My Study Agriniel Croper

CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

This chapter presents an overview of extension education as facet of adult education, its
historical antecedent and its role in agricultural development in particular and rural development
as a whole. The core principles of extension education are stated and explained in this chapter.
Agricultural extension, being a specialized form of adult education in agriculture is an
educational process often seen mainly as a communication process between extension agents and
rural dwellers with the intention of helping them improve on their farming practices for
sustainable increase in productivity and better standard of living.
Objective
At the end of this unit, students are expected to:
 Learn about the various definitions of extension education
 Understand the difference between formal and extension education
 Appreciate the objective and principle of extension education
1.1 EXTENSION EDUCATION DEFINED
Definition of Extension Education

By a way of definition, various scholars, professionals and practitioners have put forward many
definitions regarding the concept of Extension Education. As a matter of fact, there are as many
definitions of Extension Education as there are scholars, professionals and practitioners in the
field of knowledge generation, its utilization and rural development. Below are some collections
of various definitions of Extension Education:
1. Extension Education is an applied science consisting of content derived from

research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the
behavioural science synthesised with useful technology into a body of philosophy,
principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out of school education
for adults and youth.– J.P. Leagans (1961)
2. Extension Education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by
learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions – J.P.
Leagans (1961)
3. Extension Education is an out of school system of education in which adult and
young people learn by doing. It is partnership between the Government and the
people, which provides service and education designed to meet the needs of the
people. Its fundamental objective is the development of the people. – Kelsey and
Harne (1963)
4. Extension Education is a programme and a process of helping village people to help

themselves, increase their production and to raise their general standard of living. –
Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu
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D. Ensminger (1961)
5. We can define Extension Education as the increased dissemination of useful

knowledge for improving rural life. – H.W. Butt (1961)
6. Extension Education is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to the

village people, and also takes the problems of the village people to the scientific
institution for solution. It is a continuous educational process, in which both learner
and teacher contribute and receive. – B. Rambhai (1958)
7. Extension Education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the

rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and help them to
take decision within their specific local conditions. – O. P. Dahama (1973)
8. Agricultural Extension is a professional method of non-formal education aimed at

inducing behavioural changes in the farmers for increasing their income through
increased production and productivity by establishing firm linkages with research for
solving farmer’s problems ensuring adequate and timely supply of inputs and using
proven methods of communication for speeding of the process of diffusion and
adoption of innovations." – Y. C. Sanoria (1986)
From the above definitions, it can be asserted that “Extension Education” for that matter,
Agricultural Extension Education is “an out of school educational programme or activity which
brings about a desirable change in behaviour (knowledge, attitude, practice and skills – KAPS)
of rural people to help improve their social, economic and psychological status”.
Extension education is an applied behavioural science, the knowledge of which is applied to

bring about desirable changes in the behavioural complex of human beings usually through
various strategies and programmes of change and by applying the latest scientific and
technological innovations.
Objectives and Principles of Extension

Extension education has now developed as a full-fledged discipline, having its own philosophy,
objectives, principles, methods and techniques which must be understood by every extension
worker and others connected with the rural development. It might be mentioned here that
extension education, its principles, methods and techniques are applicable not only to agriculture
but also to veterinary and animal husbandry, dairying, home science, health, family planning, etc.
Based upon its application and use, various nomenclatures have been given to it, such as
agricultural extension, veterinary and animal husbandry extension, dairy extension, home science
extension, public health extension, and family planning extension.
Objectives of Extension Education

The objectives of extension education are the expressions of the ends towards which our efforts
are directed. In other words, an objective means a direction of movement. Before starting any
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programme, its objectives must be clearly stated, so that one knows where to go and what is to be
achieved. The fundamental objective of extension education is the development of the people.
Extension is concerned with three basic tasks:

1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture and
home economics;
2. Practical application of such knowledge to help farmers/farm families and rural
people analyse their problems. These are carried out in an informal atmosphere, with
adults as main clientele and
3. Assisting farmers/farm families and rural people in using the technical knowledge
gained to better solve their own problems. Thus helping people to in order to help
themselves.
Agricultural extension in Ghana is primarily concerned with the following main objectives:
1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture to enable
farmers farm more efficiently to increase incomes.
2. The practical application of useful knowledge to farm and home
3. Encourage farmers to grow their own food, eat well and live well
4. Help rural, people appreciate opportunities, beauties, and privileges of rural life and
the world around them
5. Promote better social, cultural recreational, intellectual and spiritual life among rural
people
6. Develop citizens proud of their occupation, independent in thinking constructive in
outlook, capable, efficient self-reliant and patriotic.
7. To improve all aspects of the life of the rural people within the framework of the
nation’s socio-economic policies.
Principles of extension education: The extension work is based upon some working principles
and the knowledge of these principles is necessary for an extension worker. Some of these
principles, as related to agricultural extension, are mentioned below.
1. Principle of interest and need. Extension work must be based on the needs and
interests of the people. These needs and interests differ from individual to
individual, from village to village, from block to block, and from district to
district and, therefore, there cannot be one programme for all people.
2. Principle of cultural difference. Extension work is based on the cultural

background of the people with whom the work is done. Improvement can only
begin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the extension
worker has to know the level of the knowledge, and the skills of the people,
methods and tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc.
3. Principle of participation. Extension helps people to help themselves. Good
extension work is directed towards assisting rural families to work out their own
problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions. Actual participation and
experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence in them and

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also they learn more by doing.
4. Principle of adaptability. People differ from each other, one group differs from
another group and conditions also differ from place to place. An extension
programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can be made whenever
needed, to meet the varying conditions.
5. The grass roots principle of organisation. A group of rural people in local

community should show ownership of extension work. The programme should fit
in with the local conditions. The aim of organising the local group is to
demonstrate the value of the new practices or programmes so that more and more
people would participate.
6. The leadership principle. Extension work is based on the full utilisation of local
leadership. The selection and training of local leaders to enable them to help carry
out extension work is essential to the success of the programme. People have
more faith in local leaders and they should be used to put across a new idea so as
to gain acceptance with the least resistance.
7. The whole-family principle. Extension work will have a better chance of

success if the extension workers have a whole-family approach instead of
piecemeal approach or separate and unintegrated approach. Extension work is,
therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and the youth.
8. Principle of co-operation. Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint

democratic enterprise in which rural people co-operate with their village, block
and district officials to pursue a common cause.
9. Principle of satisfaction. The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is

the satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result of
solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in
behaviour. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. "A satisfied
customer is the best advisements’.
10. The evaluation principle. Extension is based upon the methods of science, and
it needs constant evaluation. The effectiveness of the work is measured in terms
of the changes brought about in the knowledge, skill, and attitude and adoption
behaviour of the people but not merely in terms of achievement of physical
targets.

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Differences between Formal Education and Extension Education
Extension work is considered as an aspect of adult education which differs from formal or
classroom education in that it prepares its clientele to tackle the problems of today and helps
them to live here and now. Formal education on the other hand, prepares its students for life after
school years. It may, however, be mentioned here that when extension education is put into
action for educating the rural people, it does not remain formal education. In that sense, there are
several differences between the two. Some of these differences are:
Formal Education Extension Education

1. The teacher starts with theory and works up to 1. The teacher (extension worker) starts with
practical. practical and may take up theory later on.
2. Students study subjects 2. Farmers study problems.
3. Students must adapt themselves to the fixed 3. It has no fixed curriculum or course of study
curriculum offered and the farmers help to formulate the curriculum
4. Authority rests with the teacher. 4. Authority rests with the farmers.
5. Class attendance is compulsory. 5. Participation is voluntary.

6. Teacher teaches and also learns from the
6. Teacher instructs the students. farmers.
7. Teaching is also through local leaders.
7. Teaching is only through instructors.
8. Teaching is mainly horizontal.
8. Teaching is mainly vertical
9. The teacher has a large and heterogeneous
9. The teacher has more or less homogeneous
audience.
audience.
10. It is flexible.
10. It is rigid.
11. It has freedom to develop programmes locally
11. It has all pre-planned and pre-decided and they are based on the needs and expressed
programmes desires of the people.
12. It is more practical and intended for
12. It is more theoretical. immediate application in the solution of problems.
Why Extension?
Society they say is dynamic, in reality it is seen that what was applicable in the past may be
obsolete at present and likewise it can be said that techniques and methods prevalent at present
may not be applied in future. The nature of problem is changing day by day, therefore, in order to
scientifically tackle new problems, it is necessary that there should be such an institution, which
should act as a bridge between scientists and farmers to ensure a continue transmission of
technology or new techniques and method to the farmers and on the other hand address the
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problems of farmers to the scientists.
Research Centre ◄► Extension Personnel ◄► Problems of People

Such an institution, which mediates between farmers and scientists was established and is called
“Extension system”. The people working in this institution are called “Extension personnel”
Why Study Extension?

It is more important to lay emphasis on “How to teach” instead of on “What to teach” so that the
people can be encouraged to adopt new research techniques easily. In other words, if a person is
very knowledgeable of various methods and techniques but does not know how to explain them
or express them, then his knowledge has no meaning. Therefore, the power to express knowledge
and viewpoint also plays a crucial role. Extension Personnel should not only be aware of
objectives the programmes but should also be aware of prevalent conditions, problems,
requirements and circumstances. After analyzing, the situation then extension personnel should
give information about scientific techniques, to their clients according to their needs and
requirements. Therefore, the study of extension education is necessary for extension personnel,
so that they can encourage the adoption of new techniques.
UNIT TWO: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
Objectives:
By studying this unit, students are expected to:
 Understand the development of extension education in the world
 Learn about the factors or antecedents of extension education
 Appreciated the development of extension services in Ghana
History of Extension Education in the World

The word “Extension” was first time used to describe the concept of taking teaching and
learning outside the walls of university in the form of “University Extension” or “Extension of
the University” in Britain in 1840. Many scholars and academics in Europe and elsewhere used
the word Extension to describe the concept of extending university education to the working
masses, who by the virtue of their work could not be on university campus to obtain university
education. In his report entitled “suggestions for the Extension of the university” in 1850,
William Sewell of Britain used the word Extension in calling for the need to take teaching and
learning outside the boundaries of university campus so as to provide opportunity for the
working population to obtain university education and benefit from knowledge generated in the
various universities and other educational institutions of higher learning.
Also, James Stuart of Trinity College, Cambridge University in 1867-68, used the word
extension when he was addressing “Women Association and Working Men’s Clubs” of North
England. Again in 1871, he appealed to the officials of the Cambridge University to establish
Extension centres under the supervision of university, so that these centres can be used as a
platform to deliver lecture to the people. His effort in this field earned him the aculeate “Father
of University Extension”. In a formal way, Cambridge University in 1873, London University in
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1876 and Oxford University in 1878 developed Extension system, which worked among people.
In 1880, James Stuart work came to be known as “Extension movement”. According to
Webster’s dictionary the term “Extension” means “Branch of a university for student who cannot
attend the University properly”. In other words, the word ‘Extension’ is used in the context
which signifies an out of school system of education.”
In the eighth decade of the 19th century, the word Extension was used in the form of Extension
education in U.S.A. This was to respond to the problem of rural people migration to urban areas
which characterized labour mobility in the latter half of the 19th century. This phenomenon
created two major problems in U.S.A.:
(i) The migration of rural people to cities created labour constraint in the rural area and
hence, the agricultural sector suffered a setback, and
(ii) The increase of urban population created education, employment and housing related
problems.
Therefore, in curtailing this problem, the Philadelphia Committee was established in 1785. The
committee recommended the institutionalization of “Out of school education” in order to keep
rural people in rural areas. Also in 1862 President Roosevelt established a “county commission”
under the chairmanship of Liverty Hydevelle. Its objectives were:
(i) How to stop migration of rural people to cities?
(ii) How to engage rural people in agricultural and rural development programmes?
The above recommendations were arrived at based on the fact that industrial development is not
possible without agricultural development for that matter the rural areas must not be deprived of
the needed human resource to help in the agricultural development. The implementation of the
above recommendation required institutionalization of out of school educational institution to
organize extension education. The passage of Smith Leaver Act (1914) provides the legal
framework for the establishment of out of school educational institution to organize and manage
the dissemination of knowledge and practical skills to the rural population. The passage of the
Act also led to the integration of cooperative Extension service by which out of school education
was organized. As a result, rural people were able to bring about developments and progress in
farming and housing. This type of education comes to be known as “Agricultural Extension
Education”.
Historical Perspective of Agricultural Extension in Ghana

Agricultural extension activities in Ghana started in the nineteenth century by the early
missionaries and foreign owned companies who main focused was in the production of export
crops such as coffee, cocoa and rubber. Therefore all extension activities were organized to
provide information and inputs on only these export crops to farmers. Little or no extension
activities were carried out on food crops and livestock production.
Agricultural Extension activities in the immediate post independent period were still tilted to the
promotion of cocoa, coffee and other export crops as the new independent administration
inherited the colonial institutional structures which were put in place to carry out research and
extension activities on export crops. After independence, Ghana tried various approaches and

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models of organizing extension activities and broadens the scope to include food crops and
livestock. But for a few agricultural extension programmes, such as the farmers’ co-operative
movement and the United Ghana Farmers’ Co-operative Council (UGFCC) which initiated and
implemented extension activities for its members with public support, most of the extension
projects implemented in Ghana were largely donor-assisted projects.
In the 1970s and 1980s, all the departments of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture undertook
separate extension services. Agricultural extension was therefore fragmented among the various
departments within the ministry. Thus, the crop and livestock departments carried separate and
independent extension services. In 1987 however, MOFA established the Department of
Agricultural Extension Services (DAES) to bring all splinter MOFA extension services under one
umbrella.
The DAES used the World Bank Training and Visit (T & V) extension system which involves
regular training and field visits. This system also saw the withdrawal of MOFA from the
procurement and distribution of agricultural inputs, including credit. This extension initiative was
supported with World Bank funding through the National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP)
which was implemented between 1992 and 1999. This project was set up and implemented to
help
(i) improve efficiency in the management and delivery of extension services,
(ii) improve the relevance of technologies available to farmers, and
(iii) strengthen the technical departments of MOFA.
In August 1998, the government unified the extension services of MOFA and COCOBOD for the
purpose of providing farmers with more cost-effective agricultural extension services. With the
merger, MOFA took ministerial responsibility for cocoa extension. The challenge for MOFA is
to:
(i) develop the capacity for cocoa extension and
(ii) collaborate with the relevant agencies and private sector organizations to support the
cocoa industry.
As part of the unified agricultural extension strategy, Agricultural Extension Agents

(AEAs) are trained once a month by Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) drawn from the subject
matter or technical departments of MOFA. The AEAs visit groups of contact farmers on a
fortnightly basis. Each contact farmer group has a minimum of 10 farmers and each AEA
interacts with between 16 and 24 of such groups in a farming season.
Interaction with farmers is done by way of farm demonstrations and discussions with farmer
groups.
Summary
Notwithstanding the various viewpoints regarding the definition of extension education there is a
growing agreement that extension education can be defined in a broad terms as ‘an applied
behavioural science, the knowledge of which is applied to bring about desirable changes in the
behavioural complex of human beings through out of school educational programmes.

