Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Definition of Accumulation
Accumulation is derived from a Latin word which means “pile up.” It is a stylistic device that is
defined as a list of words which embody similar abstract or physical qualities or meanings, with
the intention to emphasize the common qualities that words hold. It is also an act of
accumulating the scattered points. Accumulation examples are found in literary pieces and in
daily conversations.
In this excerpt, Shakespeare has gathered similar words to describe King Harry. Henry
memorizes the name and nobility of the king by mentioning: “Bedford, Exeter, Warwick, Talbot,
Salisbury, and Gloucester.”
If you are searching for examples of accumulation in literature, James Joyce is the author to
check out as he is famous for using this literary device. Here, Joyce has accumulated similar
and related words in the form of a list. There are options given between different intellectual
careers. These include “snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, superstitious
practices.”
The writer has used negation in the given sentences. All four lines are written in accumulated
form, and the scattered points are listed together, hence contributing to the vocabulary of the
readers.
“… having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade,
providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich … ”
This is a very good example of accumulation wherein Swift gives suggestions on how to get rid
of poverty. He has listed various motives and ways to resolve the problems, adding and
contributing to the meaning of the sentences.
Example #5: When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops (by George Carlin)
Here, George Carlin has used three categories of accumulation. In the first two lines, “a modern
man” is described as “digital and smoke-free,” and as “a man for the millennium.” In the
following two lines, he added, “a diversified, multi-cultural … politically … incorrect.”
Here is the accumulation of three questions that induce a resentful response. Similarly, three
assertions come in the third stanza in a similar grammatical pattern. These are: “And their son
does never shine,” “And their fields are bleak and bare,” and “And their ways are filled …”
“Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs, drills of Swedes, spherical potatoes and
tallies of iridescent kale, York and Savoy, and trays of onions, pearls of the earth, and punnets
of mushrooms and custard marrows……and rape and red green yellow brown russet sweet big
bitter ripe pomellated apples and chips of strawberries and sieves of gooseberries, pulpy and
pelurious, and strawberries fit for princes and raspberries from their canes… “
This excerpt is a perfect example of accumulation. In the beginning, there is a listing of flowers
and vegetables. These include “Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs,” and again
an accumulation of different colors, such as “red green yellow brown russet.”
Function of Accumulation
Accumulation is used in literature, poetry and all types of rhetorical writing. The basic function is
to make language livelier and contribute to the meanings of the words. Also, it describes the
qualities of an object through different explanations, if otherwise it would be left vague or
ambiguous.
Active Voice
Definition of Active Voice
Style guides usually encourage the use of active voice, because it is clear and direct. For
example, “Some customers prefer mulled ale. They keep their mugs on the hob until the ale
gets as hot as coffee. A sluggish cat named Minnie sleeps in a scuttle beside the stove” (The
Old House at Home, by Joseph Mitchell). All of these sentences are in active voice, as the verbs
“refer,” “keep,” “get” and “sleep” are in active mode.
“You know, at one time, I used to break into pet shops to liberate the canaries. But I decided
that was an idea way before its time. Zoos are full, prisons are overflowing. Oh my, how the
world still dearly loves a cage.”
Active voice in these example sentences is underlined. The subject “I” is performing an action
through the verbs “break” and “decided.” The subject “world” is performing an action through the
verb “loves.” All the sentences are in active voice.
“Finally, Hillary swept in and moved down a line of huggers toward a raised platform centered in
the room…Her positioning meant that she had to keep turning in order to hug back. Around and
around and around she turned, 360 degrees, over and over, her arms outstretched in perpetual
greeting, like a jewel-box ballerina whose battery has run low.”
Here the subject “Hillary” is taking action through the verbs “swept in,” “moved down,” “had,”
“turned,” and “has run.” The verbs are in active mode, the reason that all sentences are in active
voice.
“Seven days a week, Paul Schimmel ventures into the subway with his clarinet. In the IND
station at Sixth Avenue and Forty-second Street one recent afternoon, he paid his fare with a
free pass.”
The use of active voice has added directness to this passage. The subject is “Paul Schimmel,”
who is doing “ventures,” and has “paid” fare.
“I looked at him, lost in astonishment…’Ah, he talked to you of love!’ I said, much amused. ‘It
isn’t what you think,’ he cried, almost passionately. ‘It was in general.’ “He threw his arms
up…He had his second illness then. Afterwards I had to keep out of the way; but I didn’t mind.
He was living for the most part in those villages on the lake. When he came down to the river,
sometimes he would take to me, and sometimes it was better for me to be careful. This man
suffered too much.”
In this passage, the author has written all of the sentences in active voice, which are direct and
clear in meaning. The verbs of active voice include “looked,” “talked,” “think,” “threw,” “had,”
“living,” “came down,” and “suffered.”
“If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you’ll probably want to know is where I was
born, and what my lousy childhood was like… They’re nice and all—I’m not saying that – but
they’re also touchy as hell. Besides, I’m not going to tell you my whole goddam autobiography
or anything. I’ll just tell you about this madman stuff that happened to me around last
Christmas…”
In this excerpt, the author has used the verbs “hear,” “want,” “saying,” “going,” and “tell” in active
voice.
Active voice plays an important role in creative writing and business reports because these
types of writings need to be to the point, clear, and direct. It adds interest and helps grab
attention of the readers. Not only does it maintain audience’s interest, it also improves the
quality of a written work. Active voice gives energy and life to a sentence, as it is less wordy and
consequently less difficult. In addition, active voice maintains focus and attention of the readers
on a single point.
Adage
Definition of Adage
An adage is a short, pointed, and memorable saying that is based on facts, and which is
considered a veritable truth by the majority of people. Famous adages become popular due to
their usage over a long period of time. In fact, an adage expresses a general fact or truth about
life, which becomes more and more popular before it is accepted as a universal truth. For
instance, “God helps those who help themselves” is now considered a universal truth because
of its usage throughout human history. Often repeated sayings and quotes become adages that
pass on to many generations. However, some adages are metaphoric, having hidden meanings,
and embody common observations. Sometimes proverbs are referred as adages, but there is a
slight difference.
Both of these terms represent sayings that convey a deeper meaning. However, there are some
differences between them. A proverb has a practical aspect, but it is a common belief that an
adage is true to have been tested in various ages. The adage is a more general term than a
proverb; therefore, proverbs could be adages, in the manner that Merriam Webster defines
proverbs as adages. Adages are general truths with universal applications, reflecting wisdom;
whereas proverbs are more traditional and are often used in everyday speeches.
Many authors have employed adages in their works, such as C.S Lewis, Geoffrey Chaucer,
William Shakespeare, Benjamin Franklin, J.K. Rowling, Aesop, George Bernard Shaw, Friedrich
Nietzsche, and many others.
In these lines, Tennyson is giving advice about having love in one’s life, which is a truth used in
literary texts even today.
This is the most frequently quoted adage by Shakespeare. Here he has made a comparison
between the world and the stage, as well as between life and play. He also refers to seven
stages in the lives of humans as seven ages of humans.
Example #3: The Tortoise and the Hare (by Aesop)“Things are not always what they seem.”
The following lines are very popular in literature as well as in everyday use. People use these
adages in their common speeches as witty sayings.
Erasmus is famous for using adages in his works. The given lines are commonly used sayings
in daily conversation. These are now accepted as a universal truths.
The Bible has also employed adages with deeper, moral meanings. The purpose of these
sayings is to educate, and increase the readers’ awareness.
“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.”
“Eat to live, and not live to eat.”
“To err is human, to repent divine; to persist devilish.”
“Well done is better than well said.”
“A penny saved is a penny earned.”
Franklin published this book on a yearly basis from 1732-1758, which became popular due to
extensive use of witty adages and wordplay. These are some popular adages used to this day.
Function of Adage
Adages are not only found in literature, but also in advertising and scripts of films. The first
major function of adage is to give awareness to the readers about some facts of life. Secondly,
adages are applicable in any circumstance or situation, as they convey deeper meanings of
wisdom. Most of these sayings are witty and suggest a moral lesson, having long lasting
impacts of universal application of the truths contained in them. They become imprinted on the
minds of the users. Moreover, they sum up the moral lesson of a story such as in Aesop’s
Fables. The authors use this device to make their works effective, compact and rich.
Ad Hominem
Definition of Ad Hominem
Ad hominem is a Latin word that means “against the man.” As the name suggests, it is a literary
term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of his
arguments.
There are cases in which, whether consciously or unconsciously, people start to question the
opponent or his personal associations, rather than evaluating the soundness and validity of the
argument that he presents. These types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults,
but they are somehow different in nature, and the distinction is very subtle.
Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical arguments commonly end up
saying something that would draw the audience’s attention to the distasteful characteristics of
the individual. Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audiences. Making such a
blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for people to believe it isn’t true.
Typically, even the arguer himself believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not
enough to dispose of an individual’s opinion or argument. However, if looked at rationally, such
arguments – even if true – never provide a valid reason to disregard someone’s criticism.
Examples of Ad Hominem
Example #1:
“How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying that steak?”
This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his
argument.
Example #2:
A: “All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn’t a murderer, and so can’t be a criminal.”
B: “Well, you’re a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument.”
After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, the VeloNews webpage shared a post
with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was,
and that people should be proud of his achievements.
“He’s not a great athlete; he’s a fraud, a cheat and a liar. That’s why not everybody is ‘happy for
Lance.'”
The reasons given by the arguer may very well be true, but he does not support his argument
with reason and logic. He rather takes the disregarding approach. He does not say anything to
prove that the premises he proposes are problematic. Instead, he goes on attacking the person
who proposed them.
Function of Ad Hominem
A writer’s background is considered to be a very important factor when it comes to judging his
work. A book written on a particular subject in history will be perceived differently, keeping in
mind the background of the author. Therefore, it is important to understand that a writer’s traits
and circumstances have a pivotal role to play in his feelings, thinking, and the construction of his
arguments.
To put it simply, the considerations regarding the use of ad hominem can explain certain
arguments and the motives behind them better. Nevertheless, such considerations are not
enough on their own to evaluate an individual’s opinion, and are certainly not sufficient to
disregard them as false or invalid.
The fact is that ad hominem is a kind of fallacy that leaves a great impression on the audience’s
mind. It is an argumentative flaw that is hard to spot in our daily lives. Although, the personal
attack that has been made on the opponent might not have even a speck of truth in it, it
somehow makes the audience biased. Ironically, despite being flawed, ad hominem has an
amazing power of persuasion.
The worst thing about using ad hominem purposely is that an opponent insults you publicly.
Whenever this happens to you, you must recover from the humiliation and then point out the
false connection in the argument, which was used as a trap for the audience. Moreover, the
dilemma with ad hominem is that, once it has been used against a person, it smears his
reputation. Once somebody makes such a judgmental argument about someone, the audience
instead of evaluating it on logical grounds takes it to be true.
