Chapter 3

Matter and Minerals

 Mineralogy
Mineralogy is the study of minerals
Mineral Definition
Naturally occurring
Solid substance
Orderly crystalline structure
Well defined chemical composition
Inorganic
 Mineral Definition
Minerals are formed by natural, geologic
processes
Must naturally occur in nature, cannot be
man-made
A diamond is a
mineral
A synthetic (man-
made) diamond is
not
 Mineral Definition
A mineral is a solid, not gas nor liquid
Water is not a mineral
Ice is a mineral
Mineral Definition
Minerals are
composed of
crystalline
substances,
which means
that their
atoms are
arranged in an
orderly,
repetitive
structure
(crystal lattice)
 Mineral Definition
A mineral has a chemical composition defined
by a chemical formula

For example, the

chemical formula
for the mineral
pyrite is FeS2
Therefore, there is
one iron atom (Fe)
for every two
sulfur atoms (S2)
 Mineral Definition
The formulas can be complicated
For example, muscovite (white mica) is
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
 Mineral Definition
Organic compounds, such as sugar, are not
minerals
Many marine animals secrete inorganic
compounds, such as calcium carbonate,
which are minerals (coral reefs)
 Mineral Definition
Most fossils are composed of minerals
The 1995 Mineral Definition
In 1995, the International Mineralogical
Association adopted a new definition:
A mineral is an element or chemical
compound that is normally crystalline
and that has been formed as a result
of geological processes
This new definition recognizes the fact
that the chemical composition and the
crystal structure are the most
important characteristics of a mineral
 Two Major Characteristics

The two most important

characteristics of a
mineral are
Chemical composition
Crystal structure
 Two Major Characteristics

In truth, most minerals

can only be positively
identified in the lab using
sophisticated equipment
such as an x-ray
diffractometer (XRD)
 Test Question

The two most important characteristics of a

mineral are?
A. Chemical composition and crystal structure
B. Hardness and color
C. Cleavage and luster
D. Crystal structure and hardness
 Rock Definition
A naturally occurring consolidated mixture
of one or more minerals
Or
Any solid mass of minerals, or mineral-like,
matter that occurs naturally
Rock Definition
Rocks can
be
composed
of only one
mineral
However,
most rocks
are
aggregates
of two or
more
minerals
 Rock Definition
A few rocks are NOT composed of minerals
The volcanic rocks, pumice and obsidian, are
composed of noncrystalline glassy substances
(glass does not have a crystal structure)

Coal is defined to
be a rock
However, coal is
composed of solid
organic debris
Periodic Table of the Elements
 Symbols of the Elements
Essential

Oxygen O Magnesium Mg
Silicon Si Iron Fe
Aluminum Al Sodium Na
Potassium K Calcium Ca

Minor but important

Carbon C Titanium Ti
Hydrogen H Argon Ar
Uranium U Zirconium Zr
Sulfur S Lead Pb
Manganese Mn Phosphorus P
Abundance of the Elements
Crust Whole Earth
Oxygen 46.3% 29.5%
Silicon 28.2% 15.2%
Aluminum 8.2% 1.1%
Iron 5.6% 34.6%
Calcium 4.1% 1.1%
Sodium 2.4% 0.6%
Potassium 2.1% 0.1%
Magnesium 2.3% 12.7%
Titanium 0.5% 0.1%
Nickel trace 2.4%
All others trace 2.6%
Abundance of the Elements

When our planet was

still young and molten
The heavy iron sunk
into the center of the
Earth
The lighter oxygen
rose towards the
surface
 Atoms

Atoms are the smallest unit of matter that

combine in chemical reactions
They are the fundamental building blocks of the
Universe
Atoms are extremely small, about 1 angstrom (Å)
in diameter
An angstrom is 0.0000000001 meter
 Atoms

We treat atoms as if
they are a “rigid
sphere” with the size
of the sphere being
proportional to the
size of the atom (lead
atoms are bigger than
carbon atoms)
 Atoms
At the center of an
atom is a nucleus,
composed of protons
and neutrons, that
contains most of the
mass of the atom

This nucleus is
surrounded by
“shells” or “clouds”
of electrons

In fact, atoms are

mostly empty space
 Atoms

C6

6 protons
6 neutrons
 Ions

When an atom loses or gains an electron,

it is becomes an ion
Negatively charged ions have gained one
or more electrons and are called anions
Positively charged ions have lost one or
more electrons and are called cations
Ion Size and Charge

These are some of the

more common cations
and anions found in
minerals
The blue and green
spheres show the
relative size
Note the anions are
generally larger than
cations
Two Major Types of Bonding

Ionic
Covalent
 Ionic Bonding
Simplest form of chemical bonding
90% of minerals are essentially ionic compounds
One or more electrons are transferred from one
atom to another
Ionic compounds consist of an orderly
arrangements of oppositely charged ions
assembled in a define ration that provides
overall neutral charge
Ionic Bonding of Sodium Chloride
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl
Ionic Bonding of Sodium Chloride
Structure of Sodium Chloride
This bonding occurs in three dimensions
 Covalent Bonding
Electrons are shared between two atoms
Much more stable (stronger) than ionic bonds
Pure oxygen readily forms a gas (O2) where the two
oxygen atoms share an electron
The most common mineral group, the silicates,
contain the element silicon which forms covalent
bonds with oxygen
 Cation Substitution
Cations of similar size can substitute for
each other
For example, Fe (iron) and Mg (magnesium)
are similar in size
The silicate mineral Olivine can be
Fe2SiO4 or Mg2SiO4 or (Fe, Mg)2SiO4
 Crystal Structure
A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial
arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of
a mineral
There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements of
atoms in three dimensions
The crystal structure of a
mineral is determined largely
by how the anions are
arranged and how the
cations fit between them
(Remember, anions are
generally larger than
cations) Brucite, Mg(OH)2
Crystal Structure of Diamond

