language and terminology used in this module which may be unfamiliar
to you. It is your responsibility to make yourself familiar with this language by
whichever means you deem suitable.
You should bring this workbook with you to every lecture. It is yours to keep and you
can make notes in it to help with your studies.
We will cover a lot of material in this module and it is your responsibility to do further
reading and research to ensure you acquire all the knowledge you will need to pass.
Although your lecturers are present to guide and support you, independent research
and study is at the forefront of this module.

CONTENTS
SPORTS INJURIES 6
Types of injury 8
Cause of Injury 12
Symptoms 13
Treatment 14
BODY MAINTENANCE 18
Warm Up 19
Cool Down 21
Flexibility 23
Stretching 26
NUTRITION 31
Fitness Food Pyramid 35
When & What 38
Energy & Performance 40
Energy Systems 43
Carbohydrate 49
Protein 56
Fat 59
Fluid 61
Vitamins & Minerals 62
Sports Supplements 64
Weight Loss 67
Weight Gain 70
BODY SYSTEMS 73
Anatomy 75
Skeletal System 79
Vertebral Colum 84
Pelvis 87
Joints 89
Muscular System 98
Posture & Core stability 140
Cardiovascular System 152
Nervous System 153
Respiratory System 155
DANCE FITNESS 159

Posture and safe technique 170
Aerobic fitness 171
Muscular endurance 172
Anaerobic fitness 173
Flexibility 174
Muscular strength 175
Muscular Power 176
Neuromuscular coordination 177
Body composition 178
Rest and Relaxation 179
Testing for dance specific fitness 180

RECCOMENDED READING, REFERENCES &
SUPPORT
Essential
Fitt, S. (1996) Dance Kinesiology. Second Edition. Utah, Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-
02-864507-3
Bean, A (2003). The complete guide to sports nutrition (4th Edition), AC & Black
Chmelar, R. D. & Fitt, S.S. (2002). Diet for Dancers (2nd ed.). Hightstown, N.J:
Princeton Book Company
Mastin, Z., (2010). Nutrition for the dancer. London: Dance Books
Clippinger, K. (2007). Dance anatomy and kinesiology. Champaign, IL: Human

Kinetics.
Franklin, E. (2012). Dynamic alignment through imagery, Champaign IL: Human

Kinetics
Calais-Germain, B.(2013). Anatomy of Movement Revised Edition. Eastland Press,

Seattle ISBN 978-0-939616-57-2
Haas, J (2010). Dance Anatomy. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Reccomended
Myers, T.W. (2001). Anatomy trains. London: Harcourt Publishers Limited.
Franklin, E. (2014) Dance Imagery for Technique and Performance. Second

Edition.Human Kinetics. Leeds, UK. ISBN 978-0-7360-6788-1
Kait, W. and Elson, L. (2014) The Anatomy Coloring Book. Pearson Education Ltd.
Harlow, Essex ISBN 10: 1-292-02636-7
Laws, K. The Physics of Dance. ( 1984) Schirmer Books, New York. ISBN -13 978-
0028733609
Welsh, T. (2009) Conditioning for Dancers. University of Florida Press.ISBN978-0-

8130-3390-7
Andreu, H. (2006) Dance, Movement and Nutrition. Author House UK,Central Milton
Keyes ISBN1-4259-2758-0 (sc)
Howse, J. and McCormack (2009)Anatomy, Dance Technique and Injury Prevention.

Fourth Edition. Methuen Drama A & C Black Pub. Ltd., London. ISBN 978 0 7136
8532 9
Wirhed,R. (2006) Athletic Ability and the Anatomy of Motion. Mosby ISBN 13-978-0-
7234-3386-0

Other Resources
One Dance UK (Formally Dance UK) – www.onedanceuk.org
Dance UK – www.danceuk.org
International Association for dance Medicine and Science IADMS – www.iadms.org
British Association of Performing Arts Medicine BAPAM – www.bapam.org.uk
IAB Health Clinic – www.iabhealth.com health@iabarcelona.es
Reccomended Apps (ios/android) :

My Fitness Pal – Free
Endomondo – Free
3D4Medical Body Systems for iPhone – 11.99 (Individually 5.99)
Interval Timer - Free

1. INJURY
Injuries are part of the game, but

sometimes we can avoid them by just
practicing our techniques.
Troy Vincent – American Football Player

INJURY
“A physical condition that affects an individual’s ability to perform (Dawson, 2008). All
performers can and do experience physical problems that may interfere with their
ability to practice and perform.”
Sports injuries are caused by trauma of different degrees. For simplification we

divide these injuries into two different categories:
Acute Injury
An injury that occurs as a result of a traumatic event. E.g. Muscle tear, sprains,
dislocations, fractures). Acute injuries are common in most highly active sports. The
cause of the injury can usually be pinpointed, making it easier to define the injury and
apply appropriate treatment.
These injuries have rapid onset, severe symptoms and brief duration.
Chronic or Overuse Injury

An injury which develops slowly and persists over a period of time. It often begins
with mild symptoms and progressively becomes worse over time.
Chronic injuries are very common in dance training, which demands from the
participant a high level of intensity, repetition, and duration. They are more difficult to
diagnose and treat than acute injuries.
They are caused by repetitive overloading, resulting in microscopic injuries to the
musculoskeletal system. Tissues can withstand great loads but there is a critical limit
to this capacity, which varies greatly between individuals and according to frequency
of load. Tissues can be made more susceptible to injury by intrinsic factors (poor leg
biomechanics, muscle imbalance) and extrinsic factors (training errors, faulty
technique, incorrect surfaces, poor conditions).
These injuries tend to have gradual onset, long duration and ongoing symptoms.
Injury comes in many different forms and can occur in many different areas. Here are
some examples specific to Dance:
Ø Shoulder
Ø Lower Back & pelvis/hip
Ø Knees
Ø Feet & ankles
Ø Soft tissue and overuse injuries
Ø Muscle fatigue and imbalances
Ø Performance anxiety and stress


TYPES OF INJURY
INJURY TO BONE
Fractures (Acute): A break in a bone. They can be caused by direct trauma, for
example, an impact to the leg or indirect trauma, for example, when the foot is
trapped.

Stress Fractures (Chronic): One type of incomplete fractures in bones. It could be
described as a very small sliver or crack in the bone; this is why it is sometimes dubbed
a "hairline fracture". They ccur most frequently as a result of repeated loading of the
skeleton over a long period of time.


Dislocation: A dislocation occurs when a bone slips out of a joint. You can dislocate
almost any joint in your body. Common areas for dancers are the hip, knee and
shoulder. Dislocations typically result when a joint experiences an unexpected or
unbalanced impact. An untreated dislocation could cause damage to your ligaments,
nerves, or blood vessels.
INJURIES TO MUSCLES, TENDONS & LIGAMENTS
Strain: An injury to a tendon or muscle resulting from overuse or trauma.


Sprain: An injury to a ligament that results from overuse or trauma.

Tendonitis: Inflammation of the tendon caused by trauma, overuse or degeneration.

TENDONS: CONNECT MUSCLE TO BONE
LIGAMENTS: CONNECT BONE TO BONE

Shin Splints: The common name for the medical condition called medial tibial stress
syndrome in which pain occurs along the tibia (shin bone) in the front of the lower leg.
The pain is a result of small tears in the area the lower leg muscles' (tibalis anterior)
attachment to the tibia (shin bone). Shin splints are very common in Dance and are
typically caused from intense or vigorous athletic activity. They can be resolved with
adequate rest, stretching and modifying your exercise routine.


CAUSE OF INJURY
There are several factors which can cause injury:
Ø Anatomical causes such as muscular imbalances, poor posture, lack of excessive

joint mobility (i.e. turnout, hyperextended knees)
Ø Incorrect dancing/singing technique
Ø Wrong advice, bad habits, routines
Ø Insufficient warm up or cool down
Ø Poor nutrition
Ø Fatigue/overuse of muscles
Ø Bad luck
Ø External Factors: floor, light, impact, stress, repetition of movement, type of
dance etc.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF INJURY
There are many signs and symptoms of injury:
Ø Discomfort
Ø Ache, soreness, tenderness
Ø Pins & needles, tingling, numbness
Ø Weakness/Loss of strength
Ø Postural changes/Compensations
Ø Local swelling or redness
Ø Stiffness/Loss of flexibility
Ø Pain
Signs and symptoms may appear suddenly or over a number of weeks

Bodily Response To Injury
Ø Inflammation: swelling, redness, heat, and pain is produced in an area of the body as a
reaction to injury or infection.
Ø Pain: Pain receptors are present in most tissues, but are especially numerous in the skin.
Pain is a mechanism to alert us to injury so that we can react appropriately. Pain
may be described in different ways: acute, aching, continuous, pounding, burning,
referred, dull.
HOW CAN I PREVENT INJURY?
Ø Good technique
Ø Support your studies with supplementary training e.g. swimming, jogging, cycling,
Pilates and resistance training.
Ø Healthy and Balanced Diet – Everything in moderation
Ø Pre-performance techniques – relaxation & concentration
Ø Properly fitted clothing and appropriate footwear
Ø Effective Warm up and Cool down
Ø Strong Spine & Core
Ø Adequate sleep
Ø Drink plenty of fluids
Ø Take plenty of breaks
Ø Regular stretching
Ø Move your joints safely;
o Controlled movements
o Continuous
o Smooth
o Good alignment
Ø Do not dance through the pain


TREATMENT OF INJURY
If your injury is acute (sudden onset) you should use the following guidelines:
ACUTE (the first 48 hours): Use P.R.I.C.E.D.
PRICED is the acronym used for Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation and
Diagnosis. It is used as the best initial treatment of soft tissue injuries such as sprains,
strains, and contusions. The combination of PRICED helps reduce inflammation that
occurs after acute injury. It is important to remember that the earlier this treatment is
put into place, the more effective it is.
Protection: Ensure no other harm can occur to the injured area. Do not make and
sharp movements and make yourself as comfortable as possible. If you have a
dislocation you should medical attention straight away.
Rest: Rest and protect the injured area. If it hurts to bear weight on the injury, use
crutches, if it hurts to move the area immobilize it with a splint.
Ice: Apply ice or a frozen object, such as a bag of peas, etc from the freezer, to the
injury. The cold will reduce swelling and pain at the injured site. This step should be
done as soon as possible. Apply the frozen object to the area for 10 – 20 (depending
on the injury site) minutes three times a day for the first 48 hours.
Compression: Compress the injured site by applying a bandage. This will decrease
swelling of the injured region. Although the wrap should be snug, make sure it is not
too tight as this can cause numbness, tingling, or increased pain.
Elevation: Elevating an injury reduces swelling. It's most effective when the injured
area is raised above the level of the heart. For example, if you injure an ankle, try lying
on your bed with your foot propped on one or two pillows.
Diagnosis: (after 48 hours): If your injury is no better after 2 days consult a

physiotherapist, doctor or sports massage therapist.
Things to avoid:
Ø Heat
Ø Alcohol
Ø Running or sports
Ø Massage
Ø Sharp movements
Things to trust:
Ø Treatment
Ø Reassurance
Ø Understanding
Ø Support
Ø Training

CHRONIC
If your injury is chronic you should seek the advice of a professional (doctor,
physiotherapist, sports massafge therapist etc.) in order to receive the most
appropriate treatment specific to your injury.
Remember that your injury is specific to you and the treatment that works for one
person may not work for another. There are varying different opinions from dance
professionals on how to treat injury which are all valid. Listen to your lecturers and find
the method that works best for you.
If you feel like you are injured do not hide it. Talk to your lecturers. The sooner you
receive treatment, the sooner you will recover.
ADVICE OR TREATMENT (IAB HEALTH)

www.iabhealth.com
LECTURERS – Ask your lecturers for advice, they will have dealt with a lot of injuries
or sustained them themselves.
PHYSIOTHERAPIST - A Physiotherapist is a therapist who helps patients recover
from injury and illness using different techniques. (IAB HEALTH)
SPORTS MASSAGE THERAPIST - Sports massage is ideal to treat injuries and as
well as a preventative treatment dealing with the health of muscle and connective
tissue, range of movement, tone, symmetry, balance of muscle and quality of
posture. (IAB HEALTH)
CHIROPRACTOR - A chiropractor is a health care professional focused on the
diagnosis and treatment of neuromuscular disorders, with an emphasis on treatment
through manual adjustment and/or manipulation of the spine.
DOCTOR – A doctor may have some knowledge of your injury, however they will often
refer you to a specialist who has more knowledge of your specific injury
OSTEOPATH - Osteopaths are probably best known for their treatment of back pain.
However they treat a variety of conditions including postural problems and repetitive
strain injury. Osteopaths can be particularly effective in treating sports injuries.
HOLISTIC/ ALTERNATIVE THERAPIST – There are also several different types of
holistic and alternative therapies to treat injuries such as Acupuncture, Aromatherapy,
Cupping, Reflexology and Reiki to name a few.
Treatment of injury is very crucial to your recovery, ensure you always see a licensed/
trained professional.

TASK: Reflect on your physiotherapy screening. Set yourself some goals for the
year based upon your observations. Write a short report on this and what your
goals are. Consider the S.M.A.R.T. principles when setting goals:
Ø Specific
Ø Measurable
Ø Attainable
Ø Realistic
Ø Timely
To make your goal specific ask yourself the six ´W´ questions:
Ø Who – Who is involved
Ø Where – Identify a location
Ø What – What do I want to accomplish
Ø When – Time frame
Ø Which – Identify requirements and constraints
Ø Why – Specific reasons, purpose or benefits of accomplishing the goal
TASK: Choose an injury you have sustained in the past or are currently recovering
from and write a short report about it considering some of the following things:
Ø How did this injury occur?

Ø What type of injury was it?
Ø What caused the inury?
Ø What were the signs and symptoms?
Ø Could this injury have been prevented?
Ø How did you treat this injury? What advice were you given?
Ø Have you fully recovered from this injury?

REMEMBER
Ø Sadly pain and discomfort are very present in the Performing Arts
Ø Do not accept pain as normal and just a part of your practice
Ø Be aware of the areas in your body which are strained while you
dance/sing, and keep an eye for ‘danger signals’
Ø Do not be afraid to sit out to recover
Ø Rehabilitation does not mean you stop dancing/singing
Ø Any treatment/rehabilitation program will help you to improve your
technique and movement efficacy and help to prevent further injuries
Ø Achieve a healthy routine of practice and lifestyle to help prevent injury
Ø Perform at your own level
Ø Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it
LISTEN TO YOUR BODY
Ø Adjust the alignment of your movements

Ø Balance, control and co-ordinate movements
Ø Change the force, timing and spatial aspects according to you
Ø Adjust the alignment of your movements
Ø React and use reflexes appropriately
Ø Follow movements demonstrated to you
Ø Perform at your own level.


2.BODY
MAINTENANCE

Your body can do anything, its just

your brain you have to convince
Unknown

WARM UP
WHAT IS A WARM UP?
Anything and everything that is done to prepare the body before physical exertion.
Or
Something that prepares the body for increased exertion.
WHY DO I WARM UP?
Warming up helps lower your risk of injuries and the aches and pains that are
associated with strenuous exercise. The physiological reason is to assist your
circulatory system in pumping the blood carrying oxygen to your muscles. The aim is
to increase circulation around the body, in a gradual manner, without putting any
pressure onto the body. A proper warm-up before vigorous exercise safely prepares
the body for the workload. Cold muscles do not absorb shock or impact as well, and
are more susceptible to injury. Warm muscles stretch better and allow greater range
of motion for the joints. An effective warm-up is the key to exercising safely and
effectively. A warm up should be done before any vigorous dance training or deep
stretching.
BENEFITS OF WARM UP
A warm-up helps your body prepare itself for exercise both mentally and physically,
and reduces the chance of injury. During a warm-up, any injury or illness you have
can often be recognised, and further injury prevented. Other benefits of a proper
warm up include:
Ø Increased movement of blood through your tissues, making the muscles

more pliable.
Ø Increased delivery of oxygen and nutrients to your muscles by increasing
the blood flow. This prevents you from getting out of breath early or too
easily.
Ø Prepares your muscles for stretching (which should follow a good warm
up).
Ø Prepares your heart for an increase in activity, preventing a rapid increase
in blood pressure.
Ø Prepares you mentally for the upcoming exercise.
Ø Primes your nerve-to-muscle pathways to be ready for exercise.
Ø Improves coordination and reaction times.

HOW DO I WARM UP?
Professional performers should warm up at least 30 – 40 minutes before activity.
Ø Actively move your body gently, including aerobic exercise (big & large
movements)
Ø Undertake static & dynamic stretching. Ballistic stretching should only be
carried out when warm.
Ø Increase progressively the intensity/speed of the movements towards your
targeted areas.
A warm up is best followed by practice of some easy movements concentrating on

stability and control (CORE) as well as settling in a comfortable and sustainable
posture.
GUIDELINES
When considering the guidelines for warming up, keep in mind the F.I.T.T. Principles
(Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type):
Frequency: Number of Sessions Per Week.

A proper warm up should be done before any exercise session or physical activity,
whether it is a cardio or strength training workout.
Intensity: Speed or Exercise Workload

A warm-up should start with exercises of low intensity and then progress to match
the intensity of the main exercises of the workout. The greater the intensity of the
workout, the longer its warm-up should be. Speed, strength, and difficult technical
workouts should have longer warm-ups than aerobic fitness or endurance workouts.
A general recommendation is to perform a warm-up that includes all the large
muscle groups of the body.
To make your warm up effective, do movements that increase your heart rate and
breathing, and slightly increase the temperature of your muscle tissue. A good
indication of this is when you have raised a light sweat.
Time: How Long for Each Session

Your warm up should last at least 5-10 minutes (or slightly longer in cold weather).
Breathing will be harder than normal, but not as hard as during the actual exercise.
Type: Activities That Count

The warm up can be a lower intensity version of the workout you are about to do, or
it can be a completely different exercise. As long as it increases your heart rate and
breathing, and involves the muscles you are about to use, it is considered a proper
warm up.
It is important to remember that the warm up you do will be specific to the discipline
or exercise you are studying. The lecturer will have designed the warm up to meet
the specific needs and demands of that discipline.

COOL DOWN
WHAT IS A COOL DOWN?
Lowering of body temperature following vigorous exercise. The practice of cooling

down after exercise means slowing down your level of activity gradually.
WHY SHOULD I COOL DOWN?
The purpose of the cool-down is to slowly decrease the heart rate and the overall
metabolism previously elevated during exercise. When your activity ends abruptly,
especially vigorous exercise, your blood pressure drops, which could cause
dizziness or fainting. A proper cool-down prevents the sudden pooling of blood
(collection of blood in one place) and re-circulates the blood back to the heart,
skeletal muscles and brain. This phase of your workout helps prevent muscle
stiffness or soreness.
Cooling down helps prevent post-exercise muscle soreness, also known as delayed-
onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Experienced 24-72 hours after exercise.
Active rest is very important after an aerobic exercise session. This type of recovery
brings the body back down to near resting levels and helps eliminate metabolic
waste products of exercise (lactic acid). During the active rest phase, stretching and
flexibility exercises should be performed.
BENEFITS OF A COOL DOWN
A proper cool down provides many benefits. Some of these include:
Ø Helps your heart rate and breathing return to normal gradually.

Ø Helps avoid fainting or dizziness, which can result from blood pooling in the
large muscles of the legs when vigorous activity is stopped suddenly.
Ø Prepares your muscles for the next exercise session, enabling you to work
again at the same level within a short period of time (whether it’s tomorrow or
a few days from now).
Ø Removes waste products from your muscles, such as lactic acid, which can
build up during vigorous activity.
Ø Reduces the immediate post-exercise tendency for muscle spasm or
cramping.
Ø Reduces muscle soreness and stiffness.
Ø Helps restore general joint elasticity
Ø Prevents fatigue
Ø Increases concentration and motivation

HOW DO I COOL DOWN?
After class or performing (5 to 10 minutes approx.)
Ø Reduce gradually the intensity of practice over 5 minutes (i.e., slower, easier
and gentle movements)
Ø Undertake some soft stretching
Ø Ensure you never expose yourself to a sudden drop in temperature – Always
wrap up warm before going outside in the winter/cold.
GUIDELINES
When considering the guidelines for cooling down, keep in mind the F.I.T.T.
principles (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type):
Frequency: Number of Sessions Per Week

A proper cool down should be done after any exercise session to help the heart rate
gradually return to normal.
Intensity: Speed or Exercise Workload

Cool down with a low intensity exercise after a vigorous workout. Continue your
chosen exercise (or a different one) while gradually slowing its intensity. Gradually
slowing down the pace and exertion of your activity over several minutes can seem a
natural progression, as well as fulfilling the need to include a cool-down period at the
end of your exercise. Another option is to jog or walk briskly for a few minutes after
your exercise, making sure that this activity is lower in intensity than the exercise you
have just performed.
Time: How Long for Each Session

A 5 to 10 minute cool-down period allows heart rate and breathing to return to
normal. After exercise or strenuous physical activity, it is important to decrease your
body temperature gradually until your normal body temperature is reached.
Type: Activities That Count

The cool down can be a lower intensity version of the workout you just did, or it can
be a completely different exercise. As long as it slowly lowers your heart rate and
breathing, and involves the muscles you just worked, it is considered a proper cool
down.

FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility is commonly described as the range of movement, or motion, around a

particular joint or set of joints. Or, simply, how far we can reach, bend and turn.
Ø An individual’s physical fitness depends on a vast number of components;

flexibility is one of these components and one of the most important for dancers.
Other components include: strength, power, speed, endurance, balance, co-
ordination, agility and skill.
Ø Tight stiff muscles limit our range of movement and lack of flexibility can be a
major factor contributing to muscle and joint pain. Poor flexibility can lead to:
o A loss of performance.
o A lack of muscle movement control.
o Muscular discomfort.
o A loss of strength and power during physical activity.
o An increased risk of injury.
o A greater likelihood of repeated injury.
Ø Flexibility (range of movement) can be restricted by both internal and external

factors. Internal factors such as bones, ligaments, muscle bulk, muscle length,
tendons, and skin all restrict the amount of movement at a particular joint.
External factors such as age, gender, temperature, restrictive clothing, injury
and disability can affect ones flexibility.
Ø With each year muscles and joints seem to become stiffer and tighter. This is
part of the ageing process and is caused by a combination of physical
degeneration and inactivity.
Ø When aiming to improve flexibility, the muscles are the major focus. While
bones, joints, ligaments, tendons (can accommodate a 5-10% stretch), and skin
do contribute to our overall flexibility, we have little control over these factors.

FLEXIBILITY TESTS
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE LEG RAISE
Supine
Ø This test is an indicator of the rance of motion (joint mobility and muscle
flexibility) of the hip in flexion (ie. hamstring flexibility) and the stability of your
pelvis.
Prone
Ø This test provides a measure of the efficiency of your muscular posterior chain
(Gluteus, Hamstrings, Erector spinae) in providing movement as well as
stability of the pelvis.
Discrepancy between active and passive will tell us if the range is restricted by muscle
tightness (and therefore can be increased with flexibility training) or if the participant
already has access to their full potential.
There are many other great ways to test/ keep a record of flexibility. One of these is
by using todays modern technology and taking photos and videos.

HYPERMOBILITY
Hypermobility is a medical condition which is characterized by extremely flexible

joints. People with this condition can bend their joints much further than is normal,
often being able to do things like bending their thumbs flat against the back of their
hands. There are several factors which contribute to hypermobility, including:
Ø Weak or overstretched ligaments

Ø Shape of your bones
Ø Muscle Tone
Ø Sense of joint movement (propreoception)
Often, hypermobility presents on its own, and it may be limited to certain joints in the
body. The condition may not require any medical treatment, and as the person ages,
his or her joints may become less flexible over time. However, there are some
instances when people with the condition do need medical treatment, as the
condition can accompany other more serious medical conditions, and there are
some medical complications associated with hypermobility.
Just because someone with this condition can bend his or her joints further than
normal doesn't mean that this is a good idea. It is possible to damage muscles,
tendons, and other connective tissue with excessive stretching, and the condition is
sometimes linked with joint pain and arthritis later in life. As a dancer it is important
to be strong as well as flexible.
HYPERMOBILITY TEST
BEIGHTON SCORE TEST
The Beighton score is used to test hypermobility in adults ocver 16 years of age. You
are considered hypermobile if you can perform at least four of these nine
manouvers.
1. Passive dorsiflexion of the fifth finger of more/equal 90 degrees (Right and

Left)
2. Passive apposition of the thumb to the forearm (Right and Left)
3. Hyperextension of the elbows of more/ equal 10 degrees (Right and Left)
4. Hyperextension of the knees of more/ equal 10 degrees (Right and Left)
5. Hands flat on the floor on forward flexion with knees straight

STRETCHING
WHAT IS STRETCHING?
Stretching is the process of placing particular parts of the body into a position that will
lengthen the muscles and associated soft tissues.
Stretching is a simple and effective activity that helps to enhance athletic performance,
decrease the likelihood of injury and minimise muscle soreness.
BENEFITS OF STRETCHING
The benefits of stretching are:
Ø Improved Range of Movement: Through stretching, we are able to increase

the length of our muscles. As a result, a reduction in general muscle tension is
achieved and our normal range of movement is increased. The benefits of an
extended range of movement includes: increased comfort; a greater ability to
move freely; and a lessening of our susceptibility to muscle and tendon strain
injuries.
Ø Increased Power: By increasing muscle length we are increasing the distance

over which our muscles are able to contract. This results in a potential increase
to our muscle power and therefore increases our athletic ability, while also
leading to an improvement in Dynamic balance, or the ability to control our
muscles.
Ø Reduced Post Exercise Muscle Soreness: The soreness that usually

accompanies strenuous exercise is called PEMS. It is the result of micro tears,
(minute tears within the muscle fibre), blood pooling and accumulated waste
products, such as lactic acid. Stretching, as a part of an effective cool down,
helps to alleviate this soreness by lengthening the individual muscle fibres;
increasing blood circulation; and removing waste products.
Ø Reduced Fatigue: Increased flexibility through stretching can help to prevent

the effects of fatigue by taking pressure off the working muscles. For every
working muscle there is a opposing muscle. If the opposing muscles are more
flexible, the working muscles do not have to exert as much force against the
opposing muscles. Therefore each movement of the working muscle actually
takes less effort.

Added benefits:
o Regular stretching will help to improve posture

o Develop body awareness
o Improve co-ordination
o Promote circulation
o Increase energy
o Improve relaxation and stress relief.
o Create more appeasing lines in your dance classes
TYPES OF STRETCH
Stretching can be grouped into 2 categories:

Ø Static
Ø Dynamic
STATIC STRETCHES: refers to stretching exercises that are performed without

movement. The individual gets into the stretch position and holds the stretch for a
specific amount of time. There are 5 different kinds:
Ø Static Stretching: performed by placing the body into a position whereby the
muscle (or group of muscles) to be stretched is under tension but relaxed. Then
slowly the body is moved deeper into the stretch in order to increase the tension
on the muscle. At this point the position is held or maintained to allow the
muscles to lengthen. This is a very safe and effective form of stretching with a
limited threat of injury.
Ø Passive Stretching: A passive stretch is one where you assume a position

and hold it with some other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner
or some other apparatus. The splits is an example of a passive stretch (in this
case the floor is the "apparatus" that you use to maintain your extended
position). When using a partner it is imperative that no jerky or bouncing force
is applied to the stretched muscle. Passive stretching is useful in helping to
attain a greater range of movement, but carries a slightly higher risk of injury.
Ø Active stretching: An active stretch is one where you assume a position and
then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength of your
agonist muscles. For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it
there without anything (other than your leg muscles themselves) to keep the
leg in that extended position. The tension of the agonists in an active stretch
helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists). Active stretching
increases active flexibility and strengthens the agonistic muscles. Active
stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10
seconds and rarely need to be held any longer than 15 seconds. Active
stretching is a very effective form of conditioning. They are used in dance
training with most lessons.

Ø PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) Stretching: Involves both
the stretching and contracting of the muscle group being targeted. Involving 2
people, the area to be stretched is positioned so that the muscle (or muscle
group) is under tension. The individual then contracts the stretched muscle
group for approx. 5-6 seconds while the partner applies sufficient resistance to
inhibit movement. The contracted muscle group is then relaxed and a controlled
stretch is applied for approx. 20-30 seconds. The athlete is then allowed 30
seconds to recover and the process is repeated 2-4 times. This method is very
effective at increasing flexibility but you need to allow 24-36 hours between
sessions.
Ø Isometric Stretching: Similar to PNF, this passive stretching requires that you
hold an isometric contraction (a contraction in which no movement takes place)
for 10-15 seconds before relaxing the muscle. The most common ways to
provide the needed resistance for an isometric stretch are to apply resistance
manually to one's own limbs, to have a partner apply the resistance, or to use
an apparatus such as a wall (or the floor) to provide resistance. An example of
manual resistance would be holding onto the ball of your foot to keep it from
flexing while you are using the muscles of your calf to try and straighten your
instep so that the toes are pointed. An example of using a partner to provide
resistance would be to have a partner hold your leg up high (and keep it there)
while you attempt to force your leg back down to the ground. An example of
using the wall to provide resistance would be the well known "push-the-wall"
calf-stretch where you are actively attempting to move the wall (even though
you know you can't).
Dynamic Stretches: Refers to stretching exercises that are performed with

movement. The individual uses a swinging or bouncing motion to extend the range of
movement and flexibility. There are 2 types:
Ø Ballistic Stretching: A stretch that uses the momentum of a moving body or a

limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is
stretching by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched
muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. (e.g. bouncing
down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of stretching is not considered
useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles to adjust to, and
relax in, the stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up by
repeatedly activating the stretch reflex (a protective response by the muscle to
stop contraction).
Ø Dynamic Stretching: A stretch that uses a controlled, soft bounce or swinging
motion to move a particular body part to the limit of its range of motion. The
force of the bounce or swing is gradually increased but should never become
radical or uncontrolled. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow,
controlled leg swings, arm swings, or torso twists. Dynamic stretching improves
dynamic flexibility and is quite useful as part of your warm-up for an active or
aerobic workout (such as a dance or martial-arts class)

RULES FOR SAFE STRETCHING
Ø Warm up prior to stretching: trying to stretch muscles that have not been
warmed is like trying to stretch old, dry rubber bands: they may snap! By
increasing muscle temperature we are helping to make the muscles loose,
supple and pliable. This is essential to ensure the maximum benefit is gained
from stretching.
Ø Stretch before and after exercise: The purpose of stretching before
exercise is to help prevent injury. Stretching does this by lengthening the
muscles and tendons, which in turn increases our range of movement. This
ensures that we are able to move freely without restriction or injury occurring.
The purpose of stretching after exercise is primarily to aid in the repair and
recovery of the muscles and tendons. By lengthening the muscles and
tendons, stretching helps to prevent tight muscles and delayed muscle
soreness that usually accompanies strenuous exercise. Stretching should be
a part of the cool down phase of exercise.
Ø Stretch all major muscles and their opposing muscle groups: When
stretching, it is important that we pay attention to all major muscle groups in
the body. All the muscles play an important part in any physical activity. This
is particularly true in dance. Every muscle in the body has an opposing
muscle that acts against it. For example: The muscles in the front of the leg
(the quads) are opposed by the muscles in the back of the leg (the
hamstrings). These 2 muscles provide a resistance to each other to balance
the body. If one of these groups of muscles becomes stronger or more flexible
than the other group, it is likely to lead to imbalances that can result in injury
or postural problems. Don’t just stretch the muscles you know are most
flexible. You want to be a dancer who can kick both legs high.
Ø Stretch gently and slowly: This helps to relax our muscles, which in turn
makes stretching more pleasurable and beneficial. This also helps to avoid
muscle tears and strains that can be caused by rapid, jerky movements.
Ø Stretch only to the point of tension: Stretching is not an activity that is
meant to be painful; it should be pleasurable, relaxing and very beneficial.
Many people believe that to get the most out of stretching, they need to be in
constant pain. When the muscles are stretched to the point of pain, the body
employs a defense mechanism called the stretch reflex. This safety measure
prevents damage occurring to the muscles, tendons and joints. It does this by
contracted them, thereby preventing them from being stretched. So to avoid
the stretch reflex, avoid pain. Only stretch to the point where tension can be
felt in the muscles. This way, injury will be avoided and the maximum benefits
from stretching will be achieved.
Ø Breathe slowly and easily while stretching: Many people hold their breath
while stretching. This causes tension in the muscles, which in turn makes it
very difficult to stretch. To avoid this, remember to breathe slowly and deeply
during all stretching exercises. This helps to relax the muscles, promote blood
flow and increase the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the muscles.

You will learn many differnt types of stretch throughout your training and you should
always listen to your body when performing these. If it feels like it is doing you more
harm than good, it probably is. Talk to your lecturers if a stretch is consistently
uncomfortable, they will help to adapt or modify the exercise to suit your individual
needs.
TASK: Identify an area of your body where you feel you need to develop flexibility
and write a short report about it. You may consider some of the following things:
Ø Why do you need to develop flexibility in this area?

Ø What stretches can you do to improve flexibility? (at least 2)
Ø What opposing muscles should you be stretching?
Ø What type of stretches are you performing? (Static, Dynamic)
Ø What factors make you less flexible in this area? (Internal/External)
Do not worry if you do not know the correct names for the muscles yet, we will
cover those later on in the module.

NUTRITION
You are what you eat.

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NUTRITION
Nutrition refers to the provision of essential nutrients necessary to support human life
and health. These nutrients are supplied by our diet.
Diet affects performance - Good nutrition is essential for dance performance and is a
crucial part of your training strategy
WHAT IS GOOD NUTRITION?
The Concept Of Optimum Nutrition

Conceived by Patrick Holford: ‘New Optimum Nutrition Bible’
1. Positive health, sometimes called ‘functional’ health, can be measured in 3

ways:
Ø Performance – how you perform physically and mentally.

Ø Absence of ill health – lack of disease signs and symptoms.
Ø Longevity – healthy lifespan.
2. The experience of a profound sense of well-being can be achieved by

everyone. It is characterised by a consistent, clear, high level of energy,
emotional balance, a sharp mind, a desire to maintain physical fitness and a
direct awareness of what suits our bodies, what enhances our health, and what
our needs are in any given moment. By means of optimum nutrition, exercise,
living in the right environment and being willing to change obsolete beliefs and
behaviour patterns that create tension and stress, virtually all disease can be
prevented.
3. What we take into our bodies – be it healthy food, drink, drugs or junk – can
dramatically affect our ability to stay healthy.
4. Optimum nutrition is giving yourself the best possible intake of nutrients to allow
your body to be as healthy as possible and to work as well as it can.
5. Your needs are completely unique and depend on a whole host of factors, from
the strengths and weaknesses that you were born with right up to the effects
that your current environment has on you. No one diet is perfect for everyone,
although there are general guidelines that apply to all of us.
6. Your optimum nutrition is the intake of nutrients that:
Ø Promotes your optimal mental performance and emotional balance.

Ø Promotes your optimal physical performance.
Ø Is associated with the lowest incidence of ill health.
Ø Is associated with the longest healthy lifespan.

7. Through optimum nutrition you can:
Ø Improve mental clarity, mood and concentration.

Ø Increase IQ.
Ø Increase physical performance.
Ø Improve quality of sleep
Ø Improve resistance to infections.
Ø Protect yourself from disease.
Ø Extend your healthy lifespan.
8. Old-fashioned concepts of nutrition assess your needs by analysing what you

eat and comparing it with the RDA (reccomended daily allowance) for each
nutrient. This method is very basic since RDAs do not exist for a number of key
nutrients; have little relevance to what is needed for optimal health; and do not
take into account individual variations in need, or lifestyle factors that alter your
needs, such as pollution, level of stress or exercise.
9. 3 methods are fundamentals to the optimum nutrition approach:
Ø Symptom Analysis: enables you to see, from the presence of signs and
symptoms (such as lack of energy, mouth ulcers, muscle cramps, easy bruising
and so on) which nutrients you may be lacking.
Ø Lifestyle Analysis: This helps you to identify the factors in your life that change
your nutritional needs (such as your level of exercise, stress, pollution, and so
on).
Ø Dietary Analysis: This compares your diet not with that of RDAs but with optimal
levels of nutrients, and takes into account your consumption of ‘anti-nutrients’
– substances that rob the body of nutrients.
10. All nutrients work in synergy. It is advised not to supplement your diet with
individual nutrients without also taking a good all round multivitamin and mineral
supplement (this includes antioxidants).
11. Optimum nutrition is not just about what you eat – what you do not eat is equally
important. Since the 1950’s over 3,500 man-made chemicals have found their
way into manufactured food, along with pesticides antibiotics and hormone
residues from staple foods such as grains and meat. Many of these chemicals
are ‘anti-nutrients’ in that they stop nutrients being absorbed and used, or
promote their excretion. One example is antibiotics. They wipe out the healthy
gut bacteria that manufacture significant amounts of B vitamins. They also pave
the way for unfriendly bacteria to multiply, which increases the risk of infection,
thereby stressing the immune system. This can lead to nutrient deficiency.

Top Ten Daily Diet Tips For Optimum Nutrition:
1 Take one heaped tablespoon of ground seeds or one tablespoon of

cold-pressed seed oil.
2 Eat 2 servings of beans, lentils, quinoa, tofu (soya), or seed vegetables.
3 Eat 3 pieces of fresh fruit such as apples, pears, bananas, berries,

melon or citrus fruit.
4 Eat 4 servings of whole grains such as brown rice, millet, rye, oats,
wholewheat, corn, quinoa as cereal, breads and pasta.
5 Eat 5 servings of dark green, leafy and root vegetables such as

watercress, carrots, sweet potatoes, broccoli, spinach, green beans,
peas and peppers.
6 Drink 6-8 glasses of water, diluted juices, herb or fruit teas.
7 Eat whole, organic, raw food as often as you can.
8 Supplement your diet with a high-strength multivitamin and mineral

preparation and 1000mg of vitamin C a day.
9 Avoid fried, burnt, and browned food, hydrogenated fat and excess
animal fat.
10 Avoid any form of sugar, also white, refined or processed food with
chemical additives, and minimise your intake of alcohol, coffee or tea.

THE FITNESS FOOD PYRAMID
Taken From The Complete Guide To Sports Nutrition (5th Edition) by Anita Bean.
Ø Designed to meet the nutritional needs of regular exercisers and athletes.

Ø Include foods from each group in the pyramid each day.

Ø Make sure you include a variety of foods within each group.

Ø Aim to include the suggested number of portions from each food group each
day.

The fitness food pyramid divides food into 7 categories:

Ø Fruit and Veg (5-9 portions a day) – contains vitamins, minerals, fibre and
antioxidants which are vital for health, immunity and optimum performance.

Ø Grains and Potatoes (4-6 portions a day) – a diet rich in wholegrain foods
(bread, breakfast cereals, oats, beans, lentils, potatoes) maintains high
glycogen levels, needed to fuel training.

Ø Calcium-rich Foods (2-4 portions a day) – including dairy products, nuts,
pulses and tinned fish which is needed for strong bones.

Ø Protein-rich Foods (2-4 portions a day) – Regular exercisers need more
protein than inactive people. Include lean meat, poultry, fish, leafy greens,eggs,
soya, quorn, or supplements.

Ø Healthy Fats (1-2 portions a day) – oils found in nuts, seeds, rapeseed oil, olive
oil, flax seed oil, sunflower oil, and oily fish can improve endurance, aid
recovery and protect against heart disease.

Ø Discretionary Calories (0-1 portion a day) – No nutritional value and high in
saturated fat. Biscuits, cake, puddings, alcohol, chocolate, crisps.

WHAT COUNTS AS ONE PORTION?

Number Of Portions
Food Group Each Day Food Portion Size

* 2-4 florets of
1 Portion = 80g broccoli
(about the amount * 1 carrot
Vegetables 3-5 you can hold in the * 5 cherry tomatoes
palm of your hand) * 2 tablespoons of
veg

* 1 medium apple,
peach, pear,
1 Portion = 80g banana
Fruit 2-4 (about the size of a * 1-2 small plum,
tennis ball) kiwi, satsuma,
strawberry
* 3 tablespoons of
fruit
* 1 medium glass of
juice
* 2 slices bread
(60g)
1 Portion = about * 1 bagel, roll, wrap
Grains and 4-6 the size of your (60g)
Potatoes clenched fist * 5 Tablespoons of
rice or pasta (180g)
* 1 bowl of cereal
(40-50g)
* 1 fist size of sweet
potato, potato
(150g)
* 200ml milk, soya
milk
* 4 dice size cheese
Calcium-Rich 2-4 1 portion = 200ml or * 4 dice size tofu
Foods a handful * 1 pot of yogurt
(150ml)

* 3 slices of lean
meat
* 2 medium slices
Protein-Rich Foods 2-4 1 portion = size of a or 1 breast poultry
deck of cards (70g) * 1 fillet of fish (115
– 140g)
* 2 eggs
* 5 tablespoons of
lentils / beans
* 2 tablespoons
(25g) of nuts, seeds
or their oils
Healthy Fats and 1-2 1 portion = 1 * Half an avocado
Oils tablespoon * The size of a deck
of cards of oily fish
(140g) NB: 1 portion
a week would cover
your needs here!

