Republic of Philippines

Department of the Education

Regional Office No. VIII

DIVISION OF NORTHERN SAMAR

San Roque District

Don Juan F. Avalon National High School

Grade-11 HUMSS C

REACTION PAPER
IN
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

PREPARED BY:

MARVIN T. SURIO

11-HUMSS C
 INTRODUCTION

Minerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances composed

of chemical elements. This means that minerals, ranging from
salt to rubies, are made up from the elements that appear on a
periodic table. They are inorganic, not living or made up of
living things. Minerals form a crystallinestructure which gives
rocks their ‘rough’ texture.

Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals. They

are divided into three categories based on how different rocks
are formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks are formed when hot magma from volcanoes is

rapidly cooled, either by hitting underground air pockets or by
flowing from the mouth of a volcano as lava. Granite, obsidian,
and pumice are all common examples of igneous rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are formed by layers of earth being mixed and

compressed together for extended periods of time. Common
examples of these rocks are limestone, sandstone, and shale.

Metamorphic rocks are a combination of rock types, usually

compressed together by high pressure, which tends to give them a
more hard, grainy texture than the other two types. Schist,
slate, and gneiss (pronounced like ‘nice’) are metamorphic
rocks.

If you or your children are unfamiliar with what these rocks

look like, you may want to examine at least one specimen from
each category. Our basic set of 35 mounted rocks and minerals is
ideal if you cannot find many specimens on your own. Also, if
possible, compare two or more rocks per category, so that you
can observe differences and similarities. For example, pumice
has a very rough, porous surface and obsidian, another igneous
rock, is very smooth and shiny.
 BODY

Minerals are the building blacks of rocks. An inorganic

naturally occurring, crystalline substance represented by a
specific chemical formula, minerals sometimes form actual
crystals, which are geometric forms visible to the unaided eye
consistence of smooth faces and sharp edges. Chemical bonds hold
together the atoms and molecules that compose a mineral.

Rocks is a consolidated aggregate of various types of

minerals or a consolidated aggregate of multiple individual
pieces(grains) of the same kind of minerals. Rock are
fundamentally building materials of the lithosphere.

Sedimentary rocks start forming when soil and other materials on the
Earth’s surface are eroded and finally settle down, forming one layer
of sediments. As time passes, more and more materials get eroded and
settle on the older layers. Thus, layer upon layer is formed. The
lower layers undergo intense pressure due to the weight of the upper
layers, eventually evolving into rocks.

Bedrocks mass of consolidated that’s has not been

weathered.

Outcrop a mass of exposed bedrock.

Igneous rock when molten rock materials cools and

solidifies magma and lava.

Two major categories of igneous rock.

Extrusive molten material that solidifies at surface, also called

volcanic rock, made from lava.

Intrusive molten rock beneath the earths surface, that is magma,

changes to a solid(Freezes) also referred to as plutonic rock after
Pluto, Roman God of the Underworld.

Sedimentary rocks derived from sediment which is a loose

accunsolidate fragments.

Cementation occurs when silica, calcium carbonate or iron oxide

bonds the fragment together.
The process of composition and cementation transform, or lithify,
sediments into solid, coherent layers of rock .

Methamorphic means “changed form“, enormous heat and pressure

deep in the earth’s crust can alter(metamorphose) an existing rocks
into a new rock type that is completely different from the original by
without creating molten rock matter, typically harder and more compact
have a reoriented crystalline structure and are resistant to
weathering. Two major categories of metamorplaism.

1.Presence(Foliated)

2.Absence(Non-foliated)

Expoliation is the stripping of the layers of the rocks of rocks due

to intense heating.

Frost weathering refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water

inside the joints of the rock causing them to split into smaller
particles or fragments. This occurs the conversion of what to ice
increase the volume of water by 10%.

The product of weathering is the disintegration of rock into

particles of soil. The removal of soil at a greater rate than its
replacement by natural agencies is known as soil erosion?

Erosion, transportation deposition often occur with assistance of

a geomorphic agent such as stream flow, wind, moving ice, and waves
sometimes however , the only factor involved is gravity induced
downslope movement of rock material that occurs without the assistance
of a geomorphic agent, as in the case of a rock falling from a cliff ,
is known as mass wasting. Or a geomorphic agent doing the work,
fragment ions of location and transported to positions of low energy,
where they are deposited.