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The main task of extension education is the dissemination of practical information to rural people
and assist them applied the information in improving their living standards. Extension operates
on the principles of needs and interest, cultural difference, cooperation, leadership among others.
Although extension education uses instructional methods and strategies to help influence the
behaviour of rural people, it differs from formal education in so many ways. Whiles formal
education starts with theory and ends at practicals and extension education start with practicals
and may take theory later. Also while formal education is guided by a pre determine curriculum,
extension education do not have fixed rigid curriculum its curriculum is farmers problems needs
and interest.
CHAPTER TWO
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Introduction
Communication is an activity much taken for granted. It appears ironic that we sometimes failed
to fully appreciate the power of communication in shaping our lives and work when, in reality,
we are relentlessly engaged ourselves in various day-to-day forms, means, and problems of
communication. Extension education is essentially a process of communication, thus
communication of ideas and skills between and among people. Ability to communicate
determines to a very large extent the success or failure of an extension worker. Therefore
extension educators and practitioners alike must have adequate skills in communication and
being capable of initiating and managing communication process in dissemination agricultural
information to farmers as well as assist package farmers’ problems and concerns for research
attention.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 explain clearly the term ‘communication
 understand communication process
 identify elements of communication process
 discuss, vividly the communication models
 Identify barriers to communication
 be abreast with ways of communicating effectively
 be able to apply communication process or model in analyzing communication problems
in Extension
 appreciate the concept of behavioural change communication and its application in
extension
UNIT ONE: COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The Meaning of Communication

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Communication is the basis for all human interactions and provides the means for individual or
group of people to relate reciprocally and hence enable groups to function. When we
communicate, it is because we have an idea or a feeling that we want to share with someone. In
order to share it, someone has to receive what we are communicating. Effective communication
exists between two people when the receiver interprets the sender’s message in the same way the
sender intended.
The process of communication is fundamental to extension training of influencing desire

behaviour acquisition and change. Thus learning processes, the dissemination of innovations or
social reengineering and change cannot be explained without reference to communication.
Communication Defined
There is growing disagreement even among communication experts themselves as to which
among human behaviours count as acts of communication. Communication may either be verbal
(use of spoken word or sound) or non-verbal (use of gestures, facial expressions, etc.). According
to Rogers et al. (1981), communication is a process that involves the exchange of ideas between
two or more individuals in an attempt to arrive at convergence in meaning. James (1990) opined
that communication is a process involving the passing of messages from one person to another
through the use of symbols which all parties in the communication process understand.
Communication is widely seen as a two-way process in which the sender (source of
information/message) and receiver of information are seen as active participants who are
involved in an exchange process and therefore, swap roles.
Communication can be defined as:

1. The means of sending messages
2. The transmission of information
3. That situation in which a source transmits a message to a receiver with conscious intent to
affect the latter’s behaviours.
4. The verbal interchange of thoughts or ideas
5. The process that links discontinuous parts of the living world together
6. A process that makes common to two or several what was the monopoly of one or some.
Communication Process:
Communication process starts with a sender/source; who has a message for a receiver. Two or
more people are always involved in communication. The sender has the responsibility for the
message. The sender's message travels to the receiver through one or more channels chosen by
the sender. The channels may be verbal or non-verbal. They may involve only one of the senses,
hearing for example, or they may involve all five of the senses: hearing, sight, touch, smell, and
taste. Non-verbal communication, popularly referred to as body language, relies primarily on
seeing rather than hearing.
Elements of commendation process

The process of communication between two people includes seven basic elements:
a) The intentions, ideas, feelings of the sender and the way he/she decides to behave, all

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of which lead to his/her sending a message that carries some content.
b) The sender encoding his/her message by translating his/her ideas, feelings, emotions, and
intentions into a message appropriate for sending.
c) Sending the message to the receiver.
d) The channel through which the message is translated.
e) The receiver decoding the message by taking it and interpreting its meaning. His/her
interpretation depends on how well the receiver understands the content of the message
and the intentions of the sender.
f) The receiver responding internally to this interpretation of the message.
g) The amount of noise that interferes with communication.
The source or sender is the individual or a group working together or an institution responsible
for initiating communication and ensuring that the objectives of the exercise are clearly defined
and achieved. In addition, the source (extension agent or practitioner) must strive to update his
knowledge through training, subject matter wise, as well as in the methodologies of
communication itself.
The message is the stimuli or idea that the source transmits. Messages must be clear, useful to
the audience, relevant to the environment and timely with respect to their livelihood activities.
Message content should be relevant to the receiver; this implies that the message sent must be
technically feasible, economically beneficial and acceptable with respect to the norms and values
of the society.
Messages in extension communication bear particular characteristics which may enhance or
hinder their acceptability by the target audience
These characteristics are:
1. Relative advantage- The degree to which an idea or technological

innovation is perceived as being better than the one it seeks to replace
2. Compatibility- The extent to which an idea or message is in line or
attuned with socio-cultural values and beliefs of a receiver.
3. Complexity-The degree to which an idea or message is perceived as
relatively difficult to use and understand.
4. Trial ability/ divisibility- The extent to which an innovation can be
experimented with on limited scale.
5. Observability- The degree to which the results of an innovation or
message content are visible to others
6. Risk level- The extent to which an idea or message is perceived to
expose the receiver to vulnerability due to failure.
A channel or medium is the means by which a message travels from the source to the receiver.
The human senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and feeling) make up the most common means of
exchanging ideas. The methods include visual and oral, spoken and written. The more senses
employed in the communication process, the greater the chance that it is understood.
The receiver is the target or audience of communication. The audience is those, whom the
source/sender wishes to receive, understand and use the idea. In extension communication it is
important that the receiver of each message be clearly defined and segregated into homogenous
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groups for effective communication. If the audience is to make progress, the extension teacher
somehow helps them to change their knowledge, attitude or behaviour. If no change takes place
there has been no communication – no progress. Good extension teaching requires a thorough
study of audience. This means their abilities, backgrounds, interests and previous
accomplishments. The more we know about the audience, the better job of teaching we can do.
The effect of the communication is felt when the receiver decodes the message (attaches
meaning to the symbols) and develops an idea in his mind which he may or may not use.
Feedback is the response from the receiver to the source of the message. Feedback is a control
device and an important indicator of the success of communication as well as areas requiring
modification and further enquiry.
UNIT TWO: MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

In general, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract
form.
The elements of communication explained above provide the building blocks from which all
models of communication are drawn.
1. Source/sender
2. Message
3. Channel/medium
4. Receiver
5. Effect, and
6. Feedback
Models of communication provide a theoretical conceptual framework depicting and explaining

the process of communication. Various models have tried to depict and explain communication
process. Some of them include the linear model, interactional model, transactional model among
others.
Linear model
Linear model is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding
a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear
model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no
feedback from the receiver.
This is perhaps the most basic model of communication. Communication involves two people –
the sender and the receiver of the message. The communication process is relatively
unproblematic: one person sends a message, and then another person receives it. In this way, the
flow of information is linear: this model failed to illustrate various processes that take place
within the key actors of the communication process and it does not also indicate the possibility of
interference or barriers. There are several linear models of communication. Some of them
include the Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver models which were designed to make electrical
signal transmission more efficient.

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Shannon's Model of Communication Process
Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process perhaps is the most important beginning
of theoretical modeling in the field communication as a discipline. It provided, for the first time,
a general model of the communication process that could be treated as the common ground of
such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. Part
of its success is largely due to its significant role in the reduction of communication process to a
set of basic constituents that do not only explain how communication happens, but why
communication sometimes fails.
Notwithstanding the recent development in the field of communication studies, Shannon’s model
of communication remains one of the first things most students learn about communication when
they take an introductory communication class. Indeed, it is one of only a handful of theoretical
statements about the communication process that can be found in introductory textbooks in both
mass communication and interpersonal communication. The model provides an excellent
breakdown of elements of communication process into eight discrete components:
1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the
destination.
3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an
audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission
through the telephone network.
4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is
the case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal
systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be
multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio
waves, or words and pictures in a book.
5. A carrier or channel, a medium through which information/message are transmitted. The
most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and
postal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple
layers of transmission, as described above.
6. Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried.
7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to face
communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of
receiver, including an antenna and a television set.
8. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

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Channel
Figure 2.1: Shannon's (1948) linear model of communication
Interactive Model
An interactional view of communication assumes that the sender who encodes a message also
receives feedback from the receiver who decodes the message. This view also includes channel
or medium of communication, as well as the physical environment (noise, seating arrangement,
etc.). The interactive model can also liken to a two linear models stacked on top of each other.
The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver having received the message,
then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender in the form of feedback.
The concept of feedback mechanism portrayed by this model, indicates that communication is
not a one way as viewed by the linear model, but a two way process.
The interactive communication model is a way to represent how two people communicate. One
person, the sender, wants to send a piece of information, the message. The sender uses a
communication channel, such as email or face-to-face conversation, to a second person, the
receiver. Sometimes noise, a term referring to any distractions, will compromise the message.
Once the receiver has the message, he or she will send feedback, letting the sender know
whether the message was transmitted well and how the receiver feels about it. The
communication of both people, the sender and receiver, is influenced by their individual
experiences, culture, and knowledge. This is called their field of experience. The field of
experience also includes communicators’ cultural background, ethnicity geographic location,
extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of their lifetime.
Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
Immediate physical environment

Sender Encoding Channel or medium Decoding Receiver
Feedback
Immediate physical environment

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Figure 2.2: Interactive model of communication
Transactional model
The main drawback of the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.
The transactional model suggests that both the receiver and sender of the message change roles
most of the time. The receiver is also a sender of the message, while the sender is also a receiver
of the message. This model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously
sending and receiving messages. This model acknowledges neither creators nor consumers of
messages, preferring to label the people associated with the model as communicators who both
create and consume messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing

process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.
ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.
iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure 2.3 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate
that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also
takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.

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Figure 2.3: A transactional model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth.
Other models of communication include the power-in-communication model and cultural model.
Power-in-communication model: Simply put, this model of communication stresses the

importance of power relations in any form of communication. Not only does power influence
communication; it is part of any communication situation. This is, in fact, especially so in
business communication where a variety of dominant/subordinate roles are prevalent.
Cultural model: Clearly, this model puts culture at the centre of the communication process.
Communication happens because of culture, so there is no adequate understanding of the nature
and process of communication without recognizing the central role of culture in it.
Communication involves language and other non-verbal modes of interaction; all these are
culturally-shaped. Communication also involves the transmission and negotiation of meaning;
these are also cultural practices.
Why does communication happen?

