Singular Optics

Jan Masajada

Institute of Physics Technical University of Wroclaw

Wyspiañskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw, POLAND
e-mail: masajadaif.pwr.wroc.pl

ABSTRACT

The presented paper may be treated as a short introduction to Singular Optics -the new branch of the contemporary
optics and photonics. At the first part three main area of interest of the singular optics, i.e. ray, phase and polarization
singularities, are briefly presented. Second part gives better insight into the phase singularities, which are of special
author's interest. Last part is devoted to the some possible phase singularities applications (interferometry and
microscopy).

Keywords: singular optics, caustic, phase singularity, optical vortex, edge dislocation, superresolution, interferometry.

1. INTRODUCTION

The singular optics is a new branch of modern optics. The name was suggested by prof. Marat Soskin from Kiev
(Ukraine) and widely accepted. Following the reference' the subject of singular optics can be classified into three
categories:
. The singularities of rays families.
. The wave optics singularities.
. Polarization singularities.
This paper is organized in the following way. In section 2 short comments on each of the above categories and their
mutual relations is given. In section 3 the screw singularities (which are the subject of author's particular interest) are
described in more details. In section 4 and 5 the research activities of authors group is briefly presented.

2. THE OPTICAL SINGULARITIES

Following the above classification scheme first the ray singularities will be considered. Their are recognized as the
highest (macroscopic) level of optical singularities. At the more fundamental level one can find phase singularities and
fmally polarization singularities that are the most finest details of electromagnetic fields.

2.1. Rays optics singularities.

The families of rays may form a caustics (mathematically caustics are the envelopes of ray families2). The well known
example of caustic is the lens focus. At caustics light energy becomes infinite, so they are singularities in rays optics3.
All these facts were known in XIX century and some of them even in ancient time. The name "caustics" was introduce
by ancient Greeks and nowadays can be translated as the area of high light density, burning light energy. The modern
theory of ray optics singularities was developed in second half of XX century. Figure 2 shows the ray families formed
by light source refracted by plane water surface (see figure la). To plot these figures the well known Snell law was
used.

66 Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5259 13th Polish-Czech-Slovak Conference on Wave

and Quantum Aspects of Contemporary Optics, edited by Jerzy Nowak, Marek Zajac,
Jan Masajada (SPIE, Bellingham, WA, 2003) · 0277-786X/03/$15.00

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 The same could be done for light reflecting from rippling water surface in the swimming pool and other "natural
optical systems" that modulates light. Such ca'culations can be time consuming but the theory seems to be complete.
From this point of view the only matter is the question of computation capacity of the given computer system.
Nevertheless, the modern treatment which is based on catastrophe theory shows the surprising order in the set of all
possible images formed by natural imaging systems. The catastrophe theory was introduce by Thom4 and Arnold5 and
a comprehensive introduction to it can be find in6. In brief, in catastrophe theory one studies the singularities of,
mapping between state space and control space. In ray optics the state space is an object space and control space is an
image space. The mapping is defined by ray function (called potential function), which is strictly related to the
optical length corresponding to the given ray1'7'8.
According to the Fermat principle the physical rays are rays for which the potential function has an extremas. In
order to find caustics higher order derivatives of potential function must be investigated. The caustics are point were
potential function has higher order extremas (i.e higher order derivatives of potential function are singular at a given
points). The schematic plot of the potential function extremas, for the case shown in figure la, is shown in figure lb.
Figure 2 shows the corresponding rays plot.

AIR

LIGHT
SOURCE

Figure 1. a) The point source imaged by smooth water surface. The back rays are considered. b) the
extrema geometry ofthe potential function defined as proportional to the optical length from the ray source
to the given point ofthe observation space. The bold line shows the caustic hypersurface (cusp type) which
is in this case one dimensional (a line). For the points lying inside the cusp the potential function has three
extrema - three rays go through each such point, outside the cusp potential function has one extremum —
one ray noes throuch each such noint.

At the central area the potential function ço has three extremas, which means that at each point there are three rays
passing. At the caustics line two rays became tangent to each other and do not pass to the outer area, where only one
maximum and one ray goes through each point. Within the catastrophe theory it is shown that all caustics can be
classified into several classes. The classification is based on the following, mathematical criterion6: Two caustics are
equivalent if they potential function can be transformed one into another by suitable changes of coordinates, i.e such
transformation which preserves their differential structure. This means that one can make any smooth and reversible
(i.e. the reserve transformation is also smooth) transformation of the state variables (including the control variables as
parameters). Each class can be represented by standard form of its potential function. The example of standard potential
function for four first catastrophes and their names given by Thom' are listed below. It should be notice that the form of
standard potential function is not given in unique way and (at some extent) is a matter of arbitrary choice. In the present
case it is given in the form that will be directly applied in diffraction integrals in next section.