Adynaton
Definition of Adynaton
Adynaton is from the Greek word adunaton, which means “impractical,” or “impossible.” It is a
rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a great extreme
where it seems impossible. In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such an extent that it
is completely unfeasible, it is called adynaton. Ideas in the use of adynaton are exaggerated in
order to emphasize something.
Saying that a lady’s “coyness” is a crime, in the first bold phrase above, is clearly an adynaton
since no lawmaker would be insane enough to pass a law criminalizing coyness.
The bold phrase, “Till the conversion of the Jews” refers to predictions about the Jews
converting to Christianity, which have been made by many for centuries. Yet, just like predicted
dates of the end of the world have come and gone, a conversion of the Jews has not happened,
and is showing no sign of happening.
In these lines, an effective use of adynaton is evident. The tragic hero “Macbeth” feels guilty
after having murdered King Duncan. He feels so much regret that even the big oceans cannot
wash the king’s blood from his hands.
Adynaton is very clear in the highlighted lines, as the poet expresses his love by overstating that
the continents of China and Africa will meet, a river will jump over a mountain, fish will sing in
the street, and the ocean will be folded and hung up to dry. These are extreme exaggerations,
which are impossible in real life.
In this excerpt, Romeo compares his love to several things. He intermingles love with hatred,
mixes up beautiful things with ugly, hot with cold, dark with bright, and so on. He also labels love
as fighting love and loving hate. These too are great exaggerations of love.
Function of Adynaton
Adynaton is used to create exaggeration, in order to emphasize some point. The basic purpose
of using adynaton is to draw the attention of the audience by overstating some thing or idea.
Adynaton examples are found in literary pieces written as early as the Classical and Medieval
periods. However, examples of adynaton are seen in folklore, drama, and fiction of the modern
age. In everyday conversations, the function of adynaton is to create amusing effects by
highlighting an idea. It is employed both for comic as well as serious purposes. By using
extravagant statements, poets and writers make ordinary human feelings extraordinary.
Allegory
Allegory Definition
Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of
characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story, with a
purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to teach
some kind of a moral lesson.
Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe
the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia
before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and
corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a
society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this:
“All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.”
The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution.
For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; “Mr. Jones,”
the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while “Boxer” the horse,
represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position
clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.
The good characters of book stand for the various virtues, while the bad characters represent
vices. “The Red-Cross Knight” represents holiness, and “Lady Una” represents truth, wisdom,
and goodness. Her parents symbolize the human race. The “Dragon,” which has imprisoned
them, stands for evil.
The mission of holiness is to help the truth fight evil, and thus regain its rightful place in the
hearts of human beings. “The Red-Cross Knight” in this poem also represents the reformed
church of England, fighting against the “Dragon,” which stands for the Papacy or the Catholic
Church.
John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress is an example of spiritual allegory. The ordinary sinner,
Christian, leaves the City of Destruction, and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides,
for salvation. He finds Faithful, a companion who helps him on his way to the City. On many
instances, many characters, including Hypocrisy, Apollyon, Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Obstinate,
and Pliable try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the
Celestial City, carried by Hopeful’s faith.
The moral learned through this allegory is that the road to Heaven is not easy, and it is full of
obstacles. A Christian has to be willing to pay any price to achieve salvation. A man is full of
sins, but this does not stop him from achieving glory.
Function of Allegory
Writers use allegory to add different layers of meanings to their works. Allegory makes their
stories and characters multidimensional, so that they stand for something larger in meaning
than what they literally stand for. Allegory allows writers to put forward their moral and political
points of view. A careful study of an allegorical piece of writing can give us an insight into its
writer’s mind, how he views the world, and how he wishes the world to be.
Alliteration
Alliteration Definition
Alliteration is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device in
which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a
series.
Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together
and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that
alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but
cigarette chase is not.
In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of
a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples.
• Dunkin’ Donuts
• PayPal
• Best Buy
• Coca-Cola
• Life Lock
• Park Place
• American Apparel
• American Airlines
• Chuckee Cheese’s
• Bed Bath & Beyond
• Krispy Kreme
• The Scotch and Sirloin
We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be
remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out prominently
in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are:
• Ronald Reagan
• Sammy Sosa
• Jesse Jackson
• Michael Moore
• William Wordsworth
• Mickey Mouse
• Porky Pig
• Lois Lane
• Marilyn Monroe
• Fred Flintstone
• Donald Duck
• Spongebob Squarepants
• Seattle Seahawks
In the above lines we see alliteration (“b”, “f” and “s”) in the phrases “breeze blew”, “foam flew”,
“furrow followed”, and “silent sea”.
Example #2
“His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly
falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead.”
We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned prose work of James Joyce.
Alliterations are with “s” and “f” in the phrases “swooned slowly” and “falling faintly”.
Example #3
“Up the aisle, the moans and screams merged with the sickening smell of woolen black clothes
worn in summer weather and green leaves wilting over yellow flowers.”
Maya gives us a striking example of alliteration in the above extract with the letters “s” and “w”.
We notice that alliterative words are interrupted by other non-alliterative words among them but
the effect of alliteration remains the same. We immediately notice alliteration in the words
“screams”, “sickening smell”, “summer”, “weather” and “wilting”.
Example #4
This is an example of alliteration with the “f” and “l.” in words “forth, fatal, foes” and “loins,
lovers, and life”.
Example #5
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s (English Romantic poet) “The Witch of Atlas” is a famous poem that is
full of examples of alliterations. Just a few of them are “wings of winds” (line 175), “sick soul to
happy sleep” (line 178), “cells of crystal silence” (line 156), “Wisdom’s wizard. . . wind. . . will”
(lines 195-197), “drained and dried” ( line 227), “lines of light” (line 245), “green and glowing”
(line 356), and crudded. . . cape of cloud” (lines 482-3).
Function of Alliteration
Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical effect in the text that
enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems
attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders
flow and beauty to a piece of writing.
In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed, alliteration makes the brand
names interesting and easier to remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers
and enhancing sales.
Allusion
Allusion Definition
Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural,
literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it
refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough
knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.
For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, “I do not approve of this quixotic
idea,” Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes’s “Don Quixote”, a story of
a foolish knight and his misadventures.
The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our
daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life:
Example #1
Milton’s “Paradise Lost” gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below:
In the above lines “dread less Angel” is a reference to “Abdiel”, a fearless angel. “Circling Hours”
alludes to a Greek Myth “The Horae”, the daughters of “Zeus” and “Themis” namely “Thallo
(Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). “ With rosie hand” Milton refers to Homer’s
illustration of the “rosy fingered dawn” (Odyssey Book 2).
Example #2
Marlowe’s “Doctor Faustus” is replete with instances of allusions. Read the example from Act III
below:
Jove’s high firmament refers to the outer stretches of the universe. “Olympus’ top” is an allusion
to Greek Mythology where Mount Olympus is home of gods. Similarly, “a chariot burning bright”
refers to a Greek Myth of “god Apollo” who is said to drive the sun in his chariot.
Example #3
In Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness”, “the two knitting women” whom Marlow sees alludes to
“Moirae” or Fates as visualized in Greek Mythology:
“The two knitting women increase his anxiety by gazing at him and all the other sailors with
knowing unconcern. Their eerie looks suggest that they know what will happen (the men dying),
yet don’t care”
The thread they knit represents human life. The two women knitting black wool foreshadows
Marlow’s horrific journey in the “Dark Continent”.
Example #4
We find a number of allusions in Keats’s “Ode to the Grecian Urn”. For example:
“Sylvan” is a goat-like-man deity of Greek mythology. “Tempe” alludes to the “Vale of Tempe” in
Greece, a place (from Greek mythology) frequently visited by Apollo and other gods. Likewise,
“the dales of Arcady” refers to the home of “Pan”, the god of rustic music.
Function of Allusion
By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and
emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer
or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a
dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the
readers with religious backgrounds.
Ambiguity
Ambiguity Definition
Ambiguity, or fallacy of ambiguity, is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one
meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the
basis for instances of unintentional humor.
For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead
us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is
restructured as, “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.”
Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity, such as in, “John took off
his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank,” which is a building, to
another meaning, which is “an edge of a river.” Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such
cases.
• A good life depends on a liver – Liver may be an organ or simply a living person.
• Foreigners are hunting dogs – It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted, or
foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.
• Each of us saw her duck – It is not clear whether the word “duck” refers to an action of
ducking, or a duck that is a bird.
• The passerby helped dog bite victim – Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone?
Or is he helping a person who has been bitten by a dog? It’s not clear.
Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow
readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us
analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.
Read the following excerpt from The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger:
“I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no
wind, if you want to know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to
be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also
how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty
healthy though.”
The words “they” and “here” used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to
presume from the context that “they” might be the professionals helping out Holden, and “here”
might be a rehabilitation center.
The Sick Rose, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities:
Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what ” bed of
crimson joy” means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of “dark secret love.” The
ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem.
Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that “Has found out thy bed / Of crimson
joy” refers to making love.
Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)
On a larger scale, ambiguity may develop in a character, or in an entire story. For instance,
Hamlet is a morally ambiguous character.
The ambiguity in Hamlet’s character is seen when he is hurt by the death of Ophelia, which is
his personal loss, but he does not appreciate the effect that his actions are going to have on
others.
The use of the word “still” is ambiguous in nature. Here, it may mean “an unmoving object,” or it
may be interpreted as “yet unchanged.”
Function of Ambiguity
Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By
introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to readers to use their imagination to
explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry
they read.
Amplification
Definition of Amplification
“Mr. and Mrs. Veneering were bran-new people in a bran-new house in a bran-new quarter of
London. Everything about the Veneerings was spick and span new. All their furniture was new,
all their friends were new, all their servants were new, their place was new, … their harness was
new, their horses were new, their pictures were new, they themselves were new, they were as
newly-married as was lawfully compatible with their having a bran-new baby …”
In this excerpt, Dickens amplifies the phrase “bran-new,” and then describes it further by giving
more details about everything, such as furniture, friends, servants, place, horses, pictures, etc.
“Goethe’s final words: ‘More light.’ Ever since we crawled out of that primordial slime, that’s
been our unifying cry: ‘More light.’ Sunlight. Torchlight. Candlelight. Neon. Incandescent … Light
is metaphor. Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Lead,
Kindly Light, amid the encircling gloom, Lead Thou me on! The night is dark, and I am far from
home — Lead Thou me on! Arise, shine, for thy light has come. Light is knowledge. Light is life.
Light is light.”
You can notice that emphasis is on the “light” in the excerpt given above. Moving on from literal
meaning to the metaphorical meaning of the light, the speaker is describing the purpose of light
in human lives.