WHEN SHOULD I EAT?
Dance training is very demanding on the body and just like a car your body needs
fuel to drive. The fuel you put in your body and when you do this is individual to each
person. Some factors that effect this can be:
Ø Daily activity levels and type of activity

Ø Age
Ø Height
Ø Weight
Ø Gender
Ø Type of food you are eating
Ø Time at which you are eating
Ø Metabolic rate
Ø Allergies
To ensure you maintain energy levels you should eat regularly throughout the day
and meet your daily calorie intake. Exactly what you eat and when will be individual
to you.
HOW MANY CALORIES SHOULD I EAT PER DAY?
It is important to remember that at least 2/3 of our daily calorie intake is just to keep
our body functioning. You can figure out an estimate of how many calories you
should be consuming per day to maintain your current body composition by using the
equation below:
Step 1. Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) - number of calories essential to maintain

heart, lungs, body temperature (60-75% of calories burnt daily)
Women: BMR = weight in kg x 22
Men: BMR = weight in kg x 24
Step 2. Physical activity level (PAL)

Mostly inactive/sedentary (mainly sitting): 1.2
Fairly active (including walking and exercise 1-2 x week): 1.3
Moderately active (exercise 2-3 x weekly): 1.4
Active (exercise hard more than 3 x weekly): 1.5
Very active (exercise hard daily): 1.7
Step 3. Daily calorie needs = RMR x PAL

Recommended for dancers (during training):
2000-2200cal for women
2500-2900cal for men
In order to lose/ gain weight at a healthy rate of 0.5KG per week you should make a
deficit or addition of 300-500 kcals to your daily calorie intake.

Where can I track calories? – MY FITNESS PAL APP or FOOD DIARY
Counting calories can become an addiction. Remember, your needs will be different
on a day to day basis. Listen to your body. If you feel hungry or faint, your body
probably needs food.
There are many other ways to track what you eat such as meeting daily macros
(Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins). For more information on a specialised diet
specific to you contact a nutritionist. (IAB CLINIC)
Here is a rough guide for you of a healthy eating plan. Remember variety is the spice
of life however make the right choices in what you eat. Your body is your tool for
success and you need to treat it right.
BREAKFAST
Oats with honey, banana and red berries made with milk or milk substitute (prepare
the night before)
OR
3 egg omelette including vegetables
Fruit with greek yoghurt
MID MORNING
Large Handful of mixed fruit and nuts
Apple
Homemade hummus with crudites (eg. Carrots, Cucumber, Broccolli)
LUNCH
(Can be prepared the night before)
Quinoa with Tuna/ Sweet corn/ Light Mayonnaise
1 Serving of Veg
OR
Brown rice with stir fried veg and chicken or alternative protein source
MID AFTERNOON
1 Serving of cottage cheese with oatcakes and carrots
OR
Protein Shake
DINNER
White Fish, Sweet potato mash and green beans
OR
Various vegetables pan fried with quinoa, topped with goats cheese or tofu
You should plan meals in advance, this will help you ensure you are eating properly
as well as help with budgeting. Eating right when you are a student can be difficult.

ENERGY AND PERFORMANCE
There are 4 components in food and drink that are capable of producing energy:
Ø Carbohydrate
Ø Protein
Ø Fat
Ø Alcohol
When you eat a meal or have a drink, these components are broken down into their
various building bocks. Then they are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Carbohydrates:
Ø Are broken down into small, single sugar unit: Glucose (the most common),
Fructose and Galactose.
Ø Are stored as Glycogen in the muscles and liver, along with 3 times its own
weight of water.
Ø The body can only store a relatively small amount of glycogen – there is no
endless supply!! Like the petrol tank in a car, the body can only hold a certain
amount (average body = 500g. Enough to last 1 day if you were to eat nothing)
o This is why a low-carb diet tends to make people lose quite a lot of weight
in the first few days. The weight loss is almost entirely due to loss of
glycogen and water.
Fats:
Ø Are broken down into fatty acids.

Ø Fat is stored as Adipose (fat) tissue in almost every region of the body.
Ø Small amount in muscles: intramuscular fat.
Ø Majority is stored around the organs and beneath the skin.
Ø Female hormones tend to favor fat storages around the hips and thighs (pear
shaped). Male hormones encourage fat storage around the mid section (apple
shaped).
Ø You can’t change the way your body distributes fat but you can change the
amount of fat that is stored!

Protein:
Ø Are broken down into amino acids.

Ø Forms muscle and organ tissue, so it is mainly used as a building material
rather than an energy store.
Ø Proteins can be broken down to release energy if needed (no carbs or fats
available).
Ø During a period of semi-starvation, or if a person follows a low-carb diet,
glycogen will be in short supply, so more proteins would be broken down to
provide the body with fuel. Up to half of the weight lost by someone following a
low carb diet comes from protein (muscle) loss. Breaking down your glycogen
stores will not force the body to break down more fat and hence lose weight.
You will lose muscle as well as fat.
Alcohol:
Ø Is mostly absorbed directly into the blood.

Ø Cannot be used directly by muscles for energy during exercise.
Ø Only the liver has the specific enzymes needed to break down alcohol. It carries
out its job at a fixed speed.
Ø Acts as a diuretic and causes considerable losses of vitamins and minerals.

METABOLISM
Metabolism is the series of chemical processes by which food is converted into the
energy and products needed to sustain life
Metabolic Rate (speed of metabolism) is the speed at which the biochemical

reactions of metabolism in living cells take place to produce energy.
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) - number of calories essential to maintain heart,

lungs, body temperature (60-75% of calories burnt daily). This is how many calories
you would burn if you stayed in bed all day.
Women: RMR = weight in kg x 22
Men: RMR = weight in kg x 24


You can increase your metabolic rate by:

Ø Exercise: for approx. 1-2 hours after vigorous exercise, you continue burning
calories faster than normal. The longer and more intense the workout, the
greater this ‘after-burn’ will be. It mainly comes from fat stores.

Ø Adding Muscle: regular weight training will raise your RMR.

Ø Eating Small Meals Often Through The Day: your metabolism is boosted by
approx. 10% for 2-3 hours after you eat. Space your meals 2-3 hours apart to
keep your RMR high.

Ø Get Enough Protein: It’s the most satisfying nutrient and stops you from
overeating.

Ø Eat A Good breakfast: It kick-starts your metabolism.

Ø Go For A Walk After A Meal: it turns the more of the calories you have just
eaten into heat and makes your body burn more calories.

Ø Check Portion Sizes: smaller well-balanced portions help to boost RMR.

ENERGY SYSTEMS
Energy is required for any muscular activity to take place, the immediate source of
which is a compound called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). We know that ultimately
the food we eat is what gives us energy however this food must be broken down into
ATP in order for our body to use it. Energy is released by the breakdown of ATP,
which must then be re-synthesised so that the process can start again. The body
stores a minimal amount of ATP but the majority comes from the foods we eat.
We know that food is made up of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and these
nutrients are broken down into their simplest forms (glucose, amino acids and fatty
acids) during digestion. Once broken down, they are either used by the body or
stored for later use.
Because our body does not store a lot of ATP it must be constantly resynthesized
using one of three different enegy systems.
ATP – PC System (Anaerobic) – Immediate source of energy

Anaerobic Glycolosis or Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic) – Uses carbohydrates
Aerobic Glycolosis or Oxygen System (Aerobic) – Uses carbohydrates or fats

SYSTEM 1: ATP-PC System
The body stores an energy rich compound in the muscles called phosphocreatine
(PC). This breaks down and the free phosphate joins with Adenosine Diphosphate
(ADP) to form ATP. Due to the limited amount of PC in the muscle, it can only be
used for short bursts of activity such as sprinting, weight lifting or high intensity
dancing.
No• oxygen is required for this system.

It is an Anaerobic System.
No waste products are formed from this process.

SYSTEM 2: Anaerobic Glycolysis/Lactic Acid System
Energy is supplied by the partial breakdown of carbohydrates. The carbohydrate

which is used is either stored glycogen (the storage form of glucose) in the muscles,
glucose which is circulating in the blood or glycogen stored in the liver which is
converted to glucose and then enters the bloodstream to be carried to the muscles.
Lactic Acid is formed as a waste product of glycolysis and will cause fatigue if not
dispersed.
No oxygen is required for this system.

It is an Anaerobic System.
Lactic Acid will eventually prevent the muscles from contracting.

SYSTEM 3: Aerobic Glycolysis/Oxygen System
Energy is supplied by the breakdown of carbohydrates & fats. The carbohydrate

comes from the sources as above and the fats come from adipose sites (tissue in
which fat is stored). The process produces carbon dioxide and water as by-products.
Oxygen is required for this system.

It is an Aerobic System.
The waste products are easily removed from the body.
Interaction Of Energy Systems
In each of the above examples different fuels are used to produce energy and re-
synthesise ATP, which can then be used by the body for muscular activity. Different
activities will require different energy systems and thus the body must be supplied
with the correct fuels. This is why the interaction between Nutrition & Exercise is
so important.
The three energy systems used by the body do not work in isolation. At any one
time, two or all of the systems may be interacting. Therefore it is important to
understand which kind of physical activity uses which system so that the body can
be given the correct type and amount of fuel - i.e. food.

Area On Performance Time Major Energy Example
Chart System(s)
Involved
Less Than 30
A ATP-PC System 100m Sprint
Seconds
200m - 400m
ATP-PC System
B 30 to 90 Seconds Sprint
Lactic Acid System
100m Swim
Boxing (3m
90 Seconds to 3 Lactic Acid System
C Rounds)
Minutes Oxygen System
800m Run
Aerobics Class
D Over 3 Minutes Oxygen System
Marathon

REMEMBER
Different activities demand different types and amounts of muscular activity and
this means that different energy systems will be brought into play.
For Aerobic activities, Carbohydrates, Fats & Proteins can be used in producing
energy: Aerobic Glycolysis/Oxygen System
For Anaerobic activities, only Phosphocreatine (PC) & Glycogen are used to
produce energy: ATP-PC & Anaerobic Glycolysis/Lactic Acid Systems
FATIGUE
WHAT IS FATIGUE?
“The inability of your muscles to maintain the same intensity of effort (Llobet & Odam,
2007)”
The inability to sustain a given output or speed.
WHAT CAUSES FATIGUE?
Anaerobic Exercise: The main cause of fatigue for activities lasting less than 6
seconds is ATP and PC depletion. During activities lasting between 30 sec – 30 mins
it is lactic acid accumulation and muscle cell acidity.
Aerobic Exercise: Fatigue during moderate and high intensity exercise lasting longer
than 1 hour is usually due to muscle glycogen depletion. For events lasting longer than
2 hours it is associated with low liver glycogen and low blood sugar levels.
For most activities, performance is limited by the amount of glycogen in the muscles.
Low pre-exercise glycogen stores lead to early fatigue, reduced exercise intensity and
reduced training gains.
FATIGUE IS REVERSIBLE
Three common reasons for fatigue: (Llober & Odam, 2007)

Ø Intensity of practice or performance
Ø Speed of your movements
Ø Length of practice or performance
Signs & symptoms can be an alarm of Fatigue

If neglected, the cycle may continue weakening the body and overuse/misuse injuries
may occur – leading to chronic pain & tension (poor performance)

CARBOHYDRATES
Ø Carbs are needed to fuel almost every type of activity and the amount of
glycogen stored in your muscles and liver has a direct effect on your exercise
performance.
Ø A high muscle-glycogen concentration will allow you to train at your optimal
intensity and achieve a greater training effect.
Ø A low muscle-glycogen concentration will lead to early fatigue, reduced training
intensity and sub optimal performance.
Ø Clearly, glycogen is the most important and most valuable fuel for any type of
exercise.
How Much Carbohydrate Should You Eat?
The most popular method amongst sports nutritionists to calculate your carb intake
is from body weight and activity level:
Body Weight X Carb Need (see table below) = Daily Carb Need in g.
How Much Carbohydrate?
Activity Level* G carbohydrate / kg body weight /

day
3-5 hours / week 4-5
5-7 hours / week 5-6
1-2 hours / day 6-7
2-4 hours / day 7-8
More than 4 hours / day 8-10
* Number of hours of moderate intensity exercise or sport.
Which Carbs Are Best?
• Carbs are traditionally classified as: Simple (Sugars) and Complex

(Starches).
• Many foods contain a mixture of both and some are considered simple but
are actually complex eg: apples (containing simple carbs) produce a small
and prolonged rise in blood sugar. Bread / potatoes (containing complex
carbs) are digested and absorbed very quickly to give a rapid rise in blood
sugar.
• What is important as far as sports performance is concerned is how rapidly

the carbs are absorbed from the small intestine into the blood.
• A more useful way of categorising carbs is by The Glycemic Index (GI): The
ranking of food (1 to 100) of carbs based on their immediate effect on blood
glucose (blood sugar) levels. Carbs with a high GI produce a rapid rise in
blood sugar. Those with a low GI produce a slow rise in blood sugar.

The glycemic index range is as follows:
Low GI: 55 or less

Medium GI: 56-69
High GI: 70 or more
Bread Vegetables
Breakfast Cereal

Low GI Low GI Low GI
All-bran (UK/Aus) 30 Soya and Linseed 36 Frozen Green Peas 39
Wholegrain
All-bran (US) 50 46 Frozen Sweet Corn 47
Pumpernickel
Oat bran 50 Heavy Mixed Grain 45 Raw Carrots 16
Rolled Oats 51 Whole Wheat 49 Boiled Carrots 41
Special K
54 Sourdough Rye 48 Eggplant/Aubergine 15
(UK/Aus)
Natural Muesli 40 Sourdough Wheat 54 Broccoli 10
Porridge 58 Cauliflower 15
Cabbage 10
Medium GI Medium GI Mushrooms 10
Bran Buds 58 Croissant 67 Tomatoes 15
Mini Wheats 58 Hamburger bun 61 Chillies 10
Nutrigrain 66 Pita, white 57 Lettuce 10
Shredded Wheat 67 Wholemeal Rye 62 Green Beans 15
Porridge Oats 63 Red Peppers 10
Special K (US) 69 Onions 10

Medium GI
Beetroot 64


High GI High GI High GI
Cornflakes 80 White 71 Pumpkin 75
Sultana Bran 73 Bagel 72 Parsnips 97
Branflakes 74 French Baguette 95
Coco Pops 77
Puffed Wheat 80
Oats in Honey
77
Bake
Team 82
Total 76
Cheerios 74
Rice Krispies 82
Weetabix 74
Snacks & Sweet Foods Staples Fruits

Low GI Low GI Low GI

Slim-Fast meal
27 Wheat Pasta Shapes 54 Cherries 22
replacement
Snickers Bar (high fat) 41 New Potatoes 54 Plums 24
Nut & Seed Muesli Bar 49 Spaghetti 32 Grapefruit 25
Sponge Cake 46 Tortellini (Cheese) 50 Peaches 28
Nutella 33 Egg Fettuccini 32 Peach, canned 30
Milk Chocolate 42 Brown Rice 50 Apples 34
Hummus 6 Buckwheat 51 Pears 41
Peanuts 13 White long grain rice 50 Dried Apricots 32
Walnuts 15 Pearled Barley 22 Grapes 43
Cashew Nuts 25 Yam 35 Coconut 45
Nuts and Raisins 21 Sweet Potatoes 48 Coconut Milk 41

Jam 51 Instant Noodles 47 Kiwi Fruit 47
Corn Chips 42 Wheat tortilla 30 Oranges 40
Oatmeal Crackers 55 Strawberries 40
Prunes 29

Medium GI Medium GI Medium GI
Ryvita 63 Basmati Rice 58 Mango 60
Digestives 59 Couscous 61 Sultanas 56
Blueberry muffin 59 Cornmeal 68 Bananas 58
Honey 58 Taco Shells 68 Raisins 64
Gnocchi 68 Papaya 60
Canned Potatoes 61 Figs 61

Chinese (Rice)
58 Pineapple 66
Vermicelli
Baked Potatoes 60

Wild Rice 57

High GI High GI High GI
Pretzels 83 Instant White Rice 87 Watermelon 80
Water Crackers 78 Glutinous Rice 86 Dates 103

Short Grain White
Rice cakes 87 83
Rice
Puffed Crispbread 81 Tapioca 70

Fresh Mashed
Donuts 76 73
Potatoes
Scones 92 French Fries 75

Instant Mashed
Maple flavoured syrup 68 80
Potatoes

Legumes (Beans) Dairy

Low GI Low GI
Kidney Beans (canned) 52 Whole milk 31
Butter Beans 36 Skimmed milk 32
Chick Peas 42 Chocolate milk 42
Haricot/Navy Beans 31 Sweetened yoghurt 33

Artificially Sweetened
Lentils, Red 21 23
Yoghurt
Lentils, Green 30 Custard 35
Pinto Beans 45 Soy Milk 44
Black eyed Beans 50

Yellow Split Peas 32

Medium GI Medium GI
Beans in Tomato Sauce 56 Ice cream 62
Ø Low GI foods consumed 2-4 hours before exercise will improve endurance and
delay fatigue. If you leave too long an interval between eating and training, you
will be at risk of hypoglycemia (low blood glucose), which will compromise
performance, induce early fatigue (eg: light-headed feeling). This can lead to a
higher risk of injury.
Ø Your pre-exercise meal should contain approx. 2.5g carbs / kg body weight.
Ø For moderate-high intensity exercise lasting more than 60 minutes, consuming

30-60g medium or high GI carbs (in solid or liquid) form during exercise can
help maintain exercise intensity for longer and delay fatigue.

Ø After exercise, the length of time it takes to refuel depends on 4 main factors:
o Depletion: Glycogen stores can be depleted by high intensity and long

duration.
o Muscle Damage: Certain activities, which involve eccentric (forced

lengthening of active muscle) exercise such as Weight training, hard
running and dance) can cause muscle fibre damage. Muscle damage
delays glycogen replenishment.
o Carb Intake: The higher your carb intake, the faster you can refuel your
glycogen stores.
o Training Experience: Efficiency in re-fuelling improves automatically

with more training experience and raised fitness levels.
Ø Glycogen replenishment is faster than normal during the 2-hour post-exercise

period. To kick start recovery you should consume 1g of medium – high GI
carbs / kg bodyweight during this period.
Ø Combining carbs with protein is more effective in promoting muscle glycogen

recovery and muscle tissue growth than inducing carbs alone.
Ø A low GI daily diet comprising 4-6 small meals and supplying 5-10g / kg body
weight (depending on training hours and intensity) will promote efficient muscle
glycogen recovery as well as improve satiety (feelings of satisfaction after
eating) and appetite control and reduce cardiovascular risk factors.
FIBRE
WHAT IS FIBRE?
Dietary fibre is the term used to describe the complex carbs found in plants that are
resistant to digestion.
Ø Fibre helps your digestive system work properly and modifies the glycemic
effect of a meal.
Ø The soluble kind slows the digestion of carbs, producing a slower blood glucose
rise. The richest sources are: beans, lentils, oats, rye, fruit and vegetables.
Ø The insoluble kind absorbs water in the digestive tract, making the food
contents bulkier and helping to speed the passage of food through the gut, and
prevent constipation and bowel problems. The richest sources are: wholegrain
breakfast cereals, whole-wheat pasta, whole grain bread, brown rice and
vegetables.

Carbohydrates: What. When and How Much?
During
Before Exercise After Between
Exercise (Lasting More Exercise Workouts
Than 60
mins)
How Much 2.5 g/kg of 30-60 g per 1 g/kg of 5-10 g/kg of

body weight hour body weight body weight
(or 60% of
energy)
Time Period 2-4 hours Begin after Up to 2 4-6 meals /

before 30 mins; hours; then snacks
exercise regular every 2 hours
intervals
GI Low High High or Low Low
1: Jacket 1: 500- 1: Meal 1: Pasta with

Examples potato with 1000ml replacement beans /
beans, isotonic drink shake chicken / fish
chicken or or diluted fruit 2: Fresh fruit 2: Noodles
cheese juice (50/50) with milk or with tofu /
2: Pasta with 2: Energy Bar yogurt poultry /
tomato based with water 3: Sports bar seafood
sauce and 3: 1-2 4: Tuna or 3: Beans on
salad handfuls of cottage toast
3: Porridge raisins (40- cheese 4: Jacket
4: Rice with 80g) sandwich potato with
chicken and 4: 1-2 cottage
vegetables bananas cheese / tuna

PROTEIN
Protein makes up part of the structure of every cell and tissue in your body, including
your muscle tissue, internal organs, tendons, skin, hair, and nails.
On average, it comprises 20% of your total body weight.
It is needed for the growth and formation of new tissue, for tissue repair, for regulating
many metabolic pathways and can be used as a fuel for energy production.
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. There are 20 amino acids, which
combine in various ways to form hundreds of different proteins in the body.
11 amino acids can be made in the body from other amino acids, carbohydrate and
nitrogen. These are call non-essential amino acids (NEAAs).
The other 9 are called essential amino acids (EAAs) meaning they must be supplied
in the diet.
There are many types of protein commonly used as food supplements including:
Ø Whey Protein – from milk

Ø Casein – from milk
Ø Soy Protein – from soybeans
NB: Dietary protein provides an enhanced stimulus for muscle growth. To build muscle
you must be in positive nitrogen balance. This means the body is retaining more
dietary protein than is excreted or used as fuel. A sub-optimal intake of protein will
result in slower gains in strength, size and mass or even muscle loss, despite hard
training.
It is important to understand that a high protein diet alone will not result in increased
strength or muscle size. This occours through exercise and stimulation of muscle
tissue.
Once protein requirements have been met, additional protein will not be converted into
muscle, nor will it further increase muscle size, strength or stamina.
The nitrogen-containing amino acid group of the protein is converted into a substance
called urea in the liver, which is passed to the kidneys and excreted in the urine. The
remainder is converted into glucose and used as an energy substitute (either used
right away or stored as glycogen).