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 • FOLD
3
S
(= + Cs (1 a)
—i--

• CUSP
4 2
5 5
ço = — + C2 + C1 s (1 b)

• SWALLOWTAIL
5
( —+C3—+C2-—+C1s
3 2
( 1 c)

• ELLIPTIC UMBILIC

=si3 S —C3 ( —sfl_C2 2 C s (1 d)

The caustic theory is used in advance imaging

analyses, where no classical system i.e. WATER SURFACE
manufactured by human is available. Usually the
classical systems are designed to produce the
non-stable singularities, as ideal lens focus. It is
well known that even small perturbations in
system geometry spoils ideal image and introduce
effects known as aberrations which can be
understood, in the field of catastrophe theory, as
a stable caustics. An example of a system with
only natural imaging "elements" are gravitational
lenses considered in astronomy' . Deeper insight
into this theory (and other method of
contemporary geometrical optics) and their
applications can be also find in7'8.

2.2 Phase singularities b

The infinite energy density at caustic is -46
physically unreal. In real systems the caustics
lines are softened by the diffraction phenomena. —4.8
There is strict relation between caustics
classification based on catastrophe theory and
their possible diffraction images. Following the
derivation given in"9, one can find the following
diffraction integral (in paraxial approximation).

u(x , y1 ) = C Jexp{— i k (x, x1 , y )}dx, —54

-00

(2)
where C is a constant, k is a value of wave vector
(the monochromatic case is considered here),
x1, yj are variables in image point (control space),
x is variable in state space (object space).
For each class of potential function
a characteristic diffraction pattern can be, by
68 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5259
Figure 2. a) rays family formed by plane water surface (Fig. la). In
the middle area three rays goes through each point. The small rays
density shown at the figure causes that not for all points these three
rays are plotted. b) the magnification of the small area of the central
part. c) the part ofthe caustic area. The rays density tends to infinity.
Two rays of every three became parallel and join at the caustic
curve, so the caustic cross one ray,

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 above integral, calculated. The examples can be find in9. It is important that the "diffracted" caustics contains a number
of phase singularities which are distributed in characteristic way and can be considered as finer structure of the caustic
pattern.
The phase singularities are the singularities in phase distribution of the given wave front (considered in scalar
approximation). Figure 3 shows the equiphase lines of the pure Gaussian beam and Gaussian beam carrying single
optical vortex. The lines forms star like structure. Near its central point the phase variations became infinite — so we
have phase singularity (phase dislocation). The dislocations propagates along the z-axis, contrary to the so called edge
dislocations which lies along the axis perpendicular to the axis of propagation (at least locally). To fulfilled the
continuos conditions at the singular point the light field intensity must be equal zero. The detailed studies and
definitions can be found in1"0'11'12. There can be a number of phase singularities in the given wave front which can
move and affect each other. This dynamics is bounded by a number of topological theorems that was found for such
a . it is worth noting that full view on phase singularity dynamics must take into account the presence of
other topological structures in phase (scalar) fields such as saddle points and extrema1'14. Authors special interest are
screw singularities (optical vortices) which are the subject of section 3.

a b

C (I

Figure 3. Pure Gaussian beam — a) phase distribution; h) intensit) distribution. Gaussian beam
with single OV — c) phase distribution; d) intensity distribution.

2.3. Polarization singularities.

The polarization singularities are the finest structures in electromagnetic field. When considering the polarization
distribution over the plane one can find parameters related to the polarization which are undefined. For example there
are points (lines in space) of circular polarization the parameter called azimuth (angle a in Fig. 4. ) is undefined. Such
points called C-points (C-lines) are the singularities in light vector fields. More about polarization singularities and
their relations to phase singularities can be found in"16.