1. Heat from the accretion of Earth during its formation.

2. Frictional heating caused as sinking core materials to the
planet.
3. Heat from the decay o radioactive elements.

Heat can be generated within the lithosphere at the subduction

zone . The long narrow scenes where one lithosphere descends beneath
one another, specifically, when one oceanic lithosphere thrusts into
the mantle along a convergence. Heat in the crust and upper mantle is
added as huge stabs of crust slide post each other at the subduction
zones by friction, when crust rocks descened at subduction zone, and
when hot mantle rocks rises and intrudes crustal rocks.

Melting of the minerals within earth cases the atoms to be

disordered, making them move freely and take up more space. In the
case of magma it occupies about 10% more volume than the rock that
formed it when rocks is melten on the surface, it can do so readily
because there is little pressure against its expansion in from
expanding even if the temperature condition would allow it to melt.
However when the pressure decreases large volumes of rock would melt
within the Asthenosphere. The melting caused by decreasing.

The eruption of molten rocks called magma into the Earth surface
through a vent. It includes all phenomena associated with the
creation and discharge of magma within the mantle to rise through the
crust, forming volcanic rocks on the surface. The driving force of
any volcanism is the plate tectonic motion created by the movement of
molten rocks in the mantle caused by thermal convection current.

Rocks are classified into three major classifications: igneous,

metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks are formed by the
cooling of liquid lava or magma. A major subdivision of igneous
rocks is how and where the rock forms. They can be classified as
intrusive or extrusive. Intrusive rocks form within the Earth's
crust. As a result, the magma cools relatively slowly and the
grain of the rock is more coarse. Granite is an example of
an intrusive igneous rock, formed deep within mountains.
Extrusive rocks form on the exterior of the Earth's crust. As a
result, the lava cools more quickly and the grain of the rock is
more fine. Basalt lava flows are an example of an extrusive
igneous rock.

Compression Stress

Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to

push or squeeze against one another. It targets the center of
the rock and can cause either horizontal or vertical
orientation. In horizontal compression stress, the crust can
thicken or shorten. In vertical compression stress, the crust
can thin out or break off. The force of compression can push
rocks together or cause the edges of each plate colliding to
rise. Mountains are a result of high-impact compression stress
caused when two plates collided.

Tension Stress

Tension is the opposite of compression. While compression

forces the rocks and crust to collide and move together, tension
forces the rocks to pull apart. Tension can happen in two ways.
Two separate plates can move farther away from each other, or
the ends of one plate can move in different directions. Some
scientists think tension stress caused the ancient, massive
continent Pangaea to break off into the seven continents we have
today.

Continental drift theory.

Is the gradual movement of the continents over time. The

upper layer of the crust is broken into large stabs called
plates, which sit on a fluid level of molten rocks. The movement
of this lower molten layer, called plate tectonics, causes the
plates to shift. Scientist estimate that the continents move
anywhere from one centimeter to several inches per layers.

Evidence that support the continental drift.

1. The continents where observed as to fit together like

a jigsaw puzzle. For examples the eastern coast of
south America corresponds to western coast of Africa.
2. The appearance of similar fossils in the continents
that are rather separated supports Wegners the theory.

Fossils found on the east coast of Brazil match quite

nicely with fossils found in Western South Africa.

Also he noticed that a lot of the fossilized life found in the

rock record didn’t fit in the climates they were found in.

For example, rock in Alaska contain fossil palm trees at that

latitude for every long time.

Thus he concluded that the continents must drift around the

earth, occasionally colliding with one popular at the time, they
were the foundation of one of greatest scientific revolution in
history.
Tectonic Movement – Plates and Faults.