Protein Requirements For Athletes
How Much Protein?
Type Of Athlete Daily Protein Requirements per kg

Body Weight (g)
Endurance Athletes – moderate to 1.2 – 1.4
heavy training
Strength and Power Athletes 1.4 – 1.8
Athlete on Fat-Loss Programme 1.6 – 2.0
Athlete on Weight-Gain Programme 1.8 – 2.0
Good Sources Of Protein
The best sources of protein in terms of amino acid balance include eggs, quinoa, soya,
meat, fish, beans and lentils. Animal protein sources tend to contain a lot of
undesirable saturated fat. Vegetable sources tend to contain additional beneficial
complex carbs and are less acid forming.
Ø Meat and Fish – Chicken (breast), Beef (Lean), Turkey, Cod, Mackerel, Tuna.
Ø Dairy – Cheddar cheese, Cottage cheese, Skimmed milk, Low-fat yoghurt,

Eggs.
Ø Nuts and Seeds – Peanuts, Cashews, Walnuts, Sunflower seeds, Sesame

seeds.
Ø Pulses – Baked beans, Red lentils, Red kidney beans, Chickpeas.
Ø Soya Products – Soya milk, Tofu.
Ø Grains and Cereals – Wholemeal bread, Brown rice.
Ø Leafy Greens – Spinach, Kale, Broccoli

FAT
Excess body fat is a disadvantage in almost all sports and fitness programmes,
reducing power, speed and performance. Surplus fat is basically surplus baggage.
Muscle is useful weight, whereas excess fat is not.
Reducing your body fat while maintaining your lean muscle mass and health will result
in improved performance. Muscle is stronger and more powerful than fat.
A certain amount of body fat is vital for survival.
There are 3 components of body fat:
Ø Essential Fat: forms part of cell membranes, brain tissue, bone marrow, and
the fat surrounding organs (eg: heart, liver, kidneys). Here it provides insulation,
protection and cushioning against physical damage. In a healthy person this
accounts for about 3% of body weight.
Ø Sex Specific Fat: breasts and around the hips. It accounts for a further 5-9%
of a women’s body weight and is involved in oestrogen production.
Ø Storage Fat: an important energy reserve that takes the form of fat (adipose)
cells under the skin (subcutaneous fat) and around the organs (intra-abdominal
fat).
Fat is used virtually all the time during any aerobic activity: while sleeping, sitting,
standing, as well as in most forms of exercise.
It is impossible to spot reduce fat selectively from adipose tissue sites by specific
exercises or diets. The body generally uses fat from all sites, although the exact
pattern of fat utilization (and storage) is determined by your genetic make-up and
hormonal balance.
Very low fat intakes can leave you deficient in a variety of nutrients and lead to several
health problems.
Dangers for women with very low body fat levels include hormonal imbalance and
amenorrhea (absence of periods) and an upset in the metabolism of the sex
hormones, reducing their potency and thus fertility (reduces the chance of pregnancy).
Once body fat increases to normal levels, periods and fertility generally return to
normal. Female Athlete Triad.
Dangers for men with very low body fat levels include decreased testosterone levels
causing a drastic fall in sperm count, libido and sexual activity.
The 3 main types of fat are:
Ø Saturated: usually hard at room temperature and mostly come from animal
products such as butter, lard, cheese and meat fat. Processed foods are made
from these fats (biscuits, cakes, pastry and chocolate). Alternative to animal

fats are palm and coconut oil, often used in margarine, biscuits and bakery
products.
Ø They are the culprit fat source in heart disease because they increase total
cholesterol and the more harmful LDL (low-density lipoprotein).
Ø They have no positive health benefits!
Ø Monounsaturated: usually liquid at room temperature, but may solidify in cold

temperature.
Ø Richest sources include olive, rapeseed, groundnut, hazelnut and almond oil,
avocados, olives, nuts and seeds.
Ø They have great health benefits. They can reduce total cholesterol, in particular
LDL without affecting the beneficial HDL (high-density lipoprotein).
Ø Polyunsaturated: Liquid at both room temperature and cold temperature.

Ø Rich sources include most vegetable oils and oily fish (and their oils).
Ø They can reduce LDL, however, they can also slightly lower HDL cholesterol
levels in the blood.
Essential Fatty Acids: a sub-category of polyunsaturated fats, which cannot be made

in your body so they have to come from food.
Ø Omega-3: They control many main functions such as blood clotting,

inflammation, the tone of blood vessel walls and your immune system. They
can also lower the risk of heart attack.
Ø Omega-6: Important for healthy functioning of cell membranes, and especially
important for healthy skin.
The best sources include oily fish (mackerel, fresh tuna, salmon and sardines).
Vegetarian sources include linseeds (flaxseeds), linseed (flax) oil, pumpkin seeds,
walnuts, rapeseed oil and soybeans. The dark green leafy vegetables (spinach etc)
and sweet potatoes contain a small amount.
The benefits of omega-3 fatty acids for athletic performance are:
Ø Improved delivery of oxygen and nutrients to cells because of reduced blood

viscosity.
Ø More flexible red blood cell membranes and improved oxygen delivery.
Ø Enhanced aerobic metabolism.
Ø Increased energy levels and stamina.
Ø Increased exercise duration and intensity.
Ø Anti-inflammatory, preventing joint, tendon, ligament strains.
Ø Reduction of inflammation caused by over-training, assisting injury healing.

FLUID
Whenever you exercise you lose fluid, not only through sweat but also through water
vapour in the air when you breathe out. Your body’s fluid loss can be very high and, if
fluid is not replaced quickly, dehydration will follow.
Dehydration will have an adverse effect on your physical performance and health.
Exercise will be harder and you will suffer from fatigue sooner. Other symptoms of
dehydration include: sluggishness, headaches, loss of appetite, feeling excessively
hot, light-headedness, and nausea.
A good practical way to check hydration levels is to monitor your urine. You should be
producing dilute pale-coloured urine (very pale yellow). Concentrated, dark-coloured
urine or a small volume indicates you are dehydrated and is a signal that you should
drink more before you exercise. It is possible to overhydrate, but this is rare. Drink
when you are thirsty.
The amount of sweat that you produce, and therefore, the amount of fluid you lose,
depends on:
Ø How hard you are exercising
Ø How long you are exercising
Ø The temp and humidity of your surroundings
Ø Individual body chemistry
You can estimate your sweat loss and, therefore, how much fluid you should drink by
weighing yourself before and after exercise. Every 1 kg decrease in weight represents
a loss of approx. 1 litre of fluid.
A general guideline for dancers in training is approximately 2-4 litres per day
(depending on the activities of the day).
For heavy dance days, a sports drink (still not sparkling!) will help ensure full hydration
as well as replacing glycogen stores.
You can make your own sport drink by mixing 100% fruit juice with water. 25% or 50%
dilutions work very well to hydrate, replace glycogen and aid nutrient absorption. This
is much better than drinking 100% juice by itself.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS
Ø Vitamins are required for growth, health and physical well-being. Many form
an essential part of enzyme systems that are involved in energy production and
exercise performance. Others are involved in the functioning of the immune
system, the hormonal system and the nervous system. Our bodies are unable
to make vitamins, so they must be supplied in the diet.
Ø Minerals are inorganic elements that have many regulatory and structural roles
in the body. Some form part of the structure of bones and teeth. Others are
involved in controlling the fluid balance in tissues, muscle contraction, nerve
function, enzyme secretion and the formation of red blood cells. Our bodies are
unable to make minerals, so they must be supplied in the diet.
Ø Vitamins and minerals do not themselves provide energy.
Ø Vitamin and mineral requirements depend on age, body size, activity level, and
individual metabolism.
Ø RDAs (Recommended Daily Allowance) should only be used as a guideline.

They cover the needs of most people but dancers need higher than RDA due
to their higher energy expenditure. If you are eating less than the RDA, then
you may be lacking in that nutrient, which can lead to health implications.
Ø Most dancers eat more food than the average sedentary person. With the right
food choices, this means you should automatically achieve a higher vitamin and
mineral intake. However, in practice many dancers do not plan their diets well
enough so it can be difficult to obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins and
minerals from food. Vitamin losses also occur during food processing and
cooking, thus further reducing your actual intake.
Ø Due to a dancers ‘on the run’ way of life, their diet’s tend to be lacking in good
nutritious food. Therefore, they would benefit from supplementing their diet with
a good quality, highly absorbable multi vitamin and mineral. Vitamins and
minerals work in synergy so single supplements should be taken under advice
of a nutritionist.

The main vitamins and minerals are:
o Vitamin E: a powerful antioxidant, which prevents the oxidation of fatty

acids in cell membranes and protects the cell from damage. Also boosts
immunity.
o Vitamin C: necessary for a strong immune system, for collagen and

bone formation, for energy production and is a powerful antioxidant.
o The B Vitamins (B1: Thiamin, B2: Riboflavin, B3: Niacin): involved in

releasing energy from food. Requirements are based on the amount of
carbs and calories consumed so dancers need more than normal
people. It you eat a lot of refined carbs, you may be lacking in B vitamins.
o Vitamin B6: involved in protein and amino acid metabolism. Needed to

make red blood cells.
o Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid): necessary for making glucose and fatty

acids from other metabolites in the body. A deficiency would be
detrimental to health and athletic performance.
o Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid: both involved with red blood cell
production in the bone marrow. Also needed for cell division and the
manufacture of protein and DNA. A vitamin that is necessary for athletic
performance.
o Vitamin A: comes in 2 forms; retinal (animal form – meat, fish, eggs,

dairy) and beta-carotene (Vegetable form). Essential for reproduction,
the maintenance of epithelial tissue found in skin (inside and out) and for
healthy vision. Beta-carotene is the most active precursor of vitamin A,
and in high doses, unlike vitamin A itself, is not toxic. Beta-carotene
gives fruit and vegetables their yellow, orange and red colours. It is not
a vitamin but acts as a powerful antioxidant by protecting cells from free
radical damage (works with vitamin E to achieve this effect).
o Calcium: important for bone formation and strength, muscle growth,

muscle contraction and nerve transmission. Important for female
dancers to prevent the risk of osteoporosis.
o Iron: important for athletes. Its major function is in the formation of

haemoglobin (which transports oxygen in the blood) and myoglobin
(which transports oxygen in the muscle cells). Many muscle enzymes
involved in energy metabolism require iron. Sports that pound the feet
(running, aerobics, dance) generally need higher levels.

SPORTS SUPPLEMENTS
There are many sports supplement avaliable and many differeing opinions on
what to take and when. For dance here are some reccomendations:
My Protein - www.myprotein.com
10% UNIDAYS Discount
Protein
You can use protein as a supplement or as a meal replacement between classes
for muscle repair, strength and growth. The type of protein you use will be
specific to you. There are many different types of protein avaliable:
Ø Whey Protein – Dairy

Ø Casein Protein – Dairy - Slow release
Ø Pea Protein – Dairy/Gluten Free –Deficient in cystine
Ø Soy Protein - Dairy/Gluten Free - Reduced Testosterone
Ø Hemp protein – Dairy/Gluten Free – High fat content
Ø Brown Rice protein – Dairy/Gluten Free - Low in lysine and other amino acids
Ø Vegan protein - Dairy/Gluten Free – Expensive
http://dailyburn.com/life/health/best-protein-powder-whey-casein-vegan/
BCAAS
Branced chain amino acids
BCAAS are made up of three essential amino acids (leucine. Isoleucine and
valine). They can be found in foods high in protein however if taken as a
supplement they bypass the liver and gut tissue and go straight to the
bloodstream which means quicker benefits.
Before or During intense workouts – Increased Performance

After workouts / Training – Speed up muscle recovery
http://main.poliquingroup.com/ArticlesMultimedia/Articles/Article/1088/Ten_Be
nefits_of_BCAAs.aspx
Multivitamin
A Good multivitamin will ensure optimum health and supply any vitamins not
supplied by your diet

ANTIOXIDANTS
Ø Oxygen is the basis of all plant and animal life. It is our most important
nutrient, needed by every cell every second of every day. Without it we cannot
release energy in food that drives all body processes.
Ø But, oxygen is chemically active and highly dangerous: in normal biochemical

reactions oxygen can become unstable and capable of ‘oxidising’
neighbouring molecules.
Ø Antioxidants are enzymes and nutrients in the blood that ‘disarm’ free radicals
and render them harmless. They work as free radical scavengers by donating
one of their own electrons to ‘neutralise’ the free radical.
Ø Free Radicals are atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron and are
produced all the time in our bodies as a result of normal metabolism and energy
production. They multiply by snatching an electron from nearby molecules.
Ø Exposure to cigarette smoke, pollution, exhaust fumes, UV light, radiation, fried

or BBQ food and stress can increase free radical formation. In large numbers
they have the potential to wreak havoc in the body.
Ø Free radical damage can be responsible for heart disease, many cancers,
aging and post exercise muscle soreness. They can damage cell membranes
and DNA, destroy enzymes, disrupt red blood cell membranes, and oxidise LDL
cholesterol in the bloodstream.
Ø Exercise increases oxygen consumption leading to the increased generation of

free radicals.
Ø Your ability to stay free of disease depends on the balance between your intake
of harmful free radicals and your intake of protective antioxidants.
Ø The main essential antioxidants are: vitamins A, C, E, the precursor of vitamin

A, Beta-carotene and the minerals zinc and selenium along with co-enzyme
Q10. There are over 100 antioxidants.
Ø Good sources of antioxidants are listed below. You can supplement your diet
with antioxidants if you are not getting enough. Like vitamins and minerals they
work in synergy. It is not advised to supplement just one antioxidant.

Good Sources of Antioxidants
Vitamins:
C Most fruit and veg esp: blackcurrants,
strawberries, oranges, tomatoes,
broccoli, green peppers, baked
potatoes.
E Sunflower/safflower/corn oil, sunflower

seeds, sesame seeds, almonds,
peanuts, avocado, oily fish, egg yolk.
Minerals:
Selenium Wholegrains, vegetables, meat.
Copper Wholegrains, nuts, liver.
Manganese Wheatgerm, bread, cereal, nuts.
Zinc Bread, wholegrain pasta, grains, nuts,

seeds, eggs.
Carotenoids:
Beta-carotene Carrots, red peppers, spinash, spring
greens, sweet potatoes, mango,
cantaloupe melon, dried apricots.
Alpha- and gamma-carotene Red coloured fruit, red and green

coloured veg.
Canthaxanthin and lycopene Tomatoes, watermelon.

Flavanoids:
Flavanols and polyphenols Fruit, veg, white/green tea, garlic,
onions.

WEIGHT LOSS
Many athletes and fitness participants wish to lose weight, either for health or
performance reasons.
Rapid weight loss can have serious health consequences leading to a marked
reduction in performance, excessive loss of lean tissue, dehydration, and a reduction
in aerobic capacity, strength and endurance.
Knowledge of safe weight loss is essential. Since 95% of dieters fail to maintain their
weight loss within a 5 year period, lifestyle management is the key to long-term weight
management.
In order to continue with your dance programme and achieve safe weight loss, you
need to reduce your calorie intake by 10-20%. This will allow for the recommended
rate of fat loss: 0.5kg / week. The less muscle you have the lower your resting
metabolic rate will be making it harder to lose fat.
Eating carbs (at approx. 60% of food intake) increases your metabolic rate. Excess
carbs are converted into glycogen – provided there is spare storage capacity and
provided there is only a modest rise in blood glucose. A rapid rise in blood glucose
(from high GI foods) can lead to fat storage because it provokes a rapid release of
insulin. High insulin levels in the bloodstream will turn excess carbs into fat and deposit
it in your fat cells. Keeping insulin levels low (with low GI foods) will prevent this.
It is believed that protein is the most effective nutrient for switching off hunger signals,
so it helps you to stop overeating.
Dietary fat is far more likely to make you fat than any other nutrient, as it is stored as
adipose tissue if it is not used straight away. A reduction in saturated fat while
maintaining essential fatty acids will result in an effective body-fat loss.
Alcohol can encourage fat storage. It cannot be stored in the body so it must be
oxidised and converted into energy. Whilst this is happening, the oxidisation of fat and
carbs is suppressed, and these are channelled into storage instead.
To lose body fat, you have to expend more energy (calories) than you consume.
Research has shown that a combination of diet and exercise is more likely to achieve
long-term results than diet or exercise alone.

Strategies For Permanent Fat Loss:
Ø Set Realistic Goals – should be specific, positive achievable and realistic

within a suitable time frame.
Ø Monitor Body Composition Changes – by using a combination of simple girth

circumference measurements (chest, waist, hips, arms, legs) and skinfold
thickness measurements, obtained by callipers. This allows you to see how
your shape is changing and where most fat is being lost.
Ø Aim To Lose No More Than 0.5kg / Week – weight loss faster than this usually
suggests a loss of lean tissue.
Ø Keep A Food Diary – helps you check whether your diet is well balanced or
lacking in any important nutrients, and to take a more careful look at your usual
meal patterns and lifestyle.
Ø Never Consume Fewer Calories Than Your RMR – if it is then you risk losing
lean tissue, severely depleting your glycogen stores and having inadequate
nutrient intake.
Ø Trim Saturated and Hydrogenated Fat – fat puts on more body fat than any
other nutrient.
Ø Include Healthy Fats – essential fatty acids help burn fat by assisting the
transport of oxygen to the body’s tissues.
Ø Go For The Slow Burn – make all your meals low GI
Ø Bulk Up – water and fibre add bulk to foods so load up on foods naturally high
in these components.
Ø Eat More Fibre – slows down the emptying of food from your stomach and
helps to keep you feeling full. Also forces you to chew more and slow down
your eating speed.
Ø Indulge Yourself – Don’t cut out your favorite comfort foods. A day off from
healthy eating or dieting once a week satisfies cravings and keeps you well
motivated to eat well week after week.
Ø Eat Regularly and Frequently – eat at least 4-6 small meals a day.
Ø Make Gradual Lifestyle Changes – one of the biggest barriers is resistance

to change!
Ø Exercise – cardiovascular

NB: A fat burning exercise programme should include weight training and high-
intensity aerobic exercise performed on alternate days.

The secret to losing weight is to eat more healthily, increase your activity and make
easy changes to your lifestyle that you are comfortable with and will be able to adopt
long term.


WEIGHT GAIN
There are 2 ways to gain weight:

Ø By increasing your lean mass
Ø By increasing your fat mass
Lean weight gain can be achieved by combining the right type of strength training
programme with a balanced diet. One without the other will result in minimal lean
weight gain.
Resistance training is the best way to stimulate muscle growth. Faster gains are
achieved using relatively heavy weights with failure between 6-10 reps. By performing
10-12 reps, your size gains will be less, but you will still achieve improvements in
muscular endurance, strength and power.
How much lean weight you can expect to gain depends on 3 main factors:
Ø Genetics – determines the proportion of different types of fibres in your

muscles. Fast twitch generate power and increase in size more readily than
slow twitch. You cannot change this genetic make up.
Ø Body Type – an ectomorph (naturally slim build with long lean limbs, narrow
shoulders and hips) will find it hard to gain weight. A mesomorph (muscular,
athletic build with wide shoulders and narrow hips tend to gain muscle readily.
An endomorph (stocky, rounded build, with wide shoulders and wide hips and
an even distribution of fat) gains both fat and muscle readily. See diagram on
next page.
Ø Hormonal Balance – people with a higher natural level of the male sex
hormones (such as testosterone) will gain muscle faster.
To gain weight and muscle strength at the optimal rate (0.5 – 1 kg per month) you
need to be in positive energy balance, i.e. consuming more calories than you need for
maintenance. These additional calories should come from a balanced ratio of carbs,
protein and fat.

BODY TYPES
Weight Gain Tips:
Ø Increase your meal frequency – eat at least 3 meals and 3 snacks a day.
Ø Eat regularly (every 2-3 hours) – and avoid gaps over 3 hours.
Ø Plan nutritious high-calorie low bulk snacks – shakes, smoothies, yoghurt, nuts,
dried fruit, protein / energy bars.
Ø Eat larger meals but avoid overfilling.
Ø If you are finding it hard to eat enough food, use meal replacement or protein
supplements to help bring up your calorie, carb and protein intake.
Ø Boost the calorie and nutritional content of your meals – add dried fruit,
bananas, honey, chopped nuts or seeds to breakfast cereal or yoghurt. This is
more nutritious than adding sugar (empty calories).

REMEMBER
Ø Budget properly – if you share a house, share the food bill and shopping
Ø Buy quality – cheap food is often that way because it is full off additives or
preservatives
Ø Before a performance more endurance is required - maximise glycogen stores
& ensure proper hydration
Ø Small meals better than big meals
Ø Avoid unfamiliar foods prior to performance
Ø Nutrition is key to achieve excellent performance
Ø Plan your diet carefully to fuel your body properly to meet the demands of your
training
Ø Vary sources of food and think carefully before removing any essential nutrients
Ø Allow some time to rest and recover
Ø Hydrate yourself to enhance concentration, focus and improve learning. At least
2l water per day (not fizzy drinks)
Ø Achieve a healthy routine of practice and lifestyle to help prevent
musculoskeletal injury
Ø Perform at your own level
Ø Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it
TASK: Write a food and exercise diary for two weeks. Or use the MY FITNESS
PAL app. Once completed analyse your diary and write a report. You might
consider the following:
Ø What changes could you make to your diet and lifestyle?

