Electromagnetism

Emre Özer
Spring 2019

preface
CONTENTS CONTENTS

Contents
1 Recap 2
1.1 Charge and current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Continuity and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Forces and fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Ampere’s law and displacement current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Electrostatics 5
2.1 Gauss’ law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Uniform sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.3 Line charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.4 Surface charges and discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 The electrostatic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Point charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum 9

3.1 Wave equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Complex representation and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1
 1 RECAP

1 Recap
1.1 Charge and current
We start with a recap of basic electromagnetism and Maxwell’s equations. The basic idea is
that electric and magnetic fields are produced by charge and current densities, and particles
with charge respond to said fields by a force law. Let’s define charge and current densities.
Definition. (Charge density) The charge density, ρ(x, t), is defined as charge per unit volume.
Given a volume V , the total charge enclosed is then given by
ˆ
Q= ρ(x, t) dV .
V

Definition. (Current density) The movement of charge is described by the current density.
Given a surface S, the total charge per unit time passing through it is given by
¨
I= J · dS ,
S

where dS is the unit normal to S. So, the current density can be thought of as the current per
unit area.
If a charge density ρ(x, t) has a velocity v(x, t), then the current density would be

J = ρv.

1.2 Continuity and conservation

Law. (Continuity) Electric charge is locally conserved. This means, if the charge density at a
point in space is changing, there must be a corresponding local current. This is represented by
the continuity equation:
∂ρ
+ ∇ · J = 0.
∂t
Derivation. This result is simple to obtain. We consider the rate of change of the total charge
enclosed in a fixed volume in space, V . By definition, it must be equal to the current flowing in
the volume through its boundary S. So, we have
‹
dQ
=− J · dS ,
dt S

where the minus sign is due to the orientation of dS being outward. By the divergence theorem,
we have ‹ ˆ
J · dS = ∇ · J dV .
S V
Also, by the definition of charge density, we can write
ˆ ˆ
dQ d ∂ρ
= ρ dV = dV ,
dt dt V V ∂t

since the volume is fixed. Hence, we have

ˆ  
∂ρ
+ ∇ · J dV = 0,
V ∂t
which, since V is arbitrary, implies
∂ρ
+ ∇ · J = 0. (1.1)
∂t

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1.3 Forces and fields 1 RECAP

1.3 Forces and fields

A field is a dynamical quantity that assigns a value to every point in space and time. In the
case of electromagnetism, we are concerned with two vector fields:

E(x, t), B(x, t).

Each field assigns a vector to every point in space and time.

So, charges create fields, and fields tell charges how to move. The latter is governed by the
Lorentz force law.
Law. (Lorentz force law) Any point charge q experience a force given by

F = q (E + ṙ × B) .

This can also be expressed in terms of the densities:

f = ρE + J × B,

where f is the force experienced by unit volume.

The equations governing the fields are Maxwell’s equations.
Law. (Maxwell’s equations)
ρ
∇·E= (1.2)
0
∇·B=0 (1.3)
∂B
∇×E=− (1.4)
∂t
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + 0 µ0 (1.5)
∂t
where 0 and µ0 are the electric and the magnetic constant, respectively. We see that there are
two terms which are not constants or fields. They are the charge and the current density. Hence,
we conclude that electric and magnetic fields are produced by charge and current densities and
changing electric and magnetic fields.

1.3.1 Ampere’s law and displacement current

The second term in (1.5) can be obtained by considering charge conservation. Consider the
following version of (1.5):
∇ × B = µ0 J.
We can take the divergence of both terms to obtain
∂ρ
0 ≡ ∇ · (∇ × B) = µ0 ∇ · J =⇒ =0
∂t
by (1.1). This is clearly wrong, as it implies currents do not exist. We can, however fix this by
adding a vector field N(x, t) to the right hand side, which yields

∇ × B = µ0 J + N
∇ · (∇ × B) = µ0 ∇ · J + ∇ · N = 0

This implies, from (1.1) that

∂ρ
∇ · N = µ0 .
∂t

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1.3 Forces and fields 1 RECAP

We now use Gauss’ law (1.2):

∂
∇ · N = µ0 0 (∇ · E)
∂t  
∂E
= µ0 0 ∇ ·
∂t
∂E
=⇒ N = µ0 0 .
∂t
So we obtain (1.5) as expected. The term 0 ∂E/∂t is the displacement current.

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 2 ELECTROSTATICS

2 Electrostatics
In electrostatics, we are interested in a fixed charge distribution. Immediately, we can let J = 0.
As the charges are fixed, we can also conclude ∂t E = 0, and the two together imply B = 0. We
are now left with two equations to solve:
ρ
∇·E= , (2.1)
0
∇ × E = 0. (2.2)
We are interested in finding E for a given ρ.

2.1 Gauss’ law

We can rewrite (2.1) in integral form, using the divergence theorem and the definition of the
charge density.
Law. (Gauss’ law) For a given volume V , enclosed by a surface S = ∂V , we have
‹
Q
E · dS = ,
S  0

where Q is the total charge enclosed in V .