Ionic bonding
 Polymorphs
Minerals with the same chemical composition,
but with different crystal structure
Number & Classes of Minerals
There are over 3,500 different minerals that
occur in nature on Earth
We will focus on just a few types:
Silicates - Si, O combined with other cations
Carbonates - Ca, Mg and CO3
Oxides - O2 and metallic cations
Sulfides - S2 and metallic cations
Sulfates - (SO4)2 and metallic cations
Native elements – Gold, silver, copper
 Silicates

The silicates are the most abundant

minerals in the Earth’s crust
Composed of silicon and oxygen, the two
most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust
The “silicate ion” (SiO4-4) is the building
block of most silicate minerals
 Silicate Tetrahedra

The silicate tetrahedra is

composed of 4 oxygen
and 1 silicon atoms
bounded together
The four large spheres
represent oxygen ions
The one small sphere
represent a silicon ion
 Silicate Tetrahedra

The silicate
tetrahedra
ions can be
bounded
together (and
with other
ions) to form
a great variety
of complex
mineral
structures
 Silicate Tetrahedra
Olivine group
 Single Chains of Tetrahedra
Pyroxene group
 Double Chains of Tetrahedra
Amphibole group
 Sheets of Tetrahedra
Mica group (biotite, muscovite)
Sheets of Tetrahedra
Sheets of Tetrahedra
3-D Frameworks of Tetrahedra
51% of the minerals found in the crust of the Earth,
belong to the Feldspar group
3-D Frameworks of Tetrahedra
Quartz is the second most common mineral in
the Earth’s crust
Like the feldspar group, quartz is made up of a
3-dimensional framework (lattice) of silica
tetrahedra

The natural
crystal shape
for quartz is a
six-sided prism
terminating
with six-sided
pyramids at
each end
3-D Frameworks of Tetrahedra
Quartz crystals are often twinned, distorted and
inter-grown with adjacent crystals of quartz or
other minerals
And may lack obvious crystal faces altogether

Typically, quartz is not

transparent
Most quartz has a
massive appearance
(it simply looks like a
white rock)
3-D Frameworks of Tetrahedra
Quartz can exhibit a tremendous
variation in color and appearance
 Carbonates
Second most abundant mineral group in the
Earth’s crust
Major component of limestone
Three most common carbonate minerals are:
Calcite: CaCO3
Aragonite: CaCO3
Dolomite: (Ca,Mg)CO3
 Acid Test for Calcite
Hydrochloric acid causes calcite to fizz
 Carbonates
Hydrochloric acid does NOT cause the
carbonate mineral dolomite to fizz
 Oxides
Hematite (Fe2O3) is “rusty iron”
The iron has oxidized (bound with oxygen atoms)

Hematite
 Oxides
Magnetite (Fe3O4) is iron that also has
been oxidized
The mineral magnetite is magnetic
 Sulfides
Pyrite (fool’s gold) FeS2
 Sulfates
Gypsum CaSO4 •2H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4

Spinel
 Native metals
Gold, copper and silver are examples of
metals that can occur in nature in their pure
form

Spinel
 Mineral Identification
Hardness
Cleavage
Fracture All will be covered
Luster in lab, hands-on
Color with real minerals
Density
Crystal habit
 Moh’s Hardness Scale
Friedrich Mohs (1773 -1839)
was a German geologist and
mineralogist
He was interested in
classifying minerals by their
physical properties
In 1812, he created a
hardness scale designed to
segregate minerals by their
resistance to being
scratched
Moh’s Hardness Scale
Moh’s Hardness Scale

The Mohs Hardness Scale is

a relative scale that allows
you to compare an unknown
mineral to known minerals
It is not an absolute scale
 Moh’s Hardness Scale
Sorry, no diamonds in our Mohs hardness
kits (bummer!)
How Hard is Hard?

Yes, you can

smash any
mineral, even
diamonds
with a
hammer
 Color
Sapphires (blue) are gem quality
of the common mineral
corundum (Al oxide)
Rubies (red) are also varieties of
corundum

Impurities in
the crystal
structure
cause the
variations in
color
 Color of Corundum
Corundum that contains ~0.01% of titanium
is colorless
Red rubies are corundum which contain
chromium impurities.
Purple sapphires contain trace amounts of
vanadium and come in a variety of shades
If trace amounts of iron are present, a very
pale yellow to green color may be seen
If both titanium and iron impurities are
present together, however, the result is a
magnificent deep-blue color
 Corundum
The Rajaratna Ruby, which is the largest known
gem-quality ruby, weighed about 3,600 carats
when discovered in India
It was cut into a gem weighing 2,475 carats

Due to the presence of an

asterism (distinctive star-
shaped light refraction) in the
gem, the Rajaranta Ruby is
also the world's largest star
ruby with its 6 point asterism.
Corundum

This single
natural ruby
crystal weighs
8.2 pounds or
18,696 carats
It is semi-
translucent
Light can
penetrate into
the rock, but it is
not transparent
 Corundum
Currently, 90% of the world’s rubies are mined in
the Valley of Rubies in the mountainous Mogok
area in northern Myanmar (Burma)
 Corundum
Mogok has been famous since
ancient times for its gemstones,
especially ruby and sapphire, but
semi-precious stones such as
lapis lazuli, garnet, moonstone,
peridot and chrysoberyl are also
found
The gems are found in alluvial
limestone gravels by means on
panning, tunneling and digging
pits by hand (there is little
mechanization of the mining)
 Chapter 4
Rocks & Igneous Rocks