Ø Are you eating the right foods/ drinking enough fluds?
Ø What were your energy levels like?
Ø What habits do you have (bad/good)?
Ø Are you meeting your calorie needs?
Remember: Be completely truthful in your food diary
TASK: Plan a nutritious meal – Breakfast,Lunch, Dinner or Snack
Ø Note the ingredients, Cost, Recipe and nutritional information (use my

fitness pal) allergies and vegan options etc.
Ø Make a recipe card which can include pictures and diagrams (A4 Size)
Ø Be creative and cost effective
Ø Use ingredients which are readily avaliable
We will put all of the recipes together and create an online resource for these.

BODY SYSTEMS
The human body is the most complex

system ever created. The more we
learn about it, the more appreciation
we have about what a rich system it is.
Bill Gates

The human body is made up of ten different systems. These systems require the
support and coordination of each other in order to form a living and healthy body. As
a dance professional it is important to have knowledge of these systems. We will
focus on the systems which are most relevant to dance and your training at this
stage. Below is a description and brief introduction to each system:
NAME: COMPONENTS ROLE

Strength, Support,
Shape, Protection,
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bones, Associated cartilages, Joints
Leverage, Cell
Production
Motor power for
Muscles (Skeletal Muscles, Smooth muscles,
MUSCULAR SYSTEM movements of body
Cardiac Muscles)
parts.
Control and Coordination
NERVOUS SYSTEM Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Nerve Endings of all body functions
(Nervous coordination)
RESPIRATORY Lungs, Nose, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles,
Gaseous exchange
SYSTEM Alveolar sacs, Alveoli
Flow of blood (and
CARDIOVASCULAR Heart, Blood vessels (Arteries, Veins and
nutrients) throughout
SYSTEM Capillaries), Blood
body
Lymph vessels, Central lymphoid tissue,
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Drainage and Protection
Peripheral Lymphoid Organs, Lymphocytes
Endocrine glands (Pituitary gland, Thyroid
gland, Parathyroid glands, Adrenal glands, Regulation of body
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Pancreas (endocrine part), Testes (endocrine functions (Chemical
part), Ovary (endocrine part), Liver (endocrine coordination)
part))
Alimentary Canal (Oral Cavity, Esophagus,
Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Digestion and absorption
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Anus), Liver, Pancreas, Salivary glands, Teeth, of food
Tongue
Regulation of body’s
internal environment,
URINARY SYSTEM Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra
and production and
excretion of urine
MALE Formation of sperms and
REPRODUCTIVE Penis, Testes semen, and fertilizing the
SYSTEM female
FEMALE Formation of eggs and

REPRODUCTIVE Uterus, Ovaries, Vulva, Labia, Clitoris bearing the fetus during
SYSTEM development

ANATOMY
WHAT IS ANATOMY?
Anatomy is the branch of Science that studies the bodily structure of humans,
animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the
separation of parts.
It is crucial to understand the anatomy that applies to Dance as part of the training
Benefits:
Ø Knowledge and Understanding allows more efficient and effective training
Ø Reduces the risk of overtraining and/or injury
Ø Helps achieve peak performance and success – more balance and control
Ø Potentiates the longevity of dancer’s career

THE ANATOMICAL POSITION
In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect (all joints extended) facing the
observer, with the head level and the eyes facing forward. The feet are flat on the floor
and directed forward, and the arms are at the sides with the palms turned forward
(thumbs facing out).
MOVEMENT PLANES

TERMS OF LOCATION
Directional Term Definition Example Of Use
Anterior Towards the front of the body. The sternum

(breastbone) is anterior
to the heart.
Posterior Towards the back of the body. The spine is posterior to

the chest muscles.
Medial Towards the centre, or midline The ulna is medial to the

of the body. radius.
Lateral Towards the outside, or away The lungs are lateral to

from the midline of the body. the heart.
Superior Above, or towards the top of the The heart is superior to

body. the liver.
Inferior Below, or towards the bottom of The stomach is inferior to

the body. the lungs.
Proximal Nearer to the attachment of a The humerus is proximal

limb to the trunk; nearer to the to the radius.
point of origin.
Distal Farther from the attachment of The radius is distal to the

a limb to the trunk; farther from humerus
the point of origin.
Superficial Towards or on the surface of The ribs are superficial to

the body. the lungs.
Deep Away from the surface of the The ribs are deep to the
body. skin on the chest and
back.

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE MOVEMENT
Movement Term Definition
Flexion Decreasing the inner angle of the joint.
Extension Increasing the inner angle of the joint.
Abduction Moving away from the midline of the body.
Adduction Moving towards the midline of the body.
Lateral Flexion Side bending (neck and torso)
Rotation Rotating or pivoting around a long axis.

Internal / Inward
External / Outward
Circumduction Circular movement
Dorsiflexion Flexing the ankle with the foot moving upwards
Plantarflexion Flexing the ankle with the foot moving

downwards.
Eversion / Pronation Turning the sole of the foot laterally (outwards)
Inversion / Supination Turning the sole of the foot medially (inwards)
Pronation Rotating the forearm with the palms turning

inwards.
Supination Rotating the forearm with the palms turning
outwards (soup).
Elevation Draw upwards (shoulder and hip)
Depression Draw Downwards (shoulder and hip)
Horizontal Abduction Moving the arm in a horizontal plane away from

the body.
Horizontal Adduction Moving the body in a horizontal plane inwards
across the body
Hyperextension Continuation of extension beyond the
anatomical position.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone tissue and the skeletal system perform several basic functions:
Ø Support: The skeleton provides a framework for the body by supporting soft
tissues and providing points of attachment for most skeletal muscle.
Ø Protection: The skeleton protects many internal organs from injury. Examples
– cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae protect the spinal cord, rib cage
protects the heart and lungs.
Ø Assisting In Movement: Because skeletal muscles attach to bones, when

muscles contract, they pull on bones. Together, bones and muscles produce
movement.
Ø Storage Of Minerals: Bone tissue stores several minerals, especially calcium

and phosphorus. On demand, bone releases minerals into the blood to maintain
critical mineral balance (homeostasis) and to distribute the minerals to other
parts of the body.
Ø Production Of Blood Cells: Within certain bones a connective tissue called

red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, a
process called hemopoiesis (hemo = blood, poiesis = making).
Ø Storage Of Chemical Energy: Triglycerides stored in the adipose cells of

yellow bone marrow are an important chemical energy reserve.

TYPES OF BONES
Almost all the bones in the body may be classified into 5 main types based on their
shape. The human skeleton has around 270 bones at birth, this decreases to around
206 by the age of around 21 after some bones have fused together (Ossification)
Ø Long Bones: Have greater length than width and consist of a shaft and a
variable number of ends (extremities). They are usually somewhat curved
for strength. Examples: femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius,
phalanges.
Ø Short Bones: Somewhat cube shaped and nearly equal in length and
width. Examples: most wrist and ankle bones.
Ø Flat Bones: Generally thin, afford considerable protection, and provide

extensive surfaces for muscle attachment. Examples: cranial bones (protect
the brain), sternum and ribs (protect heart and lungs) and scapula (shoulder
blade).
Ø Irregular Bones: Have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into the
above. Examples: vertebrae and some facial bones.
Ø Sesamoid Bones: Develop in certain tendons where there is considerable

friction, tension, and physical stress, such as the palms and soles. They
vary in number from person to person. The exceptions are the two patella
bones (kneecaps) which are present in everyone.
There are also sutural bones which can form in the cranium of some people.

THE SKELETON

CARPALS
CLAVICLE
CRANIUM
FEMUR
FIBULA
HUMERUS
MANDABLE
METACARPALS
METATARSALS
PATELLA
PELVIS
PHALANGES (feet)
PHALANGES (hands)
RADIUS
RIB CAGE
SCAPULA
STERNUM
TARSALS
TIBIA
ULNA
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
SHORT LONG IRREGULAR SESAMOID FLAT

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Ø The vertebral column is also called the spine or backbone. It is composed

of a series of bones called vertebrae.
Ø It functions as a strong flexible rod that can rotate and move forward,
backward and sideways.
Ø It encloses and protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and serves as
a point of attachment for the ribs and the muscles of the back.
Ø The adult spinal column contains 26 vertebrae:
7 cervical vertebrae (cervic = neck) in the neck region. Labelled: C1-C7. C1is
called the atlas (it supports the head). C2 is called the axis (allows the head to
rotate).
12 thoracic vertebrae (thorax = chest) posterior to the thoracic cavity. Labelled:

T1-T12.
5 lumbar vertebrae (lumb = loin) supporting the lower back. Labelled: L1-L5.
1 sacrum consisting of 5 fused sacral vertebrae.
1 coccyx consisting of 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae.
Ø Whereas the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae are moveable, the
sacrum and coccyx are immoveable.
Ø Between adjacent vertebrae from the 2nd cervical to the sacrum are
intervertebral discs. Each disk helps to form strong joints, permit the
movements of the vertebral column and absorb vertical shock.
Ø When viewed from the side, the vertebral column shows 4 slight bends
called normal curves. Relative to the front of the body, the cervical and
lumbar curves are convex (bulging out), whereas the thoracic and sacral
curves are concave (cupping in).
Ø The curves of the vertebral column:

o Increase its strength
o Help maintain balance in the upright position
o Absorb shocks during walking and running
o Help protect the vertebrae from breaks.

DEVIATIONS OF THE SPINE
Ø Scoliosis: An abnormal lateral curvature, deviating from the normal vertical

line of the backbone.
Ø Lordosis: excessive curvature in the lumbar portion of the spine, which gives
a swayback appearance.
Ø Kyphosis: Curving of the spine that causes a bowing of the back, such that
the apex of the angle points backwards leading to a hunchback or slouching
posture.

THE PELVIS
As an adult the pelvis is made up of the sacrum and the right and left hip bones. The
hip bones (Illium, ischium and pubis) are seperate at birth. These bones ossify
(connect) with age.
The pelvis has several functions. It provides a location for several large muscles,
particularly the lower body to connect. Giving us the ability to walk, run, sit and
dance. It also protects and supports internal organs.
THE RIBCAGE
The ribcage is made up of the ribs, the sternum and the thoracic vertebrae.
Its main function is to protect vital organs such as the heart and lungs. However it
also acts as a location for muscle attatchments as well as aids in breathing.

NEUTRAL SPINE & NEUTRAL PELVIS
In dance it important to be able to achieve a neutral spine and pelvis position. This is
something you will hear day in and day out.
In order to achieve neutral spine and pelvis you should consider the following:
Excellent Posture
Excellent body placement
Good muscular balance
Axial elongation
Propreoception

JOINTS
A joint is a point of contact between bones, between cartilage and bones, or between
teeth and bones.
The structural classification of joints is based on (1) the presence or absence of a

space, called a synovial cavity, between the articulating bones, and (2) the type of
connective tissue that binds the bones together.
A joint is classified structurally into one of the following categories:

Ø Fibrous: If there is no synovial cavity and the bones are held together by
fibrous connective tissue that contains many collagen fibres. Example: A suture
(between skull bones). They permit little or no movement.
Ø Cartilaginous: If there is no synovial cavity and the bones are held together by
cartilage. Example: The pubic symphysis joint holding together the pelvic girdle.
They permit little or no movement.
Ø Synovial: If there is a synovial cavity and the bones forming the joint are united
by a surrounding articular capsule and often by accessory ligaments. Example:
Shoulder and knee joints. They move freely.
Synovial Joints:
Ø The articulating surfaces of bones at a synovial joint are covered by articular

cartilage (usually hyaline cartilage), which reduces friction between bones in
the joint and helps absorb shock.
Ø A sleeve-like articular capsule surrounds the joint, encloses the synovial

cavity, and unites the articulating bones. It has 2 layers:
o The fibrous capsule (outer layer): Consists of dense, irregular

connective tissue. It is very flexible and permits considerable
movement of the joint. Its strength helps prevent the bones from
dislocating.
o The Synovial Mambrane (inner layer): Composed of areolar

connective tissue with elastic fibres. This membrane secretes
synovial fluid into the synovial cavity where the fluid forms a thin
film over the surfaces within the articular capsule. Synovial fluid is
similar in appearance and consistency to uncooked egg whites. Its
functions include lubricating and reducing friction in the joint as well
as supplying nutrients and removing metabolic wastes.

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Although all synovial joints have a similar structure, the shapes of the articulating
surfaces vary. Synovial joints are divided into six subtypes:
Ø Gliding Joints (also called planar joints): The articulating surfaces are
flat or slightly curved. Examples: The intercarpal joints (between carpal
bones of the wrist), the intertarsal joints (between the tarsal joints of the
ankle) and the sternoclavicular (between the sternum and the clavicle).
These joints allow side-to-side and back-and-forth gliding movements.
Ø Hinge Joints: The convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface
of another bone. Examples: The knee, elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal
joints (between the phalanges of the fingers and toes). These joints produce
an angular opening-and-closing motion like a hinged door.
Ø Pivot Joints: The rounded or pointed surface of one bone articulates with
a ring formed partly by another bone and partly by a ligament. Examples:
Atlantoaxial joint (atlas rotating around the axis in order to move the head
from side to side – saying ‘no’) and the radioulnar joints (move palms
forward and backwards). These joints allow rotation around its own
longitudinal axis.
Ø Condyloid Joints: The convex oval-shaped projection of one bone fits into
the concave oval-shaped depression of another bone. Examples: Wrist and
metacarpophalangeal joints (between the metacarpals and the phalanges).
These joints allow up-and-down and side-to-side movements.
Ø Saddle Joints: The articular surface of one bone is saddle shaped, and the
articular surface of the other bone fits into the saddle like a rider sitting on a
horse. Examples: The caprometacarpal joint (between the trapezium of the
carpus and metacarpal of the thumb. These joints allow side-to-side and up-
and-down movements.
Ø Ball-and-Socket Joints: The ball-like surface of one joint fits into a cup-like
depression of another bone. Examples: Hip and shoulder joints. These
joints allow movement in several different directions.

THE SHOULDER JOINT
Glenohumeral joint
This is where the head of the humerus meets the scapula and clavicle (Shoulder
Girdle). This is a ball and socket joint similar to the hip, however the cavity is not as
deep hence why we have a lot more movement at the shoulder. Injury at the
shoulder is very common in dance.
Bones
The glenohumeral joint is made up of the humerus, the scapula and the clavicle.
Ligaments
The major ligaments of the glenohumeral joint are:
Superior Glenohumeral Ligament

Middle Glenohumeral Ligament
Inferior Glenohumeral Ligament

THE KNEE JOINT
The knee joint is the largest joint in the body, consisting of 4 bones and an extensive
network of ligaments and muscles. Injuries to the knee joint are amongst the most
common in sporting activities and understanding the anatomy of the joint is
fundamental in understanding any subsequent pathology.
Bones of the knee joint

The knee is made up of four main bones- the femur (thigh bone), the tibia (shin
bone), fibula (outer shin bone) and patella (kneecap). The main movements of the
knee joint occur between the femur, patella and tibia. At the outer surface of the tibia
lies the fibula, a long thin bone that travels right down to the ankle joint.
The knee joint capsule

The joint capsule is a thick ligamentous structure that surrounds the entire knee.
Inside this capsule is a specialized membrane known as the synovial membrane
which provides nourishment to all the surrounding structures. Other structures
include the infrapatellar fat pad and bursa which function as cushions to exterior
forces on the knee. The capsule itself is strengthened by the surrounding ligaments.

Ligaments of the knee joint
The stability of the knee owes greatly to the presence of its ligaments. Each has a
particular function in helping to maintain optimal knee stability in a variety of different
positions.
1. Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL)

2. Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL)
3. Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) - The ACL is one of the most important
structures in the knee- not least because injury to it may require extensive
surgery and rehabilitation. The cruciate ligaments are so called because they
form a cross in the middle of the knee joint. The ACL, travels from the anterior
(front) of the tibia to the posterior (back) of the femur and prevents the tibia
moving forward. It is most commonly injured in twisting movements.
4. Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL) - This ligament travels from the posterior
surface of the tibia to the anterior surface of the femur and in doing so wraps
around the ACL.
Menisci (knee cartilage)

Each knee joint has two crescent-shaped cartilage menisci. These lie on the medial
(inner) and lateral (outer) edges of the upper surface of the tibia bone. They are
essential components, acting as shock absorbers for the knee as well as allowing for
correct weight distribution between the tibia and the femur.

THE HIP JOINT
The Hip joint is made up of the head by the femur fitting into the acetabulum (socket)
of the pelvis. It is a ball and socket joint which allows for a great range of movement
second only to the shoulder. This is an area of common injury for dancers.
Bones of the knee joint

The hip joint is made up of the femur and the pelvis.
Ligaments of the hip joint

The major ligaments of the hip joint are:
The iliofemoral ligament

The pubofemoral ligamement
The ischiofemoral ligament
These ligaments originate from the pelvis and attatch to the femur.
In addition these three external ligaments are also joines by an internal ligamnet -
the teres ligament

THE ANKLE JOINT
The ankle joint is made up of 4 distinct bones, the tibia, fibula, talus and calcaneus.
The interaction between these bones allows for movement of the joint in certain
planes. In turn, the ankle is made up of 3 separate joints:
Ø Talocrural Joint: This is a hinge joint formed by the distal ends of the fibula and
tibula that enclose the upper surface of the talus. It allows for both dorsiflexion
(decreasing the angle between the foot and the shin) and plantarflexion
(increasing the angle).
Ø Inferior tibiofibular Joint: This is strong joint between the lower surfaces of the
tibia and fibula. This is supported by the inferior tibiofibular ligament.
Ø Subtalar Joint: This joint comprises of the articulating surfaces of the talus and
the calcaneus. It provides shock absorption and the movements of inversion and
eversion (inward and outward ankle movements respectively) occur here.
Ligaments of the ankle joint

The ligaments of the ankle joint are comprised mainly of the collateral ligaments,
both medial (inner) and lateral (outer). These are extremely important in the stability
of the ankle itself:
A. Lateral Collateral Ligament:

The lateral collateral ligament prevents excessive inversion. It is considerably
weaker than the larger medial ligament and thus sprains to the lateral ligament are
much more common.
B. Medial Collateral Ligament:
The medial ligament also known as the deltoid ligament is considerably thicker than
the lateral ligament and spreads out in a fan shape to cover the distal (bottom) end
of the tibia and the inner surfaces of the talus, navicular, and calcaneus.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

There are 3 types of muscle tissue in the human body:

1) Skeletal Muscle Tissue: Is attached to bones and moves parts of the skeleton. It
is striated, that is striations, or alternating light and dark bands, are visible under a
microscope. Because skeletal muscle can be made to contract and relax by conscious
control, it is voluntary.

2) Cardiac Muscle Tissue: It is found only in the heart and forms the bulk of the heart
wall. The heart pumps blood through blood vessels to all parts of the body. Like
skeletal muscle, it is striated. Unlike skeletal muscle, it is involuntary: its contractions
are not under conscious control.

3) Smooth Muscle Tissue: Is located in the walls of hollow internal structures, such
as blood vessels, airways, the stomach, and intestines. It participates in internal
processes such as digestion and regulation of blood pressure. It is non-striated (lacks
striations) and involuntary (not under conscious control).

Muscle tissue has 5 key functions:

1) Producing Body Movements: Body movements such as walking, running, writing,
or nodding the head rely on the integrated functioning of bones, joints, and skeletal
muscles.

2) Stabilising Body Positions: Skeletal muscle contractions stabilise joints and help
maintain body positions, such as standing or sitting. Postural muscles contract
continuously when a person is awake (example: sustained contractions or your neck
muscles hold your head upright.

3) Regulating Organ Volume: Sustained contractions of ring-like bands of smooth
muscle called sphincters prevent out-flow of the contents of a hollow organ. Temporary
storage of food in the stomach or urine in the urinary bladder is possible because
smooth muscle sphincters close off the outlets to these organs.

4) Moving Substances Within The Body: Cardiac muscle contractions pump blood
through the body’s blood vessels. Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the
walls of the blood vessels helps adjust their diameter and thus regulate blood flow.
Smooth muscle contractions also move food and other substances through the
gastrointestinal tract, push sperm through the reproductive system, and propel urine
through the urinary system. Skeletal muscle contractions aid the return of blood to the
heart.

5) Producing Heat: As a muscle tissue contracts, it produces heat. Much of the heat
released by muscle is used to maintain normal body temperature. Involuntary
contraction of skeletal muscle tissue, known as shivering, can help warm the body by
gently increasing the rate of heat production.


STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
• tendon - connects skeletal muscle to bone.