We therefore conclude that the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to
the charge contained in it.

2.1.1 Coulomb’s law

We can use Gauss’ law to derive Coulomb’s force law. We start by considering a uniform
spherical charge distribution of radius R, centered at the origin. Now, we choose a Gaussian
surface S to be the surface of a sphere of radius r > R, also centered on the origin. By symmetry,
the electric field cannot have any radial component. Hence, we conclude E(x) = E(r)r̂ where
E(r) is a scalar function of the radius of the surface. So, we have
‹ ˆ 2π ˆ π
Q
E(x) · dS = E(r) dφ dθ r2 r̂ · r̂ = .
S 0 0  0

Hence, we get
Q
E(x) = r̂,
4π0 r2
and using the Lorentz force law for a charge q gives
Qq
F(x) = r̂,
4π0 r2
which is Coulomb’s law. By the symmetry of the problem, we didn’t need to use (2.2).

2.1.2 Uniform sphere

Consider the same charge distribution ρ, but now let the radius of the Gaussian surface be
r < R. We have, similarly ˆ
1
4πr2 E(r) = ρ dV 0 ,
0 V 0
where V 0 is the volume enclosed by S. Since ρ is uniform, we have
ˆ
1 1 4 3 Qr3
ρ dV 0 = πr ρ = ,
0 V 0 0 3 0 R 3

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2.1 Gauss’ law 2 ELECTROSTATICS

where Q is the charge of the entire sphere. Therefore,

Qr
E(x) = r̂.
4π0 R3
Hence, the electric field strength increases linearly inside the sphere, and falls by inverse square
law outside.

2.1.3 Line charge

Consider an infinite line of charge, with density λ, oriented along the z-axis. Let the Gaussian
surface be a cylinder of length l, oriented along the line. By symmetry, the top and the bottom
of
p the cylinder will not contribute to the flux, and we have again E(x) = E(r)r̂, where r =
x2 + y 2 . Hence, we have ‹
λl
E · dS = 2πrlE(r) = ,
S 0
λ
=⇒ E(x) = r̂.
2π0 r

2.1.4 Surface charges and discontinuities

Consider a uniform charge density σ, along the x-y plane. We have, by symmetry,
E(x) = E(z)ẑ, E(z) = −E(−z).
We let S be a cylinder, of height 2z and cross-sectional area A. Hence, we have
‹
Aσ
E · dS = E(z)A − E(−z)A = 2E(z)A =
S 0
σ
=⇒ E(z) = .
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This suggests E is discontinuous at the boundary z = 0, since we have
σ
lim E(z) − lim− E(z) = 6= 0.
z→0+ z→0 0
So, we conclude the normal component of the electric field to the surface is discontinuous on
the surface. This result holds for any surface and charge density, as we can take the limit as the
area and the height of the cylinder go to zero. So, for a general electric field E± on either side
of the surface, we have
σ
n̂ · E|+ − n̂ · E|− = ,
0
where n̂ is the unit normal to the surface.
We can look at the tangential component of the electric field at the boundary as well. To
do this, we consider a closed loop parallel to the surface on either side, with height a. Then, by
Stokes’ theorem we have ˛ ¨
E± · dr = ∇ × E · dS .
C S
Taking the limit as a → 0, we are only left with the tangential components in the line integral.
However, the surface area S clearly approaches zero in the limit, hence we get
n̂ × E|+ − n̂ × E|− = 0,
hence the tangential electric field is continuous.
An example of the discontinuity of the normal component of E, consider a spherical shell of
uniform charge density σ. The field inside the shell is zero, and the field outside is σ/0 .

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2.2 The electrostatic potential 2 ELECTROSTATICS

2.2 The electrostatic potential

For most cases, the symmetry arguments won’t be enough and we will have to consider (2.2).
The general form of the solution to ∇ × E = 0 is E = −∇φ for some scalar field φ.
Definition. (Electrostatic potential) If E = −∇φ, then φ is the electrostatic (or scalar) poten-
tial.
Substituting into (2.1), we have
ρ ρ
∇·E= =⇒ ∇2 φ = − . (2.3)
0 0
This is Poisson’s equation. For regions of space with zero charge density, the equation reduces
to Laplace’s equation. In that case, the solution φ is said to be a harmonic function.
There are some properties of (2.3) which are interesting. Firstly, we note that it is linear in
φ and ρ. So, the principle of superposition applies. Secondly, the solutions are unique up to an
additive constant. We will require φ(x) → 0 as x → ∞.

2.2.1 Point charges

We can express a point charge of magnitude Q located at some x = x0 as:

ρ(x) = Qδ 3 (x − x0 ).