There are at least five general reasons why we communicate. These are: (1) to influence people,
(2) to establish or maintain interpersonal relationships, (3) to acquire different kinds of
knowledge, (4) to help people, and (5) to play .Out of these general purposes of communication
emerge both some motivations for communication, as well as results which we hope to achieve
by communication.
UNIT THREE: SKILLS NEEDED IN COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Good communication skills are skills that facilitate people to communicate effectively with one

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another. Effectual communication engages the choice of the best communications channel, the
technical know-how to use the channel, the presentation of information to the target audience,
and the skill to understand responses received from others. Self development, interpersonal
skills, mutual understanding, mutual cooperation and trust is also important to set a complete
channel of most effective and winning communication skills
Objectives:
At the end this unit, students are expected to:
 Know what is mean by good communication skills
 Understand the various types of communication skills
 What constitute a good communication skills
 The role of listening in developing effective communication skills
 Identify barriers to communication
 Understand skills require to overcome the barriers of communication
Types of communication skills

There are mainly three types of communication skills, expressive skills, listening skills and skills
for managing the overall process of communication.
Expressive skills are required to convey message to others through words, facial expressions and
body language. Listening skills are skills that are used to obtain messages or information from
others. These help to clearly understand what a person feels and thinks about you or understand
the other person closely. Skills for managing the overall process of communication help to
recognize the required information and develop a strong hold on the existing rules of
communication and interaction
Sending Effective Messages

You must be able to send messages effectively as well as receive the information that is sent to
you. There are eight basic skills in making sure your ideas and feelings are effectively
communicated:
1. Clearly “own” your message by using personal pronouns such as I and my.
2. Make your messages are complete and specific.
3. Make your verbal and nonverbal messages congruent with one another.
4. Avoid making your message redundant.
5. Ask for feedback concerning the way your messages are being received.
6. Make the message appropriate to the receiver and frame of reference.
7. Describe your feelings, by name, action or figure of speech.
8. Describe other member’s behaviour without evaluating or interpreting.
Effective Listening
Listening can have a very big effect on how people relate to one another. When you focus and
really listen to the words, feelings and meanings behind what someone says, it makes it easier to
gain an understanding of what that person has communicated. Listening also involves either
verbally or nonverbally encouraging the speaker to continue. Listening is often separated into
three levels:
1. Hearing - this is the lowest level of listening when you comprehend the spoken word,
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but do not react to it. It is sometimes known as a “half-listen.” An example is when you
hear your teacher talking, but you don’t know what he/she has said.
2. Listening - this is the second level of listening and it is characterized by the listener
becoming more aware of the meaning of the sounds they hear. Little response occurs
from the receiver of the message.
3. Perceiving - this is the highest level of listening. This level involves being attentive to
the sender and processing the message thoroughly by relating it to experiences, ideas and
feelings. Perceiving is critical, appreciative, and creative listening.
Three things are needed before we can get others to accept the idea of exchange:
1. We should help people to feel free to express their opinions in order to
establish channels of two-way communications.
2. We need to help people feel secure enough to be willing to experiment with
new ideas.
3. We must be willing to respect the right of the person willing to try change or
new ideas to fail, on occasion, without condemnation.
Active or Reflective listening is a communication process aimed at helping the speaker to

communicate meaning, feeling and intent. Often it is compared to looking in a mirror. The role of
the listener is to reflect back to the speaker all the verbal and nonverbal parts of his/her
message--to be the mirror of words, feelings, and actions. The speaker, then, can confirm the
reflected response or restate his/her message so as to more accurately convey the intended
meaning.
Active listening can:

 Promote understanding and acceptance of others.
 Facilitate problem solving.
 Promote a relationship interactive between the sender and receiver.
 Influence people to be more willing to listen to others.
Use of Feedback
Feedback is reporting to an individual the kind of impressions he/she is making on you or
reporting your reactions to him/her.
Feedback is useful when:
1. It is descriptive rather than evaluative.
2. It is specific rather than general.
3. It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and the giver of feedback.
4. It is directed toward behaviour which the receiver can do something about.
5. It is solicited, rather than imposed.
6. It is well-timed.
7. It is checked to insure clear communication.
Barriers to Communication
Problems with any one of the components of the communication model can become a barrier to
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communication. These barriers suggest opportunities for improving communication. According
to Bovée and Thill (2000), communication barriers are usually due to a number of factors: (1)
differences in perception and language, (2) Poor listening, (3) Emotional interference, (4)
Cultural differences, (5) Physical distraction.
Differences in perception and language
Simply put, all of us have different mental images of the world or reality. Even if we experience
the same thing, we may still think of it in different ways. We remember details of an experience
based on what we think are worth remembering. So a speaker and a listener may not be able to
understand what one is talking about because both have different things in mind. Language, too,
is arbitrary. The words that we use may mean differently to different people
Poor listening
Having ears of our own does not necessarily mean we are good listeners. Listening is a skill that
needs harnessing. Sometimes, it is a matter of attitude; we are not just interested in what people
say because we may be more concerned with the way everyone looks. Focus on the message and
the sincerity to understand what another person is saying are crucial elements in good listening.
Emotional interference
One’s state of mind and psych has direct effect on how he/she communicate effectively and also
one’s ability to decode or understands and relate to a message being communicated. Emotional
and sentimental state of mind such as happiness, madness, excitement, agitation, nervousness, or
fearfulness constitutes critical barriers to engaging in effective communication. Emotions affect
the shape of communication. It is hard to be able to analyse issues objectively when you are very
emotional. You may not be able to think more realistically and truthfully about the content of the
message being sent or received.
Cultural differences
Nationality, age, education, social status, economic position, and religion are just some of the
sources of cultural differences. If you share very little life experience with your co-
communicator, successful communication may be difficult to achieve. The same difficulty may
be experienced in the workplace: even the sight of your boss might create a certain distance that
will make communication an agonizing experience. Much worse is when you do not know how
to deal with the boss; this is because different cultures deal with power relations differently.
Physical distraction
Of course, everything around may be cause for some distraction: noise coming from vehicles,
faulty phone connection, unclear photocopy, loud music, poor lighting, and health problems,

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among others.. They may result in loss of concentration and failure to understand what is being
communicated by the other party. Physical distractions are the physical things that get in the way
of communication. These physical distractions are common on farms. If the phone rings, the
tendency is to answer it even if the caller is interrupting a very important or even delicate
conversation.
Two people talking facing each other without a desk or truck-door between them have a much
more open and personal sense of communication. Uncomfortable meeting places may include a
place on the farm that is too hot or too cold. Another example is a meeting room with
uncomfortable chairs that soon cause people to want to stand even if it means cutting short the
discussion. Noise is a physical distraction simply because it is hard to concentrate on a
conversation if hearing is difficult.
Other factors that also present barrier to effective communication include:

1. Muddled messages - Effective communication starts with a clear message. Contrast these two
messages: "Please be here about 7:00 tomorrow morning." "Please be here at
7:00 tomorrow morning." The one word difference makes the first message muddled and the
second message clear. Muddled messages are a barrier to communication because the sender
leaves the receiver unclear about the intent of the sender. Muddled messages have many causes.
The sender may be confused in his or her thinking. The message may be little more than a vague
idea. The problem may be semantics, e.g., note this muddled newspaper ad: "Dog for sale. Will
eat anything. Especially likes children. Call 888-3599 for more information."
Feedback from the receiver is the best way for a sender to be sure that the message is clear rather
than muddled. Clarifying muddled messages is the responsibility of the sender. The sender
hoping the receiver will figure out the message does little to remove this barrier to
communication.
2. Stereotyping - Stereotyping causes us to typify a person, a group, an event or a thing on

oversimplified conceptions, beliefs, or opinions. Stereotyping is a barrier to communication
when it causes people to act as if they already know the message that is coming from the sender
or worse, as if no message is necessary because "everybody already knows." Both senders and
listeners should continuously look for and address thinking, conclusions and actions based on
stereotypes.
3. Wrong channel - Variation of channels helps the receiver understand the nature and
importance of a message. Using a training video on cleaning practices helps new employees
grasp the importance placed on herd health.
Simple rules for selection of a channel cause more problems than they solve. In choice of a
channel, the sender needs to be sensitive to such things as the complexity of the message (good
morning versus a construction contract); the consequences of a misunderstanding (medication for
a sick animal versus a guess about tomorrow's weather); knowledge, skills and abilities of the
receiver (a new employee versus a partner in the business); and immediacy of action to be taken
from the message (instructions for this morning's work versus a plan of work for 2015).
4. Language - Words are not reality. Words as the sender understands them are combined with
the perceptions of those words by the receiver. Language represents only part of the whole. We
fill in the rest with perceptions. Trying to understand a foreign language easily demonstrates
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words not being reality. Being "foreign" is not limited to the language of another country. It can
be the language of another farm
5. Lack of feedback - Feedback is the mirror of communication. Feedback mirrors what the
sender has sent. Feedback is the receiver sending back to the sender the message as perceived.
Without feedback, communication is one-way. Feedback happens in a variety of ways. Asking a
person to repeat what has been said, e.g., repeat instructions, is a very direct way of getting
feedback. Feedback may be as subtle as a stare, a puzzled look, a nod, or failure to ask any
questions after complicated instructions have been given. Both sender and receiver can play an
active role in using feedback to make communication truly two-way.
Feedback should be helpful rather than hurtful. Prompt feedback is more effective that feedback
saved up until the "right" moment. Feedback should deal in specifics rather than generalities.
6. Poor listening skills - Listening is difficult. A typical speaker says about 125 words per
minute. The typical listener can receive 400-600 words per minute. Thus, about 75 percent of
listening time is free time. The free time often sidetracks the listener. The solution is to be an
active rather than passive listener.
One important listening skill is to be prepared to listen. Tune out thoughts about other people and
other problems. Search for meaning in what the person is saying. A mental outline or summary of
key thoughts can be very helpful. Avoid interrupting the speaker. "Shut up" is a useful listening
guideline. "Shut up some more" is a useful extension of this guideline. Withhold evaluation and
judgment until the other person has finished with the message. A listener's premature frown,
shaking of the head, or bored look can easily convince the other person there is no reason to
elaborate or try again to communicate his or her excellent idea.
7. Interruptions - The interruptions may be due to something more pressing, rudeness, lack of
privacy for discussion, a drop-in visitor, an emergency, or even the curiosity of someone else
wanting to know what two other people are saying. Regardless of the cause, interruptions are a
barrier to communication. In the extreme, there is a reluctance of farmers even to attempt
discussion with an extension officer because of the near certainty that the conversation will be
interrupted.
Facilitating Communication
In addition to removal of specific barriers to communication, the following general guidelines

may also facilitate communication.
1. Have a positive attitude about communication. Defensiveness interferes with communication.

2. Work at improving communication skills. It takes knowledge and work. The communication
model and discussion of barriers to communication provide the necessary knowledge. This
increased awareness of the potential for improving communication is the first step to better
communication.
3. Include communication as a skill to be evaluated along with all the other skills in each person's
job description. Help other people improve their communication skills by helping them
understand their communication problems.
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4. Make communication goal oriented. Relational goals come first and pave the way for other
goals. When the sender and receiver have a good relationship, they are much more likely to
accomplish their communication goals.
5. Approach communication as a creative process rather than simply part of the chore of working
with people. Experiment with communication alternatives. What works with one person may not
work well with another person. Vary channels, listening techniques, and feedback techniques.
6. Accept the reality of miscommunication. The best communicators fail to have perfect
communication. They accept miscommunication and work to minimize its negative
UNIT FOUR: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR CHANGE COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Behaviour change communication (BCC) is the strategic use of communication to promote
positive practices and actions, based on proven theories and models of behaviour change. BCC
employs a systematic process beginning with formative research and behaviour analysis,
followed by communication planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation.
Audiences are carefully segmented, messages and materials are pre-tested, and both mass media
and interpersonal channels are used to achieve defined behavioural objectives.
A clear understanding of behaviour change is critical in the appreciation of the concept of
behaviour change communication. For that matter, this unit begins by introducing students to the
concept and theories of behaviour change.
Objectives
After reading this unit, you are expected to:
 Understand what is mean by Behaviour change communication
 Appreciate the various theories or models of behaviour change
 Understand the role of communication in influencing behaviour change
 Understand the difference between information communication and behaviour change
communication
 Know the factors to consider in designing and BCC program
Behaviour Change Theory

Behavioural change theories and models are attempts to explain the reasons behind alterations
in individuals' behavioural patterns. These theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural
characteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been
increased interest in the application of these theories in the areas of health, education,
agricultural extension and rural development with the hope that understanding behavioural
change will improve the services offered in these areas.
Each behavioural change theory or model focuses on different factors in attempting to explain
behavioural change. Of the many that exist, the most prevalent are the learning theories, Social
Cognitive Theory, Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour, Transtheoretical Model
and the Health Action Process Approach

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Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is an individual's impression of their own ability to perform a demanding or

challenging task such as applying herbicide or undergoing surgery. This impression is based
upon factors like the individual's prior success in the task or in related tasks, the individual's
physiological state, and outside sources of persuasion. Self-efficacy is thought to be predictive of
the amount of effort an individual will expend in initiating and maintaining a behavioural
change, so although self-efficacy is not a behavioural change theory per se, it is an important
element of many of the theories, including the Health Belief Model, the Theory of Planned
Behaviour and the Health Action Process Approach.
Learning theories/behaviour analytic theories of change

From behaviourists like Burrhus Frederic Skinner come the learning theories, which state that
complex behaviour is learned gradually through the modification of simpler behaviours (learning
theory is dealt in entails in the next chapter). Imitation and reinforcement play important roles in
these theories, which state that individuals learn by duplicating behaviours they observe in others
and that rewards are essential to ensuring the repetition of desirable behaviour. As each simple
behaviour is established through imitation and subsequent reinforcement, the complex behaviour
develops. When verbal behaviour is established the organism can learn through rule-governed
behaviour and thus not all action needs to be contingency shaped. Research had established that
imitation play a critical role in the learning of language.
Social learning/social cognitive theory

According to the social learning theory, which is also known as the social cognitive theory,
behavioural change is determined by environmental, personal, and behavioural elements. As
shown in the figure 2.4 below, each factor affects each of the others. For example, in congruence
with the principles of self-efficacy, an individual's thoughts affect their behaviour and an
individual's characteristics elicit certain responses from the social environment. Likewise, an
individual's environment affects the development of personal characteristics as well as the
person's behaviour, and an individual's behaviour may change their environment as well as the
way the individual thinks or feels. Social learning theory focuses on the reciprocal interactions
between these factors, which are hypothesised to determine behavioural change.
The theory proposes that people are driven not by inner forces, but by external factors. This
model suggests that human functioning can be explained by a triadic interaction of behaviour,
personal and environmental factors. This is often known as reciprocal determinism.
Environmental factors represent situational influences and environment in which behaviour is
preformed while personal factors include instincts, drives, traits, and other individual
motivational forces.
Behaviour