“If a person has ugly thoughts, it begins to show on the face. And when that person has ugly
thoughts every day, every week, every year, the face gets uglier and uglier until you can hardly
bear to look at it.
A person who has good thoughts cannot ever be ugly. You can have a wonky nose and a
crooked mouth and a double chin and stick-out teeth, but if you have good thoughts it will shine
out of your face like sunbeams and you will always look lovely.”
Here in this excerpt, Dahl elaborates to explain in depth the way an ugly person can turn out to
be uglier, and how a beautiful person remains beautiful, despite having physical imperfections.
Example #4: All Stories Are True (by John Edgar Wideman)
“A massive tree centuries old holds out against the odds here across from my mother’s house,
one of the biggest trees in Pittsburgh, anchored in a green tangle of weeds and bushes, trunk
thick as a Buick, black as night after rain soaks its striated hide… If it ever tore loose from its
moorings, it would crush her house like a sledgehammer … “
In this example, John Edgar Wideman gives an expanded and enriched description of a huge
old tree. He repeatedly describes how it has anchored itself along with weeds and bushes
against his mother’s house.
“It is a little remarkable, that—though disinclined to talk 0ver much of myself and my affairs at
the fireside, and to my personal friends—an autobiographical impulse should twice in my life
have taken possession of me, in addressing the public.”
This introduction by Nathaniel Hawthorne in his famous novel, The Scarlett Letter, uses
amplification. The speaker explains that he is resolved to write his autobiography. Instead of
telling it simply, he uses in-depth language to add the main idea into it.
Function of Amplification
By using amplification, writers repeat something they already have said with the purpose to add
more information and details to the original description. In writing and speech, amplification
tends to highlight the importance of an idea, to stimulate an emotional response among the
audience. In fact, it adds an exaggeration, increases the rhetorical effect, and emphasizes to
further elaborate definitions, descriptions, and arguments in a piece. Amplification also
highlights the persuasive aspects of an idea by elaborating the reason why it needs to be
considered. Besides, in creative writing, it draws readers’ attention to the most vivid, thought
provoking, and compelling parts of a narrative.
Anachronism
Anachronism Definition
Anachronism is derived from the Greek word anachronous, which means “against time.”
Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other
words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism.
Anachronisms appear in literature, paintings, and other works, and it is fascinating to explore
them. Generally, they are considered errors that occur due to lack of research. For example, if a
painter paints a portrait of Aristotle, and shows him wearing a wrist watch, it would be an
example of anachronism, as we are all aware that wristwatches did not exist during Aristotle’s
time. Similarly, the presence of a wall clock in a stage setting that depicts the interior of a
Roman fort is an anachronism.
The most famous anachronism example comes from Act 2, Scene 1 of William Shakespeare’s
play Julius Caesar:
The time this play depicts is a point in history dating back to 44 A.D. Mechanical clocks referred
to in the above-mentioned dialogue had not been invented at that time, but were present in
Shakespeare’s time. Thus, the mention of a clock in this play is an anachronism.
“… he plucked me open his doublet and offered them his throat to cut.”
Romans at the time of Julius Caesar did not wear a doublet, a close-fitted jacket. This was,
however, a fashion among men at the time of Shakespeare, and therefore its use in the play is
an anachronism.
It is a historical fact that the aforementioned institute was established in 1502 A.D. The time that
was depicted in the play was that of the 7th or 13th century. Shakespeare did not bother much
to set the mistake right, nor did people ever call into question the presence of the university
mentioned above in the Hamlet character’s time.
Yet another example of Shakespearean anachronism comes from Act 1, Scene 2 of his play
Macbeth:
The use of the word “dollar” in the above excerpt is clearly an example of an anachronism, as
the dollar was not the monetary unit during the time that the play is set. Shakespeare’s lack of
research caused him to mention an item out of its time.
Another example of anachronism caused by a lack of research is in the novel Pharaoh, written
by the Polish writer Boleslaw Prus. The setting of the novel is the regime of Ramses XII (1087-
1085 B.C). The writer mentions in his novel a Prince Harim’s canal in the time of Ramses XII,
and claims that it was the size of the Suez Canal. Careful research reveals that the canal
existed before the mentioned timeline of the narrative, and it was much smaller than the Suez
Canal.
An example of anachronism can be traced in John Keats’ poem Ode on a Grecian Urn:
Notice the use of the century-old and formal term “ye,” rather than the informal and more
appropriate to Keats’ time, “you.” It is an anachronism, but its use here is intentional, as it is
used to show the respect that the urn inspires in Keats; hence, produces an artistic effect.
Function of Anachronism
Anacoluthon
Definition of Anacoluthon
Anacoluthon is derived from the Greek word anakolouthos, which means “lacking sequence.” It
is a stylistic device defined as a syntactic deviation, and interruption within a sentence from one
structure to another. In this interruption, the expected sequence of grammar is absent. The
grammatical flow of sentences is interrupted in order to begin more sentences.
Characteristics of Anacoluthon
“… I could have brought him in his breakfast in bed with a bit of toast so long as I didnt do it on
the knife for bad luck or if the woman was going her rounds with the watercress and something
nice and tasty there are a few olives in the kitchen he might like I never could bear the look of
them in Abrines I could do the criada the room looks all right since I changed it the other way
you see something was telling me all the time I’d have to introduce myself not knowing me from
Adam very funny wouldn’t it …”
This is one example of anacoluthon where stream of consciousness makes its use easy. Since
the thoughts are not coherent, and lack grammatical sequence, it makes readers stop and think
about sentence order.
In the above example, King Lear talks about exacting revenge. However, he himself does not
know how he will exact revenge because he is in a confused state of mind. This excerpt can be
considered as a good anacoluthon example, as there is interruption from one sentence to
another, and such interruption is done to attract the readers’ attention.
In this case, Gertrude has deviated from one sentence to another. In the beginning, he talks
about a plank and its smell. Then more sentences are added, and the result is that the
grammatical order is changed.
Example #4: The Walrus and the Carpenter (By Lewis Carroll)
Here, Walrus proclaims to all listening oysters that the time has come to speak about many
things. Following his statement that “the sea is boiling hot,” there is an interruption in the
grammatical flow of the sentences through a sudden change and insertion of conjunctions.
Function of Anacoluthon
The common use of anacoluthon is to imitate a thought or speech, and then shift the necessary
information towards the start of the sentence. It is frequently used in literary writings and in
casual speeches. In casual conversation, it is used in such a way that the sentence would not
be considered correct grammatically. In written works, however, it is employed to imitate
ungrammatical, confused, and informal speech, and to draw the attention of readers.
Anacoluthon is used extensively in poetry, plays, and dramatic monologues. In addition, this
technique is well-suited to the stream of consciousness writing style that is planned to signify
thoughts in proximity to one another, because thoughts are not always consistent and hardly
grammatically correct.
Anadiplosis
The term anadiplosis is a Greek word, which means “to reduplicate.” It refers to the repetition of
a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the
same word which marks the end of the previous clause.
Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the
word “give” in the sentence “When I give, I give myself” is termed anadiplosis, as it occurs at
the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause.
Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word “reliability” to
highlight the main point of the sentence, “This public school has a record of extraordinary
reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”
Anadiplosis and Chiasmus
It is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However,
every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For
instance, “Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget” is an
example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and
anadiplosis, as the word “remember” marks the end of one clause and the start of the
subsequent clause.
Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence “The land of my
fathers, and my fathers can have it.” It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition
of the word “my fathers” but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.
Writers employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as
decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important
point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature.
Example #1: The Holy Bible, II Peter, 1:5-7 (By the Apostle Peter)
“… you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with
knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance
with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love.”
In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with
the use of anadiplosis.
Here the word “dead” has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often
used anadiplosis in his works to convince or persuade his readers. The word “dead” serves the
same purpose in these lines of Lycidas.
“What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I
remember verbatim (including that awful French).”
Just observe the beautiful use of the phrase, “what I remember of the letter,” as an anadiplosis.
The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these lines.
The message is further enhanced by the use of the word “verbatim.”
Here, Bacon has used the word “misfortunes” twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea
he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable.
This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word “Marathon,”
and repeated it to make it significant in the poem.
“The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who
defied an emperor. Striking story!”
This is an excerpt of dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000), in which a general is
sold as a slave, who then had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and
then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis.
Function of Anadiplosis
It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the
main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on
the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a
speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using this device to make their
suggestions and commands effective.
Anagnorisis
Definition of Anagnorisis
Anagnorisis is a moment in a plot or story, specifically a tragedy, wherein the main character
either recognizes or identifies his/her true nature, recognizes the other character’s true identity,
discovers the true nature of his situation, or that of the others – leading to the resolution of the
story.
Aristotle discussed anagnorisis in his Poetics in detail. He defines it as “a change [that] occurs
from ignorance to knowledge, creating love or hate between the individuals doomed by the poet
for bad or good fortune.” Simply, it is a startling discovery, which brings a change from
ignorance to knowledge.
For instance, in William Shakespeare’s “The Winter’s Tale,” a recognition scene occurs in the
final act, which reveals that Perdita is the daughter of the king, and not a shepherdess – the
reason that she is suitable for a royal lover.
One such moment in “Macbeth” occurs in the final scene when Macbeth, on the battlefield,
encounters vengeful Macduff, who declares that he is not “of woman born,” but instead
“untimely ripped” from the womb of his mother – which is now called a C-Section. This is the
moment when Macbeth learns that the prophecy of witches is about to come true, and that
Macduff would kill him. Though Macbeth realizes that he is destined, he continues to fight with
Macduff, who eventually kills him.
There is another example in another play “Othello.” Othello believes only what others tell him,
especially those who come to see him first. He believes in the story of deceit of Iago, though it is
based on words and a handkerchief, yet he does not trust Desdemona, his wife. The moment of
recognition occurs when he realizes that he has wrongly killed his beloved wife. Therefore, he
kills himself too.
Still another example occurs in Act-III of Cherry Orchard, by Anthon Chekhov. During a party,
Lyubov Andreyevna makes a critical realization that her cherry orchard, the place she has
grown up, having created beautiful childhood memories, is bought by Lophakhin. Anagnorisis
occurs exactly when Lopakhin enters and proudly declares, “It is sold … I bought it … I bought
it! … The cherry orchard is mine now, Mine! … I’ve bought the estate where my father and
grandfather were slaves, where they weren’t even allowed into the kitchen.”
Lyubov starts weeping, and Varya leaves the party angrily. This is the anagnorisis of both
Lyubov and Lopakhin. Lyubov discovers who has finally bought her Orchard, and Lophakhin
realizes that he eventually has bought the estate where his ancestors worked as slaves.