We then need the solve the equation

Qδ 3 (x − x0 )
∇2 φ = − . (2.4)
0
The solution to (2.4) is essentially the Green’s function for the Laplacian. We therefore consider
the equation
∇2 G(x; x0 ) = −δ 3 (x − x0 ).
Firstly, since the problem is spherically symmetric, we note that the Green’s function must have
the form: G(x; x0 ) = G(|x − x0 |), i.e. it is a function only of the distance from the point x0 .
We now integrate over the ball Br = x ∈ R3 ||x − x0 | ≤ r, we have
ˆ ˆ
∇2 G dV = −δ 3 (x − x0 )dV = −1.
Br Br

Using the divergence theorem, we can write

‹
∇G · dS = −1.
∂Br

Since G is a function of |x − x0 |, the expression simplifies to

dG 1
4πr2 = −1 =⇒ G(r) = +k
dr 4πr
where r = |x − x0 | and k ∈ R. We can now impose the boundary condition that as r → ∞,
G → 0 to conclude k = 0.
From (2.4), we can see that

Q Q
φ(x) = G(x; x0 ) = .
0 4π0 |x − x0 |

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2.2 The electrostatic potential 2 ELECTROSTATICS

Finally, we can calculate the electric fields as

Q
E(x) = −∇φ = r̂,
4π0 |x − x0 |2

where r̂ = (x − x0 )/|x − x0 |.
This seems like a complicated way to reproduce Coulomb’s law, however the result can be
used to find E for any arbitrary charge distribution. The general solution to Poisson’s equation
is given by ˆ ˆ
1 1 1
φ(x) = ρ(y)G(y; x) d3 y = ρ(y) d3 y , (2.5)
0 Ω 0 Ω 4π|x − y|
which is essentially the principle of superposition.

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 3 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN VACUUM

3 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

We look at the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields in vacuum, with ρ = J = 0. We will
see Maxwell’s equations reduce to the wave equation.

3.1 Wave equations

We will start with the electric field. From Faraday’s law (1.4), we have

∂B
∇×E=− .
∂t
Taking the curl yields
∂B ∂
∇ × (∇ × E) = −∇ × = − (∇ × B) .
∂t ∂t
Ampere’s law (1.5) with J = 0 implies

∂2E
∇ × (∇ × E) = −µ0 0 .
∂t2
Now, we make use of the following vector identity:

∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E.

Finally, we have from Gauss’ law (1.2) with ρ = 0 that ∇ · E = 0. This yields the vector wave
equation for the electric field:

∂2E 1 ∂2E
∇2 E = 0 µ0 2
= 2 2. (3.1)
∂t c ∂t
Similarly, we can obtain a similar expression for the magnetic field. We start with Ampere’s
law (1.5):

∂E
∇ × B = µ0 0
∂t
∂
∇ × (∇ × B) = µ0 0 (∇ × E)
∂t
 2 
∂ B
= µ0 0 − 2
∂t
2
∂ B
=⇒ ∇(∇ · B) − ∇2 B = −µ0 0 2 .
∂t
By (1.3), we have ∇ · B = 0, hence we get

∂2B 1 ∂2B
∇2 B = 0 µ0 2
= 2 2. (3.2)
∂t c ∂t
Hence, in vacuum the electric and magnetic fields obey the same vector wave equation.

3.2 Complex representation and solutions

The solutions to equations (3.1) and (3.2) are vector fields of the form:

E(r, t) = E0 cos(k · r − ωt + ϕ),

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3.2 Complex representation and solutions 3 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN VACUUM

where k is the wavevector, E0 is the amplitude and ϕ is some arbitrary phase. It is useful to
write these solutions in complex exponential form, where the electric and magnetic fields are
given by the real parts. So, we have

E(r, e 0 ei(k·r−ωt)
e t) = E (3.3)

where Ee 0 denotes the complex amplitude and the phase. We now note that since equations (3.1)
and (3.2) are linear, E
e is itself a solution, along with any linear superposition of plane waves.
We start by considering the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields given a
solution of the form (3.3). By Faraday’s law (1.4), we have

∂B
e
∇×E
e =− .
∂t
From equation (3.3), we have
∂E
e
= iki E,
e
∂xi
which means the curl of the electric field has a particularly nice form:

∇×E
e = ik × E e 0 )ei(k·r−ωt) .
e = i(k · E

Combining this with Faraday’s law and integrating with respect to time yields

e = 1 (k × E)
B e
ω
1 e 0 )ei(k·r−ωt)
= (k × E
ω
1
= (k × E0 )ei(k·r−ωt) eiϕe
ω
= B0 ei(k·r−ωt) eiϕb
=⇒ ϕe = ϕb + 2πn, n ∈ Z.

Hence, we arrive at a number of important conclusions. Firstly, the electric and magnetic field
are in phase with each other. Secondly, the magnetic field must share the same wavevector k
and frequency ω with the electric field. Finally, the magnetic field is orthogonal to the electric
field and the wavevector.
We now show our final result: the electric field is orthogonal to the wavevector. From
Ampere’s law (1.5) we have
e = µ0 0 ∂ E .
e
∇×B
∂t
Using the form of B
e we just derived, we have

∇×B
e = i(k × B)
e = −iωµ0 0 E.
e

Hence, the electric field is orthogonal to the wavevector. So, k, E and B are mutually orthogonal
for all r and t.

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