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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Power factor correction (PFC) converters are

becoming popular due to their distinguished features of low input current THD
(Total Harmonic Distortion) with a high power factor. These PFC converters are
basically the input current shapers as they reduce the harmonics current content,
which are at the frequency other than the fundamental frequency.
To reduce harmonics content from the input supply current, active as well as
passive filters are incorporated in the circuit, which bring down the supply current
THD under acceptable limits as per the standard IEC 61000-3-2 [1]. To meet the
demand of energy efficient, low cost variable speed drive is a fan type of load
used in ventilation, air conditioning and dryer applications, a PFC converter based
modified dual output Cuk converter fed SRM drive is proposed in this work.
The requirement of variable speed drive for household applications, has

intensified the interest of manufacturers towards the low cost and highly efficient
brushless motor drive To meet today’s demand, brushed and commutator based
machines are no more the choice for industry because of associated wear, low
power density and reliability. The brushless motors with permanent magnets, are
becoming popular due to their high efficiency, however, the cost and availability
of the rare earth permanent magnet material, are the limitations associated with
these permanent magnet motors.
Hence, the advent of SRM (Switched Reluctance Motor) has met the requirement
of low cost variable speed drive motor. However, the simple construction and
absence of rotor windings or any sort of rare earth material, have reduced the
cost of SRM, effectively [2-4]. Moreover, SRM also suffers from some
disadvantages including high torque ripple due to discontinuous phase current,
acoustic noise, vibration etc.
Thus, many online and offline controls are reported in the literature for torque
ripple minimization in SRM to present SRM as an appliance motor. Sozer et al. [3],
have given the calculation for commutation angle control on the basis of three
control parameters i.e. peak phase current, angle when first current peak occurs
and the angle when inductance begins to increase.
Hussain [4] has presented the hybrid torque minimization controller incorporated
torque minimization technique developed in the past few decades. The design
and development of variable speed SRM drive for domestic application and
power tools, are presented by Ha et al [2]. In this paper, SRM drive with an
improved efficiency is proposed by reducing the switching devices of SRM
converter.
The paper compares the proposed split AC converter for SRM drive with a
conventional converter having more switching devices on the basis of cost and
efficiency. Moreover, poor power quality with high input current THD, remains
undiscussed. In [5], Chai et al. have proposed the three phase single switch mode
rectifier fed SRM drive.
The current harmonics cancellation scheme and voltage control scheme, are
discussed in it. Test results have demonstrated enhanced current and speed
dynamic responses with reduced vibration and speed ripples, however, power
factor improvement has been still limited, which do not comply a standard.
Many low cost SRM based drives are proposed in the literature but SRM drive
with improved power quality is not well addressed till now. The low cost switched
reluctance motor drive fed by a unity power factor converter, appears as a
promising solution to the available drive structure. The mid-point converter
which utilizes single switch and single diode to excite individual phases, is
selected here to build the proposed drive as a low cost system.
This converter is well suited for inexpensive application due to reduced count of
switches and drivers requirement. However, switch voltage rating requirement is
half because of its split DC link configuration. The only drawback associated with
this so far unpopular converter topology, is the required voltage symmetry.
This encourages the design of PFC converter, which can take care of power
quality issues at AC mains and generates two symmetrical voltages across the
two capacitors. Therefore, a dual output Cuk converter fed SRM drive is proposed
here. The selection of modified dual output Cuk converter is made because of
following influential features, It provides a fully regulated two equal output
voltages utilizing single voltage loop. It improves the power quality when the
drive operates under steady state as well as dynamic conditions.
The selected operating mode for proposed converter, has reduced the size of an
output side inductor thus the cost and required board area, are also reduced. To
control SR motor, two control methodologies are adopted as a constant DC link
voltage based control and a variable DC link voltage based control. The constant
DC link voltage based control is the conventionally adopted control algorithm,
which is further divided into two operating modes on the basis of operating
speed. If the low speed operation is desired then the chopping control mode is
adopted whereas a single pulse mode is selected at high speed operation.
During low speed, the turn on and turn off angles are kept constant and the
required torque is obtained by regulating amplitude of the current. However,
during high speed operation, the current control is not possible due to
comparable back EMF and DC link voltage. Therefore, SR motor at high speed is
controlled on the basis of turn on and turn off angles which can be called as a
single pulse mode control.
In this conventional control method, full DC link voltage is applied across the
winding during low speed operation, which results in high current gradient thus
initializes the different vibration modes in the stator and produces increased
acoustic noise. However, acoustic noise becomes prominent when the stator
frequency of vibration coincides with the natural frequency of the stator.
The high acoustic noise and radial vibrations in SRM, can be reduced using single
pulse control, which is selected here. In this proposed control algorithm, the DC
link voltage is considered as function of speed. The PFC converter before mid-
point converter fed SR motor, provides required power quality improvement at
supply side and at the same time it is capable of maintaining sufficient current to
maintain the rated torque. Thus low speed operation of SR motor can be easily
obtained without using any chopping control strategy.
The reduced DC bus voltage at low speed operation, results in reduced current
gradient and thus the acoustic noise as compared to conventional control
method. CHAPTER 2 POWER QUALITY 2.1 INTRODUCTION The contemporary
container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often enamored
by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance,
and levels of automation that can be achieved.
Although these features and their indirectly related computer based

enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not
forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar
which bonds the foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating
economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment in power
distribution systems to support new crane installations.
To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly
issue of my home utility billing: ‘Using electricity wisely is a good environmental
and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from
generating plants, and conserves our natural resources.’ As we are all aware,
container crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding
rate.
Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require
average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW – almost double the total average
demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase
in container crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large
AC and DC drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase
awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future. 2.2
POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS For the purpose of this article, we shall define
power quality problems as: ‘Any power problem that results in failure or mis-
operation of customer equipment, manifests itself as an economic burden to the
user, or produces negative impacts on the environment.’ When applied to the
container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality include: •
power factor • harmonic distortion • voltage transients • voltage sags or dips •
voltage swells The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container
cranes are significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage
distortion. Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average power
factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this.
In addition, line notching occurs when SCR’s commutate, creating transient peak
recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending
upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and
severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive.
Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives
are operating at slow speeds.
Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or
during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum
value when the SCR’s are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above base
speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container
cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to
spot and land containers.
Poor power factor places a greater KVA demand burden on the utility or engine-
alternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage
stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the life of sensitive
electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction.
Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage

chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant
sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment It has been
our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems
with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or
there was no economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed.
Before the advent of solid-state power supplies, Power factor was reasonable,
and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the crane Population
multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power conversion
became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as
harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really
prepared.
Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue
during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and
understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or
unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although
the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on
investment.
However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely will not be delivered. 2.3
POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS Power quality can be improved through: •
Power factor correction, • Harmonic filtering, • Special line notch filtering, •
Transient voltage surge suppression, • Proper earthing systems.
In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be
fully aware of the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes
nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness. In many cases, those
involved with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be
cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone
else’s concern.
As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power

quality criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also,
many of those specifications which do require power quality equipment do not
properly define the criteria. Early in the process of preparing the crane
specification: • Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or
contract requirements that must be satisfied, if any.
• Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality
profiles that can be expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed
for the specific project. • Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not
only on the present situation, but consider the impact of future utility
deregulation and the future development plans for the terminal 2.4
THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY Power quality in the container terminal

environment impacts the economics of the terminal operation, affects reliability
of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers served by the same
utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs.
2.4.1. ECONOMIC IMPACT The economic impact of power quality is the foremost
incentive to container terminal operators.
Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways: 2.4.1.1
POWER FACTOR PENALTIES Many utility companies invoke penalties for low
power factor on monthly billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility
companies. Methods of metering and calculating power factor penalties vary
from one utility company to the next.
Some utility companies actually meter KVAR usage and establish a fixed rate
times the number of KVAR hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor
KVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed
limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment
to the peak demand charges.
A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet

invoke power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may
still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met.
The utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or KVAR usage
and reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right
to monitor the Port service at any time.
If the power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user
may be penalized, or required to take corrective actions at the user’s expense.
One utility company, which supplies power service to several east coast container
terminals in the USA, does not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly
billings, however, their service contract with the terminal reads as follows: ‘The
average power factor under operating conditions of customer’s load at the point
where service is metered shall be not less than 85%.
If below 85%, the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its
expense corrective apparatus which will increase the Power factor of the entire
installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no excessive
harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may require
special power conditioning equipment or filters.
The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining
container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware
of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to
enforce requirements such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not
deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some rather severe penalties in
the future.
A sound, future terminal growth plan should include contingencies for addressing
the possible economic impact of utility deregulation. 2.4.1.2 SYSTEM LOSSES
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only
result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the
distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on your
monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month.
Container cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power
factor. Based on the typical demands of today’s high speed container cranes,
correction of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result
in a reduction of system losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the
monthly utility billing.
For most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of
operation. 2.4.1.3 POWER SERVICE INITIAL CAPITAL INVESTMENTS The power
distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as
modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost,
specialized, high and medium voltage equipment.
Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars,
etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is
directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA
demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e.
a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container
cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal. Since
container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power
factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if
power factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at
some common bus location in the terminal.
In the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger,

switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger,
collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost
of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system which does not
address power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which
includes power quality equipment. 2.4.2
EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment

reliability and reduce the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and
voltage system sags and swells are all power quality problems and are all
interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce
harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC
SCR variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor. Dynamically
varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells.
The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can
be mitigated using specially designed filters. 2.4.3. POWER SYSTEM ADEQUACY
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power
distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine
the adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads.
Power quality corrective actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing

power distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be
connected. In other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a
workable scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would
otherwise be inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of
problems. 2.4.4. ENVIRONMENT No issue might be as important as the effect of
power quality on our environment.
Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the

consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant
emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to encourage
conservation of our natural resources and support measures which improve our
air quality 2.5 HARMONIC The typical definition for a harmonic is “a sinusoidal
component of a periodic wave or\ quantity has a frequency that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency.” .Some references refer to “clean” or
“pure” power as those without any harmonics. But such clean waveforms typically
only exist in a laboratory.
Harmonics have been around for a long time and will continue to do so. In fact,
musicians have been aware of such since the invention of the first string or
woodwind instrument. Harmonics (called “overtones” in music) are responsible
for what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a clarinet.
Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform
has only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the
North America, this frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European
countries and other parts of the world, this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft
often uses 400 Hz as the fundamental frequency.
At 60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage waveform increases to
a maximum positive value, then decreases to zero, further decreasing to a
maximum negative value, and then back to zero. The rate at which these changes
occur is the trigometric function called a sine wave, as shown in figure 2.1. This
function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the speed of a pendulum as
it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a voilin vibrates when plucked.
/ Fig 2.1 Sine wave The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the
fundamental frequency. For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60
or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz. 200Hz is the 5th
harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system. Figure 2.2
shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-type

display, which some power quality analyzers provide. / Figure 2.2 Fundamental
with two harmonics In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have
many different frequencies present, a number of mathematical methods were
developed. One of the more popular is called the Fourier Transform.
However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a microprocessor or

computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible processes,
called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform,
are used. These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the
fundamental and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the
Nyquist frequency, which is one-half of the sampling frequency). The frequency
values must not change during the measurement period.
Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in mis-information. For example,

if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200 Hz signals, the FFT cannot
directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,..., which are often called
“bins”. The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear
partially in the 180Hz bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin.
An FFT-based processer could show a voltage value of 115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the