Function of Anagnorisis
The use of this literary device is very common in plays and novels. It is a very important part of
the plot in a tragedy, in which the protagonist recognizes his tragic flaw. This happens at the
climax, leading to his eventual downfall. The end of anagnorisis leads to catharsis in the
readers. The ideal moment for this device to happen is the moment of peripeteia, a reversal of
fortune, where the protagonist realizes some important insight or fact, human nature, his own
situation, or a truth about himself. It, in fact, unravels all the major complexities of the plot.
Anagram
Anagram Definition
Anagram is a form of word play in which letters of a word or phrase are rearranged in such a
way that a new word or phrase is formed.
An anagram is formed by using exactly the same letters of the original word, but with a different
arrangement. For example, the letters in the word “Shakespeare” can be rearranged to form a
word, “keshareapes.” However, an anagram in literature is not a nonsensical arrangement of
words, as in the previous example. Rather, it aims at parodying, criticizing, or praising its subject
– the original word. For instance, a famous anagram for “William Shakespeare” is “I am a
weakish speller.”
We play with words in our everyday, life to create anagrams that are funny and witty. Usually,
anagrams are most interesting when they are relevant to each other. Some hilarious anagram
examples are given below:
In literature, the use of anagrams is most commonly connected to pseudonyms, where the
writers jumble the letters of their original names to create interesting pennames for themselves.
Below are some famous examples:
Depending on the topics at hand, writers tend to vary their use of anagrams. Let us see some
examples of anagrams in literature:
In Dan Brown’s novel Da Vinci Code, the curator of the museum – Jacques Saunière – wrote
the following inscription with his blood:
These were actually the clues related to Leonardo Da Vinci, and were decoded as:
In the same novel, we see a character, Leigh Teabing, who is the Holy Grail expert, inventing an
apt name for himself by anagramming the names of the authors of The Holy Blood and The
Holy Grail, Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln.
Jonathan Swift had an uncanny skill of inventing new and unusual names for his fictitious
characters and places by using the anagrammatic method. We find interesting examples of
anagrams in Jonathan Swift’s novel “Gulliver’s Travels”.
For instance, “Brobdingnag,” a land occupied by giants, is an anagram of three words: big,
grand, and noble (excluding the syllable -le). Similarly, “Tribinia” and “Langden,” the two other
kingdoms traveled by Gulliver during his voyage, are anagrams of Britain and England
respectively.
Function of Anagram
The above discussion reveals that anagrams are commonly used in both everyday life and
literature. They often provide instances of wit and humor. Additionally, this word play presents
itself as a recreational activity in the form of word puzzles (cross words, upwords, scrabble, etc.)
to sharpen the deciphering skills of kids, as well as adults.
In literature, authors may use anagrams to hide their identity, by coining pseudonyms for
themselves, but still giving interesting clues to keen observers. Similarly, the anagrammatic
names of characters and places in a literary piece add layers of meaning to the otherwise
nonsense names, and therefore further motivate and develop readers’ interest. In mystery or
detective novels and short stories, anagrams play a vital role in proving clues to unfold a
mystery.
Analogy
Analogy Definition
An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite
different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is
familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more
extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the following example:
The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are the
planets revolving around their sun.
Here, an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using the word “like.” Therefore, it is
a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun, and the electrons to the planets,
without using the words “like” or “as.” Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop
an analogy.
We commonly use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are
given below:
• Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race, and the one who stops to
catch a breath loses.
• Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer.
• How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes.
• Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone.
• You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard.
The lines below were taken from George Orwell’s narrative essay A Hanging, which exhibits an
analogy between a prisoner and a fish.
They crowded very close about him, with their hands always on him in a careful, caressing grip,
as though all the while feeling him to make sure he was there. It was like men handling a fish
which is still alive and may jump back into the water.
The people are taking a prisoner to the gallows to be hanged. They are holding him firmly, as if
he were a fish which might slip away and escape.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow uses analogy in the following lines taken from his poem The Day
is Done:
He relates his poems to the summer showers and tears from the eyes. He develops the
similarity to show spontaneity of art when it directly comes out from the heart of an artist.
These lines are taken from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Act II, Scene 2:
Juliet is indirectly saying that, just like a rose that will always smell sweet by whichever name it
is called, she will love Romeo even if he changes his name.
John Donne, in his poem The Flea, uses analogy of a flea to describe his love with his beloved:
In the quoted lines, he tells his darling that, as a flea has sucked blood from both of them, and
their blood has mingled in its gut, so the flea has become their “wedding bed.”
Function of Analogy
Writers use analogy to link an unfamiliar or a new idea with common and familiar objects. This
makes it is easier for readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them
to understand otherwise. In addition, by employing this literary tool, writers catch the attention of
their readers. Analogies help increase readers’ interest as analogies help them relate what they
read to their life.
Analytical Essay
Definition of Analytical Essay
Analytical implies the breaking down of something into parts, or the discussion of something in a
way that it becomes a dissection of the whole. An analytical type of essay differs from other
types of essays in that its primary goal is to explain something bit by bit to enhance
understanding. Most of the times, an analytical essay is written about the analysis of a text, or a
process, or an idea. In literature, however, it is a critical analysis of some literary text which is
done to enhance its understanding.
An analytical essay is just an analysis of a literary text. By contrast, a critical essay involves, not
only an analysis of the text in question, but also dissection of the literary terms and devices
used by the author to make his meanings clear. The critical essay also explains the functions of
the literary terms used, and evaluates their usage, and whether they have achieved the
intended purposes or not.
1. Cause and Effect: One way of analyzing something is to discuss the cause of
something, and its effect on other things.
2. Comparison and Contrast: Another way of analyzing something is to compare and
contrast things among themselves.
3. Classification: Classification is yet another method of analyzing things, to learn of their
nature.
4. Process: Process is also a type of analysis writing.
5. Definition: Defining things is also a way of analyzing the nature of things.
“I say to my fellow humans: It’s time to stop feeding off the dead and grow up! I don’t know
about food, but I have a plan for achieving fuel self-sufficiency in less time than it takes to say
‘Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.’ The idea came to me from reports of the growing crime of
French fry oil theft: Certain desperate individuals are stealing restaurants’ discarded cooking oil,
which can then be used to fuel cars. So the idea is: why not skip the French fry phase and
harvest high-energy hydrocarbons right from ourselves?”
This is an excerpt from the essay of Barbara Ehrenreich, in which she has made comparison
and contrast between human beings and animals, regarding food choices. This is a good
analysis of the food we use.
“On the first day of school, I was escorted by hordes of national guardsmen. Like a funeral
procession, the steady stream of official-looking cars followed me to the campus. Some
patrolmen were parked near campus gates, while others, with guns strapped to their sides,
stood near building entrances. Though many of my escorts had given me smiles of support, still
I was not prepared for what I encountered upon entering my new school.”
This is a paragraph from a process analysis. The author, Joyce M. Jaret, has beautifully
described her experience of the security in this paragraph, and how it is deployed when an
important figure faces security issues in his life. This is an analysis of the process of security
deployment.
Example #3: The Ways of Meeting Oppression (by Martin Luther King, Jr.)
“The third way open to oppressed people in their quest for freedom is the way of nonviolent
resistance. Like the synthesis in Hegelian philosophy, the principle of nonviolent resistance
seeks to reconcile the truths of two opposites—the acquiescence and violence—while avoiding
the extremes and immoralities of both. The nonviolent resister agrees with the person who
acquiesces that one should not be physically aggressive toward his opponent; but he balances
the equation by agreeing with the person of violence that evil must be resisted. He avoids the
nonresistance of the former and the violent resistance of the latter. With nonviolent resistance,
no individual or group need submit to any wrong, nor need anyone resort to violence in order to
right a wrong.”
This is the analysis by classification that Marth Luther King, a famous human rights activist, has
done regarding oppression against African Americans.
An analytical essay dissects something such as a concept, an idea, a thing, or even a character.
Its major aim is to enhance the understanding of readers. An analysis could be done through a
process, definition, classification and division, or comparison and contrast. The thing or idea is
broken into several parts, through classification and division, and then analyzed. A process is
broken into several steps for analysis. Not only do analytical essays enhance understanding,
but they also make readers aware of minute details of things.
Anapest
Definition of Anapest
Anapest is a poetic device defined as a metrical foot in a line of a poem that contains three
syllables wherein the first two syllables are short and unstressed, followed by a third syllable
that is long and stressed. For example: “I must finish my journey alone.” Here, the anapestic
foot is marked in bold.
Difference Between Anapest and Dactyl
Anapest is known as antidactylus, since it is a reverse pattern of dactyl meter. The difference is
that anapest consists of three syllables, where the first two are unstressed and the last one is
stressed, in an unstressed/unstressed/stressed pattern. However, dactyl is the opposite of this
pattern. It is a metrical foot that consists of three syllables wherein the first two syllables are
stressed, and the last one is unstressed, such as stressed/stressed/unstressed pattern.
Byron has written this poem in anapestic tetrameter pattern, which consists of four anapests in
each line. In this extract, anapests are marked in bold. The entire poem has the same pattern,
where the first two syllables are unstressed, followed by a third stressed syllable.
Example #2: Verses Supposed to Be Written by Alexander Selkirk (By William Cowper)
This poem shows examples of anapests and iamb combinations. And at some places, iambs
are substituted by anapests. The poem is written in anapestic trimeter in each line, which means
there are three anapests in each line.
Example #3: ‘Twas the Night before Christmas (By Clement Clarke Moore)
” ‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house
Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care…
While visions of sugar plums danced in their heads…
had just settled our brains for a long winter‘s nap…
As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,
when they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky…
with the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too.”
This poem is a perfect example of anapest, which runs throughout the poem. Most of the lines
are following anapestic tetrameter. Like in the first line, there are four anapests. However, three
anapests are also used in other lines.
This poem is also a very good example of anapest. Each long line has three anapests
(anapestic trimeter) followed by shorter lines with two anapests (anapestic dimeter). It is lending
rhythm and regular beats to the poem.
Function of Anapest
It helps create artistic lines with a regular meter in a poem. Since anapest ends in a stressed
syllable, it makes strong rhyming lines that create music in a poem. It plays a very important role
in poetry, and the most common role in verse is that of a comic meter, which is, the foot used in
the limerick for comical effects.
Anaphora
Anaphora Definition
In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve
an artistic effect is known as Anaphora.
Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize
certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into
practice. Examine the following psalm:
“O LORD, rebuke me not in thine anger, neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure.
Have mercy upon me, O LORD; for I am weak: O LORD, heal me; for my bones are vexed.
My soul is also sore vexed: but thou, O LORD, how long?”
The repetition of the phrase “O Lord,” attempts to create a spiritual sentiment. This is anaphora.
It is common for us to use anaphora in our everyday speech, to lay emphasis on the idea we
want to convey, or for self affirmation. The following are anaphora examples:
• “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better.”
• “My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration.”
• “Buying diapers for the baby, feeding the baby, playing with the baby: This is what your
life is when you have a baby.”