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Personal factor Environmental
Figure 2.4: social cognitive model of behaviour change model
Theory of Reasoned Action

Theory of Reason Action suggests that behaviour is dependent on one’s intention to perform the
behaviour. Intention is determined by an individual’s attitude (beliefs and values about the
outcome of the behaviour) and subjective norms (beliefs about what other people think the
person should do or general social pressure). Behaviour is also determined by an individual’s
perceived behavioural control, defined as an individual’s perceptions of their ability or feelings
of self-efficacy to perform behaviour. This relationship is typically dependent on the type of
relationship and the nature of the situation.
The Theory of Reasoned Action assumes that individuals consider behaviour’s consequences
before performing the particular behaviour. As a result, intention is an important factor in
determining behaviour and behavioural change. According to Icek Ajzen, intentions develop
from an individual's perception of a behaviour as positive or negative together with the
individual's impression of the way their society perceives the same behaviour. Thus, personal
attitude and social pressure shape intention, which is essential to performance of a behaviour and
consequently behavioural change.
Attitude
toward the
behaviour
Subjective
norm Intention Behaviour
Perceived
behavioral
control
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Figure 2.5: Reasoned Action Model of behaviour change
Theory of Planned Behaviour

In 1985, Ajzen expanded upon the theory of reasoned action, formulating the Theory of Planned
Behaviour, which also emphasises the role of intention in behaviour performance but is intended
to cover cases in which a person is not in control of all factors affecting the actual performance
of a behaviour. As a result, the new theory states that the incidence of actual behaviour
performance is proportional to the amount of control an individual possesses over the behaviour
and the strength of the individual's intention in performing the behaviour. In his article, Ajzen
further hypothesises that self-efficacy is important in determining the strength of the individual's
intention to perform a behaviour.
Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model

According to the Transtheoretical Model, which is also known as the Stages of Change Model,
behavioural change is a five-step process. The five stages, between which individuals may
oscillate before achieving complete change, are Precontemplation, contemplation,
preparation, action, and maintenance.
Precontemplation At the Precontemplation stage, an individual may or may not be aware of

a problem but has not thought of changing their behaviour. From
Precontemplation to contemplation, the individual develops a desire to
Contemplation change a behaviour. Precontemplation is the stage in which people are
not intending to make a change in the near future (often defined as the
next 6 months). Contemplation is the stage where people intend to
Preparation change (within the next 6 months). People in this stage are aware of the
pros of changing but also can identify the cons. Preparation represents
the stage where people have a plan of action and intend to take action in
Action the immediate future (within a month). Action is the stage in which
people make the behaviour change and maintenance represents the stage
where people work to prevent relapse.
Finally, termination represents that stage where individuals have 100
Maintenance percent efficacy and will maintain their behaviour. This stage is the most
difficult to maintain, so many people remain a lifetime in maintenance.
Termination
Figure 2.6: Transtheoretical Model

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How can this theory inform your practice?
 It is essential to match behaviour change interventions to people’s stages. For example, if
an individual is in the Precontemplation stage it is important to raise their awareness
about a behaviour in order for them to contemplate making a behaviour change.
 Without a planned intervention, people will remain stuck in the early stages due to a lack
of motivation to move through the stages.
 Consciousness-Raising — increasing awareness of the causes (providing educational
materials, confrontation, media campaigns, feedback, etc.)
 Dramatic Relief — producing an emotional experience which is followed by a reduced
affect if some action can be taken (personal testimonies, media campaigns, drama)
 Self-reevaluation — inviting individuals to make cognitive and emotional assessments of
their self image (clarify values, provide healthy models, using imagery)
 Environmental reevaluation — assessments of how the presence or absence of a
behaviour might impact one’s social environment (documentaries, personal stories,
family interventions)
Behaviour Change Communication (BCC)

Recent findings in research and development have given a strong indication that, for any impact
of research and technology to be felt in the lives of rural people extension and development
communication practitioners should move from Information, Education Communication (IEC) to
Behaviour Change Communication (BCC).
The terms BCC and IEC are commonly used. What exactly do they mean and what is the
difference between BCC and IEC?
Information, Education and Communication:
IEC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to:
- develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate to
their settings.
Behaviour Change Communication”

BCC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to:
- develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate to
their settings; AND
- provide a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate and sustain positive
behaviours.
What is the difference between BCC and IEC?

Experience has shown that providing people with information and telling them how they should
behave (“teaching” them) is not enough to bring about behaviour change. While providing
information to help people to make a personal decision is a necessary part of behaviour change,
BCC recognizes that behaviour is not only a matter of having information and making a personal
choice. Behaviour change also requires a supportive environment. Recalling the behaviour
change model, we learned that behaviour is influenced by community and society. Yet
community and society provide the supportive environment necessary for behaviour change. IEC

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is thus part of BCC while BCC builds on IEC.
Designing BCC program

Before designing a BCC intervention, it is important to be clear about exactly whose behaviour is
to be influenced and which aspect of their behaviour should be the focus for change.
Communities are made up of different groups with different resource endearment, risk and
vulnerability factors. Even within the same broad group, there may be subgroups with distinct
socio-economic characteristics. Different target groups will require different approaches.
Therefore, when making decisions about which target groups and which factors to address, it is
necessary to consider:
 which target groups are most vulnerable;

 which risk / vulnerability factors are most important;
 which target groups and risk / vulnerability factors the community wants to address;
 what could be motivators for behaviour change;
 what could be barriers to behaviour change;
 what type of messages will be meaningful to each target group;
 which communication media would best reach the target group;
 which services/resources are accessible to the target group;
 Which target groups and risk / vulnerability factors are feasible in terms of expertise,
resources and time.
 What be the feedback mechanism
 How will progress be monitored and evaluated
A successful BCC program requires careful research and thorough pre-testing of communication
materials. It is important not to underestimate the effort that is needed to carry out good quality
behavioural research, which yields findings that are accurate and useful.
“…Research and proper planning form the foundation of an effective communication campaign.
Knowing the needs of the population and the best means of reaching that audience are crucial in
achieving the goal of raising awareness and, ultimately, changing attitudes and behaviours…The
key is to determine the needs and desires of the audience, then deliver messages and products
that offer real benefits. (AIDSCAP Electronic library.)
SUMMARY
The main points in this chapter are:
The process of communication is fundamental to extension, training and passing on information.
In general, communication can be defined as: That situation in which a source transmits a
message to a receiver with conscious intent to affect the latter’s behaviour
The communication process consists of six important elements, they include: Source/sender,
Message, Channel/medium, Receiver, Effect and Feedback. Communication barriers are usually
due to a number of factors: (1) differences in perception and language, (2) Poor listening, (3)
Emotional interference, (4) Cultural differences, (5) Physical distraction
BCC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to develop

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communication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate to their settings
AND provide a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate and sustain positive
behaviours.
CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt the meaning of communication and the important elements that
comprises the communication process. Other areas discussed here include communication
models and its comparison. From these discussions, you now know that communication is
something we encounter everyday in our lives.
CHAPTERTHREE
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN EXTENSION
Introduction
Teaching simply connotes imparting knowledge or skills. Teaching is both a science and art of
imparting knowledge, skills and practice aim at influence behaviour of learners. Extension
teaching is special aspects of adult education in which the concept and principle of adult teaching
and learning applied in assisting farmers adopt appropriate innovation to help improve standard
of living of rural people.
UNIT ONE: THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you would be able to:
 Understand the meaning of extension teaching
 Identify steps in extension teaching
 How to motivate learners as an extension worker
What is Extension Teaching?

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Various psychologists defined teaching in different ways: Teaching is commonly defined as an
intimate contact between a more mature personality, and a less mature one, which is designed to
further the education of the latter. Teaching is an interactive process primarily involving
classroom talk, which takes place between teacher and pupil, and occurs during certain definable
activities. Teaching is a task of a teacher, which is performed for the development of a child.
The above definitions depict a more formalized way of looking at teaching in a narrow
classroom situation. The concept of teaching as applied within the context of rural development
transcend beyond a narrow classroom situation and a more formalize manner guided by a pre
determined syllabus and curriculum. Teaching in the context of extension and development can
be thought of as providing purposeful direction, and, the management of the learning process.
Note that extension teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to people or communities; but
assisting rural people to produce relatively permanent change through their engagement in
learning experiences. Society, they say is dynamic, so rural people are constantly undergoing
changes in the way they do things through learning and experience. So it the duty of extension
and development workers to help manage this process by providing opportunity for rural people
to improve on their livelihood activities and standard of living through learning experience.
Steps in Extension Teaching

The following steps are involved in the extension teaching process as shown in the Figure 3.1
Attention, Interest, Desire, Conviction, Action and Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Action
Conviction
Desire
Interest
Attention
Fig. 3.1: Steps in Extension Teaching (Wilson and Gallup, 1955)
Attention: The first task as an extension and development professional is to attract the attention
of people to new and better ideas for development. People are to be made aware until their
attention is focused on the desirable development change. Therefore, attention is the starting

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point to arousal of the interest. Research findings suggest that the attention of people is attracted
by various senses in the following proportions (Reddy, 1998):
Seeing - 87.0%
Hearing - 7.0%
Smell - 3.5 %
Touch - 1.5 %
Taste - 1 .0 %,
The famous extension saying is, 'seeing is believing '. Thus, seeing and hearing are the major
senses involved to attract attention and increase learning.
Interest: Once attention is captured, extension and development professionals can bring the
audience's attention to developmental needs and arouse their interest in further consideration of
ideas. Extension and development professionals should make them understand how development
contributes to the overall wellbeing of the total community.
Desire: It concerns about the continuation of the audience's interest in the developmental ideas
or better practices, until that interest becomes a desire, or, a motivating force.
Conviction: In this step, people know what action is necessary and just how to take that action.
The extension worker also makes sure that people visualize the action in terms of their own
situation and acquire confidence in their own ability to participate in the people-centred
developmental initiatives.
Action: Unless this conviction is converted into action, the efforts of extension for development
will go unrewarded. It is the job of extension and development agents to make it easy for the
people to act. For example, if the adoption of a new high yielding maize variety is the action
needed by farmers, that variety should be available within the reach of farming communities
along with other recommended package of practices. If the action does not quickly follow desire
and conviction, the new idea may fade away. Therefore, this phase should never be ignored.
Satisfaction: Satisfaction is the end product of extension teaching process. Follow up by

extension and development workers helps people to learn and evaluate the development
progress.
Motivation in Extension Teaching
The job of extension practitioners entails creating situation and opportunity for farmers to learn
improve practice of farming through instructional and communication process. Therefore,
knowing what motivate their clients is very imperative if the practitioners are to be successful
their profession. Motivation is a concept that helps explain why people think and behave as they
do.

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Motivating adult learners is a key concept for adult programs in agricultural extension education.
As defined by Wlodkowski (1999) “Motivation is the natural human capacity to direct energy in
the pursuit of a goal.” A low level of motivation can be detrimental to how much a learner gains
from a program. However, educational and rural development research is more focused on the
teaching methods that ensue after the learner is motivated. As a result, knowledge of how to
arouse and maintain student interest in learning lags far behind the knowledge of how to
facilitate learning once the student has the desire to learn. However, facilitators of an adult
education program can encourage and enhance a learner’s motivation and help the learner come
out from a program with the knowledge and skills they need.
Types of Motivation
Rienties et al, (2009) identified three categories of motivating learners. These are; intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation and a-motivation. However, other available literature points
to the first two as being the only distinct type of motivation for adult learner.
Intrinsic motivation is an internal energy called forth by circumstances that connect with what
is culturally significant to the person. In other words, intrinsic motivation relates to those things
that are near and dear to the learners because of their values, beliefs, or circumstances.
Motivation is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development because it is
through acting on one’s inherent interests that one grows in knowledge and skills” With intrinsic
motivation, the desire to learn is based on reward of personal fulfillment without external or
material incentives.
Intrinsic motivation therefore refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in

the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.
Learners are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
 attribute their educational results to factors under their own control

o believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are
not determined by luck),
o are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good
grades.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are
rewards like money, farm inputs, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition in general is
extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity. Here, the learner engages in learning as a means to an end and not
engaged for its own sake. When a person is extrinsically motivated to learn, factors outside
personal interest of the learner are the driving factor behind motivation.
Hancock’s (1994) observed that a learner’s motivation can be derived from one of three attitudes
the learner possess about a program. These attitudes can either be a person’s expectancy,
instrumentality, or valence. Expectancy relates to a learner’s initial confidence and attitude

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toward a program. It is a learner’s expectation of how well they will accomplish the program.
Instrumentality regards rewards for certain behaviours. It is “a person’s subjective estimation of
the likelihood that a particular behaviour will be rewarded.
Theories of Motivation
Incentive theory
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behaviour)
with the intent to cause the behaviour to occur again. This is done by associating positive
meaning to the behaviour. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the
effect is greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can
cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people.
These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively as
explained above.
Incentive theory treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by
beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is
promoted by behavioural psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner and literalized by behaviourists,
especially by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviourism, to mean that a person's actions
always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to
act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in that manner.
Drive-reduction theories
There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept
that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes, the strength of the drive
increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength
is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of
feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
Other theories which provide theoretical explanation of learning motivation include cognitive
dissonance theory, Maslow hierarchy of need theory, Herzber hygiene theory among others.
Principles of motivating Learners
Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation.
1. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what needs to be
learned.
Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will promote
persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will be successful
in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice
equipment, motivate learners by capturing their attention and curiosity.
2. Incentives motivate learning.

Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The instructor
determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a particular time. In a

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general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students
must find satisfaction in learning based on the understanding that the goals are useful to
them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things.
3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external

motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.
Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults -- have little
capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced constantly. The use of
incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student
experiences feelings of satisfaction. Caution should be exercised in using external
rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline
in internal motivation.
4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one
wants to know something.
Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructor's role is to
encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the instructor may
need to supervised directly to ensure that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not
ready to learn, he or she may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must
be supervised and have the instructions repeated again and again.
5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.

In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the individual.
One method of organization includes relating new tasks to those already known. Other ways
to relay meaning are to determine whether the persons being taught understand the final
outcome desired and instruct them to compare and contrast ideas.
None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are realistic for the
learner. The basic learning principle involved is that success is more predictably motivating than
is failure. Ordinarily, people will choose activities of intermediate uncertainty rather than those
that are difficult (little likelihood of success) or easy (high probability of success). For goals of
high value there are fewer tendencies to choose more difficult conditions. Having learners assist
in defining goals increases the probability that they will understand them and want to reach them.
However, students sometimes have unrealistic notions about what they can accomplish. Possibly
they do not understand the precision with which a skill must be carried out or have the depth of
knowledge to master some material. To identify realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in
assessing a student's readiness or a student's progress toward goals.
UNIT TWO: LEARNING IN EXTENSION
Introduction

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In unit one of this chapter, we discussed the concept of teaching in extension. The concept of
learning is closely associated with teaching. To learn means to gain or acquire knowledge
through experience. Learning refers to the change in a subject's behaviour, or acquisition of
potential to act or behave in response to the subject encounter or experience given the situation.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, students would be able to:
 To understand what mean by learning

 Factors influencing learning
 Understand the general principles of adult learning
 The role of learning in behaviour change
Learning Defined
In broad terms, the concept of learning is very difficult to have a conclusive, universally
acceptable and all embracing definition which takes on board all the various theoretical
viewpoints that have been put forward to explain the concept of learning. For instance, whereas
Marx (1971) as cited in Amissah et al, (2009) as a behaviourist defines learning as ‘a relative
enduring (permanent) change in behaviour or experience’ . Wittock (1977) again cited in
Amissah et al, (2009) belong to cognitivist tradition sees learning as “a process of acquiring a
relatively permanent information, ability and skills through experience’.
In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or
making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004).
It is a common thing to hear learning being looked at as a processing of acquiring knowledge,

skills, and forming habit, values and behaviour. “Some people believe that learning comprises of
the process by which we use our senses, experience, memory and intelligence to acquire much
behaviour, many habits, and customs all values, knowledge and skills, both mental and
muscular” (Amissah et al, 2009; 69).
Chauhan (1991) as cited in Amissah et al, (2009) defines the concept of learning as the means to
bring changes in the behaviour of organism, while Gagne (1977) puts it as a change in man
deposition or capacity which endure over a period of time and which is not simply ascribable to
the processes of growth.
In all, regardless of which theoretical viewpoint, all known definitions of learning seem to point
to the fact that it is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience.
Issues involved in the Definition of learning

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i. Learning must involve a change in behaviour: thus learning which inherent
in the organism is observable through overt change in behaviour of the
organism. This means after learning, the organism is, or must be capable of
doing something that it could not do before the learning experience or activity.
It may be asserted then that the process or mechanism of learning is a
psychological construction which cannot be observed directly, but the
evidence that learning has occurred can be inferred from the change in the
organism’s behaviour (Amissah et al, 2009).
ii. The behaviour change is relatively permanent: that is, the change should be
enduring and neither transitory nor fixed. As observed by Gagne (1977) that
learning is a change in man deposition or capacity which endure over a period
of time and which is not simply ascribable to the processes of growth.
Changes resulting from man’s physiological or chronological processes such
as changes in behaviour as a result of fatigue, drugs, and maturational
processes cannot be attributed to learning.
iii. The change in behaviour needs not occur immediately following the
experience: thus learning may result in the acquisition of capacity or
deposition to act or response to a stimuli or situation in way that one was not
initially capable of doing, but such acquired capacity might not necessarily
result in immediate change in behaviour. Although there may be a potential to
act differently, this potential to act may not be translated into behaviour
immediately.
iv. The change in behaviour should result of experience or practice: the

ability to act in a certain way or response differently to stimuli which from
learning is a product of experience or practice. Studying, experiencing and
practicing are some of the means of learning and hence any change in
behaviour as a result of learning is a product of experience or practice.
v. The experience or practice must be reinforced: thus only responses that pay
off or reward will be repeated (reinforced) and hence learnt. Notwithstanding
some learning can take place without reinforcement or reward.
General Principles of Adult Learning
Agricultural extension education, being a specialized form of adult education in agriculture and
rural livelihood in general, adopt and applied the concept and principles of adult education in
accomplishing desirable change and improvement in the lives of rural people. Therefore being an
effective instructor involves understanding how adults learn best. Compared to children and
teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Despite the growing interest and
recognition, adult learning is a relatively new area of study. The field of adult learning was
pioneered by Malcom Knowles. He identified the following characteristics of adult learners:
 Adults are autonomous and self-directed. Adults need to be free to direct themselves
without any compulsory. If any at all, they must be appeal to rather than compel.

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Therefore extension educators must actively involve participants, who are mostly adults
in the learning process and serve as facilitators rather than teacher as it is in a formal
classroom situation. Specifically, they must get participants' perspectives about what
topics to cover and let them work on projects that reflect their interests. They should
allow the participants to assume responsibility for presentations and group leadership.
They have to be sure to act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge
rather than supplying them with facts. Finally, they must demonstrate to participants or
learners how positively the learning process will impact on their lives.
 Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may
include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. They
need to connect learning to this knowledge/experience base. To help them do so, they
should draw out participants' experience and knowledge which is relevant to the topic.
They must relate theories and concepts to the participants and recognize the value of
experience in learning.
 Adults are goal-oriented. Adult do not engage in learn process just because they want to
explore or for the fun of it. They will only embark on a learning process if they know that
it will help them deal with certain asperse of their lives or enable them perform better
their work or profession. They, therefore, appreciate an educational program that is
organized and has clearly defined elements. Instructors must show participants how this
learning process will help them attain their goals. This classification of goals and course
objectives must be done early in the course.
 Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning
has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them.
Therefore, instructors must identify objectives for adult participants before the course
begins. This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar
to participants. This need can be fulfilled by letting participants choose projects that
reflect their own interests.
 Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their
work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake. Instructors must tell
participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to them on the job.
 As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must acknowledge the
wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom. These adults should
be treated as equals in experience and knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions
freely in class.

UNIT THREE: LEARNING THEORY
Introduction
Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of
what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how
people and animals learn. These theorists help us gain a deeper understanding of the inherently
complex process of learning.
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Objectives:
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Explain the various theories of learning

 Appreciate the point of view of the behaviourists and the cognitivists
 Distinguish the difference between the various theories
 Differentiate between classical and operant conditioning as it relate to learning
 Relate the various theories to extension teaching and learning
Learning Theory
Learning theories have two main values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with
vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we
observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The
theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are
crucial in finding solutions.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall:
Behaviourism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism. Behaviourism focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behaviour to explain
brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner
actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
Behaviourist Learning Theory
Behaviourism is a school of psychology that focuses on the observable, measurable aspects of

experience and that, educationally, is stimulus-response based.
Behaviourism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay "Memory"
focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other
philosophers that followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820),
Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). The behaviourists can also be referred to as
Stimulus – Response (S-R) theorists, Associationists and Connectionists or Connectivists. The
behaviourist explains learning as the process of establishing bonds or connection or association
between stimuli and response.
The theory of behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviour that can be observed
and measured. It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be
observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the
mind. Some key players in the development of the behaviourist theory were Pavlov, Watson,

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Thorndike and Skinner. What characterize these investigators are their common underlying
assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be
true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behaviour. Second, the environment shapes
behaviour. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a
bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will
be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviourism, learning is the
acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning. Below are some of the experiments of the
behavioural theorists.
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
A Russian physiologist by name Ivan Pavlov discovered the classical conditioning by accident at
the beginning of the twentieth century. Pavlov was studying digestive process of dogs when he
observed that dogs salivated (drooled) before they received their food. On further
experimentation, Pavlov used a bell and meat powder as food. Before giving the dog food Pavlov
used to ring the bell and follow it with the food. He then measure the how much the dog drool
(salivary response of the dog). On continue bases the bell was ring before the food is presented.
At first, the dog did not salivate or drooled when the bell was rung until the food is presented
before it begun salivating. However, upon a several pairing of the ringing of the bell and
presentation of food, the dog began to salivate when the sound of the bell is presented. Pavlov
explained that the dog learns to establish connection or association between the sound of the bell
and presentation of food and hence it begins responding to the sound of the bell (by drooling) as
though it was a natural stimulus of that of food. Upon further observation, Pavlov realized that
even when he took away the meat powder the dog start to salivate at the sound of the bell. This
observation revealed that, as far as the dog’s immediate physiological responses were concerned,
the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation of the food. Pavlov coined this
phenomenon ‘psychic secretions’. He noted that the dog was not only responding to a biological
need of hunger, but also a need developed by learning. This association of learning is called
classical conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
1) Classical Conditioning, where the behaviour becomes a reflex response to stimulus

as in the case of Pavlov’s s Dogs. Thus in classical conditioning, an organism learns
to associate one stimulus with another. The organism learns that the first stimulus is a
cue for the second stimulus. Pavlov in his dog – bell experiment was interested in
studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus.
Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. There are three phases of
classical conditioning. These are a) unconditioned phase, b) conditioning phase and c)
conditioned phase.
In the unconditioned phase the food which is unconditioned stimulus elicits salivation
when presented and this response is unconditioned response. With conditioning
phase; the process of pairing of food (unconditioned stimuli) and the sound of the bell
(neutral stimulus at the beginning) resulting in the dog associating the sound of the

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bell with presentation of food. While the conditioned phase illustrate the time when
the bell acquires the attributes of food by association in the psych of the dog thereby
eliciting the same response as that of the food.
2) Operant Conditioning: where there is reinforcement of the behaviour by a reward or
a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner and
is known as Radical Behaviourism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which
behaviour ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behaviour may result either in
reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring, or
punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring. It is important
to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in the
reduction of the behaviour, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are
determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviourists are
particularly interested in measurable changes in behaviour. Since behaviourists view
the learning process as a change in behaviour, educators arrange the environment to
elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioural objectives, competency
-based education, and skill development and training. Some key concepts in operant
conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows.

There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favourable events or outcomes that are
presented after the behaviour. In situations that reflect positive
reinforcement, a response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of
something, such as praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavourable events or
outcomes after the display of a behaviour. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by
application, involves the presentation of an unfavourable event or outcome
in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs
when a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behaviour occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.
Thorndike’s Instrumental learning (trial error) Theory
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 - 1949), a professor of psychology is one of the well acclaimed
behaviourists. He perform an investigation usually refers to as a ‘puzzle box’ experiments from
which he formulated his theory of learning known as Instrumental Learning or Trial and Error –
success learning.

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In his experiment, a hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box and a plate of meat was placed
outside the box. An observation was made to see how the cat finds its way out of the box in order
to eat the meat. The cat’s initial attempt to find its way out of the box was more random. In its
efforts of randomly struggling to get out of the box, the cat accidently step on latch which is
designed to open the box when press. It then opens for the cat to access the meat. On subsequent
trials, the cat’s behaviour became less random as it focused on the part of the box where the latch
is located. Hence the escape time of the cat increasingly decreases until it eventually operated
the release as soon as it is put in the box.
Thorndike then concluded that animals learn through active behaviour, accidents, and through
chance to success. Through trial and error, the stimuli (S) or the puzzle box were connected with
the response (R) which brought about the release. This type of learning is Instrumental.
Instrumental behaviours are learned behaviours that serve a purpose. They are instrumental in
helping someone to obtain a desire goal.
Based on the findings of his experiment, Thorndike formulated three laws which he believed
governed the learning of both animals and human.
 The law of Effect: this law states that when a response is followed by a feeling of
satisfaction, it is likely to be repeated in a similar situation. In the other hand, responses
which elicit little or no satisfaction would not be repeated or will be less likely to be repeated.
The law of effect is based on the emotional reaction of human and animals. It has a direct
relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling. The learner will strive to continue doing what provides
a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success
and motivate the learner, so the instructor (extension agent) should recognize and commend
improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the
learners positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.
 The law of Exercise: The law of exercise states that those things most often repeated are
best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn
best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The
key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement
only when it is followed by positive feedback. The human memory is fallible. The mind can
rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students
do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they have been
told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall,
review and summary and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create
learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable
interval, and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this
process is directed toward a goal.