3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it really should have been 30 V
at 200 Hz. These in-between frequencies are called “inter harmonics”. There is
also a special category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than
the fundamental frequency value, called sub-harmonics.
For example, the process of melting metal in an electric arc furnace can result
large currents that are comprised of the fundamental , inter harmonic, and sub
harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power grid. These levels can
be quite high during the melt-down phase, and usually affect the voltage
waveform. 3.6 WHY WORRY ABOUT THEM The presence of harmonics does not
mean that the factory or office cannot run properly.
Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the “stiffness” of the power
distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below,
there are a number of different types of equipment that can have miss operations
or failures due to high harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one
factory may be the source of high harmonics but able to run properly.
This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the electric utility distribution
system, and may affect facilities on the same system which are more susceptible.
Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: -
Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triplex
harmonics in three phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral.
This is because the harmonic number multiplied by the 120 degree phase shift
between phases is integer multiple of 260 degrees. This puts the harmonics from
each of the three phase legs “in-phase” with each other in the neutral, as shown
in Figure 3.2. / Figure.2.3 Additive Third Harmonics Incorrect reading meters,
including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging type current meters.
Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA.
Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplex harmonics

generated on the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the
primary side. Some type of losses goes up as the square of harmonic value (such
as skin effect and eddy current losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and
lighting ballasts. Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In
a balanced system, voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th,
7th...), negative (2nd, 5th, 8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th...) sequencing values.
This means that the voltage at that particular frequency tries to rotate the motor
forward, backward, or neither (just heats up the motor), respectively. There is also
heating from increased losses as in a transformer. / Table 3.1 Harmonic
Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems Nuisance operation of protective devices,
including false tripping of relays and failure of a UPS to transfer properly,
especially if controls incorporate zero-crossing sensing circuits. Bearing failure
from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric motors.
Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from

resonance with line impedance. Miss-operation or failure of electronic equipment
If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is
called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most
sensitive, and just 0.5% variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of
lighting. 2.7
WHERE THEY COME FROM How this electricity is used by the different type of
loads can have an effect on “purity” of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause
the voltage and current waveforms to lose this pure sine wave appearance and
become distorted. This distortion may consist of predominately harmonics,
depending on the type of load and system impedances.
Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of

sources. “The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle
controlled rectifiers and inverters.” .These are often called static power converters.
These devices take AC power and convert it to another form, sometimes back to
AC power at the same or different frequency, based on the firing scheme.
The firing scheme refers to the controlling mechanism that determines how and
when current is conducted. One major variation is the phase angle at which
conduction begins and ends. A typical such converter is the switching-type power
supplies found in most personal computers and peripheral equipment, such as
printers.
While they offer many benefits in size, weight and cost, the large increase of this
type of equipment over the past fifteen years is largely responsible for the
increased attention to harmonics. Figure shows below how a switching-type
power supply works. The AC voltage is converted into a DC voltage, which is
further converted into other voltages that the equipment needs to run.
The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes) that only

conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the one end
must be greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor,
where the voltage value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is
being taken out by the rest of the power supply. When the input voltage value is
higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will conduct current through it.
This results in a current waveform as shown in Figure3.4, and harmonic spectrum

in Figure 3.5. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform with only a 60 Hz
frequency component. / Figure 2.4 Current Waveform / Figure 2.5. Harmonic
Spectrum of Current Waveform If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier,
the waveform would only have every other current pulse, and the harmonic
spectrum would be different, as shown in Figure 2.4. Fluorescent lights can be the
source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear inductors.
The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. (See Table 3.2) As
previously mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire
wye or star system will be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some
of the newer electronic ballasts have very significant harmonic problems, as they
operate somewhat like a switching power supply, but can result in current
harmonic distortion levels over 30%. / Table 2.2.
Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting Low power, AC voltage

regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors adjust the phase angle
or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power converters are
used for motor control in manufacturing and railroad applications, and include
such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable frequency
drives).
Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high voltage DC
transmission employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating. This type of
3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality problems. When
the semiconductor device is suppose to turn-off, it does not do so abruptly. This
happens under “naturally” commutated conditions, where the voltage that was
larger on the anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite.
This occurs each cycle as the voltage waveform goes through the sine waveform.
It also happens under “forced” commutation conditions, where the semi-
conductor device has a “gate”-type control mechanism built in to it. This
commutation period is a time when two semiconductor devices are both
conducting current at the same time, effectively shorting one phase to the other
and resulting in large current transients. When transformers are first energized,
the current drawn is different from the steady state condition.
This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics during
this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the time,
and then increase for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced
transformer (where either the output current, winding impedance or input
voltage on each leg are not equal) will cause harmonics, as will overvoltage
saturation of a transformer. CHAPTER 3 DC-DC CONVERTERS A DC-to-DC
converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage and produces a DC output
voltage.
Typically the output produced is at a different voltage level than the input. In
addition, DC-to-DC converters are used to provide noise isolation, power bus
regulation, etc. This is a summary of some of the popular DC-to-DC converter
topologies. 3.1BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER In this circuit the
transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one end of the inductor.
This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor is
OFF, the current will continue flowing through the inductor but now flowing
through the diode. We initially assume that the current through the inductor
does not reach zero, thus the voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across
the conducting diode during the full OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will
depend on the average ON time of the transistor provided the inductor current is
continuous. / Fig 3.1
Buck Converter / Fig 3.2 Voltage and current changes To analyze the voltages of
this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor current over one cycle.
From the relation /………………. (1) The change of current satisfies / ………. (2) For
steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not
change. To get a simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop
across transistor or diode while ON and a perfect switch change.
Thus during the ON time Vx=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus /…………………. (3)
Which simplifies to / …………… (4) or / …………… (5) And defining "duty ratio" as /
………. (6) The voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless
and the input and output powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin.
Thus the average input and output current must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations
are based on the assumption that the inductor current does not reach zero.
Transition between continuous and discontinuous When the current in the

inductor L remains always positive then either the transistor T1 or the diode D1
must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage Vx is either Vin or 0.
If the inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will not be
forced to either of these conditions.
At this transition point the current just reaches zero as seen in Figure (buck
booster boundary). During the ON time Vin-Vout is across the inductor thus / (7)
The average current which must match the output current satisfies / (8) / Fig 3.3
Buck Converter at Boundary If the input voltage is constant the output current at
the transition point satisfies / (9) Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous
Mode) As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral
of voltage across the inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T.
The transistor OFF time is now divided into segments of diode conduction ddT
and zero conduction doT. The inductor average voltage thus gives (Vin - Vo ) DT
+ (-Vo) ?dT = 0 (10) / Fig 3.4 Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction / (11)
for the case /. To resolve the value of /consider the output current which is half
the peak when averaged over the conduction times / / (12) Considering the
change of current during the diode conduction time / (13) Thus from (6) and (7)
we can get / (14) Using the relationship in (5) / (15) And solving for the diode
conduction / (16) The output voltage is thus given as / (17) Defining k* = 2L/(Vin
T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the voltage ratio of the
converter.
/ Fig 3.5 The above figure shows Output Voltage vs Current As seen in the figure,
once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio depends only on the
duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends to increase the
output voltage of the converter towards Vin. 3.5
BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the

basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a higher output voltage than
input is required. / Boost Converter Circuit While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin,
and the OFF state the inductor current flows through the diode giving Vx =Vo.
For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor current always remains flowing
(continuous conduction). The voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig.
7 and the average must be zero for the average current to remain in steady
state / ………… (18) This can be rearranged as / ………. (19) And for a lossless circuit
the power balance ensures / ……….. (20) / Fig 3.6 Voltage and current waveforms
(Boost Converter) Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage
must always be higher than the input voltage in magnitude.
The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage. 3.3 BUCK-
BOOST CONVERTER / Fig 3.7 Schematic for buck-boost converter With
continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor
is ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a
period the average voltage across the inductor is zero. / Fig 3.8 Waveforms for
buck-boost converter / …………..
(21) Which gives the voltage ratio / ………… (22) And the corresponding current /
……….. (23) Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can
vary between lower or higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative
sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage. 3.4
CONVERTER COMPARISON The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC

converters is summarized in Fig. 10. Notice that only the buck converter shows a
linear relationship between the control (duty ratio) and output voltage. The buck-
boost can reduce or increase the voltage ratio with unit gain for a duty ratio of
50%. / Fig 3.9
Comparison of Voltage ratio CHAPTER 4 PROPOSED CONCEPT 4.1 PRINCIPLE OF

PFC TECHNIQUE The switching control for PFC based converters, can be
categorised as a variable frequency control and a constant frequency control [6-
7]. The variable frequency control is generally based on output voltage ripple
with constant-on-time (COT) or constant-off-time.
Moreover, the converter operates with fixed duty cycle, however, at variable
frequency, the converter switch turns on if the condition, Vref>Vdc is true,
whereas Vdc is the DC link voltage and Vref is the set reference voltage [8]. The
pulse bursting phenomenon is the demerit associated with the COT (Constant on
Time) control, i.e., the occurrence of very short off time pulse after COT pulse.
Whereas, the constant frequency control is the pulse width modulation (PWM)
based control, which are categorised as a voltage based control and a current
based control. The voltage based control with variable duty cycle, is proposed
here. The continuous and discontinuous natures of the inductor current, decide
the operating mode of PFC converter.
On the basis of the current nature through the inductor, three operating modes
are reported in the literature, i.e., continuous conduction mode (CCM), critical
conduction mode (CRM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) [8-9]. In
CCM, the continuous inductor current results in low current ripple with reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
However, the switch experiences hard switching as the current is continuous all
the time. The CRM and DCM are preferred because the inductor current is
discontinuous in every switching cycle, which allows the zero current switching
[10]. The only difference in CRM and DCM modes, is that in CRM, one customizes
the design for boundary condition to reduce peak current stress through the
switch. Figs.
1(a) and (b) represent the conventional Cuk converter in DCM of operation.
However, Fig. 1(b) presents the output inductor current behaviour, during switch
on period DxT, as the inductor current increases and then it decreases to zero till
switch off period DyT, while the remaining period, {1-(Dx +Dy)}T of switching
period, is the freewheeling period when the output inductor current freewheels
through the circuit diode. To obtain inherent PFC, the duty cycle, Dx is varied
from zero to its maximum value for every half cycle of the supply voltage. / Fig.
4.1(a) Conventional Cuk converter and (b) Output inductor current during DCM of
operation 4.2
MODIFIED DUAL OUTPUT CUK CONVERTER FED SRM DRIVE The proposed PFC
converter fed SRM drive is shown in Fig. 2. The need for a dual output, arises as a
special split capacitor converter configuration is used, such that each phase is
connected through a single switch and one diode to drive a SRM. The converter
circuit comprises of two Cuk converters with one common switch and featured
with two output voltages equal in magnitude.
This converter topology is derived from PFC based three phase rectifier topology
first proposed in [11]. The proposed converter consists of single input inductor
operating in CCM to reduce input current ripple. The other circuit components
include intermediate capacitors, output side inductors and output capacitors.
This configuration has added advantage of self-balanced output voltages without