• epimysium - fibrous connective tissue around belly of skeletal muscle.
• fasiculi - bundles of muscle fibers.
• perimysium - connective tissue surrounding fasiculi.
• endomysium - connective tissue surrounding the individual muscle fibers
(muscle cell).
• muscle fiber - single muscle cell (threadlike in shape).
• sarcolemma - membrane surrounding the muscle fiber.
• sarcoplasm - specialized cytoplasm of muscle fiber containing multiple nuclei
and mitochondria.
• myofibrils - "rod-like" structures running through the muscle fibers that contain
the contractile proteins actin an myosin that give the skeletal muscle the
striated appearance.
o wide range of length and diameters
o actin myofilaments - contain actin with binding sites covered by
tropomyosin that has strategically located sites of troponin protein on to
which calcium ions have a high affinity for
o myosin myofilaments - contain globular heads
• sarcomere – arrangements of thick and thin filoments and the smallest

contractile unit of skeletal muscle.

THE SLIDING-FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE ACTION
The "Sliding-Filament Theory of Muscle Action" explains how the movement of thick-
and thin-filaments relative to each other leads to the contraction and relaxation of
whole muscles - hence ultimately to the movement of the limbs or tissues attached to
those muscles:
There are two physical units that are important for the action of muscles. They are
thick filaments and thin filaments.
Muscle tissue can be described in terms of units called sacromeres. These units are
defined in terms of groups of overlapping filaments (the thin and thick filaments
previously described). Sacromeres are arrangements of thick and thin filaments.
The length of a sacromere and the zones (H zone, I band and A band) within each
sacromere, are determined by the positions of the thick and thin filaments relative to
each other. This is illustrated in the three diagrams below - showing the relative
length and configuration of two sacromeres of relaxed muscle (top), partially
contracted muscle (centre) and fully contracted muscle (lower diagram).
WHAT HAPPENS?
During Muscle Contraction: The myosin heads on the thick filaments "hook" onto,
and so pull, the thin filaments towards the centre (labelled "M-line") of each
sacromere. The appearance of this action is shown above as the transistion from
"relaxed" to "fully contracted" muscle. As the thin filaments slide over the thick
filaments, the I bands and H zones becomes narrower and narrower until they
disappear when the muscle reaches its fully contracted state.
During Muscle Relaxation: When the myosin heads on the thick filaments relax they
release their hold on the thin filaments, thereby allowing them to slide back to their
"relaxed" positions in which the I bands and H zones appear again.

HOW SKELETAL MUSCLES PRODUCE MOVEMENT
• Skeletal muscles are not attached directly to bones: they produce movements
by pulling on tendons, which, in turn, pull on bones.
• Most skeletal muscles cross at least one joint and are attached to the
articulating bones that form the joint.
• When the muscle contracts, it draws one bone toward the other. The two bones
do not move equally. One is held nearly in its original position.
ORIGIN: The attachment of a muscle (by means of a tendon) to the stationary bone.
INSERTION: The attachment of a muscle (by means of a tendon) to the moveable

bone.
MUSCLE BELLY: The fleshy portion of the muscle between the tendons of the origin
and insertion
TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRE

Skeletal muscles are composed of a mixture of fibres - Fast Twitch (Type 2) & Slow
Twitch (Type 1). The fast twitch muscle fibres contract rapidly but fatigue easily
whereas the slow twitch muscle fibres contract slowly but have a longer endurance.
The fast twitch muscle fibres are responsible for high speed, high power movements
over short periods of time. They use mainly carbohydrate for fuel and produce lactic
acid, which as it builds up inhibits the muscle contracting. There are two types of fast
twitch muscle fibres. Type 2a which are red in colour and are used for activities such
as middle distance running. They have some resistance to fatigue but not as much as
type 1 (slow twitch) muscle fibres. Type 2b which are white in colour and used for
sports like sprinting. These muscle fibres fatigue easily.

The slow twitch muscle fibres produce less power but can continue for longer periods
of time. They use a combination of carbohydrate & fat burned in the presence of
oxygen and the main waste product is carbon dioxide, which can easily be removed
from the body.
PHASIC MUSCLES
Muscles that are not principally working to maintain posture are referred to as phasic
muscles. They are more involved in voluntary movements and actions, and they have
a higher proportion of fast twitch fibres, which enable a fast powerful contraction.
MOVEMENT PATTERNS
When muscles cause a limb to move through the joint's range of motion, they usually
act in the following cooperating groups:
Agonists (Prime mover)

Ø These muscles cause the movement to occur. They create the normal range
of movement in a joint by contracting. Agonists are also referred to as prime
movers since they are the muscles that are primarily responsible for
generating the movement.
Antagonists (Opposing prime mover)

Ø These muscles act in opposition to the movement generated by the agonists
and are responsible for returning a limb to its initial position.
Synergists
Ø These muscles perform, or assist in performing, the same set of joint motion
as the agonists. Synergists are sometimes referred to as neutralizers
because they help cancel out, or neutralize, extra motion from the agonists
to make sure that the force generated works within the desired plane of
motion.
Fixators (Stabilising)
Ø These muscles provide the necessary support to assist in holding the rest
of the body in place while the movement occurs. Fixators are also
sometimes called stabilizers.
An example: When you flex your knee, your hamstring contracts, and, to some extent,
so do your gastrocnemius (calf) and lower buttocks. Meanwhile your quadriceps are
inhibited (relaxed and lengthened somewhat) so as not to resist the flexion. In this
example, the hamstring serves as the agonist, or prime mover; the quadriceps serves
as the antagonist; and the calf and lower buttocks serve as the synergists. Agonists
and antagonists are usually located on opposite sides of the affected joint (like your
hamstrings and quadriceps, or your triceps and biceps), while synergists are usually

located on the same side of the joint near the agonists. Larger muscles often call upon
their smaller neighbors to function as synergists.
The following is a list of commonly used agonist/antagonist muscle pairs:
Ø pectorals / latissimus dorsi (pecs and lats)

Ø anterior deltoids / posterior deltoids (front and back shoulder)
Ø trapezius / deltoids (traps and delts)
Ø abdominals / spinal erectors (abs and lower-back)
Ø left and right external obliques (sides)
Ø quadriceps / hamstrings (quads and hams)
Ø shins / calves
Ø biceps / triceps
Ø forearm flexors / forearm extensor
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
The contraction of a muscle does not necessarily imply that the muscle shortens; it
only means that tension has been generated. Muscles can contract in the following
ways:
isometric contraction
This is a contraction in which no movement takes place, because the load on the
muscle exceeds the tension generated by the contracting muscle. This occurs when
a muscle attempts to push or pull an immovable object.
isotonic contraction
This is a contraction in which movement does take place, because the tension
generated by the contracting muscle exceeds the load on the muscle. This occurs
when you use your muscles to successfully push or pull an object.
Isotonic contractions are further divided into two types:
Ø concentric contraction
This is a contraction in which the muscle decreases in length (shortens) against an

opposing load, such as lifting a weight up.
Ø eccentric contraction
This is a contraction in which the muscle increases in length (lengthens) as it resists

a load, such as lowering a weight down in a slow, controlled fashion.
During a concentric contraction, the muscles that are shortening serve as the agonists
and hence do all of the work. During an eccentric contraction the muscles that are
lengthening serve as the agonists (and do all of the work).

Reciprocal Inhibition:
When an agonist contracts, in order to cause the desired motion, it usually forces the
antagonists to relax. This phenomenon is called reciprocal inhibition because the
antagonists are inhibited from contracting.
When stretching, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is relaxed than to stretch a muscle
that is contracting. By taking advantage of the situations when reciprocal inhibition
does occur, you can get a more effective stretch by inducing the antagonists to relax
during the stretch due to the contraction of the agonists. You also want to relax any
muscles used as synergists by the muscle you are trying to stretch. For example, when
you stretch your calf, you want to contract the shin muscles (the antagonists of the
calf) by flexing your foot. However, the hamstrings use the calf as a synergist so you
want to also relax the hamstrings by contracting the quadricep (i.e., keeping your leg
straight).

TASK: Create a poster and supporting A4 document to help you and your
colleagues understand the main characteristics of key dance muscles. Each
group (3-4 people) will focus on a different muscle. The poster needs to include:
Ø Group participants
Ø Name of the muscle
Ø Picture
Ø Origin and Insertion
Ø Main Actions and importance for dance
Ø 2 stretches and 2 strengthening exercises for this muscle
Ø A tip to remember this muscle easily for your colleagues
Ø Interesting/Fun fact about the muscle
You will present this infront of your peers. Maximum 5 minutes. Be creative in
your presentation methods.

MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY
ANTERIOR VIEW

POSTERIOR VIEW

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR ARM (INCLUDING THE
SHOULDER)
BICEPS BRACHII
Origin Insertion Action

• Flexes and supinates forearm at
Scapula Radius elbow joint.
• Flexes arm at shoulder joint.

BRACHIALIS
Humerus Ulna • Flexes forearm at elbow joint.
BRACHIORADIALIS
Humerus Radius • Flexes forearm at elbow joint.

TRICEPS BRACHII
Scapula and Ulna • Extends forearm at elbow joint.

Humerus • Extends arm at shoulder joint.
DELTOIDS
Clavicle and Humerus • Abducts, flexes, extends, and rotates

scapula arm at shoulder joint.

TERES MAJOR
Scapula Humerus • Extends arm at shoulder joint.

• Assists in adduction and rotation of
arm medially (internal) at shoulder
joint.
Posterior View
Anterior View

THE ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES:
SUPRASPINATUS
Scapula Humerus • Initiates and assists deltoid muscle in

abduction of arm at shoulder joint.
INFRASPINATUS
Scapula Humerus • Rotates arm laterally (outward) at

shoulder joint.
• Adducts arm at shoulder joint.

TERES MINOR
Scapula Humerus • Rotates arm laterally (outward) at

shoulder joint.
• Extends and adducts arm at shoulder
joint.
SUBSCAPULARIS
Scapula Humerus • Rotates arm medially (inward) at

shoulder joint.

MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR TORSO
LEVATOR SCAPULA

• Elevates scapula.
C1-C4 Scapula • Rotates scapula downwards.
Transverse • Lateral extension of head.
Processes
RHOMBOID MINOR

C6-C7 Scapula • Moves scapula medially and
backwards.
• Rotates scapula downwards.
RHOMBOID MAJOR

T1-T4 Scapula • Moves scapula medially and
backwards.
• Rotates scapula downwards.

SERRATUS ANTERIOR

• Moves scapula laterally and forwards.
Lateral surface of Scapula • Rotates scapula upwards.
1st – 9th ribs • Elevates ribs when scapula is fixed.

QUADRATUS LUMBORUM (QL)

• Unilaterally: Lateral flexion of trunk.
Iliac crest and 12th rib, L1 – L4. • Bilaterally: Extends lower back.
iliolumbar • NB: Major stabiliser of lower back
ligament working in conjunction with iliacus
and psoas.

TRAPEZIUS

• Elevates clavicle.
Occipital and C7 Clavicle and • Moves scapula medially and
– T12 scapula backwards, rotates it upward, and
elevates or depresses it.
• Extends head.
LATISSIMUS DORSI

• Extends, adducts and medially
T7 – T12, and via Humerus (inwardly) rotates arm at shoulder
lumbar fascia to joint.
L1 – L5 and iliac
crest.

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR TORSO
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID

• Flexion of head.
Sternum and Mastoid Process • Lateral flexion of head.
Clavicle

PECTORALIS MINOR

• Protracts scapula (draws forward).
3rd – 5th Ribs Scapula • Depresses scapula.
PECTORALIS MAJOR

• Horizontally adducts arm.
Sternum, Humerus • Adducts arm.
Clavicle and 1st – • Flexes arm.
6th Ribs • Inwardly rotates arm.

INTERCOSTALS (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL)

• Forced exhalation.
Cross Between Same as origin • Inhalation.
Adjacent Ribs

PSOAS (MAJOR AND MINOR)

• Flexes hip.
T12 – L5 Femur (Lessor • Laterally rotates hip.
Trochanter) • Flexes trunk (from 30 – 90 degrees)
NB: Psoas is a major stabilizer of the
lower back, working in conjunction with
QL
ILIACUS

• Flexes hip.
Anterior, Inferior Femur (Lessor • Laterally rotates hip.
Iliac Spine and Trochanter) • Flexes trunk (from 30 – 90 degrees)
Iliac Fossa
NB: Together these 2 muscles are called ILLIOPSOAS

RECTUS ABDOMINUS

• Flexes trunk (vertebral column).
Pubis and Pubic Cartilage of 5th – • Compresses abdomen to aid
Symphysis 7th ribs and defecation, urination, forced
Xiphoid Process expiration, and childbirth.
(Sternum)
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

• Rotates, flexes and laterally flexes
Lower 8 ribs Crest of Ilium and the trunk (vertebral column).
Linea Alba • Compresses abdomen.
• Assists exhalation.

INTERNAL OBLIQUE

Ilium, Inguinal Cartilage of last 3 the trunk (vertebral column).
Ligament and – 4 ribs and Linea • Compresses abdomen.
Thoracolumbar Alba • Assists exhalation.
Fascia
TRANSVERSE ABDOMINIS

Ilium, Inguinal Xiphoid Process the trunk (vertebral column).
Ligament, (Sternum), Linea • Compresses abdomen.
Lumbar Fascia Alba, and Pubis • Assists exhalation.
and Cartilage of
last 6 ribs

MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR LEG
THE GLUTEALS:
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
Ilium, Sacrum, Proximal Part: • Extends hip.

Coccyx and Illiotibial Band • Outwardly rotates hip.
Sacrotuberous (ITB) • Extends trunk.
Ligament Distal Part: Femur
(Gluteal
Tuberosity)

GLUTEUS MEDIUS

• Anterior: Flexes and inwardly rotates
Upper Posterior Femur (Great (medially) hip.
Surface Of Ilium Trochanter) • Posterior: Extends and outwardly
rotates (laterally) hip.
• Abducts hip.
GLUTEUS MINIMUS

• Anterior: Flexes and inwardly rotates
Lower Posterior Femur (Great (medially) hip.
Surface Of Ilium Trochanter) • Posterior: Extends and outwardly
rotates (laterally) hip.
• Abducts hip.

PIRIFORMIS

• Outwardly (laterally) rotates hip.
Sacrum Femur (Great • Abducts hip.
Trochanter)

THE HAMSTRINGS:
BICEPS FEMORIS

• Flexes leg at knee joint.
Ischium and Fibula and Tibia • Extends thigh at hip joint.
Femur
LONG HEAD SHORT HEAD

SEMIMEMBRANOSUS

Ischium Tibia • Extends thigh at hip joint.

SEMITENDINOSUS

Ischium Tibia • Extends thigh at hip joint.

GASTROCNEMIUS
Femur Via Achilles • Plantar Flexes foot.

Tendon to • Flexes leg at knee joint.
Calcaneum

SOLEUS
Fibula and Tibia Via Achilles • Plantar Flexes foot.

Tendon to
Calcaneum

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR LEG
THE QUADRICEPS:
RECTUS FEMORIS
Ilium Via Patella and • Extends leg at knee joint.

Patella Ligament • Flexes thigh at hip joint.
to the Tibia

VASTAS LATERALIS
Femur Via Patella Border • Extends leg at knee joint.

and Patella
Ligament to the
Tibia
VASTAS INTERMEDIALIS

and Patella
Ligament to the
Tibia
VASTAS MEDIALIS

and Patella
Ligament to the
Tibia

SARTORIUS

Ilium Tibia • Flexes, abducts, and laterally
(outwardly) rotates thigh at hip joint
(crossing legs).

GRACILIS

• Adducts and inwardly (medially)
Pubic Symphysis Tibia rotates thigh at hip joint.

THE ADDUCTORS:
ADDUCTOR BREVIS
• Adducts thigh at hip joint.
Pubis Femur • Slight outward (lateral) rotation of hip
joint.
ADDUCTOR LONGUS
Pubis and Pubic Femur • Slight outward (lateral) rotation of hip
Symphysis joint.
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS
Pubis and Femur • Slight outward (lateral) rotation of hip
Ischium joint.
BREVIS LONGUS MAGNUS

TENSOR FASCIA LATA (TFL)

• Flexes thigh at hip joint.
Ilium Via Iliotibial (IT) • Abducts thigh at hip joint.
band to the Tibia

TIBIALIS ANTERIOR
Tibia 1st Metatarsal and • Dorsiflexes foot.

1st Cuneiform • Inverts (supinates) foot.

POSTURE AND CORE STABILITY
POSTURAL MUSCLES
An upright posture is maintained by a series of muscles running up the front and back
of the body, crossing all weight-bearing joints and holding them in an erect position.
Together they apply an equal and opposite force across the body which opposes the
downward force of gravity.

CORE STABILITY
Core stability is essential for proper form and mechanics while performing dance skills.
It is also important for injury prevention and deals with the proper coordination of the
key muscles used to support the spinal column in its natural s-curve.
WHAT IS CORE STABILITY?
Core stability is the coordinated effort of the deep muscles of the trunk, pelvis, hips,
abdominal muscles and small muscles along the spinal column. These muscles
contract together to create force used to hold the spinal column in alignment.
The strength of these muscles is less important than their endurance and the co-
contraction of the muscles to provide support. Since these muscles must stabilize the
spinal column during all movement they must have good endurance with enough
strength to counter forces placed on them during extreme activities. The muscles must
be equal in strength and contract in correct proportions to maintain the proper posture
of the spine during all activities.
ANATOMY INVOLVED
The deep muscles of the trunk and hip region which are involved in core stability:
• The Transverses Abdominus (TA)

• The Multifidus (MF)
• The Internal Obliques (IO)
• The Paraspinal Muscles (the muscles next to the spine. They support the spine
and are the motor for movement of the spine.
• The muscles of the Pelvic Floor (a group of muscles in a hammock-like sheet
suspended within the pelvis that supports our internal organs).
The contraction of these muscles increases the force along the theracolumbar fascia
that covers the spinal column. Intra-abdominal pressure increases as well, increasing
support to the lumbar spine.
It has been shown that the TA and MF contract simultaneously when movement of the
limbs is anticipated. This stabilizes the spine and creates a solid base for all
movement.
HOW DO YOU IMPROVE CORE STABILITY?
It is important to differentiate between core strengthening and core stability. Core

stability deals with the ability to stabilize the spinal column during all movements. This
does not pertain to the strength of the muscles or force of their contraction. The
muscles involved are also different. Core strength deals with the superficial muscles
of the core; the abdominals, the gluteals, adductors, abductors, the spinal erectors
and other trunk and hip muscles. Core stability deals with the deeper trunk and hip
muscles.

Improving core stability requires working the muscles in their specific function. These
muscles are stabilizer muscles and therefore contract with a static or isometric
contraction. They do not move, which means they must be worked with static
exercises.
These muscles are under static stress all day long, as long as a person is standing or
moving. This requires a high degree of endurance, along with adequate strength to
handle sport or fitness-related movements. The exercises must stress endurance
under increasing workloads to focus on gradual strengthening of the muscles while
enhancing endurance.
Finally, the muscles must be worked in their correct anatomical position. The spine
has a natural S-curve that is designed to absorb the most shock and hold the body in
correct alignment. Exercises for core stability must place the spine in its neutral
position to ensure adequate involvement of all the muscles.
PRECAUTIONS
When exercising to improve core stabilization it is essential that activities be done in

correct alignment. It is also important that all the muscles be recruited together and in
correct proportions.
Starting with static exercises to work the endurance of the muscles in a controlled
environment is a safe way to start building stability. Gradually increase the difficulty
with other joint and muscle involvement, as your comfort level increases, thereby
working dynamic core stability.
It is important to get instruction on the proper performance of these exercises as well.

MUSCLES OF THE SPINE
Movers:
Ø Rectus Abdominis
Ø External Oblique (2)
Ø Internal Oblique (2)
Ø Erector Spinae/Superficial Multifidus
Ø Quadratus Lumborum
Stabilizers:
Ø Transversus Abdominis
Ø Iliopsoas
Ø Deep Multifidus
Ø Pelvic Floor
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR

THE SHOULDER GIRDLE AND ARMS
Rotator Cuff (stabilisers):

Ø Supraspinatus
Ø Infraspinatus
Ø Teres Minor
Ø Subscapularis
Scapularthoracic Muscles
Ø Trapezius (upper, middle, lower)
Ø Levator Scapulae
Ø Rhomboids (major & minor)
Ø Pectoralis (minor)
Ø Serratus Anterior

GLENOHUMERAL MUSCLES
WINGING SCAPULA
The winging scapula is a condition related to the weakness of the serratus anterior
and lower trapezius muscles. In general it can be healed through strengthening of
the affected muscles. However it is always reccomended to seek the advice of a
professional.

THE PELVIS AND HIPS
PELVIS STABILITY
The PSOAS connects the lower spine to the femur and the ILIACUS connects the
pelvis to the femur. ILIOPSOAS (HIP FLEXOR)
NEUTRAL PELVIS

THE DEEP SIX
Tightness of the Deep Six can bring the head of the femur forward and irritate the hip
flexor (iliopsoas)
THE SNAPPING HIP

The snapping hip (Dancers Hip) is a medical condition characterized by a snapping
sensation felt when the hip is flexed and extended. It is sometimes accompanied by
a popping or snapping sound. If it is painless it is often no cause for concern. If
discomfort is felt you should seek the advice of a professional.