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 The law of Readiness: Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness.
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and
they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn,
creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental
or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If students have a strong
purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more
progress than if they lack motivation. When students are ready to learn, they meet the
instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor’s job. Since learning is an active
process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic needs of
students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are
exhausted or in ill health obviously cannot learn much. If outside responsibilities, interests, or
worries weigh too heavily on their minds, if their schedules are overcrowded, or if their
personal problems seem insoluble, students may have little interest in learning.
Skinner started his experimentation on the behaviour of animals at the beginning of 1930’s.
Skinner was interested in studying the relationship between stimuli and response. His main
focus was to find answer to why these animals behaved the way that they do. Skinner
performed his experiments using a controlled mechanised box which was latter refer to as
‘skinner box’. A Skinner box typically contains one or more levers which an animal can
press, one or more stimulus lights and one or more places in which reinforcers like food can
be delivered. The animal's presses on the levers can be detected and recorded and a
contingency between these presses, the state of the stimulus lights and the delivery of
reinforcement can be set up, all automatically. It is also possible to deliver other reinforcers
such as water or to deliver punishers like electric shock through the floor of the chamber.
Other types of response can be measured - nose-poking at a moving panel, or hopping on a
treadle - both often used when testing birds rather than rats. And of course all kinds of
discriminative stimuli may be used. Below is illustration of a pigeon in a Skinner box.
Figure 3.2: Skinner Box Experiment
To establish operant behaviour or learning, a starved pigeon was placed in the skinner’s box
and allows operate by itself its new environment. The pigeon after a random peaking for a
while eventually pressed the lever and a food pellet was delivered. Each time the lever was
pressed it was recorded, and after a time Skinner noted that the pigeon pressed the lever more
frequently to obtain the food pellets. According to Skinner, the pigeon has learned to operate
on the environment to obtain a reward.

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Skinner hypothesed that human behaviours were controlled by rewards and punishment and
that behaviour can be explained by principle of operant conditioning. Skinner further
claimed that most human behaviours appear to be emitted and not elicited by stimuli, he
called respondents. Skinner also called operant learning as instrumental learning, just like
Thorndike.
John Watson theory of learning
John Watson:
Watson in his publication entitled ‘psychology as the behaviourist views it’ — sometimes called
"The Behaviourist Manifesto" in 1913 in which called for emphasis to be placed on external
behaviour of people and their response on given situations or stimuli, rather than the internal,
mental cognition process of those people. Watson called for the use of scientific objectivity and
experiment in the study of psychological phenomena such as learning rather than the
retrospective analysis.
With regard to his theory of learning, he proposed a law of frequency and the law of recency. The
laws are:
The law or principle of Frequency; the more frequent a stimulus and response to occur
in association with each other, the stronger that habit will become."
The law of recency: "The response that has most recently occurred after a particular
stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus." In other words,
the principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a learner is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding,
the more difficult it is to remember.
Cognitive Theory of Learning
Behaviourists have been criticized for being too dependent on overt or observable behaviour in
explaining learning in the 1920s by Gestalt psychologists such as Bode. Gestalt psychologists
laid emphasis on looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning
constitute antecedent of the views of explaining learning that have been labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underpin this cognitive approach of explaining how people learn:
(1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior
knowledge plays an important role in learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider
how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of
sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are
important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major difference between
Gestaltists and behaviourists is the locus of control over the learning activity: the individual
learner is more key to Gestaltists than the environment that behaviourists emphasize.

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Constructivism
The learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey serve as the
foundation of constructivist learning theory. Constructivism views learning as a process in which
the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past
knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge
from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endevour,
whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a
practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism. Social constructivists
posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about
shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to
a culture by more skilled members".
Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and
knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free
exploration within a given framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who
encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by
working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed
learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective
practice and religious practice.
Implication of learning Theory
Learning theories are the basic materials which are usually applied in all educational and training
activities. The more one understands learning theories, the better he or she will be able to make
decisions and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviourists, the cognitivists, and the
constructivist emphasize different aspects of the teaching-learning process in their approaches.
While the behaviourists stress external conditions (environment) resulting in observations and
measurable changes in behaviour, the cognitivists are more concerned with how the mind works
(mental processes such as coding, categorizing, and representing information in memory). In
extension systems, effective training must be able to take care of all the theories of learning in
order to change the action, belief, and knowledge components of a trainee simultaneously.
These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Aspects of cognitivism
can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory
as related to age.
Educators employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as internal mental
process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception) where in order to
develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the educator structures content of
learning activities to focus on building intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive
development.
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Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning,
experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.
UNIT FOUR: EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Experience is “the adult learners’ living textbook" as it provides the bases for judging new ideas
and conceptualizing new concepts. Because of it role in influencing adult learning emphasis is
placed on experience by extension educators.
Experiential learning came about through the efforts of those noted scholars such as Dewey,
Rogers, Jung, Piaget, and Kolb. According to Rogers, there are two primary types of learning
environments. These are Cognitive and experiential. Cognitive refers to a learning process
whereby delivered instruction such as vocabulary, geography, and history is memorized and later
regurgitated for standardized testing purposes. Experiential learning however relates to
information that is processed and practiced by the learners in such a way that learning occurs in
more than one learning style.
Each of these learning styles involves the senses of the individual, and not all individuals learn
best through the same ways as others.
Visual learners effectively retain information presented to them in any of the

visual stimuli that are available. Overhead transparencies, traditional chalk boards and
marker boards, and all of the electronic educational aids found in education allow individuals
with this learning style an optimum way of information retention.
Auditory learners retain the information they desire through methods of
instruction that target the hearing process. Auditory activities such as discussion of topics
among colleague farmers, instructor facilitating discussion, and the nuances of human
speech, allows for the ideal stimulation of this learner.
Kinesthetic learners do not see a relevance to information that they cannot
learn through a hands on process or practice. This learning style lends itself as the ideal
learning environment for those who become distracted easily if they do not find ownership in
the educational process.
Components of Experiential Learning

There is a popular saying "What a man hears, he may doubt; what he sees, he may possibly
doubt, but what he does, he cannot doubt". Nothing truer describes the benefits of experiential
learning. This model of learning allows learners the opportunity to experience their education in
a “hands on” enriched environment whereby their learning takes on a meaning that they can
relate to. By utilizing this conceptual model, adults advance through five steps to fully learn new
skills and knowledge. Extension has always had a rich history of "learning by doing." Extension
professional also work through the experiential learning process. The learning process in
experiential learning is divided into five basic steps
1. Concrete experience (Doing): Here learners are first allowed to experience the learning
opportunity through a “hands on minds on” approach. This step allows the individual an

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opportunity to explore and discern all of the aspects of the learning situation that they are
participating in. Concrete experience called for an opportunity to engage learners in an
investigation through an activity of some kind but is done with little or no help from the
facilitator/teacher. However, the experience must include defined learning objectives.
Experiential learning posits that it is not important that the quantity or quality of an
experiential experience is certain, but what the student learns from the experience is of
the most importance. Being the first step in the learning process, if nothing involving the
steps of progression occurs after this point, then the learning is purely cognitive and
considered to be useless.
2. Share or Reflection (What happened?): The following step of the process known as
share or reflection, involves the learner in describing what they have learned through the
experience. By relating their thoughts and ideas with the rest of their colleague learners,
then their experience becomes cemented in, and it is through this process that the learners
can reflect on what they discovered and relate it to past experiences and cognitively store
the information for future use. With this step the learned information is then ready to be
used in the final step of the learning process.
3. Process or Application (What's important?) The third step of the experiential learning
process involves processing the experience. When the learners are allowed to analyze
their experiences and relate them to future educational opportunities, then they are
successfully able to relate the experience to future targeted learning experiences.
Application follows the experience and reflection components of experiential learning
and provides opportunities for learners to apply new knowledge to authentic situations in
order to help deepen and extend their understanding.
4. Generalize/Abstrac/Conceptualization (So what?) The generalization step of the

experiential learning process allows the learner to relate the learned course of action to
future real life situations. This step allows an opportunity for the learner to apply what
they have learned in the future for situations that may relate to this particular learning
experience.
5. Apply/Active Experimentation (Now what?) Finally the learner applies what has been
learned to solve a particular real life challenge and through that the cycle starts over and
true experiential learning has occurred.

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Figure 3.3: Steps in experiential learning process
Making Effective Learning Experiences
Extension programmes and project use teaching and learning techniques in accomplishing
educational changes such as knowledge, skills and attitude of their clients. Therefore deciding on
learning experiences that are effective and most likely to help the learner attain the objectives
specified for the extension programme is imperative in achieving the set goals. There are several
useful research-based guidelines to make learning experiences effective, irrespective of methods
employed by extension and development workers. It is important, therefore, that the following
guidelines be considered by extension and development workers in setting up learning
experiences.
i) Learners must have experiences that give them an opportunity to practice the kinds of
behaviour implied by the objective: when extension and practice is the most effective way for
effectively developing skills. Example: livestock extension specialist can teach a trainee
Livestock Village Worker how to administer injections or vaccine to animal, but only through
continued practice will the trainee become skilled in this.
ii) Learning experiences implied by an objective must be satisfying to the learner when he or, she
carries them out. Example: Not only is it important that people be asked to practice a particular
cropping system by explaining the benefits, to farmers but if they find it satisfying in terms of
convenience. If they first try the cropping system and find the experience unsatisfying, the
expected learning is not likely to take place, and the practice is not likely to be continued.
iii) Outcomes expected from the learning experience should be within the range of both mental
and physical abilities of the learner: Extension teaching must begin where the learner is. There
must be time, opportunity, financial resources, and necessary materials available for action by the

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learner. If the learning experience involves the kind of action which the person is not yet able to
make, then it fails in its purpose. The extension teachers need to know much about their learners'
economic, social, and physical situation to avoid drawbacks.
iv) Many learning experiences can be used to attain the same educational objective: There could
be a number of experiences that could be used to attain a good objective. This is one of the most
fortunate aspects of the educational process.
v) A single learning experience can contribute to the attainment of more than one objective: This
fact also is fortunate for those who attempt to promote learning. Example: While collecting
livestock census, a livestock extension worker concurrently observes the socio-economic
conditions of farmers, availability of salt lick and fodder, health of the animals, and their
interrelationships for Livestock development.
vi) Learning experiences must be such that the extension worker can provide them effectively: If
an instructor is unable to master his, or, her method, or, technology, or teaching aids, s(he) is
professionally incompetent to provide an effective learning experience. Example: if an extension
worker attempts to use the campaign method to disseminate family planning measures and is not
successful as a campaign leader, s (he) is not likely to provide an effective learning experience
for the learners.
Learning Situation
A learning situation is a condition or, an environment in which all the elements necessary for
promoting learning are present. These elements are given below.
i) Learner (farmers/community/beneficiaries of development)
ii) Instructor (extension and development worker)
iii) Subject matter (development ideas useful to the community)
iv) Physical facilities (appropriate environment)
v) Teaching methods and aids (instructional material)
As an instructor, the role of the extension and development worker is to manipulate the other
four elements so that the learners have an effective learning experience

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Figure 3.4: Interactions of elements of learning
Learner
As depicted in the diagram above, you can understand that the learner is the central element in
the learning situation, since the entire purpose is to make him or her learn. Learning on the part
of learner, therefore, becomes the objective, while the other four elements become the means for
achieving this end. Learning by learners depends upon their:
 need for information
 interest
 level of aspiration
 nature and level of understanding
 capability to attach desired meanings
 ability to use information.
Instructor
The quality of the learning will depend upon the quality of the conditions created by the
instructor. A successful extension and development worker or instructor is one who takes into
account the following important considerations:
 selection of learning experiences that suit the abilities and needs of the learners, and the
needs of the community at large
 skill in the use of extension methods and aids
 understanding of learners, their needs and abilities
 ability to react appropriately to the feelings, emotions, and attitudes of learners
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 ability to encourage the learners' participation in the learning situation
 ability to arrange and manage the learning situation so as to prevent, or minimize
distractions within and outside the learning situation.
 good composure, sincerity, and human relations
 clear objectives, and knowledge of the subject matter
 good communication skills and democratic leadership.
Subject Matter
The subject matter is the content of any teaching and learning process. The transfer of the subject
matter will be easy and effective if it fulfills the following:
 valid and correct, based on empirical facts
 applicable in practical development situations
 organized according to the needs, interests, and the level of understanding of the learner
 timely and appropriate
 important and related to specific teaching objectives.
Teaching Material
Without the help of suitable teaching methods and aids, the subject matter cannot be effectively
transferred to learners. Proper selection and skilful handling of teaching aids facilitate the
creation of a desirable learning situation. Therefore, the teaching methods and aids should be:
 simple and easy to handle
 suitable to the subject matter
 readily available
 in good working condition
 diversified, flexible, and suited to the environment and needs of the learners.
Physical Facilities
Physical facilities such as place, light, ventilation, seating arrangements, etc., must be satisfying
both to the instructor and learners. It is the responsibility of the instructor to ensure that suitable
physical facilities are available for creating good learning situation.
The Principles of Learning
Extension and development worker must be guided by the following basic principles of learning
which can be applied to ensure effective teaching and learning as a means of influencing
behaviour change:
i) The principle of association - learning is continuous and therefore, you must know the state of
the learners' minds and capacity, and begin teaching at their level for better learning. New