• “I want my money right now, right here, all right?”
• “The wrong person was selected for the wrong job, at the wrong time, for the wrong
purpose.”
• “Their property was sold, their homestead was sold, and their everything was sold for
want.”
• “Who is to blame, who is to look to, who is to turn to, in a tough situation like this.”
• “In adversity, his close friends left him, his close colleagues left him, and his best close
relatives left him.”
• “Everything looked dark and bleak, everything looked gloomy, and everything was
under a blanket of mist.”
• “All the people were moving in the same direction; all the people were thinking about
the same thing; and all the people were discussing the same topic.”
• “After a long term of studies, the students wanted to go home, they wanted to play, and
they wanted to meet their parents and friends.”
• “The players were much exited for the tour; the players wished to do a lot of shopping;
the players planned to go sightseeing.”
• “The young writer was given the award for his best seller. The young writer was exited
to get the reward, and he decided to celebrate the occasion in a fitting manner.”
• “Tell them to be good, tell them to follow their elders, and tell them to mind their
manners.”
• “The young athlete was in a decent uniform, and wanted to perform very well.”
• “My mother liked the house very much, but she couldn’t buy it.”
• “An apple fell on the head of a peasant, but he couldn’t grasp the laws of motion.”
• “The search party barely got to the middle of the desert, when a storm overtook it.”
• “The film was based on a true story, but it failed to get viewers’ attention.”
Here, Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora. The repetition of the word
“this” creates an emotional effect on the readers, particularly those who are English. Further, it
highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word “dear” shows the writer’s
emotional attachment to the land, and expects to elicit a similar response from the readers as
well.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of
Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
The repetitive structure used in the above lines make it the most memorable and remarkable
start of a narrative ever achieved by a writer. The word “it” – repeated all the way through the
passage – makes the reader focus more on the traits of the “age” they are reading about.
Wordsworth also employs the technique of anaphora in this piece. The repetition of the word
“five” at the beginning of each line gives melody to the lines, which matches well with its
nostalgic tone.
The repetition of a series of questions, which starts with the query, “what,” creates a rhythm that
elicits the effect of awe in readers.
Politicians frequently use anaphora as a rhetorical device, in their addresses and political
speeches, to evoke passion among the audience. Read an excerpt from Winston Churchill’s
speech during the Second World War:
“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on
the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we
shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight
on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.
We shall never surrender.”
This extract from Winston Churchill’s speech is full of anaphoric examples in which the speaker
has spoken the phrase “we shall” several times to refer to the plural form that he is using for the
whole nation.
The repetitive structures in the above passage suggest the importance of the war for England.
Moreover, it inspires patriotic sentiments among the masses.
“Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia,
go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that
somehow this situation can and will be changed.”
This extract from I have a Dream contains the repetition of the phrase “go back to” many time.
The whole speech is full of the anaphoric example.
Function of Anaphora
Apart from the function of giving prominence to certain ideas, the use of anaphora in literature
adds rhythm, thus making it more pleasurable to read, and easier to remember. As a literary
device, anaphora serves the purpose of giving artistic effect to passages of prose and poetry.
As a rhetorical device, anaphora is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience, in order to
persuade, inspire, motivate, and encourage them.
Anecdote
Definition of Anecdote
Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to
support or demonstrate some point, and to make the audience laugh. Anecdotes can include an
extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event
that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose.
Types of Anecdote
There are several types of anecdotes. Amusing anecdotes are often used in literature, or at
such events as family reunions, wedding receptions, and other get-togethers. Teachers tell
anecdotes to their students in classrooms about eminent people and celebrities. Writers and
poets use them in their literary works.
Parris: “(It is very hard to say): Aye, a dress. And I thought – someone naked running through
the trees!”
Abigail: (In terror) “No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle!”
Parris: (With anger) “I saw it! (Her moves from her, then, resolved.) Now tell me true, Abigail.
And I pray you feel the weight of truth upon you, for now my ministry’s at stake, my ministry and
perhaps your cousin’s life. Whatever abomination you have done, give me all of it now, for I
dare not be taken unaware when I go before them down there.”
Parris: (Studies her, then nods, half convinced) “Abigail, I have fought here three long years to
bend there stiff-necked people to me, and now, just now when some good respect is rising for
me in the parish, you compromise my very character. I have given you a home, child, I have put
clothes upon your back – now give me upright answer. Your name in the town – it is entirely
white, is it not?”
Abigail: (With an edge of resentment) “Why, I am sure it is, sir. There is no blush about my
name.”
Parris: (To the point) “Abigail is there any other cause that you have told me, for you being
discharged from Goody Proctor’s service? I have heard it said, and I tell you as I heard it, that
she comes so rarely to church this year for she will not sit so close to something soiled. What
signified that remark?”
Abigail: “She hates me, uncle; she must, for I would not be her slave. It’s a bitter woman, a
lying; cold, sniveling, woman, and I will not work for such a woman!”
Parris: “She may be. And yet it has troubled me that you are now seven month out of their
house, and in all this time no other family has ever called for your service.”
Abigail: “They want slaves, not such as me. Let them send to Barbados for that. I will not black
my face for any of them! (With ill-concealed resentment at him.) Do you begrudge my bed,
uncle?”
Abigail: (in a temper) “My name is good in the village! I will not have it said my name is soiled!
Goody Proctor is a gossiping liar!”
Here in this literary text, Reverend Parris finds her niece Abigail Williams chanting and dancing
in the woods, along with the native village girls. He suspects them of magic and witchcraft.
However, she does not accept any of the accusations of Parris and starts narrating whimsical
stories to justify her actions. Abigail makes an account that Goody Proctor is a liar. The stories
of Abigail are perfect examples of anecdotes.
Example #2: Death in the Arctic (By Robert W. Service)
is that? Bells, dogs again! Is it a dream? I sob and cry. See! The door opens, fur-clad men Rush
to my rescue; frail am I; Feeble and dying, dazed and glad. There is the pistol where it dropped.
“Boys, it was hard – but I’m not mad … Look at the clock – it stopped, it stopped. Carry me out.
The heavens smile. See! There’s an arch of gold above. Now, let me rest a little while – Looking
to God and Love … and Love…”
In this poem, the speaker is freezing slowly in the Arctic. He recollects the memories of his life
and tells the whole story to the readers, but sees flashes of his life before he dies. In fact, he is
using anecdotes to tell his life story.
Function of Anecdote
Anecdotes and humorous pieces are not only jokes, but exquisite literary devices as well. Their
primary purpose is to stir up laughter, to disclose a truth in a general way, or to describe a
feature of a character in such a way that it becomes humorous, and at the same time gives us a
better understanding of the character.
Anecdotes may also serve as cautions. Writers tell their readers about the possibilities of future
happenings, in case they do not follow particular processes and techniques.
Antagonist
Antagonist Definition
It is common to refer to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy), against whom a hero (the good
guy) fights in order to save himself or others. In some cases, an antagonist may exist within the
protagonist that causes an inner conflict or a moral conflict inside his mind. This inner conflict is
a major theme of many literary works, such as Doctor Faustus, by Christopher Marlowe,
Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, and A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce.
Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main character, embodying qualities that are in
contrast with the qualities of the main character.
Another example of an antagonist is the character of Iago in Shakespeare’s Othello. Iago stands
as one of the most notorious villains of all time, having spent all of his time plotting against
Othello, the protagonist, and his wife Desdemona. Through his evil schemes, Iago convinces
Othello that his wife has been cheating on him, and even convinces him to kill his own wife
despite her being faithful to him. The thing that separates Iago from other antagonists is that we
do not really know why he wants to destroy Othello.
Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson)
In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of
doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but his
antagonist. Jekyll creates Hyde by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his
statement:
He means that a human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man’s
antagonist exists within himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in the
honorable Dr. Jekyll. Well-known as a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll could never have
fulfilled his evil desires. He separated his “evil-self” and gave him a separate identity, thus
inventing his own antagonist who, as a result, brings his downfall.
Bob Ewell is a malicious antagonist in Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mocking Bird. Being convinced that
Mayella may have been guilty of committing a crime, Ewell is bent on making sure that
someone else gets the punishment. Ewell keeps on following Atticus, Judge Taylor, and Helen
Robinson – even after the case is finished – and goes to the extent that he almost kills the Finch
kids. In defense of Boo over the killing of Bob Ewell, Heck Tate said:
“To my way of thinkin’, Mr Finch, taking the one man who’s done you and this town a great
favour an’ draggin’ him with his shy ways into the limelight – to me, that’s a sin. It’s a sin and I’m
not about to have it on my head. If it was any other man, it’d be different. But not this man, Mr.
Finch.”
Function of Antagonist
Conflict is a basic element of any plot. The presence of an antagonist alongside a protagonist is
vital for the typical formula of a plot. The antagonist opposes the protagonist in his endeavors,
and thus the conflict ensues. The protagonist struggles against the antagonist, taking the plot to
a climax. Later, the conflict is resolved with the defeat of the antagonist; or, as in tragedies, with
the downfall of the protagonist.
Antanaclasis
Definition of Antanaclasis
Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly used, though the
meaning of the word changes in each case. It is the repetition of a similar word in a sentence
with different meanings, or a word is repeated in two or more different senses. Many of
Shakespeare’s literary pieces contain examples of antanaclasis. Like in these lines, “Put out the
light, then put out the light…” (Othello). The first meaning is that Othello would extinguish the
candle, and in the second reference its meaning is that he would end Desdemona’s life.
There is a slight difference between epizeuxis and antanaclasis, though both mean the
repetition of words. In epizeuxis, the words or phrases are repeated in a succession in the same
sentence or line. Such as in this passage, “Alone, alone, all all alone, /Alone on a wide, wide
sea…”(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, by Samuel Coleridge).
The words or phrases are repeated in a sentence or passage with different meanings. Such as,
“I will dissemble myself in’t; and I would I were the first that ever dissembled in such a gown.”
(Twelfth Night, by William Shakespeare). In this case, the first meaning of dissemble is
disguised, and the second meaning is to act hypocritically.
Viola: “Save thee, friend, and thy music! Dost thou live by thy tabour?”
Clown: “No, sir, I live by the church.”
Viola: “Art thou a churchman?”
Clown: “No such matter, sir: I do live by the church; for I do live at my house, and my house
doth stand by the church.”
In this example, the word “live” is repeatedly used. Viola is Cesario in disguise, and conversing
with Feste (Fool). In the first sentence, it means that he makes his living by playing the drum,
and in the later lines it means he lives near the church.
Landor has used, in the final two lines of the poem, the word “strike,” with contrasting meanings.
In the first instance, it means killing everyone and everything, while in the second reference it
means the opposite.
Here, the poet uses antanaclasis in the last two lines of the poem. The first use of the word
“sleep” means nocturnal rest, and in the last line it has the meaning of death. This device is
helping to draw the readers’ attention.