THE LOWER BODY
THIGH MUSCLES
QUADRICEPS:
Ø Rectus femoris
Ø Vastus medialis
Ø Vastus intermedius
Ø Vastus lateralis
ADDUCTORS:
Ø Adductor longus
Ø Adductor brevis
Ø Adductor magnus
Ø Pectineus
Ø Gracilis
HAMSTRINGS:
Ø Biceps femoris
Ø Semitendinosus
Ø Semimembranosus
GLUETEUS MAXIMUS

LOWER LEG:
CALF:
Ø GASTROCENEMIUS
Ø SOLEUS
THE ANKLES AND FEET
26 bones and 34 joints working as one unit.
Different styles have different demands but all require strong agile feet.

TASK: Reflect on your physiotherapy screening and the goals you set at the
beginning of the year. Write a short report. Consider the following:
Ø Have you achieved your goals?

Ø If not why not?
Ø Do you have new goals
Ø Have you sustained new injuries
Ø How can you recover from these
Ø Have you improved/ developed weaknesses?

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The cardiovascular system, or circulatory system, is responsible for the

transportation of blood throughout the body. The heart pumps blood in the pathway
shown in the diagram. When deoxygenated blood reaches the lungs, oxygen is
transferred to the red blood cells in the capillaries. The blood then moves back to the
heart to be pumped throughout the body. When oxygenated blood reaches its target
destination, it provides the oxygen to the body cells to be used in cellular respiration.
The blood is then returned to the heart to be pumped to the lungs. Heart contractions
are controlled by involuntary muscles, and are synchronized by a biological
pacemaker withing the heart.
ARTERIES – Carry blood from the heart (Oxygenated). The exception is the
pulmonary artery.This blood is red in colour.
VEINS – Carry blood to the heart (Deoxygenated). The exception is the pulmonary
vein. This blood is blue in colour.
CAPILLARIES – Where nutrients and waste are exchanged
Further Reading Dance Kinesiology Pg. 255

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system controls every action in the body, from movement, to
involuntary actions- such as the heart pumping blood, the diaphragm allowing
breathing, and the contraction of digestive muscles - to thinking. Neurons, the basic
nervous cells, conduct electric impulses from the brain to every living part of the
body (nonliving things include hair and nails). An impulse starts at the brain, and
goes into the dendrite- the receptor of a neuron- and is conducted through the axon-
the transmitter of a neuron- and moves to the dendrites of the next neuron. This is
repeated from the brain, to the spinal cord, and finally to the destination, such as a
muscle that needs to contract. This process can go in reverse to, as with sensory
receptors transmitting messages from the body, through the spinal cord to the brain.
These processes work together to keep the body in a healthy condition. One
example is a hand touching a hot stove: when pain receptors in the skin of the hand
detect the dangerous heat, a message is sent to the brain. The brain then sends a
message to the muscles to quickly pull the hand away.

PROPREOCEPTORS
Proprioceptors are specialized sensory receptors on nerve endings found in

muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear. These receptors relay information about
motion or position and make us aware of our body position and movement in space.
Proprioceptors detect subtle changes in movement, position, tension, and force,
within the body. This is very important in dance.
Propreoception
Proprioception allows a person to sense his or her body's orientation in its

environment. In dance we often call this ´SPATIAL AWARENESS´
Thanks to proprioception, we can move about without consciously focusing on where

we are in our environment.
For instance, if you raise your arm above your head with your eyes closed, you're
still aware of where your arm is even though you can't see it. If you are dancing and
the surface cahnges (say from concrete to grass), your body knows how to adjust
even if you're not looking at the ground.
Where Does Proprioception Come From?
Proprioception comes from sensory nerve endings that communicate information

from our limbs. We have nerves in our muscles and joints that tell the brain which
position your joint is in. The proprioceptors of the musculoskeletal system are found
in the tendons and the muscle fibers.
Protection from injury – The Stretch reflex
In addition to providing information about the movement and positioning of our body,
head, arms, and legs, the proprioceptors can trigger certain protective reflexes. The
"stretch reflex," for example, is activated when the proprioceptors sense too much
stretch or force on a muscle or tendon.
To resist an unsafe change in muscle length that may lead to a torn muscle or tendon,
the reflex causes the stretched muscle to contract, shorten and protect the muscle or
tendon from injury.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is responsible for acquiring the oxygen that the body needs.
When the diaphragm contracts, the lungs expand and force air in. The oxygen is
filtered from the air within bronchi, and transferred to blood cells within capillaries in
the alveoli (tiny air sacs at the ends of the bronchi). Carbon dioxide is returned from
the blood to the lungs, and leaves the body when the diaphragm relaxes and the
lungs exhale.
There are 2 phases of breathing and both are either passive or forced:
Ø Inspiration – Oxygen in
Ø Expiration – Carbon dioxide out

BREATHING IN DANCE
Breathing is essential in dance. It is important to not hold your breath. As we know,

oxygen is needed for proper muscle function.
MUSCLES USED IN BREATHING
There are many muscles involved in breathing. These include the muscles of the
spine and core, as well as the following:
Movers: 
Ø Diaphragm (flattening when contracting – inhalation)
Stabilizers:
Ø Transversus Abdominis (supporting  on exhalation)  

Ø Pelvic Floor  

As a dancer it is important to be versatile in the way we breathe as we are required
to use different methods in different styles and at different times.
SIPHON BREATHING – Very shallow breathing using the intercostal muscles
THORACIC BREATHING – Shallow breathing using the intercostal muscles
DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING – Deep Breathing using the diaphragm
As a dancer we want to find a good balance between Thoracic and Diaphragmatic

breathing. Siphon breathing is necessary at times however there are some
drawbacks to using this type of breathing, including:
More tension on top of lungs – which makes our centre of gravity higher  
Shoulders and hips tighter, less freedom in movement  
Limiting oxygen intake – leading to hyperventilation

Breathing for dance or song By Dr Kenneth Backhouse OBE
Diaphragmatic breathing is particularly important for trained singers and other users
of voice as well as wind instrumentalists. All these people require a very finely
controlled exhalation to induce fine vocal vibrations at the larynx or control of the
wind to their instrument. The chest does play an important part in resonance for
singers but the finely controlled flow of air needed for the high quality production of
voice is induced by the elegantly controlled contraction of the upper abdominal
muscles with a balanced relaxation of the diaphragm. So important is this in practice
that 80% or even more of breathing may be diaphragmatic.
For those dancers who also sing a complete change of breathing pattern is required,
particularly as the quite marked upper abdominal movement required for singing
would be less attractive in the usually more exposed dancer’s body. Dance requires
good respiratory efficiency with elegance and for this a balance between thoracic
and diaphragmatic breathing is important. If you ask the average person to take a
deep breath, as for exercise, this usually includes a general lift and expansion of the
chest wall. For dance however much of the control of the arms comes from the upper
chest and so this must remain free. With the elegant extension of the spine, asked
for in dance, this reduces the thoracic curve to some extent and that in turn creates
some lift in the rib cage while the dancer should focus on expansion of the lower
chest in inspiration. This in turn allows a moderate controlled lowering of the
diaphragm while the upper abdominal wall simply appears to flow with the chest but
without the bulging seen in singing. In any case, in dance, the focus of the upper
abdominal muscles is required for the elegant control of the upper trunk through to
port de bras.
But just as control of breathing is important to give quality to voice, so is it used to

give colour to dance. At a basic level inspiration plays its part in opening and rising
movements and expiration in closing and lowering ones. A different aspect of breath
control is taking a deep breath and holding it under pressure to give vital control and
strength to the lumbar spine in lifting, so important in pas de deux.

DANCE FITNESS
Dance is a sport no matter how much

glitter is involved.
Unknown

DANCE FITNESS
by the International Association for Dance Medicine and Science
www.DanceScience.org
Introduction
The formal dance class has long been considered the cornerstone of training,
providing all the technical, physical and aesthetic requirements of dance. In recent
years a considerable amount of research has been carried out regarding the health of
dancers. Findings from this research indicate that many dancers are not as fit and
healthy as they could be. It has also been found that there is a discrepancy in the
physical intensity level between training, rehearsal, and performance. This means that
training methods, which are generally based on tradition, are not sufficient to help
prepare dancers for the higher, more physically demanding aspects of performance.
In light of these studies, and with increased understanding of the artistic and athletic
needs of dancers in different genres, it is no longer acceptable to train dancers without
preparing them physiologically for the demands of current choreographic work.
What is fitness, and why is it beneficial?
For dancers, the whole body (physical and psychological) is their instrument, their
means of artistic expression. Dance calls upon all aspects of fitness. Good fitness is
key to reducing the risk of injury, enhancing performance, and ensuring longer dancing
careers. A healthy dancer is one who is in a state of being ‘well’ in both body and mind.
A physically fit dancer is one who has the ability to meet the demands of a specific
physical task at an optimal level. The goal of improving dancers’ fitness is to minimize
the difference between the dancer’s individual maximal abilities and their performance
requirements, so that they can become the best dancer possible.

What types of fitness are most important for a dancer and why?
While research indicates that some dance styles require certain elements of fitness
more explicitly than others, in a well-rounded dance training program, it is necessary
to consider all the components of fitness.
The components of fitness are:
Ø Aerobic fitness – associated with moderate, longer-term levels of activity.

Ø Anaerobic fitness – associated with high intensity, maximal, short bursts of
activity.
Ø Muscle endurance – the ability of a muscle to produce continuous movement.
Ø Strength – the ability of a muscle to produce a maximal force on one occasion.
Ø Power – the explosive (speed-related) aspect of strength.
Ø Flexibility – the range of motion at a joint in association with the pliability of a
muscle.
Ø Neuromuscular coordination – associated with balance, agility, coordination
and skill.
Ø Body composition – the make-up of body weight by percentage of muscle and
fat.
Ø Rest – a period of no activity, to allow for recovery and regeneration.
While any change in traditional dance training regimens must be approached

cautiously to ensure that enhanced artistry and expression remain the primary goals,
it may be suggested that unless dancers are physiologically honed to the same extent
as they are artistically, their physical conditioning may potentially be the limiting factor
in their development. Ignoring the physiological training of today’s dancers could
eventually hamper the development of the art form. It is the continual responsibility of
dance teachers and educators to develop their knowledge and understanding of the
physiological demands of dance, and be aware of the options for either integrating
physical fitness training into the technique class itself or providing it through supplementation.
In a recent study, full time contemporary dance students completed a year of weekly
dance fitness classes alongside their regular technique training. Students perceived
positive physiological adaptations such as reductions in fatigue, improvement in
general energy levels and an improved capacity in their dance classes to sustain
technique and jumping ability. The importance of warm up and cool down was also
commonly cited and the recognition of the relationship between fitness and injury
prevention was highlighted.
More than twenty years ago it was stated that the best dancers have an integrated
combination of two talents: knowledge of what is to be expressed and the physical and
mental tools to accomplish that expression. A dancer who is able to jump higher,
balance longer and create illusions such as floating may not necessarily be a better
dancer, but she does have the advantage of a greater range of tools with which to
produce the desired images of dance choreography. Although a topic of continual
debate, more recent research has since indicated that a fitter dancer is a better dancer.

Which activities improve various types of fitness?
Aerobic Training
The greater a dancer’s aerobic capacity, the longer they can work at moderate heart
rates before becoming fatigued. Research suggests that dance will only elicit an
improvement in aerobic capacity in a very unfit group of people, or if an aerobic dance
class is taken. The average dance technique class is too intermittent in nature for any
positive aerobic effect to occur. In order to improve aerobic capacity, the body needs
to work hard enough to bring about change or adaptation within the body. Specifically,
a rise in heart rate to approximately 70–90% of maximum (HRmax) will stress the
aerobic energy system. This elevation in heart rate has to be maintained between 20
and 40 minutes, three times a week. Continuous movement activities, such as running,
aerobics classes, swimming, cycling, and skipping, are good examples of aerobic
exercise.
Although there are variations among teachers, a primary intention of the technique
class is dance skill acquisition. Developing high levels of technical skill and movement
economy requires a different focus from developing the aerobic capacity of the dancer.
However, technique classes can be modified to involve some degree of aerobic work,
using simple repetitive movements. Simple movement repetition helps to stress the
aerobic energy system rather than stress skill acquisition. Warm up could be
conducted in a continuous manner at a higher intensity than normal, and center or
traveling sequences could be longer, with less rest time, allowing an aerobic
foundation to develop. Familiar movement combinations might be performed over
consecutive classes, purely for the benefit of continuous repetition rather than artistic
effect.
Anaerobic Training
Anaerobic training utilizes activity that is of a maximal, ‘all- out’ effort for short periods
of time. An exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:3 is recommended for training the threshold at
which lactate starts to accumulate in the blood stream, thus hindering muscle function.
An exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:5 is recommended for training the source of the fastest
muscle actions: high energy phosphates, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine
phosphate (CP). Optimum exercise time for each bout can gradually increase from
10–50 seconds. The intensity of activity for the whole duration should be near maximal
heart rate (95–100% HRmax). Rest periods should be at a low intensity exercise, as
this promotes faster recovery. Examples of anaerobic exercises include sprints, quick
steps, jumps, and fast skipping.

Strength/Endurance Training
The role of strength training in dance has frequently been misunderstood. There are
still concerns in the dance world that increased muscle strength will negatively affect
flexibility and aesthetic appearance. However, research has demonstrated that
supplemental strength training can lead to better dancing and reduced occurrences of
dance injuries, without interfering with key artistic and aesthetic requirements.
For an optimal strength training program, it has been suggested that exercises be
specific to the desired outcome. Strength training can involve very heavy
weights/resistance with minimal repetitions for a relatively short amount of time, or
exercises can involve light weights/resistance with many repetitions for a prolonged
time. Each program targets a specific goal. A combination of high intensities (70–100%
of maximum) and low volumes of work, two to three times a week, aims to increase
muscle strength. A full recovery period (5–6 minutes) is essential between sets in this
instance. Dancers wanting to increase muscle endurance are prescribed a
combination of moderate intensities (60–70% maximum) and high volumes of work,
three to four times a week. The rest periods are then shorter (2–4 minutes) so that the
next set of exercises begins before full recovery.
Power Training
Jumping is an integral part of most dance performances and involves the use of both
muscular strength and elasticity. Studies report that plyometric (jump) training has
been shown to have a positive effect in dancers. However, there are warnings that
plyometric training must be approached gradually and systematically to avoid injury.
A good starting point is to design exercises in which dancers are encouraged to jump
in a neutral position without emphasizing artistic skill, but instead simply focusing on
jumping higher. Once the dancers have gained greater understanding of how to
elevate themselves, they can bring correct dance technique back into the movements
while trying to maintain as much height as possible.

Flexibility Training
Flexibility is an important element of physical fitness. It is crucial in complimenting

muscular strength, building efficiency in movement, coordination, and preventing
injuries. Holding muscles in a stretched position for a prolonged amount of time causes
the muscle fibers to become accustomed to the new length, therefore increasing
flexibility. For it to be beneficial, the specific muscle group being stretched needs to
be isolated. For example, when stretching the hamstrings, spinal movement should be
reduced. Relaxation is also important. It is advised that stretches happen slowly and
gently with coordinated inhalation and exhalation at the moment of maximum stretch
(i.e., refrain from holding the breath).
There are many different types of stretching including static (holding), dynamic
(moving through the stretch), and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF; a
method utilizing alternate contraction and relaxation). It is important to be aware of the
advantages and disadvantages of each. For example, ballistic (bouncing) stretches
are not considered useful and can lead to muscle soreness and injury. Contrary to the
practice of many dancers, stretching to full range should be carried out when the body
is warm, preferably after class.
Neuromuscular Coordination
Moving beyond the purely physiological parameters, dance fitness also involves
balance, agility, coordination and skill. Out of all the components of fitness, it is likely
that neuromuscular coordination is addressed most often in the actual dance
technique class. Through the use of imagery and visualization, improved neural
pathways can help facilitate and develop efficiency in movement. Neuromuscular
coordination can positively affect levels of muscle strength by controlling the
recruitment of the right number of muscle fibers at the right time. In others words,
dancers can become more skillful in recruiting only the muscles required to produce a
certain movement and thus sustain sufficient energy levels and reduce fatigue.
Research into motor control and motor learning also offers invaluable information that
can enhance neural re-patterning, coordination and muscle relaxation.
Body Composition
Body composition plays an important role in dancers’ health. Appropriate and healthy
ratios of lean muscle mass to fat mass are key factors that can contribute to optimizing
physical performance. Body composition is often expressed as a percentage of body
fat and healthy recommendations suggest that dancers’ body fat be at a certain level
in order reach their potential. According to the World Health Organization, healthy
body compositions range from 17 to 25% for females and below 15% for males (but
not too low as a certain amount of fat is essential for daily healthy function). Optimal
body composition is going to vary from activity to activity. These measurements are
useful to determine what the best make-up is for dancers so that they can jump higher,
turn faster, and physically survive long days of training, rehearsing, and performing. A
balance of appropriate energy intake (nutrition) and energy expenditure (physical
activity) will help dancers achieve the body composition that is right for them.

Rest
The importance of rest in dance training cannot be stressed enough. Proper recovery
from physical training has many benefits. Rest helps to accelerate muscle
regeneration between training sessions, to decrease fatigue, and to decrease the
incidence of injury. It has been appreciated relatively recently that continuous training
beyond a certain threshold of physical activity, without sufficient rest, can negatively
impact both the health and performance of dancers. This concept refers to overtraining
– excessive training that results in no effect or even negative effects on a dancer’s
performance. When there is an imbalance between habitual exertion (training) and
recovery, symptoms such as severe and prolonged fatigue, changes in behavior and
a loss of motivation can result. Recommendations to prevent or reverse overtraining
include monitoring dance quality versus quantity, diet, hydration, rest, and sleep
patterns.
General Training Principles
The following variables of exercise training also need to be understood in constructing

balanced training plans. Depending on the dancer’s training/performance goal, it is
often necessary to progress to a higher level of difficulty by increasing the intensity,
volume and/or frequency of training over time. Otherwise, the body simply adapts to
the training and fitness levels plateau. Also fundamental to training is the concept of
overload, which means that the body must be challenged above a certain threshold to
provide sufficient stimulus for improvement to occur. Normally encountered stress will
maintain but not increase the level of conditioning. For example, if the demands of a
dance class are too similar from day to day there will be insufficient overload for
desired improvement to take place. Sport literature describes another principle called
specificity, and recommends that to develop motor abilities, training exercises should
use similar technical patterns and kinematic structure to the particular activity for which
it is preparing the athlete/dancer.
Summary of fitness training methods
The primary aim for a supplementary dance fitness class is for the structure and
content of the class to be responsive to curriculum needs. Intensity and duration of
exercises need to be considered. It is also recommended that recovery techniques
become a part of the overall training program, alternating between work and rest. The
dancers’ heart rates and/or perceptions of how hard they feel they are working (rate
of perceived exertion) can be monitored regularly to ensure that the intensity level is
appropriate to elicit a training response. Functional fitness training should precede
more dance-based movement that increasingly replicates vocabulary from technique
classes. For example, plyometric training can be introduced, initially using basic
parallel foot positions, and later modified to include turned out positions, which more
closely mimic the type of jumps seen in dance. Upper body strength exercises can
gradually progress to incorporate partner lifting of varying speeds and complexities.
During the final phase, a mixture of all fitness parameters can be structured into a
circuit-type class, reflecting the variety of activity and speed of succession that would
be encountered in a dance class or performance.

How can fitness be measured?
The applicability of laboratory tests and training regimes from sport to dance is
questionable and it is becoming increasingly necessary to gather relevant data and
qualitative observations (physiological and psychological) in order to develop specific
methods of promoting and assessing dance fitness.
Heart rate measures are key to assessing aerobic capacity. The fitter a dancer is, the
slower the heart needs to beat to pump an adequate volume of blood to the rest of the
moving body. The gold standard laboratory test to measure aerobic capacity is the
maximal oxygen uptake test (VO2max), which involves running, swimming, or cycling,
while the highest level of oxygen that can be sustained in the body is measured. A
more dance specific aerobic fitness test (DAFT) has been developed in recent years,
which is a submaximal multistage test that correlates to particular levels of dance
fitness capabilities. Rather than running on a treadmill, the dancer’s heart rate is
measured while they perform simple choreographed movements that gradually
increase in intensity.
Measuring anaerobic fitness can prove challenging because the anaerobic energy
systems are utilized for such a short period of time (e.g., the first 30–60 seconds of
maximal intensity exercise). Laboratory tests include the Wingate Anaerobic bike Test
(WAnT), which measures lower limb power, while pedaling on a stationary bike as
hard as one can for 30 seconds, against a resistance that is proportional to one’s own
body weight. A test that is more specific to dance is the vertical jump height test, which
assesses how high the dancer can jump and therefore evaluates explosive muscular
power in the lower extremity. More recently, a high intensity dance specific fitness test
has been validated, that provides a means of assessing and monitoring dancers’
capacity to dance at near maximal intensities. This test allows dancers to be appraised
within an environment to which they are accustomed (the studio), using a mode of
exercise that is relevant (dance), and is of adequate intensity to be representative of
performance.
Various isokinetic machines (computerized equipment with speed and resistance

capabilities) and dynamometers (e.g., handgrip, back, leg) can measure specific
muscular strength and endurance. Flexibility and joint mobility can be assessed using
flexometers and goniometers, which measure joint angles in the body.
Body composition can be measured in a variety of ways. Skinfold measurements

assess subcutaneous fat at particular areas of the body whereas bioelectrical
impedance measures total body water by way of an electrical current that flows
through the body, where lean muscle tissue conducts better than fat. While both
assessments result in a percentage of adipose tissue (fat tissue) present in the body,
bioelectrical impedance is less accurate.

