1. What are the common ailments of the bone and muscles that you encounter?

2. How does one acquire osteoporosis? Rickets? Tuberculosis of the bones?

3. How does one prevent having such abnormal physiology?
4. What particular bones and muscles are the most susceptible to fracture and injury?
5. How are bones and muscles related?

I tell you, kid, your bones are alive! They are actually as dynamic as any of your organs that are made up
of active connective tissue that is constantly breaking down, regenerating, repairing itself throughout
your lifetime. In fact, you basically get a whole new skeleton every seven to 10 years. In short, your
bones do weigh more than just providing your squishy sac of flesh with support and scaffolding and the
ability to move around.

In 30 minutes or less, you are about to learn about the skeletal and muscular system- their anatomy,
physiology, the ailments and even the prevention for such. So, kid, watch. Listen. Take down notes. And
LEARN.

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Before we talk about human skeletons, let’s talk about bug skeletons or the skeletons of arthropods.
These arthropods have what is called an “exoskeleton.” Exo is actually Greek for outside or external.

Humans on the other have this amazing network of bones located on the interior of our bodies, hence,
we have what is called endoskeletons. Endo is Greek for within or inner referring to the location of the
skeleton is being inside of our bodies as opposed to outside now as humans our endoskeleton performs
a variety of pretty vital functions.

The first of which is it supports our body and provides a framework for movement our body is supported
by the network of our bones which allows us to sit up and stand and provide some sort of structure for
our body, the limbs of our body in particular and various joints in our body provide a framework for
movement that allows you to run around to kick a soccer ball to type on a keyboard.

Another important function of our skeleton is that it protects our most vital organs so if you look at the
skull for example it houses our brain and the ribcage.

It performs a variety of physiological roles in our body namely the storage of calcium and what is called
hematopoeisis, which is the production of all the cellular components within our blood so our blood is
made up of many different components plasma proteins among other things and the cellular
components of our blood which are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets all formed within the
bone marrow of our bones.

Now one way of classifying bones is differentiating between those that form the axial skeleton and then
those that form the appendicular skeleton.

the axial skeleton is made up of our skull and ribcage and our vertebral column. It forms sort of the axis
of our body right in the center down the midline.

Then the bones of the forelimbs and our pelvis form what is called the appendicular skeleton. Four
appendages form the appendicular skeleton which is attached to our central or axial skeleton.
Another classification system for the bones in our skeleton is the difference between flat bones and long
bones.

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What are flat bones?

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Some examples of flat bones are the bones that make up your skull, your ribs and also the bones in your
pelvis. Flat bones really are describing the shape of the bone. these bones are made up of an inner
spongy or cancel a spoon and then the outer shell is made up of compact bone.

there's an inner spongy cancellous bone in an outer shell of compact bone and flat bone serves primarily
to protect our organs and serve as a site for him.

Long bones on the other hand would be the humerus in your upper arm or say the femur and your lower
leg.

The long middle portion of a long bone is called the diathesis and then the end of a long bone is called
the APIs and there is the small area of bone in between the two called the metaphysis which contains
the growth plate present in the long bones of children.

these long bones are made up of the same inner spongy cancellous bone with an outer shell of compact
bone just like flat bones. these long bones really are the ones that provide a framework for movement
like we talked about before and they also serve as a side of him a dope alesis.

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Speaking of hematopoiesis, where exactly does this matter pieces occur?

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I mentioned that it occurs in bone marrow which is contained within bones and there are two different
types of bone marrow.

There is what is called red bone marrow and then yellow bone marrow.

now red bone marrow serves as the primary site for Hamato police's which makes sense because the
red blood cells make red bone marrow look red to the naked eye. You can typically find red bone
marrow within flat bones and then in the epiphyses of long bones.

Yellow bone marrow on the other hand is primarily a site for fat storage made up of fat cells called
adipocytes and generally you can find yellow bone marrow within the diocese of long bones.

About 90% of bone growth is complete by age 18, and bone loss begins at about age 30. The young
person that includes 1500 mg of calcium in the diet and avoids carbonated beverages builds bone
density and helps prevent osteoporosis in the later years. Growing bones are more flexible in childhood,
but too much force causes a fracture – a crack, a chip, or a complete break in the bone. About 50% of
children sustain a fracture, usually of a finger, forearm, collar bone, foot or elbow.
When a broken bone pierces the skin, it is called an “open fracture” and needs surgery soon due to the
high risk of infection. Bones are linked together at flexible joints. A “dislocation” occurs when bones slip
out of a joint. The ends of each bone are cushioned by pads of smooth rubbery “cartilage.” As sections
of cartilage are worn away, the bone ends rub against each other, and create the pain of
“osteoarthritis.”

----- doctor interview bone ailments---

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But aside from the 206 bones the average human body has, we are also made up of 600 muscles that
make movement possible. Your brain sends signals along nerves to a muscle, telling it to contract.
Muscle contraction then pulls the bones, creating movement. But to fully understand this operation, we
first need to get a grip on the anatomy of a skeletal muscle, which involves fibers within fibers, and lots
of layers.