any required complex control for voltage balancing. The balanced output
voltages have reduced the sensor cost, as while sensing output voltage across
one output capacitor gives total DC link voltage. The sensed DC link voltage is
compared with reference DC voltage to generate switching pulses for the
converter. / Fig. 4.2.
Proposed modified Cuk converter fed SRM drive 4.3 OPERATION OF MODIFIED
CUK CONVERTER The converter operation is divided into two half cycles i.e.
negative half and positive half of the input voltage waveforms. Two intermediate
capacitors, C1 and C2 and output inductors Lo1 and Lo2 are introduced in the
circuit. The input side inductor Li operates in continuous current mode (CCM) and
output inductors Lo1 and Lo2 are allowed to enter discontinuous conduction
mode (DCM) during each cycle of operation, which is shown in Fig. 3. The energy
transfer between passive elements in the circuit, can be explained under five
different modes of operation.
Mode I ((During positive half cycle switch on period t2-t1)): During this time
interval, positive half cycle is shown in Fig. 4(a). This mode presents the energy
flow from mains to inductor Li through diodes D1, and D4. The switch on state, is
described in this mode during positive half cycle. The charging current for
inductor, Lo1 passes through through the switch and output side capacitor Cdc1.
However, intermediate capacitor is discharged during this mode. Mode II (During
positive half switch off period t3-t2): In the previous mode, capacitor C1 is left
discharged, which is charged from the inductor current iLi,. It finds its path
through diodes D1, D4 and D5 as shown in Fig. 4(b)..
The output side inductor Lo1, which is charged during Mode-I, is discharged
through a capacitor, Cdc1 during this mode. This mode ends with fully charged
output capacitor Cdc1. Mode III (DCM Mode t4-t3): Fig. 4(c) shows the circuit
operation during this time interval. The output inductor current decreases below
zero during this operation mode.
During this mode, the converter circuit appears as emulated resistance, which
allows constant circuit current. ? Mode IV (During negative half switch on period
t2-t1): During this time interval, a negative half cycle is associated with converter
operation. This mode is shown in Firg. 4(d).
This mode describes the switch on period, inductor Li stores energy, the switch
on state, provides the path for input inductor current and the current is flowing
through intermediate capacitor C2 and inductor Lo2. The output side capacitor,
Cdc2 is charged during this mode. Moreover, the input inductor current finds its
path through diodes D1 and D2.
Mode V (During negative half switch off period t3-t2): The stored energy in Li
during Mode V is transferred to intermediate capacitor C2. Moreover, diodes D2,
D3 and D5 provide path for capacitor charging current. The inductor Lo2
transfers its energy to output side capacitor, Cdc2 through diodes D5 and D3.
The flow of current during this interval, is displayed in Fig. 4(e).
Mode VI (DCM mode t4-t3): Fig. 4(f) shows the DCM with zero output inductor
current during negative half cycle. / Fig. 4.3. Theoretical waveforms during
different operating modes / / / / / / Fig. 4.4. Converter operating modes during
positive half : (a) Mode I (t2-t1), (b) Mode II (t3-t2), (c) Mode III (t4-t3) and during
negative half (d) Mode I (t2-t1), (e) Mode II (t3-t2), (f) Mode III (t4-t3). 4.4 DESIGN
OF MODIFIED CUK CONVERTER The proposed drive is designed for a power of
400 W for household applications.
The design of circuit components for dual output converter, comprises of the
design of input inductor Li, intermediate capacitors (C1 and C2), output inductors
(Lo1 and Lo2), output capacitors (Cdc1 and Cdc2) and high-pass input LC filter.
The selected value for the circuit inductors and capacitors after calculation and all
the related motor parameters are given in Appendices.
The output voltage for modified Cuk converter is given as [12], / Such that
instantaneous supply voltage is given as, / Input Inductor (Li) Design for CCM In
CCM, the current ripple is small enough, such that ac core loss is not significant.
Whereas in DCM, large flux swing and high core loss occur due to high current
ripple. The input inductor Li for CCM of operation, is given as [12], / An
equivalent input resistance is given as Rin, input power as Pi and fs is taken as 20
kHz.
With Vdc as 300 V and supply voltage dip as vac=170 V, the maximum ripple
through input inductor can be observed. Thus the calculation of Li is given as, /
Here, an inductor current ripple (?) is considered as 40%, therefore, an input
inductor is selected as 5mH. Output Inductors (Lo1 and Lo2) Design for DCM The
selected DCM of operation, provides good line drawn power quality, therefore,
output inductors for Cuk converter, are designed for discontinuous current.
The calculation of output inductors is given as [13-15], / The value of the output
inductor Lo1 and Lo2 is selected as 200 H ? thus required physical size of the
inductor is reduced. Design of Capacitors (C1 and C2) for Continuous Voltage The
capacitor voltages are kept in CCM as per the design. Therefore, permitted ripple
voltage (?) is allowed for capacitors, C1 and C2, thus its calculation is given as
[15-17], / For a rated DC link voltage, Vdc and input power Pi at this voltage, the
value for load resistance RL is given as, /.
To derive the expression for calculating the values of capacitor, the value of
equivalent load resistance RL and / are substituted in (5) and final expression
after rearranging is obtained as / Therefore, at maximum power and rated Vdc i.e.
Vdc = 300 V with as Vsmax = 220 V, the calculation for C1 and C2 is made for a
ripple voltage (?) as 10% as, / This design ensures continuous voltage across two
intermediate capacitors. Therefore, capacitors are selected as 690nF each. D.
Design of DC-Link Capacitor The converter output appears across two mid-point
capacitors Cdc1 and Cdc2, which are connected in series to generate midpoint N.
The capacitor is determined to control Vdc with voltage ripple ( ) within 3%.
However, the change in Vdc is considered from 100 V to 300 V, therefore, output
capacitor is computed by [13-15], / / Therefore, two capacitors connected across
DC link, are chosen as 12 1000dc dcC C F ? ?? . E. Design of Input Filter (Lf and Cf)
A passive LC filter is designed to eliminate switching harmonics.
The peak values of input current and voltage, are denoted by Im and Vm and
displacement angle by ? . The filter inductor Lf and filter capacitor Cf are
calculated as [15-17], / / Therefore, the value of Cf is taken as 220nF. The design
of the input filter, is required to reduce the THD. A filter is a combination of
inductor (Lf) and capacitor (Cf).
The values of filter components, are designed and tuned at less than one tenth of
the switching frequency. The high frequency switching harmonics are absorbed
by this filter, thus acting as an input current shaper. Considering the effect of
source inductance Ls, the calculation is given as, / Whereas a value of Ls is
considered as 4% of base impedance, thus Lf is selected as 4.5 mH 4.5 CONTROL
ALGORITHM The control of proposed drive consists of control of PFC converter
and SRM.
The control is designed to operate the converter at high switching frequency to