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 3. OPTICAL VORTICES

In this section more information on optical vortices are given. First the relation between the screw singularities and
optical vortices is explained in accordance to suggestion given in paper'2. The screw singularity is the line along which
phase is singular, while the optical vortex is the associated wave front. Figure 5 shows the result of an experiment, when
the Gaussian beam with single optical vortex was diffracted by ring like aperture. As one can see the singular point
(dark central point) survives the diffraction although it was stopped by a central part of the ring (the ring — its open area
— was relatively narrow and its central part covers most of the central beam part.) This is due to the fact that optical

vortex is non-local and stable structure (here stable means physical not mathematical stability) in the phase field and
singular points results from the wave front geometry of the beams carrying optical vortices. Hence while propagating
the stopped singular point can be reconstructed.
The optical vortices carries non-zero angular momentum which stabilize them. The transfer of these angular
momentum can be observed in an experiment performed by He and coworkers'6 in which the light from optical beam
carrying optical vortices were absorbed by highly absorptive small particles. The particles were in liquid. Due to
absorption they start to rotate and the rotation direction were in agreement with the orientation of vortices helicity. In
1936 Beth17 has shown that a polarized light can also transfer an angular momentum to external system. It follows that
the total angular momentum has two components — one related to the polarization and other related to vortex structure.
Some authors call the first component a spin (or inner) and the other an orbital, which is an analogy to the angular
momentum of the electron in atom. However, as it was shown in18 the problem is more complicated in the considered
case. Contrary to atomic physics, there is no way to write generally:

J=Js+Jo (3)
where J, J , J0 is total, spin, orbital angular momentum ofthe light, respectively.
The equation (3) can be written in case of linear polarization of the light. It should be notice here that the non-zero
orbital angular momentum can be present in vortex free beams and all remarks concerning orbital angular momentum
are valid for such beams either'9.

4. OPTICAL VORTICES INTERFEROMETRY

The idea of the Optical Vortices Interferometry (OVI) is based on the regular net of optical vortices, that can be
generated by three plane waves interference (see previous section). Figure 6 shows an example of three plane waves
distribution at the observation plane. As one can see, at some points, the complex amplitude vectors (the length of the
vector represents the wave amplitude and its angle the wave phase at the given point) form the triangle, i.e. the total
amplitude of the interfering waves is zero. At such points single optical vortices exist. As one can see there are twins of
triangles in figure 6. The components of each pair differs in the topological charge, which preserves the total angular
momentum of the wave field. Although the figure represents the particular case, when wave A is parallel to the
observation plane, all other cases can be transformed to
this one2° without changing the optical vortices net
geometry.
Having such an optical vortices net one can determined
the relative phases between interfering waves. The basic
measurement and analysis scheme is given below21.
my
. measure the intensities of the interfering waves
A+B, A+C, B+C and A+B+C.
. find the location of vortex points
x
. find the relative phase between the waves A, B,
C.
ITix
The key problem in this interferometry is vortex
points localization. The main difficulty is that at vortex
points light intensity is equal to zero. At zero level signal
the detector sensitivity (CCD detector in this case) is Figure 4. Polarization ellipse. For the circular polarization
lowest and the noise influence is highest. However the azimuth (parameter a ) is undefined.
having rather low quality equipment the author group get

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 acceptable results just tracing the minima intensity points21 from A+B+C interferogram. Anyway this step is useful for
the preliminary vortex localization. In next step one can use one ofthe more sophisticated methods developed by author
and his coworkers22'23. The important conclusion is that vortex point can be found even with low quality optical system.
Having vortex points one can find the relative phases between waves A, B, C just by using triangle geometry.

a b

Figure 5. The image ofthe Gaussian beam through a ring. a) Incident beam with characteristic dark central area. b)
The image through narrow ring — case I . c) The image through narrow ring - in this case the inner radius of the ring
is greater then in case 1, so only the marginal parts ofthe incident beam passes through.

Figure 6. Schematic plot ofequiphase lines ofthree interfering plane waves. Wave A is assumed to be parallel
to the observation plane, hence it phase value is unique. At some points the vectors a, b, c, representing
amplitude and phase of the interfering waves forms triangles. At such points there are single OVs. Two kinds
ofthe triangles corresponds to two topological charges ofthe OVs.