What else is to know about the muscular system?

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Your skeletal muscles, 640 in all, come in all different shapes and sizes, from the longest (the sartorius in
your upper thigh) to the biggest (the gluteus maximus in your butt), to the tiniest (the stapedius in your
middle ear.) These organs are capable of a whole range of power and duration, as well as surprising and
delicate subtlety.

deep down in the cells of your muscles, the hot protein action between actin and myosin is actually,
literally causing all of your motions. ALL of them. And I don’t just mean voluntary stuff, because your
muscles also support your weight and help fend off gravity. The amazing thing about your complicated,
self-healing, blood-guzzling muscle tissues is that they turn chemical potential energy into mechanical
energy, or movement, simply by doing two things -- contracting and relaxing.

And that contracting and relaxing is exactly what’s fueled by the constant coupling and separation of
biology’s greatest lovers. there are three types of muscle tissue: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.

Your smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of all your hollow visceral organs, like your stomach, and
airways, and blood vessels, where it involuntarily and very usefully pushes fluid and other material
around by contracting and relaxing, over and over.

Your heart is so important that it gets its very own muscle tissue type -- cardiac muscle, which looks
striped, or striated, and also functions involuntarily to keep your blood pumping without you having to
think about it.

the ones you can see and feel and flex -- are your 640 skeletal muscles. They’re striated like cardiac
muscle tissue, but they’re also mostly voluntary, meaning you have to think about using them and
activate them with your somatic nervous system. Most of them attach to your skeleton, and create
movement by pulling bones in different directions as they contract.

Basically, a skeletal muscle is constructed like a really sturdy piece of rope. Thousands of tiny, parallel
threads called myofibrils squish together to form muscle fibers, which are your actual muscle cells --
cells with mitochondria, multiple nuclei, and a cellular membrane called a sarcolemma.
Smooth muscles are found in the walls of many organs such as systematic and blood vessels. They have
a non-straight appearance. Contract involuntarily cardiac muscles are found in the walls of the heart.
They also contract involuntarily.

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How do muscles actually create movement?

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Two rules. One. Proteins like to change shape when stuff binds to them.

And two. Changing shapes can allow proteins to bind -- or unbind -- with other stuff.

Those tiny myofibrils that bundle up to form your muscle fibers are divided lengthwise into segments
called sarcomeres, which contain two even tinier strands of protein -- two different kinds of
myofilaments called actin and myosin. And it’s their angsty story of star-crossed love that fuels every
movement your body could possibly dream up. A sarcomere contains both thin filaments, made up
mostly of two light and twisty actin strands, and thick filaments, composed of thicker, lumpy-looking
myosin strands.

A muscle contracting is all about sarcomeres contracting, bringing those Z-lines closer together.

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When your muscle cells are at rest, your actin & myosin strands don’t touch, but they really, really want
to. Specifically, that club-headed myosin wants to get all up-close-and-personal with the actin. When this
happens -- and it will, eventually -- it’s called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.

actin is blocked by a couple of protein bodyguards -- called tropomyosin and troponin -- which keep
getting in the way. Luckily, these guards can be bought off with a little ATP and some calcium.
Remember, ATP is kind of like molecular currency. It contains chemical energy, and your muscles are all
about converting chemical energy to motion, so they’re always hungry for more ATP. And muscle cells
also have their own version of an endoplasmic reticulum -- the cell’s transport and storage system -- but
in this case it’s specialized, so it gets a special name: the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It’s their use of calcium
and ATP that causes the binding and unbinding that makes sarcomeres contract and relax.

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Now when you look at how the muscular system moves, you gotta keep two things in mind: First,
muscles never push. They always pull.

When a muscle contracts, the bone that moves is called the muscle’s insertion point. And the muscle
brings the insertion closer to the bone that doesn’t move -- or at least moves less -- and that’s called the
muscle’s origin.

And that movement is always a pull -- with the insertion bone being drawn toward the origin bone. And
when you think about it, it has to be this way. Muscles can’t, like, extend themselves beyond their
resting state to push a bone away from it. So even though you are pushing yourself up off the ground in
an exercise we call push ups, your muscles are actually pulling their insertions toward their origins.
When you push yourself up, your pectoralis major is contracting, pulling its insertion point -- which in
this case is the top of your humerus -- toward the immobile origin, which is your sternum. Every single
movement that your skeleton makes uses the very same principle -- whether you’re hammering on on
anvil or lifting your pinky to sip a cup of tea. So that’s the first thing.

The second big thing to remember about skeletal muscles is that whatever one muscle does, another
muscle can undo. You can generally classify skeletal muscles into four functional groups depending on
the movement being performed. For example, the muscles that are mainly responsible for producing a
certain movement are called that motion’s prime movers, or agonist muscles. So, when one does
jumping jacks, she’s using those pectorals in her chest and latissimus dorsi on her back to adduct her
arms back down to her sides. Put another way, those are her prime mover muscles for adduction. At the
same time, there are antagonist muscles that are working in reverse of that particular movement, by
staying relaxed, or stretching, or contracting just enough to keep those prime movers from over-
extending.