The tectonic movement of the Earth's plates has resulted in

the folding and faulting of the Earth's crust. This is caused by
the Earth's plates converging, diverging or transversing against
one another. This causes the crust of the Earth to buckle and
strain, generating incredible amounts of pressure that build up
as time progresses and may conclude in the release of this
energy. The crust is divided into layers of materials that have
been compressed together. These layers are known as strata, laid
down and composed of the denudated material of pre-existing
rocks. Folding and faulting are the result of tectonic activity,
but also the forces of tension, compression and shearing play an
active role in plate movements. An example of a landform created
because of the effects of folding include Fold Mountains, such
as the Himalayas, while a Rift Valley, such as the East African
Rift Valley, is formed from a fault. In folding, the Earth's
crust is pulled and strained, resulting in a variety of
different features that can be commonly seen when examining a
cliff face. There are three parts of a fold: the anticline
(high), the syncline (low) and the limbs, commonly referred to
as the "arms" of the folds. Folds can be divided into several
different types, such as a monocline, whereby the layers travel
in the same direction, a symmetrical fold, both arms have the
same slope, a asymmetrical fold, the slope of one arm is steeper
than the other, and a overfold, whereby the arms have slightly
overturned. Fold mountains are the grand designs of folding and
the mountains of today's world date back to almost 450 million
years ago, which are the Caledonian folding’s. The converging of
the North American and the Eurasian plate resulted in an intense
folding period lasting about 50 years. Dublin/Wicklow Mountains
are an example of such folds. The most dominant foldings that
affected Munster are the Armorican folding’s, which shaped much
of the region. About 270 million years ago, the Eurasian and
African plates collided, resulting in the buckling of the crust.
Munster at this time was filled with anticline hills and
syncline valleys, which were filled with layers of sandstone,
shale and limestone and were compressed due to the strain. Over
the millions of years, ranges such as the Caha Mountains and the
Comeragh's came to be. The buckling also resulted in the raising
of a limestone bed, which now resides in the midlands of Ireland
as is known as the Burren. Faulting is a process that occurs due
to the intense strain on plates that is endured by the folding
of layers. The pressure of compression or tension results in a
fracture to occur in the fold, which can form along a fault
line. Movement along this fault may be horizontal or vertical.
Such an example of a fault line is the San Andreas Fault Line in
America. There are three main types of faulting: normal
faulting, reverse faulting and tear faulting. They occur due to
divergence, convergence and transverse movement of plates
respectively. Rift valleys are found between two parallel normal
faults on a part of land known as a graben, a sunken part of the
land so to speak. This occurs because the foothold block is
upthrown while the hanging block is downthrown. These are
surrounded by block-mountains, also known as horsts which move
apart and increase the size of the valley. Rift valleys are
distinguishable by the sharp, declining sides. In conclusion,
the movement of the Earth's plates results in the folding and
faulting of the Earth's surface due to processes such as
compression, tension and shearing, and in doing so, deform and
rearrange the Earth's crust.

Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic

plates—large slabs of Earth's lithosphere—split apart from each
other.

Seafloor spreading and other tectonic activity processes are the

result of mantle convection. Mantle convection is the
slow, churning motion of Earth’s mantle. Convection currents
carry heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere.
Convection currents also “recycle” lithospheric materials back
to the mantle.

Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As

tectonic plates slowly move away from each other, heat from the
mantle’s convection currents makes the crust more plastic and
less dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming a
mountain or elevated area of the seafloor.

Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle

convection bubbles up to fill these fractures and spills onto
the crust. This bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to
form igneous rock. This rock (basalt) becomes a new part of
Earth’s crust.

Mid-Ocean Ridges

Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridges—large mountain

ranges rising from the ocean floor. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for
instance, separates the North American plate from the Eurasian
plate, and the South American plate from the African plate. The
East Pacific Rise is a mid-ocean ridge that runs through the
eastern Pacific Ocean and separates the Pacific plate from the
North American plate, the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, and the
Antarctic plate. The Southeast Indian Ridge marks where the
southern Indo-Australian plate forms a divergent boundary with
the Antarctic plate.

Seafloor spreading is not consistent at all mid-ocean ridges.

Slowly spreading ridges are the sites of tall, narrow
underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges have a
much more gentle slopes.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, is a slow spreading

center. It spreads 2-5 centimeters (.8-2 inches) every year and
forms an ocean trench about the size of the Grand Canyon. The
East Pacific Rise, on the other hand, is a fast spreading
center. It spreads about 6-16 centimeters (3-6 inches) every
year. There is not an ocean trench at the East Pacific Rise,
because the seafloor spreading is too rapid for one to develop!

The newest, thinnest crust on Earth is located near the center

of mid-ocean ridge—the actual site of seafloor spreading. The
age, density, and thickness of oceanic crust increases with
distance from the mid-ocean ridge.