obtain inherent PFC and output voltage control. The switching frequency, fs is
selected as 20 kHz to reduce the overall size of the system. To obtain PFC, two
approaches are conventionally used i.e. voltage follower approach and current
follower approach. Considering the cost and size constraints, the voltage follower
approach is adopted here.
As the sensor requirement is reduced in this approach, the size of inductor is also
reduced while selecting this approach as the current through the inductor, is
allowed to enter discontinuous conduction mode. A. Control of Front-End PFC
Converter The fully controlled two equal output voltages of the converter, are
varied up to 300 V to obtain motor speed / Fig.4.
5 Operation of SRM during four different switching states control up to 1500

rpm. It consists of a single voltage feedback loop control. This converter output
DC voltage across one output capacitor (Vdc1) is compared with the reference
voltage (v*ref). The output of the comparator is an error voltage (ve) and this
error voltage at any particular instant, is given as, / The controlled voltage signal
is given as, / The controlled signal as shown in (11), is used to generate
modulating signal to obtain controlled Vdc.
Where, the proportional gain is given as kp and an integral gain is given as ki.
The output of PI controller is finally compared with the high frequency carrier
signal at a frequency of 20 kHz. Therefore, the generated PWM pulses are at fixed
frequency and a variable duty to obtain control of Vdc and PFC at AC mains. B.
Control of SRM The control of SRM requires phase to phase commutation of
current in accordance with rotor position (?), which is achieved using position
sensors. Here, the optical encoders based sensors are used to determine the
rotor position in the proposed drive. The motor control is based on switching
sequence, which is given in Table I.
The split DC converter is used to excite the motor phases with respect to
switching sequence. In SRM, a discontinuous nature of the motor phase current,
results in high torque ripples when one motor phase is excited at a time,
therefore, in the proposed SRM drive, the motor control is based on
simultaneous excitation of two phases to get reduced torque ripples. Fig.
5 shows the path of current through motor phases during state I to state IV.
However, phase A and phase B, are excited during state I, which is then followed
by a state II during this state, phase B and phase C are excited. Similarly, the
excitation is realised for state III and state IV. CHAPTER-5 MATLAB & SIMULINK
5.1 MATLAB 5.1.1
Introduction MATLAB® is a high-level technical computing language and

interactive environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data
analysis, and numeric computation. Using the MATLAB product, you can solve
technical computing problems faster than with traditional programming
languages, such as C, C++, and FORTRAN. MATLAB is used in wide range of
applications, including signal and image processing, communications, control
design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and
computational biology.
Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions, available

separately) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of
problems in these application areas. MATLAB provides a number of features for
documenting and sharing your work. You can integrate your MATLAB code with
other languages and applications, and distribute your MATLAB algorithms and
applications. 5.1.2
Key Features High-level language for technical computing Development

environment for managing code, files, and data Interactive tools for iterative
exploration, design, and problem solving Mathematical functions for linear
algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, and numerical
integration 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data Tools for building
custom graphical user interfaces Functions for integrating MATLAB based
algorithms with external applications and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran,
Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel 5.2 SIMULINK 5.2.1
Introduction Simulink® is an environment for multidomain simulation and

Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an
interactive graphical environment and a customizable set of block libraries that
let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems,
including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and
image processing.
Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well

as provide tools for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks.
Simulink is integrated with MATLAB®, providing immediate access to an
extensive range of tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize
simulations, create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling
environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data. 5.2.2
Key Features Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks Interactive

graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams Ability to
manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design
components Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals,
parameters, properties, and generated code associated with your model
Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other
simulation programs and incorporate hand-written code Embedded MATLAB™
Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into Simulink and embedded
system implementations Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid
Accelerator) for running simulations interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds
using fixed- or variable-step solvers Graphical debugger and profiler to examine
simulation results and then diagnose performance and unexpected behavior in
your design Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results,
customizing the modeling environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test
data Model analysis and diagnostics tools to ensure model consistency and
identify modeling errors.
5.2.3 Block Diagram A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic

system. It consists of a set of symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each
block represents an elementary dynamic system that produces an output either
continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in time (a discrete block).
The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a
block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block.
The type of the block determines the relationship between a block's outputs and
its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can contain any number of instances
of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks represent elementary
dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate.
A block comprises one or more of the following: A set of inputs, A set of states,
and A set of outputs A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs
and states (if any). The specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs,
states, and time depends on the type of block of which the block is an instance.
Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard block set includes
continuous blocks and discrete blocks.
Continuous blocks respond continuously to continuously changing input.

Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at integral
multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold
their output constant between successive sample time hits.
Each discrete block includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify
its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete,
depending on whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block
that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate.
The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous.
The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input
sample times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input
sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the
fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest
integer divisor of the set of sample times.
Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times
of the blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow
(hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon,
and block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block. 5.2.4
Simulink Block Libraries Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries
according to their behavior: The Sources library contains blocks that generate
signals. The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output. The
Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components. The
Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions. The Math library
contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations. The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe
nonlinear functions. The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow
multiplexing and demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to
other parts of the model, and perform other functions. The Subsystems library
contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of
specialized blocks. 5.2.5 Sub Systems Simulink allows to model a complex system
as a set of interconnected subsystems each of which is represented by a block
diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block and the
Simulink model editor.
We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create hierarchical

models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only
when a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input. 5.2.6 Solvers Simulink
simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver
a specified time span, using information provided by the model.
The process of computing the successive states of a system from its model is
known as solving the model. No single method of solving a model suffices for all
systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that
each embody a particular approach to solving a model. The Simulation
Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our
model. 5.2.6.1
Fixed-Step Solvers Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals
from the beginning to the end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known
as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let the solver choose the step
size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results while
increasing the time required to simulate the system. 5.2.6.2
Variable-Step Solvers Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the
simulation, reducing the step size to increase accuracy when a model's states are
changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid taking unnecessary steps
when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds to
the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of
steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of
accuracy for models with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states. 5.2.6.3
Continuous Solvers Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a

model's continuous states at the current time step from the states at previous
time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous solvers rely on the model's
blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each time step.
Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration
techniques for solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent
the continuous states of dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of
fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each implementing a specific
ODE solution method.
Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation time span into major and
minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the major time
step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It uses results at the
minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time step.
5.2.6.4 Discrete Solvers Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete
models. They compute the next simulation time-step for a model and nothing
else.
They do not compute continuous states and they rely on the model's blocks to
update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous solver, but not a
discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete
states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states.
If you select a discrete solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your
selection and uses a continuous solver instead when solving the model. Simulink
provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence
simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our
model.
The variable-step solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the
actual rate of discrete state changes in our model. This can avoid unnecessary
steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate models. 5.3 The Power
System Block Set Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits
and Electro-mechanical devices, like motors and generators.
Engineers working in this discipline are frequently tasked to improve the

performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency
have forced power system designers to use power electronic devices and
sophisticated control system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and
techniques.
Further complicating the analyst’s role is the fact that the system is often so
nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through simulation. Land-based
power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the only use
of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power
electronics and control systems to achieve their performance objectives.
The Power System Block set was designed to provide a modern design tool that
will allow scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate
power systems. The block set uses the Simulink® environment allowing a model
to be built using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can the circuit
topology be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the circuit can include its
interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines.
This is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with
Simulink’s extensive modeling library. Because Simulink uses MATLAB® as the
computational engine, you can use MATLAB’s toolboxes as you design your
simulation. The block set can be put to work rapidly. The libraries contain models
of typical power equipment, such as transformers, lines, machines, and power
electronics.
These models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based
on the experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of
Hydro-Québec, a large North American utility located in Canada. The capabilities
of the block set for modeling a typical electrical grid are illustrated in
demonstration files. The block set fits well with other specialized analytical tools
you use in the power system community. 5.4 Simulink Blocks used in the
Simulation: 1.
Three-Phase Source: / Purpose: Implement three-phase source with internal R-L