KingHenry:
Henry V, as one can see in the above excerpt, is one of Shakespeare’s works which contains
examples of antanaclasis. The word “mock,” repeatedly used in this excerpt, has two meanings
– “to cheat,” and “to taunt.”
Function of Antanaclasis
Antanaclasis helps in giving an exciting contrast with different meanings of the same word. It
enhances the dramatic and persuasive impact of a piece of writing or speech. Antanaclasis
creates comic effect when used in the form of irony and pun. Apart from that, it makes the
literary text memorable due to repetition. It is used as a rhetorical device in poetry, prose, and
political speeches. Political leaders make use of this technique in order to persuade and draw
the attention of their audiences.
Antecedent
Definition of Antecedent
Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase, or word to which a pronoun, noun, or another word
refers. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or
sentence refers to an earlier word. For instance, “While giving treats to children or friends offer
them whatever they like.” In this line, children and friends are antecedents, while they is a
pronoun that refers to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates from
grammar.
Often antecedents and their respective pronouns agree in number, which means if an
antecedent is singular, the pronoun that replaces it will also be singular. However, sometimes
writers might not follow this rule, and we see singular antecedents are replaced with plural
pronouns. Likewise, antecedents and their following pronouns have the same gender.
These terms are opposite to one another, as antecedent refers to in front of or before. It is an
expression that gives meaning to a proform (a noun, pronoun, pro-adverb or pro-verb). Hence,
proforms follow their respective antecedents such as “Elizabeth says, she likes coffee.”
Sometimes these proforms or pronouns precede them that are called postcedents, meaning
behind or after such as, “when it gets ready, I shall definitely get my cup of tea.”
• David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there.
• My uncle likes candies. He asks everyone to give him candies as gifts.
• When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure.
• The leaves have turned yellow; even then they are on the tree.
• The bird ate the fish quickly, and immediately it
• A good story must have a quality about it; it must have characters, a setting, narration,
and dialogues.
In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent, and the pronouns “they” and “their” refer to
this noun used earlier. See that the antecedent and its pronouns are italicized. If we remove the
pronouns, these lines will have an entirely different and confusing impression, and the meaning
will change.
This poem presents a very good example of antecedent, in which the speaker uses the noun
“foe” as antecedent, and replaces it with the pronoun “it” in the very next line. Similarly, he again
makes use of “wrath” as an antecedent, and replaces it with “it.”
In this excerpt, the antecedent is “wind,” and the pronoun “it” is its denotation, replacing it in the
third line. Antecedent makes these lines clear and easy to understand for the readers.
Function of Antecedent
Antecedent is a very important and useful literary device, as it makes the sense of a sentence
clear to the readers. By using references such as they, their, them, it, he, and she without any
antecedent subject would become confusing. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words,
grammar, and the expression of the writers clear and precise, as without it, a sentence remains
vague and cannot convey exact meaning. It is a tricky concept, though a worthwhile rule to
grasp, because it helps writers improve their writing style too.
Anthimeria
Definition of Anthimeria
Anthimeria has originated from the Greek word anti-meros, which means “one part for another.”
It is a rhetorical device that uses a word in a new grammatical shape, often as a noun or a verb.
Simply, it replaces one part of speech with another.
For instance, Shakespeare converts a noun “peace” into verb in this line: “The thunder would
not peace at my bidding” (King Lear). Using nouns as verbs has become such a common
practice that now many nouns are often used as verbs. In grammar studies, anthimeria has
another name, “functional shift,” or “conversion.” In fact, language is always fluid, and is in
constant transformation. Therefore, use of a verb as a noun or vice versa is not a surprise for
linguists.
This song by Nancy Sinatra shows two nouns used as verbs, which are “truthing” and “saming.”
Types of Anthimeria
Temporary Anthimeria
This type may be trendy or popular; however, it does not make its appearance permanent in
language. For instance, these days a temporary anthimeria is “hashtagging;” since it has
emerged recently, but it may not last long.
Permanent Anthimeria
This type has become a permanent part of language after its emergence. For instance, “texting”
has become a permanent part of language. Another one is “typing.”
“The parishioners about here,” continued Mrs. Day, not looking at any living being, but snatching
up the brown delf tea-things, “are the laziest, gossipest, poachest, jailest set of any ever I
came among. And they’ll talk about my teapot and tea-things next, I suppose!”
Hardy was popular for his creativity, inventiveness, and coining completely weird and new
words such as, “gossipest,” “poaches,” and “jailest” in this excerpt taken from Under the
Greenwood Tree.
In these lines, the names of the writers are changed into plural forms, which we have never
seen before. This is another good example of anthimeria.
In this poem, Kate has changed the noun “spittoon” into a verb “spittooning,” and changed the
color purple into an adjective.
“I’ve often got the kid in my mind’s eye. She’s a dolichocephalic Trachtenberg, with her daddy’s
narrow face and Jesusy look.”
In this example, “Jesus” is transformed into a new form of adjective “Jesusy.” It gives a
complete new expression to a noun.
“Let me not suppose that she dares go about, Emma Woodhouse-ing me!”
Austen has invented a verb “woodhouse-ing” from an existing noun “woodhouse,” giving a new
shape to an old noun.
Function of Anthimeria
Anthimeria is very common in novels, short stories, and particularly in poetry, where such
replacement evokes mild emotions of confusion. However, the proposed meaning is not difficult
to recognize from the ways and methods of expression commonly used in literature. It happens
in advertisements, because the culture of this world is constantly changing, language must also
grow, improve, and develop. Anthimeria, in fact, provides writers a method to describe ideas in
a unique way that makes the readers think. Sometimes, writers use a new word to create
images and imagery. Besides this, it is a method through which we transform and change our
language over time.
Anthology
Definition of Anthology
The term anthology originates from a Greek word, anthologia, meaning a “collection of flowers.”
An anthology is a compilation of literary works such as poems, plays, short stories, excerpts,
including television programs, dramas, movies and songs. There are different categories of
anthologies such as comic anthologies, essay collections, fiction anthologies, poetry
anthologies, anthologies of films, and of television programs. Its most common category is
literary one, which editors compile from different sources and publish in book forms.
“The Collected Stories,” by Lorrie Moore, is a beautiful collection of tales that allows readers to
plunge in and out of the writer’s experience observing of human behavior. Ms. Moore is famous
for her sharp humor and ironic tone. Moore writes about family dynamics, infidelity, and terminal
illness. However, the way she shifts smoothly from one theme to another, makes this anthology
a popular one. The most popular story from this volume is, “How to Be an Other Woman.” The
book is counted as an excellent anthology of its time.
“The Faerie Queens” is another noted anthology of essays exploring magic, myths, and
mythology in ancient times. This collection is mysterious, otherworldly, and powerful, which has
spread its magic across the entirety of Europe for centuries, captivating those who have read
the essays. In fact, Rankine has given his readers critical reviews of myths, mythologies,
legends, and epic figures.
“100 Best Love Poems” is a popular collection of poems in the English language. The works are
compiled together, not only for their popularity, but also for their literary quality. From the middle
ages, to the twentieth century, these poems remain all-time favorites, and have the ability to
captivate and engage the minds of readers, and keep their spirits fresh.
Example #5: Renaissance Drama: An Anthology of Plays and Entertainments (by Arthur F.
Kinny)
Function
Perhaps the greatest function of an anthology is to give readers a look into places, experiences,
and people they would not otherwise experience. This is done by linking together stories,
poems, and plays, by their themes, characters, and places. The successful editor puts pieces
together to make sense – not merely as individual works, but as a whole unit with coherence,
that otherwise might be overlooked. Readers can just pull an anthology from the shelf, and get
lost in a story or poem that reflects their feelings.
Another important function of an anthology is to prevent readers from getting bored, or being
tied to one particular theme or element. Rather, they explore different types of worlds and
feelings, in a variety of stories and poems – all of which are linked by a single theme. Another
function of anthologies is to enable students to easily find the best pieces, put together
according to times, reviews, critical theories, settings and plots.
Anthropomorphism
Definition of Anthropomorphism
Pinocchio, the famous wooden doll, was anthropomorphized when he was given the ability to
talk, walk, think, and feel like real boy. Fables and fairy tales usually have characters that can
serve as anthropomorphism examples.
“Comrades, you have heard already about the strange dream that I had last night. But I will
come to the dream later. I have something else to say first. I do not think, comrades, that I shall
be with you for many months longer, and before I die, I feel it my duty to pass on to you such
wisdom as I have acquired. I have had a long life, I have had much time for thought as I lay
alone in my stall, and I think I may say that I understand the nature of life on this earth as well
as any animal now living. It is about this that I wish to speak to you … Man is the only creature
that consumes without producing. He does not give milk, he does not lay eggs, he is too weak
to pull the plough.”
Animal Farm is one of the perfect examples of anthropomorphism. In this excerpt, one of the
pigs named Old Major is delivering a political speech to his fellows against the evils imposed by
the human rulers. Here, Old Major is instigating them to rise to rebellion against a tyrant human.
This entire use is a good example of anthropomorphism.
“My father was a St. Bernard, my mother was a collie, but I am a Presbyterian. This is what my
mother told me, I do not know these nice distinctions myself. To me they are only fine large
words meaning nothing. My mother had a fondness for such; she liked to say them, and see
other dogs look surprised and envious, as wondering how she got so much education … When I
was well grown, at last, I was sold and taken away, and I never saw her again. She was broken-
hearted, and so was I, and we cried; but she comforted me as well as she could …”
The protagonist of this story is a dog, which is describing his life as a puppy. The story is told
from the loyal pet’s perspective. The dog possesses human traits like emotions, shame, fear,
anguish, happiness, and hopelessness.
Function of Anthropomorphism
There are various reasons for using anthropomorphism. The primary one is to make a wider
appeal to the readers. With the use of objects or animals, the story can become visually
appealing and non-threatening to readers. Hence, it could attract the attention of a wide
audience (including children) by presenting animated characters in tales and animated movies.
In literature, it serves as an effective tool for creating political and social satires. Hence, it has a
wider scope than merely to entertain children.
Anti-Climax
Definition of Anti-Climax
Anti-climax is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a disappointing situation, or a sudden
transition in discourse from an important idea to a ludicrous or trivial one. It is when, at a specific
point, expectations are raised, everything is built-up, and then suddenly something boring or
disappointing happens — this is an anti-climax. Besides that, the order of statements gradually
descend in anti-climax.
Types of Anti-Climax
There are two types of anti-climax. The first is used in narrations, such as the anti-climax about
the overall plot of the story. The second one is a figure of speech, which might occur anywhere
in the story.
In literature, there are lots of examples of anti-climax, whether narrative or as a figure of speech.