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development of ideas must be related to those already known to the community, and, often, you
must repeat new ideas from time to time to emphasize their importance.
ii) The principle of clarity - learning should be purposeful, and, as extension and development
professionals, we deem that 'seeing is believing'. So, ' the clients (rural people) will realize the
importance, or value, of a practice only when they can actually see the results in practice. Teach
the community when there is need for the knowledge, and then retention will be greater. Practice
must be continuously evaluated and redirected. Objectives must be clear to instructor, and to the
learner.
iii) The principle of self activity - learning should engage the maximum number of senses.
Research had shown that things learnt through engagement of more than one sense such seeing
and hearing through the use of audio-visual instructional technologies are easier to retain, recall
and practice.
iv) The principle of rewards - learning must be challenging and satisfying.
v) The principle of practice - learning must result in functional understanding.
vi) The principle of nurturing environment - learning is affected by the physical and social
environment. Congenial environment creates a favourable background for successful learning.
vii) The principle of variable learning ability - learning abilities varies widely among
individuals. Some may be slow learners, and some could be fast learners. You should be skilled
in different levels of communication, and select your subject matter so as to suit the learning
ability of learners.
viii) The principle of multiple exposure - learning is a gradual process and needs multiple
exposure for change to occur. You are aware that the ultimate aim of learning is for people to
adopt improved practices, or new developmental ideas. No single attempt or method can carry
information to all the people. By using a combination of teaching methods, your teaching will
have a cumulative effect on the learners. The percentages of learning and adoption will be higher
with multiple exposures.
ix) The principle of learning capacity - the assumption on which extension education
programmes are based is that adults have the capacity to learn. Learning ability starts at the age
six, rapidly grow until the age of 20 and then it begins to level off until around 50. The rate of
learning declines at the rate of about one percent a year after the age of 35. The main reasons
attributed for this decline is physical problems, low external motivation, habits, and the impact of
a particular ideology. Among the tools that create suitable physical situations for adult learners
are the good audio-visual aids, clarity in teaching with an appropriate speed, step by step
presentation of topic, repetition, and, providing rewards and motivation.
x) The principle of active process - to learn new skills, the learner must practice them and relate
them to each other, as well as to a particular problem. For this purpose they should change their

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attitude as well. Extension worker can create an atmosphere for learning, but the clients will have
to learn by themselves. Hence, learning is an individual or personal choice.
xi) The principle of theory and practice - the 'why' and 'how' of an idea are explained by theory.
Often, though the learner understands theory, (s)he cannot use it in practice. Sometimes, (s)he
knows how to do it, but does not know the theory behind it. As such extension and development
workers should balance theory and practice for better learning by the learners.
xii) The principle of effective communication – it is imperative that extension and development
worker should have good communication skills in order to b able to share their knowledge with
their clients, and bring about the desired change. Better learning can be achieved by integrating
suitable audio visual aids in teaching-learning process.
Summary
Extension teaching is provision of purposeful direction, and, the management of the learning
process. Steps in extension teaching process include Attention, Interest, Desire, Conviction,
Action and Satisfaction. Various models have been put forward to explain the process and
concepts of learning; these are behaviourist model, cognitive model and constructivist model.
Conclusion
Extension education relies heavily on the ability of extension workers to employ effective
instructional and communication strategies and methods to promote the adoption and practice of
improve technologies and development of positive influence. Therefore as educational in nature,
the knowledge of how to teach improve practice is equally important as the technical knowledge
itself. This chapter is therefore more appropriate in providing the knowledge and skills of
teaching and promoting learning in extension.

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CHAPTER FOUR
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION TEACHING
METHODS
Introduction
In this chapter you are going to learn about the various agricultural extension teaching methods.
As we all know, teaching is the imparting of information and extension teaching guides the
learning process so that the farmer learns more and better.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 write briefly on the individual methods
 discuss clearly the group methods
 identify the mass methods.
 Understand difference form of extension teaching method
UNIT ONE: EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to create situations in which new
information can pass freely between the extension worker and the farming communities. The
extension-teaching methods can also be defined as the tools and techniques used to create
situations in which communication can take place between the rural people and the extension
workers. They are the methods of extending new knowledge and skills to the rural people by
drawing their attention towards them, arousing their interest and helping them to have a
successful experience of the new practice It is the function of the extension worker to use the
extension methods which provide opportunities for rural people to learn and which stimulate
mental and physical activities among the people. For extension workers to be successful they
must be proficient in technical knowledge and educational process and must also have the right
attitude towards rural people.
Four conditions are necessary for effective use of teaching methods.

These include the learning situation, the learning objectives, the learning experiences and the use
of a variety of teaching methods. The learning situation comprises the extension worker who has
clear objectives, knows the subject matter to be taught and is able to communicate freely with the
farmers. The learning situation also includes the people who are capable and interested in
learning and the subject-matter which must be pertinent to farmers’ needs and which is taught at
people’s intellectual level. In physical terms, the learning situation should be free from outside
distraction and should be suitable to the subject matter presented and should be available when
required and ought to be skillfully used.

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An effective learning situation requires the following essential elements:
1. An instructor (an extension worker, e.g. an extension officer or a village-level

worker)
2. Learners (the farmers, the processors, the farm women and the youth).
3. Subject-matter (the recommended improved practices, such as the seeds of

high-yielding varieties, fertiliser, balanced diet, etc.)
4. Teaching material, such as a flannel-board, a black-board, charts, models,

samples, slides, film strips, etc.
5. Physical facilities, such as sitting accommodation, good visibility, etc.
As a pre-condition, objectives for the use of extension methods must be clearly established. An
objective has already been defined as an end towards which teaching is directed (see unit 1). Any
purposeful teaching has specific objectives which must contain four basic elements-people to be
taught, behaviour changes to be made, subject matter to be taught and life situation in which
action is to take place. Another condition is the employment of effective learning experiences. A
learning experience is defined as the mental or physical reaction one makes in a learning
situation through seeing, hearing or performing activities during a learning process. The final
condition is that provision should be made for the opportunity to use a variety of extension
methods.
Extension methods may be classified in three groups on the basis of the number of people they
are designed to reach: these are: (1) individual methods (2) group methods and (3) mass
methods.
Individual Methods
Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the fact that learning is an
individual process and that the personal influence of the extension worker is an important factor
in securing people’s participation in extension activities. The various methods which come under
the classification of individual methods include farm and home visits, office calls, telephone
calls, personal letters, informal contacts and result demonstrations.
Farm and home visits are essential elements of extension education.

They provide a means of personal communication between the farm family and the extension
worker in an environment where they can discuss matters of common interest in privacy and
without the distractions and interruptions commonly experienced in group extension activities.
Farm and home visits serve the following useful purposes:
(1) To acquaint extension worker with the farmer and farm family
(2) To answer specific requests for help
(3) To gain firsthand knowledge of problems faced by the farmer or villager
(4) To explain a recommended practice

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(5) To follow up and observe the results of recommended practices
(6) To plan an activity such as demonstration, or a meeting
(7) To invite the farmer or villager to participate in a planned activity
(8) To discuss policies and programmes
(9) To recruit, train or encourage a local volunteer leader
Careful and adequate preparation is the key to a successful visit as with all extension methods.
Visits are extensive in terms of time and transportation. Preparation for a visit will include a
review of all the known facts about the farm, the farmer and the family, specific information
concerning the problem, purpose or activity involved and materials such as leaflets and samples
that may be left with the farmer.
Office calls are made by the farmer for the purpose of satisfying a felt need. They are an
expression of interest by the farmer in a need which he hopes the extension worker can help him
meet. Office calls provide the extension worker with knowledge of the needs of the farming
community. Like farm and home visits, they help to build farmers’ confidence in the worker and
create good public relations. They are less expensive and time consuming than farm and home
visits. However, the farmer may feel less at home in the office and may be sensitive to the
attitude of the worker. He may also be too shy to disclose the real purpose of his visit.
Telephone calls are initiated by either the farmer or the extension worker, they are useful in
giving specific information relating to treatment of known diseases, control of insect pests or to
answer questions on interesting broadcasts or requests for bulletins and leaflets. Telephone calls
cannot be used where telecommunication system is under-developed.
Personal letters are useful in answering request for information, as follow-up after visits and
office calls and in contacting local volunteer leaders. The use of letters as a teaching method is
quite limited in countries lacking an efficient postal service or where many rural residents are
illiterate. Be careful that the information you give in a letter is simple, understandable and
complete without being wordy or including unnecessary information. Remember, the words you
put on paper are all he has to go by in determining your meaning.
Informal contacts provide many opportunities for effective extension work. Every experienced
extension worker has had people stop him on the street or in the village to ask a question. Often,
seeing the extension worker will remind the villager of a problem about which he would like
technical advice. Market days, picnics, holiday celebrations and religious events bring people
together. Where people gather, they talk about current problems in farming and rural life. By
attending such events, the extension worker will become better acquainted with his people, learn
of their wants, needs and problems and be able to impart information on an informal basis.
Result demonstration is a method by teaching designed to show, by example the practical

application of an established fact or group of facts. ‘The result demonstration”- “Is one which
shows after a period of time what happened after a practise is adopted. As an example, compost
is put on a certain field. Good seed potatoes are planted and cared for. In the next field, no
compost is used and poor seed potatoes are used. At harvest time the potatoes are dug in each

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field at the same time. The villagers have watched all during the planting, growing and
harvesting season. They see how much better results are from using better practices. This is a
result of demonstration”. Comparison is the essential ingredient in result demonstration.
The advantages of result demonstration are as follows:

(1) Furnishes local proof of the desirability of adopting a recommended practice
(2) Is an efficient method for introducing a new subject
(3) Appeals to the eye and reaches the “show me” individual
(4) Provides a good source of information for meetings, news items, pictures, radio talks.
(5) Furnishes cost data and other basic information
(6) A high percentage of people will understand
(7) Aids in developing local leadership
(8) Establishes confidence in the extension worker and in extension work
Limitations
(1) Result demonstration requires a large amount of extension workers time
(2) The cost is high per practice changed
(3) Good demonstrations are hard to find
(4) Few people see the demonstration at a not-convincing stage
(5) The teaching value is frequently destroyed by unfavourable weather.
UNIT TWO: GROUP EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

Group methods take into account the inclination of the individual to respond to the pressures and
opinions of groups in which he participates and to listen to the views of others before arriving at
a decision about making changes in his farming operations.
Group method include general meetings, group discussion, exhibits, tours and field trips, method
demonstrations, extension schools and farmer training centre.
General meetings include all kinds of meetings held by the extension worker except
demonstration meetings. The method of conducting the meetings may be lectures, discussions,
showing of slides and motion pictures or any combination of these. The method of the meeting
must be well thought out and the agenda carefully prepared in order to achieve objectives
envisaged. During the meeting, provision should be made for use of models, charts, specimens,
pictures etc to illustrate points. Towards the end of the meeting allowance should be made for
questions and answers which would help clarify specific ideas. To make the meeting successful,
the extension worker should enlist the help of local leaders to:
(1) agree on the purpose of the meeting and to draw up tentative programme;
(2) decide on and secure speakers;
(3) arrange for social and recreational aspects of the meeting;
(4) agree on the place and time of the meeting;
(5) select the chairman and advertise the meeting.
Kelsey and Hearne (1966) identify five general types of meeting involved in extension work:
(a) Organization meetings include board of directors meetings, youth clubs, homemakers clubs,
executive committees and many others.

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(b) Planning meetings requires preparation of a large amount of situation material. Much of this
must be done by professional extension workers who should resist a natural tendency to
dominate the meeting.
(c) Training meetings are essential element in developing and using rural leaders in extension
(d) Special interest meetings are engaged to serve the educational needs of groups with common
interest such as gardening, fishing, dairying, home management or sewing. They may be held
singly or in series over a period of time.
(e) Community meetings as the name suggest are for all the people in the community, men,
women, young people, with all the varied interests of the community.
Like other methods used in extension work, meetings of all kinds have advantages and
limitations. Meetings are useful in reaching a large number of people; they serve as a preparatory
stage for the use of other methods. By means of meetings, use can be made of group psychology
to promote programmes. One of the drawback of meetings is that they offer limited scope for
discussion. Where the audience is large, handling a topic may become very difficult especially
where there are disparities in age and educational attainments.
Group discussion is a method commonly used in extension work. Generally, discussion is the
process by which two or more persons pool their knowledge and feelings, and through mutual
agreement clarify the issues under consideration. There are several distinct types of group
discussion meetings. The newest idea is called “brain trust” in which questions are posed and the
participating “brains” provide their opinions and views. Actually this is quite similar to panel and
symposium discussions. The panel is usually a rather informal discussion by several “experts” to
consider a major topic, while a symposium is characterized by having several speakers, each of
whom gives a rather detailed and usually prepared presentation of his views.
Sometimes the symposium speakers are given a chance to answer one or more of the others in a
form of rebuttal.
Exhibits are systematic displays of specimens, models, charts, posters, etc. Their main purpose
is to develop the interest of those who see them, influence their attitude, increase their
knowledge and stimulate them to action. Exhibits are considered as some of the best methods of
teaching illiterates. A well planned educational exhibit can present information quickly and
convincingly. Exhibit have imaginative appeal, and can stimulate competitive spirit among
participants, this will be particularly so when prizes are awarded to those who produce the best
shows.
An exhibit can be of any size. It can be a display of a few potted maize plants with different
levels of fertilizer treatments or it can be as big as world agricultural fair. However, for extension
purposes, they should be made simple, and should convey only one idea at a time.
Tours and field trips are methods of extension teaching which appeal to man’s desire to “go
places and see things”. It represents a teaching method whereby a group of people are taken on a
study tour to observe the result of improved practices in actual situations. This means that the
group will travel together for a day or more. Tours are among the best methods of teaching farm
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people to gain practical knowledge because people learn through seeing things in actual
operation. Tours are most suited for teaching groups such as members of Young Farmers Clubs.
A tour can be made to a research station, demonstration farms and similar places of educational
interest.
The following suggestion will help you plan and hold a successful tour or field trip.
1. Decide exactly what you wish to accomplish
2. Work out a detailed plan for the tour well in advance
3. Go through a rehearsal or “dry run” of the entire programme well in advance
4. On the day of the tour, keep the party together and keep them moving briskly from point to
point.
In general smaller groups are preferred to larger groups.
Method demonstration- A method demonstration is to teach a skill. It teaches how to do certain

work. It is always interesting to the farmers and especially when the demonstration is concluded
by the extension worker, it increases their respect for the worker. Examples of method
demonstration subjects include (i) seed treatment (ii) pruning, and (iii) spraying.
Things to note in method demonstration are as follows:

1. Outline operations in logical steps
2. Identify key points
3. Carefully select materials and tools
4. Arrange for diagrams or other teaching aids
5. Rehearse demonstration until perfect
6. Make sure all the audience can see and hear him
7. Explain purpose and show application to local problem
8. Show each operation slowly, step by step
9. Emphasize key points
10. Invite members of audience to repeat demonstration
Advantages of Method Demonstration

1. It teaches needed skill to many people at one time
2. Seeing, hearing, discussing and participating stimulate action.
3. It builds confidence in extension worker if demonstration is skillfully performed
4. Local leaders easily learn simple demonstrations and can repeat them with other groups.
5. It promotes personal acquaintance between the demonstrators and the farmers
6. It influences changes in practice with many people at a single meeting.
Limitations
1. It is frequently difficult to ensure that all members of the group can see clearly
2. With certain demonstrations considerable equipment must be transported to the meeting places
3. Requires a certain amount of showmanship not possessed by all extension workers.
Extension schools are designed to give the participants knowledge and skill in some specific line
of subject matter such as irrigation methods, dress making or gardening. Schools involve
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intensive training over a specific period of time, such as one to four days. They may require
reenrollment and an obligation to attend all sections. Schools offer an opportunity for
presentation of much information in a short time to a selected group of people with special
interest in the subject. They must be well organized with specific teaching objectives and employ
teaching methods which will hold the interest of participants. Demonstrations, discussions and
the use of visuals add much to their effectiveness. Periodic and terminal evaluations help to keep
the programme realistic and provide guidance in conducting future schools.
Farmer training centre have been used effectively in a number of developing countries to train
farmers and their wives in concepts and practices of modern agriculture and home making.
Leadership training appears to be the most effective role of farmer training centres. To fulfil this
role, training centre programmes must be integrated with extension programmes to the extent
that:
1. Subjects of training contribute to the educational objectives included in the extension

programme.
2. Participants are selected on the basis of their leadership potential and through recommended
leader recruitment processes, and
3. Returned participants are utilized in planning and executing extension programmes.
UNIT THREE: MASS METHODS OF EXTENSIONTEACHING

Individual and group methods cannot reach everyone who wants and needs information, so mass
methods which have wide coverage such as radio, television, cinema vans and public address
systems, newspapers, posters and other printed materials can be used to reach large numbers of
people quickly and efficiently.
Radio is one of the fastest, most powerful and in many countries the only way of communicating
with the masses of rural people. It reaches people of all cultural levels who understand the
language of transmission.
An advantage of radio programmes is that they can be done almost anywhere through the use of
tape recorder. Radio is useful in reporting spot news, such as announcement of meetings, for
warning about insect outbreaks, and especially as a part of campaigns. Listening habits may vary
according to the society involved. Studies of listening habits will tell the extension worker when
his listeners are likely to be men and women and at what hours they listen most. Take these
factors into account when planning your programme.
Television adds a second dimension to radio broadcasting thus increasing the scope of methods
available to the extension worker. He can demonstrate as well as talk. Television programmes
require meticulous preparation. Every piece of equipments must be in place and the dialogue
must be well thought out. In spite of the relatively high cost of receiving sets, television occupies
an increasingly important role in developing countries.
Advantage of Radio and Television

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1. Radio programmes are especially fitted to handle emergency information
2. Reach people who cannot read
3. Reach people who cannot attend extension meetings
4. Build interest in other extension activities
Limitations
1. Broadcasting facilities are not everywhere available
2. Active involvement of the audience in the teaching process is impossible
3. Frequently extension programmes are given poor time for farm listeners
4. Direct and immediate feedback from the audience to the teacher is not possible
5. Frequently extension programmes loose out in competition with entertainment
6. Specific local needs cannot be given adequate attention and there is often cultural gap (e.g.
language, dialect) between the speaker and the audience.
Cinema vans and public address systems: In most African countries the Ministry of
Agriculture and Information provides cinema vans which have substituted almost perfectly for
television in bringing visual entertainment and agricultural information to rural people. A cinema
van can show an agricultural film to a large audience in two or more villages each night. The
films demonstrate new techniques that the people can apply on their own farms.
The public-address system can be used to make announcements and bring agricultural
information to a number of villages in one day.
Newspapers provide a valuable channel for transmission of educational information where they
exist and where rural people receive and read them. Newspapers print news and news consists of
items of broad interest to their readers. Newspaper space is valuable and limited. Your news item
must compete for attention with other items as well as advertising and the editor is the sole judge
of its news value. All materials for the press should be factual, well written, and intelligently
planned. Otherwise it will probably be discarded by the editor. Write simply, using short
sentences and paragraphs that are easy to read.
Remember that you must catch the readers’ attention in the first sentence or he is unlikely to read
further. The succeeding facts should be put down in the order of their importance. The ABC’s of
good writing are accuracy, brevity and clarity.
Poster: A poster is a sheet of paper or cardboard with an illustration and usually a few simple
words. It is designed to catch the attention of the passer by, impress on him a fact or an idea and
stimulate him to support an idea, get more information or take some kind of action. Since a
single glance may be all your poster will get, the message must be simple and clear. Details and
wordy sentences have no place. Here are a few suggestions that will help you design more
effective posters.
1. Decide exactly who your audience is. Decide exactly what you want to tell them. Decide what
you want them to do.
2. Put down on a sheet of paper words and rough pictures that express your message simply and
clearly.
3. Try to put your message into a few words- a concise striking slogan. Visualize or put into
picture for the most important central idea in the message.
4. Cut out your poster in small scale – 8 :1 or 4 :1 actual size.

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Other suggestions: use plain, bold lettering and lines. Use colour to attract attention and for
contrast. Remember however that too many colours add confusion. Allow plenty of space. Do
not crowd letters, words or illustrations.
Folders, leaflets and Pamphlets: Simple folders, leaflets and pamphlets can be used in many
ways in extension programmes. They may be used singly for example to explain the advantage
of testing soil. They may be used as reminders of when to plant crops or what chemicals to use to
control different insects.
Folders, leaflets and pamphlets may be used in coordination with other visuals in long-range
campaigns. Because of their lowcost, they can be given away at meetings and fairs and offered
on radio programmes.
Forms of Extension Teaching Method
Extension-teaching methods can also be classified according to their forms, such as written,
spoken and audio-visual. Some of the important methods under each of these 3 categories are:
Written Spoken Objective or visual

Bulletins General meeting Result Demonstration
Leaflets Farm or home visit Demonstration posters
Articles Office calls Motion-picture or movies, charts
Personal letters Telephone calls/radio slides/filmstrips model exhibits
Circular letters
Selecting and using teaching materials/techniques
For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is not enough to know these methods and
their techniques. What is more important is the appropriate selection of a method or combination
of methods for a particular situation. In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several
times by different methods or a combination of methods, he is likely to accept it more quickly.
Farmers learn about new practices through several stages. These stages are known as:
(1) the awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but lacks the complete
information;
(2) the interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea and wants to know more about
it;
(3) the evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea to his present situation and
evaluates it;
(4) the trial stage- when he applies the new idea or practice on a small scale in order to determine
its utility under his own situation; and
(5) adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice. Thus, it is the
cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea repeatedly that result in action.
SUMMARY
Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to create situations in which new
information can pass freely between the extension worker and the farming communities.
Extension methods may be classified in three groups on the basis of the number of people they
are designed to reach. These are: (a) Individual methods, (b) Group methods, and (c) Mass
methods.
Page 60
Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the fact that learning is an
individual process. Group methods in the other hand take into account the inclination of the
individual to respond to the pressures and opinions of groups in which he participates and to
listen to the views of others before arriving at a decision about making changes in his farming
operations. Individual and group methods cannot reach everyone who wants and needs
information, so the mass methods are used to reach large numbers of people more quickly and
efficiently.
Conclusion
This chapter had introduced you to the various extension teaching methods and their various
classification according to use. In many teaching situations an extension worker will find that the
use of two or more methods will be much more effective than the employment of any single
method.
Suggested Reading
A.W. Van Den Ben and H.S. Hawkins (1994) Agricultural Extension. Long man Scientific &
Technical Publication. U.S.A.
Banoor, D. and Harrison, J.Q. (1977), Agricultural Extension - Training and Visit System,
,World Bank, Washington.
Berlo, D.K. (1960), The Process of Communicating An Introduction to Theory and Practice,
New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Choubay, B.K. (1979), A Handbook of Extension Education, Jyoti Prakashan, Allahabad.
Dahama, O.P. (1976), Extension and Rural Welfare, Ram Prasad and Sons, Agra.
Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar O.P. (1987), Education and Communication for Development.
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Das, P. and Hansra, B.S. (Eds.) (1999), Krishi Vigyan Kendra - A Reality, Division of
Agriculture Extension, ICAR, New Delhi.
Amissah P. A. K., Frimpong O.Sam-Tagoe (2009). ‘psuchology of Human Development and

Learning’ Accra
Leeuwis, C. and van den Ban, A. Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural
Extension (3rd Edition), Blackwell Publishing
Swanson, B. E. (1984) ‘Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual’ FOA, Rome
Ashby, J. A. (1981) New models for agricultural research and extension: The need to integrate
women. In B. C. Lewis (Ed)

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Saville, A. H. (1965) Extension in Rural Communities: A Manual for Agricultural and Home
Extension technician Workers. Oxford University Press.
Crouch, B.R. & Chamala, S. 1981 Extension education and rural development. Chichester, 1981
W. Sussex, Wiley. 2 vols.
Jones, G.E. & Rolls, M.J. 1981 Progress in rural extension and community development. 1981
Chichester, W. Sussex, Wiley.
Maunder, A.H. 1972 Agricultural extension: a reference manual. Rome, FAO. 1972
Savile, A.H. 1965 Extension in rural communities. Oxford University Press. 1965
Reference
Amissah P. A. K., Frimpong O.Sam-Tagoe (2009). ‘psuchology of Human Development and

Learning’ Accra.
Hancock, D. (1994) Motivating Adult to Learn Academic Course Content. Journal of
Educational Research. 88 (2). 102-108.
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., Segers, M.(2009). The role of
acedemic motivation in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Computers in
Human Behaviour, 25, 1195-1206.
Wlodkowski, R. J., (1999). How Motivation Affects Instruction. A Comprehensive Guide for
Teaching All Adults:Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn. Ch. 1.

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CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

1.1 EXTENSION EDUCATION DEFINED

Definition of Extension Education

1. Extension Education is an applied science consisting of content derived from

4. Extension Education is a programme and a process of helping village people to help

5. We can define Extension Education as the increased dissemination of useful

6. Extension Education is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to the

7. Extension Education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the

8. Agricultural Extension is a professional method of non-formal education aimed at

Extension education is an applied behavioural science, the knowledge of which is applied to

Objectives and Principles of Extension

Objectives of Extension Education

Extension is concerned with three basic tasks:

2. Principle of cultural difference. Extension work is based on the cultural

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

5. The grass roots principle of organisation. A group of rural people in local

7. The whole-family principle. Extension work will have a better chance of

8. Principle of co-operation. Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint

9. Principle of satisfaction. The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

Formal Education Extension Education

2. Students study subjects 2. Farmers study problems.

5. Class attendance is compulsory. 5. Participation is voluntary.

Research Centre ◄► Extension Personnel ◄► Problems of People

Why Study Extension?

UNIT TWO: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

History of Extension Education in the World

Historical Perspective of Agricultural Extension in Ghana

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

As part of the unified agricultural extension strategy, Agricultural Extension Agents

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

UNIT ONE: COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The Meaning of Communication

The process of communication is fundamental to extension training of influencing desire

Communication can be defined as:

Elements of commendation process

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

1. Relative advantage- The degree to which an idea or technological

UNIT TWO: MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Models of communication provide a theoretical conceptual framework depicting and explaining

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

Figure 2.1: Shannon's (1948) linear model of communication

Immediate physical environment

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

There are three implications in the transactional model:

i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

Power-in-communication model: Simply put, this model of communication stresses the

Why does communication happen?

UNIT THREE: SKILLS NEEDED IN COMMUNICATION

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

Types of communication skills

Sending Effective Messages

Active or Reflective listening is a communication process aimed at helping the speaker to

Active listening can:

Differences in perception and language

Agricultural Extension Education and Development of Audio-Visuals By Zakaria Hudu

Other factors that also present barrier to effective communication include:

2. Stereotyping - Stereotyping causes us to typify a person, a group, an event or a thing on

In addition to removal of specific barriers to communication, the following general guidelines