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 The optical system used by the author is shown in21'22'23. since four or more interferograms have to be taken for
single measurements the system should be fully computerized. Fast and stable electronic shutters should be used to
close/open the particular traces for the subsequent measurement. In fact such possibilities were not available for the
author. The registration were performed by smooth movement of the operator hand with a card, which blocks the
subsequent traces. The system is made so, that operator does not have to move his legs, while moving cards. The second
operator start the computer, which takes one picture at every 0.2 second. The whole measurement last about I .5 second.
The progressive scan 8 bit, black and white CCD camera (0.5millions ofpixels) is used as an image detector. The laser
is He-Ne laser with phase stabilization supported by LaserTex24. The optics were rather medium quality. The results
obtained with this system are enough accurate to confirm the correctness of the OVI idea, and the proposed
measurement procedures. However, in order to fully use the OVI advantages better camera, full system computerization
and better optics is necessary.
There is no room here to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the presented system. It should be notice that
the phase can be measure only at vortex points. For the camera used by author the reasonable vortex points number is at
the level of 1 50 — 250. There is also a possibility of expanding the number of measurement point at factor four (four
times more), which will be the subject of next communication. Some more researches on the use of deeper topological
relation in vortices field may leads to even more measurement points. The interferometer system is very flexible. By
adjusting the relative angles between reference beams and their amplitudes one can fit it to various applications.
Although three or four beams are used, the interferometer should be consider as a two beam interferometer. The
interferograrn of three waves is used to support vortex points localization. Having the vortex points one can bound the
measurements (interferograms) ofthree possible pairs ofwaves (at vortex points only). These two beams interferograms
(A+B, A+C, B+C) are the main source of information. Additionally the full methodology of classical two beam
interferometry and interferometry with carrier frequency5'26 can be applied in interferogram interpretation. One can
also treat the OVI interferometer as supporting the classical interferometry. This short discussion shows how wide are
the possible area of application of the presented interferometer. It should be notice here that such system also has its
own unique advantages. The most important seems to be the unique possibility of estimating the reference wave phase
distribution. This problem will be presented in other publication.

5. OPTICAL VORTICES MICROSCOPY

The fast progress in micro and nano-optics and microbiology results in strong demand on microscopic systems.
Unfortunately the classical optical microscopy suffers from strong resolution limits. Many solutions were invented to
overcome these problems. In the field of optical instruments there are confocal scanning systems. Non-optical examples
are: electron or ion microscopy or all types of other scanning systems as atomic force microscopy. The non-optical
systems offers better resolution, but suffers from many disadvantages. For example some of them may work in vacuum
only, some needs special preparation of the sample or use hard for living samples radiation. In many cases the
interpretation ofthe images is not obvious and the systems are very expensive.
The phase singularities, which are born while the focused laser beam scans the sample propagate in the zero order
diffraction beam. Tychynsk7'28'29 has proposed the use of this fact for the supperesolution optical microscope. The
other workers has followed this way30. Such instrument is a scanning microscope where the sample is scanned by
focused laser beam. The highly magnified interferograms (the microscope is based on the phase shifting inteferometric
system) are used for tracing the phase singularities, which are generated at the sample. To find the phase dislocations at
least four interferograms have to be taken for single step. Having the phase distribution with singularities one can
proceed to make surface topography reconstruction. Theoretically the only limit for the resolution in such a system is
a signal to noise ratio. However, good theory is necessary to complete this task. The theoretical problems have been not
satisfactory solved yet, and some important objections to this idea have been published'1.
Author has started investigations on simpler system, but with lower possible resolution. The system scheme is
shown in figure 7. Now the sample is scanned with a beam containing single (or multi in future) optical vortex. At the
image the position of vortex point is traced. The sensitivity of a beam with star like phase distribution (Fig.3) is higher
then the pure Gaussian beam. This gives hope for better resolution possible which such system. The calculations and
first rather rough measurements shows that the system can work correctly.

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 CCD

(HI U
'Sl1 \l

EASER

Li iiRR(.)R ()IN
11 iF [!i:f1:I(

Figure 7. The simplest optical scheme of the microscope using optical vortices.

6. SUMMARY

The optical singularities are a subject of intensive studies. This fact should be consider in wider perspective. In many
other branches of modern physics researches put much attention two all kinds of singular or low dimensional structures.
All these structures share some core topological features. For example one can find edge or screw dislocations in
crystallography or vortices in Bose-Einstein condense. From this point of view the Singular Optics can be considered as
a part of Singular Physics — very modern area of interest in contemporary physics. The common topological features of
singular structures results in very similar dynamics of these phenomenon and similar formalism for their description.
Since the optical singularities are particularly easy to generate and controlled they can support many useful models for
others, more difficult in experiment, singularities. The studies within Singular Optics gives also a deeper insight into the
physics of electromagnetic fields as it was shown in case of rays singularities. There is also a number of possible
applications which are know under development. Apart from interferometry and microscopy mentioned in this paper the
best known are techniques for microparticles manipulations.

REFERENCES
1. J. F. Nye Natural focusing andfine structure of light, loP, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1999.
2. 0. N. Stravroudis, The optics of rays, wavefronts and caustics, New York, Acad. Press 1972.
3. M. V. Berry, Singularities in waves and rays, in Physics qf defects, ch. 7,North Holland, 1981.
4. R. Thom, Structural stability and morphogenesis, Benjamin, New York, 1972.

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