Let us consider a few of them:
In the extract, it is used as a figure of speech. Pope is drawing the attention of readers to the
falseness. Anna is Queen of England, who holds meetings, and indulges also in afternoon tea
customs. Ludicrous effect is created by using the anti-climax.
Here, the last line of poem presents anti-climax, as the poet is describing issues associated with
life on Earth. Here, heaven is referred as “city glorious.” He asks whether people could come
and live in heaven, which is a change in discourse from an important note to trivial.
OTHELLO:
“Well, hurry up and confess. Be quick about it.
I’ll wait over here.
I don’t want to kill you before you’ve readied your soul.
No, I don’t want to send your soul to hell when I kill you…”
DESDEMONA:
“Send me away, my lord, but don’t kill me…”
OTHELLO:
“It’s too late…”
This is one of the narrative anti-climax examples from Shakespeare’s works. Here, a sudden
transformation can be seen, when Othello stabs Desdemona. It is creating a disappointing and
thrilling effect in the end.
DON PEDRO:
“Why, then are you no maiden.— Leonato,
I am sorry you must hear. Upon mine honor,
Myself, my brother, and this grievèd count
Did see her, hear her, at that hour last night
Talk with a ruffian at her chamber window
Who hath indeed, most like a liberal villain,
Confessed the vile encounters they have had
A thousand times in secret.”
This is a good example of anti-climax, when Hero is publicly denounced and humiliated at her
wedding. Her chastity is challenged by her fiancé Claudio. Here climax turns into anti-climax.
Faustus:
“Nay! Let me have one book more,
and then I have done, wherein I might see all plants, herbs, and trees that grow upon the earth.”
Meph:
“Here they be.”
Faustus:
“O thou art deceived…”
This is an example of anti-climax as a figure of speech, which has taken place in the final line of
this excerpt. Marlowe uses it as a warning to the audience not to follow the ways of Faustus,
because it could bring shallow reward and superficial happiness only.
“In a moment, the whole company was on their feet. That somebody was assassinated by
somebody vindicating a difference of opinion was the likeliest occurrence. Everybody looked to
see somebody fall, but only saw a man and a woman standing staring at each other; the man
with all the outward aspect of a Frenchman and a thorough Republican; the woman, evidently
English.”
In this excerpt, everybody is expecting that somebody has been killed, or someone has fallen
down dead. However, there is only a man and woman standing there, staring at each other.
This is a disappointing anti-climax.
Function of Anti-Climax
Anti-Hero
Definition of Anti-Hero
Anti-hero is a literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a play or book that has
characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero. The protagonist is generally admired for
his bravery, strength, charm, or ingenuity, while an anti-hero is typically clumsy, unsolicited,
unskilled, and has both good and bad qualities.
The origin of this literary device is marked in the 18th century, but there have been literary
figures who believe that the concept of an anti-hero existed well before that. Recently, the
usage of anti-hero in television and books has increased and became bolder than ever.
Nowadays, there are thousands of shows, books, and movies that portray such characters, who
are widely admired by audiences.
Examples of Anti-Hero
The majority of television shows these days portray dark characters. The most celebrated TV
shows have anti-heroes who seem to possess both positive and negative traits. Many have
successfully explored and impressively depicted the darkest aspects of a human life, fantasies
and psyches. Particular characters from these shows are discussed below:
Dexter Morgan – the primary character of the celebrated TV series Dexter – is one of the most
celebrated anti-heroes of recent times. He is a blood spatter analyst for the Miami Police
Department. He is a kind and loving father, friend, and husband who has an anti-social
personality that makes him murder criminals.
The idea of killing only the guilty people does not seem such a bad thing to do at first. Rather, to
some extent, it sounds rational but it is not. Dexter did not become a serial killer to rid society of
crime. He did so because he took pleasure in it, while the social cleansing part came in as a
spinoff. The show depicts that he is slowly moving towards redemption, and that is what keeps
the audience glued. This is a good case of a modern anti-hero.
Example #2: Lord of the Rings (By J. R. R. Tolkien)
There is a wide array of opinions on whether or not Tolkien’s character Gollum should be
considered an anti-hero. He does not really have any good or useful characteristics, but his
character is a perfect example of the struggle that we go through in our daily lives when
choosing between good and evil.
Gollum is portrayed as a swamp creature who warns those who want the ring. The good side of
him that occasionally surfaces makes him a loyal servant. The dark side of him that is infected
by the greed to have the ring makes him do evil things, which eventually leads to his death.
Thus, Gollum can justly be called an anti-hero of the novel.
Function of Anti-Hero
Anti-hero can serve a great purpose if used skillfully. An anti-hero brings the spice and flavor to
a script that an ordinary hero-villain format cannot. The more secular approach to the idea of
using anti-hero shows that it has much more potential as compared to the conventional style. It
can be used to represent many things at the same time, such as social flaws, human frailties,
and political culture.
An anti-hero is usually given the most prominent role after the protagonist, and is represented
as an amalgamation of both good and evil. Instead of having two different people to represent
two extremes, an anti-hero combines both into one person, and thus shows the real nature of
humanity.
This is why people associate themselves with some stories better than others. Gulliver of
Jonathan Swift’s Guliver’s Travels, and Jean Valjean of Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables are two
such characters. They have been portrayed to have flaws, but still they held fast to their natures.
These two characters can exemplify anyone who has suffered all through their lives, but they
are not the kind of characters one can look up to.
Moreover, in modern society when we are presented with a character that is overly righteous
and upright, we find it too good to be true. The social turmoil that the entire world as a
community has been facing recently has disposed us to be skeptical of almost everything. The
greatness that a conventional antagonist shows is something we do not witness in society,
which is why we find it far from reality. Suffering and sorrow are a part of human life. So, we
relate better to a character that has suffered through life, and who has both good and bad sides,
than a character that is only seen doing good.
Antimetabole
Antimetabole Definition
Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means “turning about.” It is a literary term or
device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. For example:
Since the time of Socrates, we see the use of antimetabole. Some of them are:
Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related, and some experts even use them
interchangeably. However, both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices.
According to scholars, when a sentence is repeated by reversing it, so as to convey an idea or
stress a point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only
that in an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed, because just
reversing the meaning is not enough. So in the light of these facts, it can be deduced that all the
antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles.
A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely. The only condition of a chiasmic sentence is that
the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meaning. For example, the popular saying by
Havelock Ellis: “Charm is a woman’s strength, strength is a man’s charm,” the sentence is an
example of chiasmus, but is not an antimetabole. This is because the two clauses have
opposite meanings, but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar.
In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very
good example is Mae West’s catchphrase, “It’s not the men in my life; it’s the life in my men.” As
you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm, and grammatical structure in the second
phrase are exactly similar to the first one, but the meaning is opposite. Many experts refer to
antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus.
Antimetaboles are popular and effective solely because they appeal to reason and are easy to
remember. If the first half is relatable, then the reader or listener will automatically make sense
of the second half. For example: “It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in your
years.” A sentence like this can be called an antimetabole because it is appealing, correct
(logically and grammatically) and has a message to convey to the readers.
Antiphrasis
Definition of Antiphrasis
Antiphrasis originated from the Greek word antiphrasis, which means “opposite word.”
Antiphrasis is a figurative speech in which a phrase or word is employed in a way that is
opposite to its literal meaning, in order to create an ironic or comic effect. In simple words, it is
the use of phrases or words in their opposite sense from the real meaning.
“Yes, I killed him. I killed him for money–and a woman–and I didn’t get the money and I didn’t
get the woman. Pretty, isn’t it…” (Double Indemnity, by Billy Wilder and Raymond Chandler).
Here, the speaker is making an ironic statement by using the opposite sense of the word
“pretty.” He has committed murder, yet he describes his act “pretty.”
“Owen would just smile and eat his eggs, and maybe reach over and slap Ernie’s back and say,
‘That’s real funny, Ernie. You’re pretty clever.’ All the while thinking to himself, you moron.
What do you know? … Which, of course, he couldn’t say out loud. He could think it, but he
couldn’t say it. When you’re a public figure in a small town, you have to treat people with dignity,
even Ernie Matthews …”
In this example, Owen is mocking Ernie Matthews. He comments that Ernie is “pretty clever,”
but what he really thinks deep inside him is the complete opposite to the literal meaning of the
phrase.
“I was awakened by the dulcet tones of Frank, the morning doorman, alternately yelling my
name, ringing my doorbell, and pounding on my apartment door …”
Here, the real meaning of the phrase “dulcet tones” means melodious tones. In this particular
situation, it is used in its opposite meaning. The speaker is trying to use irony to indicate that the
doorman irritates him early in the morning by yelling, ringing the bell, and knocking on his door.
Example #3: Oyster Blues (By Michael McClelland) “He looked like a Vulcan fresh emerged
from his forge, a misshapen giant not quite sure of how to maneuver in this bright new world …
His real name, the name given to him by his youthful mother before she abandoned him in a
Brooklyn orphanage, was Thomas Theodore Puglowski, but his friends all called him Tiny … At
least, Tiny supposed, they would if he had any friends …”
In this excerpt, the writer first describes a character named Thomas Theodore Puglowski, as “a
misshapen giant,” and then uses the word “tiny.” Antiphrasis examples like this are meant to
convey sarcasm and create humorous effect.
CASSIUS:
“I did mark how he did shake … tis true this god did shake … His coward lips did from their
color fly …”
In these lines, Cassius, in spite of knowing the worldly flaws of Caesar, makes an ironic remark
and calls him “this god” for comic and ironic effect.
This is an ironic poem based upon the modern form of government, which appreciates those
citizens who conform to its rules, without considering whether an individual citizen is happy and
free or not.
Function of Antiphrasis
Like other rhetorical devices, antiphrasis also brings about additional meanings to a text and
situation. The use of opposite meanings of situations and statements in literature draws readers’
interest. Besides, it makes the literary piece of writing more captivating, and helps the readers
make use of their own thoughts, and understand the underlying meaning of the words and
phrases. It is also frequently employed in everyday situations and expressions. Furthermore, it
brings the literary piece of writing closer to real life.
Antistrophe
Definition of Antistrophe
Antistrophe is a derivative of a Greek word that means “turning back.” It is a rhetorical device
that involves the repetition of the same words at the end of consecutive phrases, clauses,
sentences, and paragraphs. Like in the following excerpt, the phrase “but it is not this day”
comes repeatedly at the end:
“A day may come when the courage of men fails, when we forsake our friends and break all
bonds of fellowship. But it is not this day. An hour of wolves and shattered shields, when the
age of men comes crashing down! But it is not this day! This day we fight! “
Antistrophe is similar to epistrophe, which also involves the repetition of words at the ends of
successive clauses or sentences. However, it is opposite to anaphora, which is a repetition of
words at the beginning of sentences or clauses.