Geomagnetic Reversals
The magnetism of mid-ocean ridges helped scientists first
identify the process of seafloor spreading in the early 20th
century. Basalt, the once-molten rock that makes up most
new oceanic crust, is a fairly magnetic substance, and
scientists began using magnetometers to measure the magnetism of
the ocean floor in the 1950s. What they discovered was that the
magnetism of the ocean floor around mid-ocean ridges was divided
into matching “stripes” on either side of the ridge. The
specific magnetism of basalt rock is determined by the
Earth’s magnetic field when the magma is cooling.
Geographic Features
Oceanic crust slowly moves away from mid-ocean ridges and sites
of seafloor spreading. As it moves, it becomes cooler, more
dense, and more thick. Eventually, older oceanic crust
encounters a tectonic boundary with continental crust.

In other cases, oceanic crust encounters a passive plate margin.

Passive margins are not plate boundaries, but areas where a
single tectonic plate transitions from oceanic lithosphere to
continental lithosphere. Passive margins are not sites of faults
or subduction zones. Thick layers of sediment overlay
the transitional crust of a passive margin. The oceanic crust of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, will either become part of
the passive margin on the North American plate (on the east
coast of North America) or the Eurasian plate (on the west coast
of Europe).

New geographic features can be created through seafloor

spreading. The Red Sea, for example, was created as the African
plate and the Arabian plate tore away from each other. Today,
only the Sinai Peninsula connects the Middle East (Asia) with
North Africa. Eventually, geologists predict, seafloor spreading
will completely separate the two continents—and join the Red and
Mediterranean Seas.

Mid-ocean ridges and seafloor spreading can also influence sea

levels. As oceanic crust moves away from the shallow mid-ocean
ridges, it cools and sinks as it becomes more dense. This
increases the volume of the ocean basin and decreases the sea
level. For instance, a mid-ocean ridge system in Panthalassa—an
ancient ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea—
contributed to shallower oceans and higher sea levels in the
Paleozoic era. Panthalassa was an early form of the Pacific
Ocean, which today experiences less seafloor spreading and has a
much less extensive mid-ocean ridge system. This helps explain
why sea levels have fallen dramatically over the past 80 million
years.

Seafloor spreading disproves an early part of the theory

of continental drift. Supporters of continental drift
originally theorized that the continents moved (drifted) through
unmoving oceans. Seafloor spreading proves that the ocean itself
is a site of tectonic activity.

Keeping Earth in Shape

Seafloor spreading is just one part of plate tectonics.
Subduction is another. Subduction happens where tectonic plates
crash into each other instead of spreading apart. At subduction
zones, the edge of the denser plate subducts, or slides, beneath
the less-dense one. The denser lithospheric material then melts
back into the Earth's mantle.

Seafloor spreading creates new crust. Subduction destroys old

crust. The two forces roughly balance each other, so the shape
and diameter of the Earth remain constant.

Evolution Of The Ocean Basins Through Plate Movements

Through most of geologic time, probably extending back 2 billion

years, the ocean basins have both grown and been consumed
as plate tectonicscontinued on Earth. The latest phase of ocean
basin growth began just less than 200 million years ago with the
breakup of the supercontinent Pangea, the enormous landmass
composed of nearly all the present-day continents. Since that
time the major developments have included a shrinking of the
Pacific basin at the expense of the growing Atlantic and Arctic
basins, the opening of the Tethys seaway circling the globe in
tropical latitudes and its subsequent closing, and the opening
of the Southern Ocean as the southern continents moved north
away from Antarctica.

Stratification (or bedding) is expressed by rock layers

(units) of a general tabular or lenticular form that differ in
rock type or other characteristics from the material with which
they are interstratified (sometimes stated as interbedded, or
interlayered). These beds, or strata, are of varying thickness
and areal extent. The term stratumidentifies a single bed, or
unit, normally greater than one centimetre in thickness and
visibly separable from superjacent (overlying) and subjacent
(underlying) beds. “Strata” refers to two or more beds, and the
term lamina is sometimes applied to a unit less than one
centimetre in thickness. Thus, lamination consists of thin units
in bedded, or layered, sequence in a natural rock succession,
whereas stratification consists of bedded layers, or strata, in
a geologic sequence of interleaved sedimentary rocks.