Are there any important considerations teachers need to make?
While technique classes focus on neuromuscular coordination, the length of a

traditional class may not be adequate to meet all of the dancer’s conditioning needs.
The amount of space available, the numbers of students, and the time required for
teaching and correcting also have an impact on work rate. Therefore, in order to
achieve efficient and optimal development of dance skills, conditioning work over and
above daily technique class has been recommended.
Researchers state that regardless of performance level, talent, form of dance, gender,
or age, all dancers have to use some or all of the elements of fitness during their daily
practice. It is important to remember that particular groupings of dancers may have
varying abilities and physical knowledge, so care must be taken to construct safe and
appropriate regimens. For example, adolescent dancers can experience a rapid
decrease in proprioception (internal body awareness), coordination, and strength due
to the growth spurt. For vocational dance students, who have slightly different training
goals than professionals, fatigue can contribute to injury occurrence, so the emphasis
of fitness training should be on aerobic conditioning. However, sessions should also
include rest, muscular strength, endurance and power work.
Conclusion
Assessing, observing and researching the specific characteristics of dance assist

dancers and their teachers to improve training techniques, to employ effective injury-
prevention strategies and to determine better standards of health and physical
conditioning. As we understand and develop more appropriate dance training
methodologies, dancers can reap the benefits of enhanced performance, reduced
injury and ultimately longevity in their careers.

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Written by Sarah Irvine, M.Sc., Emma Redding, Ph.D., and Sonia Rafferty, M.Sc. under the
auspices of the Education and Media Committees of IADMS.
This paper may be reproduced in its entirety for educational purposes, provided
acknowledgement is given to the “International Association for Dance Medicine and Science.”
©2011 IADMS and Sarah Irvine, M.Sc., Emma Redding, Ph.D., and Sonia Rafferty, M.Sc.

POSTURE AND SAFE TECHNIQUE
When exercising or dancing it is important to execute everything with safe

technique and good posture.
SAFE SET UP
Think of your body like a car. Before you pull away you check your mirrors
and put your indicator on. This is the same with exercise. Consider the
following before starting an exercise as well as during:
Ø Head alignment
Ø Shoulders back and down
Ø Core engaged (Ribs Away)
Ø Neutral pelvis
Ø Hip – Knee – Foot alignment
Ø Foot position
Ø Position of bodyweight
BREATHING & TEMPO
When exercising it is important to consider breathing and the speed at which

we execute movement.
In general when exercising you should exhale on the effort of a movement

(When the muscle working in contracting). There are exceptions to this rule in
certain sports and techniques.
To ensure safe technique always execute movement at a good tempo. Do not

rush exercises you do not feel comfortable with. This can lead to injury.

AEROBIC FITNESS
WHAT IS AEROBIC FITNESS?
Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that makes you sweat, causes you to
breathe harder, and gets your heart beating faster than at rest. It strengthens your
heart and lungs and trains your cardiovascular system to manage and deliver
oxygen more quickly and efficiently throughout your body. Aerobic exercise uses
your large muscle groups, is rhythmic in nature, and can be maintained continuously
for at least 10 minutes.
BENEFITS
Ø Improves your circulation and helps your body use oxygen better
Ø Increases energy
Ø Increases endurance, which means you can workout longer without getting
tired
Ø Helps reduce the risk of developing heart disease
Ø Helps reduce the risk of developing diabetes
Ø Helps reduce body fat
Ø Helps you reach and maintain a healthy weight
Ø Helps reduce stress, tension, anxiety, and depression
Ø Improves sleep
TESTS FOR AEROBIC FITNESS
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/aerobic.htm
Ø Bleep test
Ø Vo2 Max
Ø Distance/Time
WAYS TO IMPROVE AEROBIC FITNESS

MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
WHAT IS MUSCULAR ENDURANCE?
Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated

contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time.
BENEFITS
Ø Increased Energy
Ø Improved muscle tone
Ø Injury prevention
Ø Decreased risk of disease
Ø Dance for longer
TESTS FOR MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/strength-tests.htm
Ø Max Reps (Press Up/ Squat etc.)

Ø Plank
Ø In and out test
WAYS TO IMPROVE MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

ANAEROBIC FITNESS
WHAT IS ANAEROBIC FITNESS?
Anaerobic means without oxygen. Anaerobic exercise consists of brief intense

bursts of physical activity, such as weightlifting and sprints, where oxygen demand
surpasses oxygen supply.
BENEFITS
Ø Builds and maintains lean muscle mass.

Ø Protects your joints.
Ø Boosts metabolism.
Ø Increases bone strength and density.
Ø Improves your energy. Your body relies on glycogen stored in your
muscles as energy. Regular anaerobic exercise increases your body's
ability to store glycogen, giving you more energy during intense physical
activity.
Ø Increases sports performance.
TESTS FOR ANAEROBIC FITNESS
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/anaerobic-capacity.htm
Ø Sprint/ Shuttles
Ø Timed HIIT
Ø Wingate Test
WAYS TO IMPROVE ANAEROBIC FITNESS

FLEXIBILITY
WHAT IS FLEXIBILITY?
Flexibility is defined as the range of motion of your joints or the ability of your joints
to move freely. It also refers to the mobility of your muscles, which allows for more
movement around the joints. Range of motion is the distance and direction your
joints can move, while mobility is the ability to move without restriction.
BENEFITS
There are several benefits of flexibility training. It increases range of motion.

Flexibility training helps improve the range of motion of your joints and muscles.
Next, it decreases your risk of injury. When your muscles are flexible, you are less
likely to become injured during physical activity. It also reduces muscle soreness.
Flexibility training can help reduce muscle soreness post-workout. Stretching after
you exercise keeps your muscles loose and relaxed. Lastly, it improves athletic
performance. When your joints and muscles are flexible, you use less energy while
in motion, which improves your overall performance.
TESTS FOR FLEXIBILITY
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/flex.htm
Ø Sit and Reach

Ø Thomas Test
Ø Straight Leg Raise
WAYS TO IMPROVE FLEXIBILITY

MUSCULAR STRENGTH
WHAT IS MUSCULAR STRENGTH?
Muscular strength refers to the amount of force a muscle can produce with a single
maximal effort. Muscle strength is measured during muscular contraction. The size
of your muscle fibers and the ability of nerves to activate muscle fibers are related to
muscle strength.
BENEFITS
Ø More lean muscle mass

Ø Improved metabolism
Ø Help to move through your daily activities
Ø Burn more calories with greater ease.
Ø A tighter, leaner body
TESTS FOR MUSCULAR STRENGTH
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/strength-tests.htm
Ø 1 Rep Max
WAYS TO IMPROVE MUSCULAR STRENGTH

MUSCULAR POWER
WHAT IS MUSCULAR POWER?
Power is the combination of strength and speed over time.Power training is

important for sports where sudden bursts of activity are required - sprinting, jumping,
changing direction, moving solid objects quickly and so on.
BENEFITS
Ø Jump Higher/ Further

Ø Reduced risk of injury
Ø Improved stamina
TESTS FOR MUSCULAR POWER
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/anaerob.htm
Ø Vertical Jump test

Ø Horizontal Jump test
Ø Sprint test
WAYS TO IMPROVE MUSCULAR POWER

NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION
WHAT IS NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION?
Neuromuscular coordination refers to the ability to achieve balance, agility,

coordination and skill as a whole.
BENEFITS
Ø Improved reaction time

Ø Better spatial awareness
Ø More skillful as a dancer
Ø Better Posture
Ø Ability to withstand a loss of stability
TESTS FOR NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/agility.htm
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/balance.htm
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/coordination.htm
Ø Stork Test
Ø Agility Drills
Ø Hand wall toss test
WAYS TO IMPROVE NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION

BODY COMPOSITION
WHAT IS BODY COMPOSITION?
Body composition is an analysis of the percentage of stored fat in a body as

compared to lean mass.
it is important to understand the different types of fat in a body. Not all fat is the
enemy. Everyone has some fat, and we all need a certain amount of fat for our
bodies to function properly, known as essential fat. Stored fat is the culprit. Stored
fat is that extra layer of fat that is found under the skin in places such as the stomach
and rear end. A spare tire around one's waist is stored fat.
Lean mass is essentially everything else found in a body, including bones, muscles,
tissues, and organs. It will come as no surprise that a healthy body has less stored
fat and more lean mass. A person's weight is not always an accurate measure of
good health. You can put two people side-by-side that weigh exactly the same, but
one may have a higher percentage of fat versus lean mass.
TESTS FOR BODY COMPOSITION
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/anthropometry.htm
Ø Body Mass Index (BMI)

Ø Waist to Hip Ratio
Ø Skinfold Measurement
WAYS TO IMPROVE BODY COMPOSITION

REST AND RELAXATION
WHAT IS REST AND RELAXATION?
Rest and relaxation are vital to a healthy dancer and it is important for our body to
recover for it to perform optimally. Rest and relaxation can be anything from sleep to
a yoga class.
BENEFITS
Ø Improved performance
Ø Improved mood
Ø Muscle recovery
Ø Better sleep
TESTS FOR REST AND RELAXATION
If you feel tired or unable to execute movement or activities at the level you know
you can then you probably need rest. Signs and symptoms to look out for
include:
Ø Resting heart rate elevated

Ø Poor sleep quality
Ø Dehydration
Ø You feel run down
Ø Mood swings
Ø Physical Pain
Ø Lack of concentration
WAYS TO REST AND RELAX

TESTING FOR HIGH INTENSITY DANCE FITNESS
Emma Redding, Ph.D., Laban, London, UK
There has been much concern recently about dancers’ fitness, and many educators
are now realizing the benefits of weekly fitness classes in dance training programs.
In order to determine whether dancers are getting fitter and whether a fitness training
regimen is working, it is useful to monitor improvements in dancers’ fitness through
regular fitness assessments. These can also help maintain the dancers’ motivation
by providing tangible feedback about their progress.
The development of activity-specific and precise methods of evaluating an athlete’s

performance is of interest to many sports scientists. Previously, most fitness
monitoring has been undertaken within standardized conditions such as laboratory
settings, rather than “in the field.” This was to ensure that the tests remained valid,
reliable and objec- tive. However, questions often arise as to the relevance of such
tests with regard to specificity. The debate between laboratory and field-testing is on-
going; while laboratory tests are more likely to yield accurate results, they may be
less representative, and while field tests are more relevant and specific, they have
the potential for being less accurate. This predicament has led to the development of
activity- specific measuring tools in sport, like kayak ergometers and swimming
flumes.
There is currently a validated dance-specific exercise method of measuring aerobic

fitness (DAFT) which is being used by several dance companies and schools to
monitor changes in aerobic capabilities across time. However, dance is an
intermittent activity that utilizes both the aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic
(without oxygen) energy systems and comprises a combination of low, moderate and
high intensity levels. More specifically, dance class appears to be undertaken at
lower to moderate intensities utilizing mostly the aerobic energy system, while dance
performance tends to be carried out at higher intensities utilizing both the aerobic
and anaerobic systems.Dance technique classes by themselves however do not
sufficiently challenge either the aerobic or anaerobic fitness needs faced in
performance situations.
Until our study, there was no validated high intensity dance-specific fitness test
available that provided a way of evaluating the ability to dance at the higher
intensities representative of stage performance. Dancers’ anaerobic fitness has
been previously measured using the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT), usually
involving a cycle ergometer.While the WAnT is a recognized standard laboratory
test, it does not use a mode of exercise that is familiar to dancers. Firstly, dancers
are not used to working to volitional exhaustion (probably due to the high skill factor
in dance and the fact that choreographers set the intensity by virtue of the
choreography).Secondly, the cycle ergometer is a non-impact mode of exercise that
utilizes specific muscle groups repeatedly, which is again something unfamiliar to
dancers. The concept of specificity, whereby methods of assessment are designed
to allow dancers to be tested in an environment with which they are familiar, should
be encouraged in the field of dance science. Today it would be almost unheard of,
for example, to test a swimmer on a cycle machine or treadmill.

The purpose of our study was to develop an intermittent high intensity dance-specific
fitness test. We designed the test so that educators can measure changes in
dancers’ heart rate across time, as well as observe visual improvements in
performance at these high intensities.
We developed the test over several rehearsals with professional dancers and
teachers based at a leading UK dance training institution. The dancers were asked
to make a one-minute phrase using movement material that was representative of
contemporary dance (sometimes known as “modern dance”). It was important for the
intensity to be similar to the intensity levels previously noted in dance
performance.This meant that the test tempo/speed, size, and type of movement
were taken into consideration. Movement phrases were developed that mimic the
intermittent ‘stop-start’ nature of dance.The work-to-rest ratio was set at 1:2 (one
minute dancing followed by two minutes resting). It was also important to keep the
movement phrase as simple as possible, so that any changes across time would be
due to an improvement in fitness (i.e., physiologically based) rather than movement
economy through practice. The completed test protocol (Table 1) consists of jumps
in first and second position, rolls to the floor, weight trans- ference from feet to hands
and back to feet, circular hops with an arm pattern, and a parallel jump forward in
space using an arm swing. The phrase is completed three times within one minute at
a tempo of 106 beats per minute, and repeated again after two minutes of rest. The
sequence occurs four times.
We then asked an additional 16 professional dancers to undertake the fitness test

(12 females and 4 males). They performed four trials of the test, following a thorough
warm-up. Our results showed that the dancers’ blood lactate increased beyond the
physiological indicator meaning that the intensity of the test was high enough to
stress the anaerobic energy pathways following each trial.
Results also showed that the test is reliable and valid, as seen by the consistency in
heart rate across trials. The dancers were working near their maximum capacities,
as their results from the dance fitness test were comparable to the scores they
obtained during a standard maximal oxygen uptake treadmill test.
Previous research has found that dancers often perform at 80% of their maximum,
which is at least the case in this study. Interestingly, in all but one case the dancers
seemed to push themselves harder when dancing than running on the treadmill
(probably because of their familiarity with the movement), which further substantiates
the argument for more activity-specific assessments for greater accuracy.
It is important to be aware that the range of contemporary dance performances can
be quite diverse; one contemporary dance performance may be high in intensity
while another is lower in intensity. Further research is needed to determine the
energy demands of the range that exists in contemporary dance. However we think it
would be fair to suggest that contemporary dancers need to be both aerobi- cally and
anaerobically fit in order to be prepared for the many different demands of the genre.
Previous research has shown a discrepancy between class, rehearsal and

performance in terms of cardiovascular demands.A dance fitness test such as this

can be used for both testing and training purposes as part of a dancer’s training
regimen, to ensure that both the higher intensity demands and the gap between
class and performance are addressed. Observations can be made across time, not
only through quantitative means such as heart rate but also through qualitative
means, such as the observation of movement proficiency.
One of the main reported causes of injury in dance is fatigue, and a high level of
physical fitness will delay the onset of fatigue.A test of this kind will help provide
information about a dancer’s physiological capabilities through relevant and
applicable means. As a result, effective dance training programs may be devised to
help reduce the risk of injury.
There is an argument for dance genre specific fitness tests. Given that the research
in sports science recommends activity-specific testing techniques in sport, perhaps
the di- versity shown between dance genre styles may also warrant genre-specific
ways of assessing physical fitness in dance. Dance science is a relatively new area
of research, and there is a need for more research into dance-specific field tests.
The Research Committee of the International Association for Dance Medicine and
Science has been advocating standardized techniques for measuring dancer
capabilities.
The development of the dancer’s physical fitness seems traditionally to be more a

by-product of skill acquisition than focused fitness training. Fortunately,
supplementary fitness training is now being recommended in dance training to
prepare the dancer for the demands of rehearsal and performance.
The results of this study indicate that the high intensity dance-specific test is a
reliable and valid means of assessing and monitoring the cardiovascular fitness of
dancers. The test allows dancers to be assessed within an environment they are
used to (the studio), with a mode of exercise that is relevant (dance), and at an
adequate intensity to be representative of some contemporary dance performance.

Acknowledgement
This article was adapted from: Redding E, Weller P, Ehren- berg S, Irvine S, Quin E,
Rafferty S, Wyon M, Cox C. The development of a high intensity dance performance
fitness test. J Dance Med Sci. 2009;13(1):3-9.
References
1. Wyon M, Redding E, Abt G, Head A, Sharp C. Devel- opment, reliability and

validity of a multi-stage dance specific aerobic fitness test (DAFT). J Dance Med Sci.
2003;7(3):80-4.
2. Chatfield SJ, Byrnes WC, Lally DA, Rowe SE. Cross- sectional physiologic
profiling of modern dancers. Dance Res J. 1990;22(1):13-20.
3. Rimmer JH, Jay D, Plowman SA. Physiological characteristics of trained dancers
and intensity level of ballet class and rehearsal. Impulse. 1994;2:97-105.
4. Wyon M, Head A, Sharp NCC, Redding E, Abt G. Oxygen uptake during modern
dance class, rehearsal, and performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(3):646-9.
5. Cohen JL, Segal KR, McArdle WD. Heart rate response to ballet stage
performance. Phys Sportsmed. 1982;10(11):120-33.
6. Schantz PG, Astrand PO. Physiological characteristics of classical ballet. Med Sci
Sports Exerc. 1984;16(5):472-6.
7.Brinson P, Dick F. Fit to Dance? London: Calouste  Gulbenkian Foundation, 1996.  
8.Koutedakis Y, Myszkewycz L, Soulas D, et al. The effects  of rest and subsequent
training on selected physiological parameters in professional female classical
dancers. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20(6):379-83.  
9. Rist RA. Children and exercise: training young dancers, a dance medicine
perspective. SportCare Journal. 1994;(6)1:5-7.
10. Rafferty S, Redding E, Irvine S, Quin E. The effect of a one-year dance-specific

fitness training program on undergraduate modern dance students: an experimental
study. J Dance Med Sci (Abstract). 2007;11(1):16.

TASK: Develop your own specific fitness plan based around your lifestyle.
Consider the different principles and methods of training and schedule this around
your timetable. Things you may consider:
Ø Is it achievable?
Ø Does it work well with your nutrition plan ?
Ø What are the benefits?
Ø Use different approaches – eg. strength traing, yoga, stretching
Ø Is it realistic with your workload?

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THE HEALTHY

MODULE LEADER: GREG MCPHERSON SEWARD

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The Healthy Dancer 2017 GMS 2

DANCE FITNESS 159

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Clippinger, K. (2007). Dance anatomy and kinesiology. Champaign, IL: Human

Franklin, E. (2012). Dynamic alignment through imagery, Champaign IL: Human

Calais-Germain, B.(2013). Anatomy of Movement Revised Edition. Eastland Press,

Haas, J (2010). Dance Anatomy. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Myers, T.W. (2001). Anatomy trains. London: Harcourt Publishers Limited.

Franklin, E. (2014) Dance Imagery for Technique and Performance. Second

Welsh, T. (2009) Conditioning for Dancers. University of Florida Press.ISBN978-0-

Howse, J. and McCormack (2009)Anatomy, Dance Technique and Injury Prevention.

The Healthy Dancer 2017 GMS 4

One Dance UK (Formally Dance UK) – www.onedanceuk.org

International Association for dance Medicine and Science IADMS – www.iadms.org

British Association of Performing Arts Medicine BAPAM – www.bapam.org.uk

IAB Health Clinic – www.iabhealth.com health@iabarcelona.es

Reccomended Apps (ios/android) :

The Healthy Dancer 2017 GMS 5

Injuries are part of the game, but

The Healthy Dancer 2017 GMS 6

Sports injuries are caused by trauma of different degrees. For simplification we

Chronic or Overuse Injury

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INJURIES TO MUSCLES, TENDONS & LIGAMENTS

Strain: An injury to a tendon or muscle resulting from overuse or trauma.

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There are several factors which can cause injury:

Ø Anatomical causes such as muscular imbalances, poor posture, lack of excessive

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There are many signs and symptoms of injury:

Signs and symptoms may appear suddenly or over a number of weeks

HOW CAN I PREVENT INJURY?

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ACUTE (the first 48 hours): Use P.R.I.C.E.D.

Diagnosis: (after 48 hours): If your injury is no better after 2 days consult a

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ADVICE OR TREATMENT (IAB HEALTH)

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Ø How did this injury occur?

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LISTEN TO YOUR BODY

Ø Adjust the alignment of your movements

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Your body can do anything, its just

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WHAT IS A WARM UP?

WHY DO I WARM UP?

Ø Increased movement of blood through your tissues, making the muscles

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Professional performers should warm up at least 30 – 40 minutes before activity.

A warm up is best followed by practice of some easy movements concentrating on

Frequency: Number of Sessions Per Week.

Intensity: Speed or Exercise Workload

Time: How Long for Each Session

Type: Activities That Count

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WHAT IS A COOL DOWN?