The third functional muscle group is your synergists, and they help the prime movers usually by either
lending them a little extra oomph, or by stabilizing joints against dislocation. With all these arm
movements, most of the rotator cuff muscles -- like the teres minor or the infraspinatus -- are acting like
synergists.

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So this is how skeletal muscles are functionally grouped. But what about their actual functions? As
individual organs, how do they contract to create both quick and sustained movements, and to regulate
force?

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A motor unit is a group of muscle fibers that all get their signals from the same, single motor neuron.
Since all those fibers listen to only one neuron, they act together as a unit. In a big power-generating
muscle like your rectus femoris in your quad, each of a thousand or so motor neurons may synapse with,
and innervate, a thousand muscle fibers.

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Those thousand fibers together form a large motor unit. And big units are typically found in muscles that
perform big, not-very-delicate movements, like walking, and squatting, and drop-kicking. But other
muscles -- like the ones that control your eyes and fingers, which exert fine motor control -- may have
just a handful of muscle fibers connected to a single motor neuron. Those relationships are small motor
units. And when a motor unit, no matter how large or small, responds to a single action potential,

those fibers quickly contract and release, in what we call a twitch. And every tiny twitch has three
distinct phases. To understand which happens when, we gotta go back to the sliding filament model.
Immediately after a muscle fiber is stimulated by a nerve -- when calcium ions are flooding into the
sarcomeres to pull away those two protein bodyguards of tropomyosin and troponin from the actin --
that’s called the latent period.

remember, the relaxation period of a twitch is when all the calcium is being pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. If another action potential travels down before that can happen, even more
calcium gets released, which ends up exposing more actin for myosin to bind to, and that means more
force in that fiber. In this way, twitches end up adding to each other as they get closer together in time.
And that’s what we call that temporal summation.

At some point, though, almost all actin binding sites are exposed, so all of the myosin heads can work
through their cycles of ATP and ADP, and the muscle force can’t increase any more, even with faster
action potentials and more calcium. When all those little twitches blend together until they feel like one
gigantic contraction, that’s called tetanus. At that point, any person on the planet will hit a ceiling of
maximum tension. That tension means myosin and the calcium pumps are burning up the muscle cells’
ATP,

and the finite supply of ATP is what makes it impossible to maintain vigorous muscle activity indefinitely.
Prolonged contraction leads to muscle fatigue, and when your muscles just can’t take it anymore all that
tension crashes to zero. And remember, all of this twitching happens in individual motor units. Since
twitches are driven by action potentials, and action potentials only have one intensity, frequency is the
only way to create a grade of force.

But when we zoom out to the complete muscle of maybe a thousand motor units, we can increase the
strength of the stimulus by sending action potentials to more motor units. If amping up frequency is like
hitting a button again and again, then increasing the signal strength is like smashing the whole keyboard
… with your forehead. Since multiple action potentials don’t travel down all the motor neurons at exactly
the same time, each motor unit twitches at slightly different times, which helps smooth out the …
twitchiness.

So, contractions intensify as your motor neurons stimulate more and more muscle fibers. This is a process
called recruitment, or multiple motor unit summation. And it’s where some of your muscles’ more
nuanced abilities come in. So let’s say Claire is holding Abby. She wants to hold onto her tight, so that
Abby doesn’t fall, but you know not too tight, right? So to increase the contraction force and tighten her
grip, she can recruit another motor unit.

Recruiting one with 20 fibers will firm her grasp, but calling on one with 1000 fibers might … well, let’s
not think about that too much. Lucky for our corgi friend, this recruitment doesn’t escalate at random --
it follows what’s known as a size principle. It starts when the smallest motor units with the smallest
fibers are activated by your most excitable neurons. Then some larger motor units with larger fibers are
enlisted, increasing the strength of contraction.

And finally, if you want to give it all you’ve got, your largest motor units, with your biggest muscle fibers
will get involved. These big guns are the last to join up, in part because they’re controlled by your largest
and least excitable motor neurons. But when they’re in, they are all in -- packing fifty times the force of
those smaller fibers. So the basic rule is: the more motor units recruited, the greater the force that’s
generated.

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A muscle stretched when it is not warmed up, overstretched from excessive force, or not rested, can
tear. Swelling and even some bleeding may be noticed. This is strain, commonly called a pulled muscle.
Muscles of the neck, back, thigh, or calf are commonly strained. Muscle cramps are painful, involuntary
contraction, and usually caused by dehydration.

Each muscle is connected to the bone by a strong cord-like tissue called a “tendon.” The largest of the
tendons is the “Achilles Tendon,” which attaches the heel bone to the bottom of the calf muscle.
“Tendinitis” occurs when tendons become fatigued from overuse.

During periods of rapid growth, the bones grow faster than the muscles and tendons, so these tight
muscles must lengthen to keep up with bone growth. Tighter muscles pull on the tendons that attach to
the bone. Gentle stretching can decrease the pain.

----- doctor interview muscle ailments----

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