There are two methods used. The key is to find an igneous

layer, and use radiometric dating. The sedimentary rocks can
then be dated based on superposition.

The other method does not directly provide an absolute age. Most
sedimentary rocks have fossils to some degree, including
microscopic fossils. Indeed, microscopic fossils are sometimes
ideal since they tend to be prolific. The goal is to classify as
many different fossil species as possible in the host rock. The
point in time when numerous different species are present tends
to denote a specific time. Some of the most useful fossils are
the foraminifera, which are tiny single cell protists with very
characteristic calcium carbonate skeletal like structures. They
are easy to distinguish from one another, and tend to vary a lot
over time.

There are rocks that are still difficult to age. The most
problematic are sedimentary rocks that have been metamorphosed.

The methods used are problematic. 5 billion years ago, the

Earth and the moon were about the same size. The Earth was
slightly larger than the moon and so its gravitational field was
stronger. The Earth grew larger by picking up objects from space
this is a process called ‘accretion’. Earth reached its present
size only about a billion years ago. Between 5 billion years ago
and one billion years ago, objects were crashing into the Earth,
volcanoes were erupting, techtonic plates were moving around,
climate patterns were changing, the atmosphere was changing, all
kinds of things were going on. So to say that a particular rock
strata is a certain number of years old us very difficult
without knowing the history of those atoms and where they were 6
billion or 10 billion years ago even before they ended up on
earth.

A lava flow which happened in the 1930s was dated with current
methods as being 1.3 million years old. But there were people
still alive in the 1960s who saw the lava flow take place.
Without an eyewitness account, these methods can be off by huge
amounts and there is no way to know. If one method is faulty and
it agrees with another faulty method, that does not make either
of them right.

Index fossils are, as the name implies, used to identify

particular rock strata in a column of layers. They are
essentially markers within the rocks that allow trained
geologists to quickly identify rock units.

The reason fossils are used is that they are convenient

inclusions. Markers don’t have to be fossils, they could be
anything that is unique to that strata. Fossils, by being
common, widespread and by being found only within specific
layers make very good markers. Usually these fossils are
distinctive shells, or other body parts that belong to a species
known to have lived in one particular time frame. Finding a rock
with a particular index fossil inside can accurately place that
rock within its context of rock strata.

Conclusion

Science is not the only way of acquiring knowledge about

ourselves and the world around us. Humans gain understanding in
many other ways, such as through literature, the arts,
philosophical reflection, and religious experience. Scientific
knowledge may enrich aesthetic and moral perceptions, but these
subjects extend beyond science's realm, which is to obtain a
better understanding of the natural world.
The claim that equity demands balanced treatment of
evolutionary theory and special creation in science classrooms
reflects a misunderstanding of what science is and how it is
conducted. Scientific investigators seek to understand natural
phenomena by observation and experimentation. Scientific
interpretations of facts and the explanations that account for
them therefore must be testable by observation and
experimentation.
 Creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of
supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species
are not science because they are not testable by the methods of
science. These claims subordinate observed data to statements
based on authority, revelation, or religious belief.
Documentation offered in support of these claims is typically
limited to the special publications of their advocates. These
publications do not offer hypotheses subject to change in light
of new data, new interpretations, or demonstration of error.
This contrasts with science, where any hypothesis or theory
always remains subject to the possibility of rejection or
modification in the light of new knowledge.
No body of beliefs that has its origin in doctrinal material
rather than scientific observation, interpretation, and
experimentation should be admissible as science in any science
course. Incorporating the teaching of such doctrines into a
science curriculum compromises the objectives of public
education. Science has been greatly successful at explaining
natural processes, and this has led not only to increased
understanding of the universe but also to major improvements in
technology and public health and welfare. The growing role that
science plays in modem life requires that science, and not
religion, be taught in science classes.
 REFERENCES

https://www.quora.com/How-are-the-layers-of-rocks-
stratified-rocks-formed

https://www.quora.com/How-is-absolute-dating-used-to-
determine-the-age-of-stratified-rocks

https://www.quora.com/How-were-relative-and-absolute-
dating-used-to-determine-the-subdivision-of-geologic-time

https://www.quora.com/How-are-index-fossils-also-known-as-
guide-fossils-used-to-define-and-identify-subdivisions-of-the-
geologic-time-scale