impedance Description: The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced
three-phase voltage source with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage
sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be internally
grounded or made accessible. You can specify the source internal resistance and
inductance either directly by entering R and L values or indirectly by specifying
the source inductive short-circuit level and X/R ratio. 2. in port: / Purpose: Provide
a link to an external input and for linearization.
Description: In ports are the links from the outside world into a system. Inside a
subsystem block, there is an in port corresponding to each input port on the
block. A signal that arrives at an input port on a subsystem block flows out of the
corresponding in port within that block. The imports within a subsystem block
must be numbered consecutively, starting with1. 3. out port: / Purpose: provide a
link to an external output and for linearization.
Description: The Out port block provides a mechanism for labeling a system’s
outputs. In a subsystem, output ports correspond to outputs on the subsystem
block. 4. Subsystem: / Purpose: Group blocks into a subsystem Description:
Subsystem blocks represent one system within another system. Any set of blocks
and lines can be converted to a Subsystem block with the Group command on
the options menu.
The Group command removes all selected objects from the active window and
replaces them within a Subsystem block. This new block, when opened, redisplays
all of the grouped objectives. 5. Gain: / Purpose: Multiply its input by a constant.
Description: The Gain block implements Y=KU, where Y is the output, U is the
input, and K is the specified gain.
The Gain block displays scalar gain data entered as variable or a constant. The
block displays the text as it appears in the dialog box. 6. Scope: / Purpose: Display
signals during simulation. Description: While the simulation is running, the Scope
block displays the output of the block driving it. Opening a scope block produces
a scope window. The title of this window matches the name of the block. 7.
Simplified Synchronous Machine: / Purpose: Model the dynamics of a simplified

three-phase synchronous machine Description: The Simplified Synchronous
Machine block models both the electrical and mechanical characteristics of a
simple synchronous machine. The electrical system for each phase consists of a
voltage source in series with RL impedance, which implements the internal
impedance of the machine.
The value of R can be zero but the value of L must be positive. 8. Voltage
Measurement: / Purpose: Measure a voltage in a circuit Description: The Voltage
Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous voltage between two
electric nodes. The output is a Simulink signal that can be used by other Simulink
blocks. 9.
Breaker: / Purpose: Implement a circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing
Description: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker that is controlled by a
Simulink signal applied on its second input. The control signal must be 0 or 1, 0
for open and 1 for closed. The arc extinction process is simulated by opening the
breaker when the current passes through zero (first current zero-crossing
following the transition of the Simulink control input from 1 to 0). When the
breaker is closed, it behaves as a series RL circuit.
The R and L values can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible

compared with external components (typical values Ron=10m?, Lon=10µH).
When the breaker is open, it has infinite impedance. If the breaker’s initial state is
set to 1 (closed), initializes all the states of the linear circuit and breaker initial
current so that the simulation starts in steady-state. 10. Bus bar: / Purpose:
Implement a labeled network node Description: The Bus Bar block is used to
interconnect components.
It allows multiple electrical block outputs and inputs to be connected together.

11. Current Measurement: / Purpose: Measure a current in a circuit Description:
The Current Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous current
flowing in any electrical block or connection line. The first output provides a
Simulink signal that can be used by other Simulink blocks. 12.
Distributed Parameter Line: / Purpose: Implement an N-phase distributed

parameter transmission line model with lumped losses Description: The
Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed parameter
line model with lumped losses. 13. Excitation System: / Purpose: Provide an
excitation system for the synchronous machine and regulate its terminal voltage
in generating mode Description: The basic elements that form the Excitation
System block are the voltage regulator and the exciter.
The voltage regulator consists of a main regulator with gain Ka and time constant
Ta and a lead-lag compensator with time constants Tb and Tc. A derivate
feedback is also provided with gain Kf and time constant Tf. The limits Efmin and
Efmax are imposed to the output of the voltage regulator. The upper limit can be
constant and equal to Efmax or variable and equal to the rectified stator terminal
voltage Vtf times a proportional gain Kp.
If Kp is set to zero, the former will apply. If Kp is set to a positive value, the latter
will apply. The stator terminal voltage transducer is represented by a first-order
low-pass filter with time constant Tr. 14. Steam Turbine and Governor: / Purpose:
Model a steam turbine and a PID governor system Description: The Steam
Turbine and Governor implement a steam turbine model, a PID governor system,
and a servo-motor. The static gain of the governor is equal to the inverse of the
permanent droop Rp in the feedback loop.
The input to this feedback loop can be selected to be the gate position or the
electrical power deviation by setting the droop reference parameter in the dialog
box to one or zero, respectively. 15. Linear Transformer: / Purpose: Implement a
two- or three-winding linear transformer Description: The Linear Transformer
block model shown below consists of three coupled windings wound on the
same core. 16.
Saturable Transformer: / Purpose: Implement a two- or three-winding saturable

transformer Description: The Saturable Transformer block model shown below
consists of three coupled windings wound on the same core. CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION RESULTS / Fig 6.1 Simulink diagram of Proposed converter / Fig 6.2
Phase current waveforms of SRM driven by proposed converter at 1500 rpm. / Fig
6.3 Phase current waveforms of SRM driven by proposed converter at 4000 rpm.
/ Fig 6.4 Voltage and current waveforms of one switch CONCLUSION Test results
have validated performance of proposed SRM drive. This Cuk converter with two
identical output voltages, has been designed with discontinuous output inductor
current. The selected inductor, has reduced the size and cost of the magnetic
components.
The converter output voltage is well regulated by single voltage sensor with
inherent wave-shaping of input current. The wide range of speed control has also
been obtained while using only one voltage sensor at converter output. Drive
performance under steady and dynamics state, is found satisfactory.
The input current THD of reduced value, is obtained under the recommended
limit of an IEC 61000-3-2 standard. Aiming at cost effective alternative to
conventional electric drives, a SRM drive is turned out to be a good selection for
home appliances.
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