“When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when
I became a man, I put away childish things…”
This excerpt is one of the examples of antistrophe found in the Holy Bible. The phrase “as a
child” is repeated several times at the ends of phrases. This creates rhythm in the literary piece.
Example #2: The Soul of Man and Prison Writings (By Oscar Wilde)
“Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live. It is asking others to live as one wishes to
live …”
In this example, the recurring phrase “as one wishes to live” creates rhythm and cadence in the
text, and hence appeals to the readers’ emotions.
“Then I’ll be all aroun’ in the dark. I’ll be ever’where – wherever you look. Wherever they’s a
fight so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever they’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be
there … An’ when our folk eat the stuff they raise an’ live in the houses they build – why, I’ll be
there …”
The repeated use of “I’ll be there” lays emphasis and draws the attention of readers to the
phrase.
Shakespeare has used this device frequently in his works, which can be noticed clearly here as
well.
Example #5: The Holy Bible, Deuteronomy 32:10 (By the prophet Moses)
“In a desert land he found him, in a barren and howling waste. He shielded him and cared for
him; he guarded him as the apple of his eye …”
Again, in this instance from the Bible, a word is repeated at the end of the sentences to create a
pattern and emphasize it.
Example #6: Gift from the Sea (By Anne Morrow Lindbergh)
“Perhaps this is the most important thing for me to take back from beach-living: simply the
memory that each cycle of the tide is valid, each cycle of the wave is valid, each cycle of a
relationship is valid … Relationships must be like islands, one must accept them for what they
are here and now, within their limits – islands, surrounded and interrupted by the sea …”
Antistrophe examples like the above excerpt draw readers to focus on the repeated words and
their meanings.
Function of Antistrophe
The main function of this rhetorical device is to place emphasis on a particular thought or idea.
The repetition of words helps in making the text pleasurable to read. Besides poetry, this is a
rhetorical device found in a range of works, such as music, literature, political speeches, and
sacred texts like the Bible to highlight a point or idea. The pattern and rhythm created with the
use of antistrophe enables writers to appeal to readers’ emotions, and helps them appreciate a
text better.
Antithesis
Antithesis Definition
Antithesis, which literally means “opposite,” is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas
are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.
Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or
clauses. The structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the
listeners or readers. For example:
“Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind.”
The use of contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step,” in the sentence above
emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history.
Common Antithesis Examples
Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech, and are
frequently used in arguments and discussions. Below is a list of some common antithetical
statements:
In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences, but also in characters and events.
Thus, its use is extensive. Below are a few examples of antithesis in literature:
The opening lines of Charles Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities provides an unforgettable
antithesis example:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of
Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair,
we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven,
we were all going direct the other way.”
The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the
time discussed in the novel.
In William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, we notice antithesis in the characters of Mark Antony
and Marcus Brutus. Brutus is portrayed as the “noblest of Romans,” close to Caesar, and a
person who loved Rome and Caesar. Antony, on the contrary, is shown as a man with the evil
intentions of harming Caesar, and taking charge of Rome. These antithetical characters
highlight the conflict in the play.
Two contrasting words “love” and “hate” are combined in the above lines. It emphasizes that we
love good because it is always good, and we hate bad because it is always bad. It is a matter of
choice to love or hate things which are neither good nor bad.
The contrasting ideas of reign/serve, and Hell/Heav’n are placed in this sentence to achieve an
antithetical effect.
Function of Antithesis
A literary device, like antithesis, uses words to convey ideas in different ways from the common
words and expressions of daily life. Thus, it conveys meaning more vividly than ordinary
speech. When contrasting ideas are brought together, the idea is expressed more emphatically.
As a literary device, antithesis makes contrasts in order to examine pros and cons of a subject
under discussion, and helps to bring forth judgment on that particular subject.
Aphorism
Aphorism Definition
Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term
is often applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles.
Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses.
Proverbs, maxims, adages, and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain
prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech.
Many pieces of literature are appreciated for the aphorisms they contain, which are often cited
by scholars as well as laymen. Below are some examples of aphorisms in literature:
Sir Francis Bacon excels in the aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the most
quoted of all. Consider the following examples:
• “Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability.” (Of Studies)
• “To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none
at all, is Blunt.” (Of Discourse)
• “Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the
reflection.” (Of Praise)
William Shakespeare does not fall behind any writer in the use of aphorisms in his plays. The
use of abundant aphorisms testifies to his keen insight and judgment. Below are some
examples:
“You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view – until you
climb into his skin and walk around in it.”
The above statement holds truth, as we cannot claim to judge a person unless we understand
the way he views the world and its affairs.
Nafisa Haji provides us an example of aphorism in her novel The Writing on My Forehead. Big
Namina, a wise character, says:
“If? There is no if. There is only what is. What was? What will be.”
We can perceive the truth in the above statement because it gives a message to always live in
the moment. It tells us that it is useless to have regrets about the past, and we should move on
with our lives for a better present and future.
Alexander Pope was a great aphorist of the 18th century. Following are some memorable
quotes from his works:
• “‘Tis education forms the common mind; just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined.”
(Golden Treasury of the Familiar)
• “To err is human, to forgive divine.” (An Essay on Criticism)
• “What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone.” (Essay on Man and Other Poems)
• “Act well your part; there all the honour lies.” (An Essay on Man)
Function of Aphorism
As already mentioned in the above discussion, making use of aphorisms allows a writer to teach
a philosophical or moral truth. The revealed truths prove relevant to human experiences of real
life. Therefore, readers relate the piece of literature to real life, and become more fascinated and
vigilant in their reading.
Moreover, as truths are universal, revealing general truths in literature adds to their universal
commendation. Motivational speeches quote aphorisms from such sources to inspire motivation
among individuals.
Aphorismus
Definition of Aphorismus
Aphorismus is borrowed from a Greek word that means “marking off,” “banishment,” or
“rejection.” It is a figure of speech that brings into question the meaning of words, in case the
words are used inappropriately. Aphorismus often appears as a rhetorical question used to
create a difference between the current situation being discussed and the general idea of the
subject. Aphorismus examples are found both in casual conversations and in literary pieces.
Aphorismus should not be confused with “aphorism,” because aphorismus is challenging the
meaning of words by pointing out a question such as,
“I am Pozzo! (Silence.) Pozzo! (Silence.) Does that name mean nothing to you? (Silence.) I say
does that name mean nothing to you?”
However, aphorism is a totally different figure of speech, which is a brief statement containing
personal truth, or a phrase that conveys a principle of thought. In these lines, Francis Bacon has
said:
“Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the
reflection.”
Blake uses different lines that appear as rhetorical questions at the ends of each stanza. Here,
the speaker expresses his feelings to his lover, who finally repudiates his love. Hence, he asks
questions like, “Is she not the cause of his mourning?” This calls into question the meaning of
the ideas or words.
Poe also uses aphorismus in this poem. At the end of the first and third stanzas, there is a
rhetorical question that is about the meaning of the ideas discussed before these lines, and the
two questions are shown in bold.
Example #3: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) “If such astonishment as this can seize
Eternal spirits; or have ye chos’n this place
After the toyl of Battel to repose
Your wearied vertue, for the ease you find
To slumber here, as in the Vales of Heav’n?
Or in this abject posture have ye sworn
To adore the Conquerour?”
Milton makes a difference between the current situation, “To slumber here, as in the Vales of
Heav’n,” and about the general idea of the subject, by calling into question its meaning. It helps
in laying emphasis on the meaning.
This is among the perfect examples of aphorismus. The speaker explains his living standard,
then raises a question about how he can be called a king because he lives like a common man.
The comparison is made between the two situations by challenging the meaning of phrase “I am
a king.”
Function of Aphorismus
Aporia
Definition of Aporia
Aporia is a logical paradox in which the speaker sows seeds of doubt on a subject. This
rhetorical strategy can make the audience feel sympathetic toward the speaker regarding the
dilemma he is in.
Features of Aporia
“Where now? Who now? When now? Unquestioning. I, say I. Unbelieving. Questions,
hypotheses, call them that. Keep going, going on, call that going, call that on.”
“What am I to do, what shall I do, what should I do, in my situation, how proceed? By aporia
pure and simple…”
“It will be I? It will be the silence, where I am, I don’t know, I’ll never know, in the silence you
don’t know, you must go on, I can’t go on, I’ll go on.”
Beckett’s entire work is characterized by the use of aporia. These passages have a lot of
questioning and doubts, and deferral of meaning. For Beckett, aporia can never be considered
as an invariable condition of unknowing.
The above excerpt is an example of aporia that illustrates a great deal of doubt in the speech.
There is uncertainty, and due questioning, but it is expressed in a lighter tone.
In the last two lines in the given poem, the poet uses aporia, which is a self-contradictory
deadlock that cannot be resolved in the text. Similarly, in the poem the readers find themselves
at an impasse, while the final evidence falls into a paradox.
Function of Aporia
Aporia is an expression of doubt or uncertainty. When uncertainty and doubt are genuine, it can
indicate a real impasse, and stimulate the audience to consider different options for resolution. It
could show the humbleness of a speaker if the doubt he expresses is genuine. However, it
functions to provide guidance to the audience as to what the speaker wants to say if the doubt is
insincere.
Aporia causes uncertainty, and makes the audience discover the certainty through subsequent
statements of the speaker. The main objective is to provide the audience a chance to analyze
and judge the situation.
Aposiopesis
Definition of Aposiopesis
Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means “becoming silent.” It is a rhetorical device
that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly, and
leaves the statement incomplete. It is as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in
his mind, due to being overcome by passion, excitement, or fear. In a piece of literature, it
means to leave a sentence unfinished, so that the reader can determine his own meanings.
Types of Aposiopesis
• Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from its literal
meaning. Such as in this example, “Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon’s purse; that is,
one may reach deep enough, and find little” (Timon of Athens, by William Shakespeare).
• Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, “A
chair’s arm.”
• Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such
as, “Take arms against a sea of troubles.”
• Abusio is a subtype of Aposiopesis, which results from the combination of two
metaphors.
King Lear:
“I will have revenges on you both
That all the world shall – I will do such things –
What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
The terrors of the earth!”
Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is
employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare
punishment, but he breaks down and burst into tears.
“All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The rhododendrons. I am a fool
perhaps, He gets the plums, and I the plumstones. Where I come in.”
In this passage, Joyce deliberately paused twice in order to create dramatic effect. The idea is
left unfinished. This break also gives an impression of reluctance to continue. The unfinished
thoughts are shown in bold.
Hotspur:
“O, I could prophesy,
But that the earthy and cold hand of death
Lies on my tongue. No, Percy, thou art dust,
And food for —
Prince Hal:
“For worms, brave Percy: fare thee well, great heart!”
Shakespeare has been famous for using emotional pauses, or moments of sudden silence in
soliloquies. The unfinished thought in this extract is shown with a long dash (—). This is a
pivotal moment in the play where a character pauses abruptly.
“She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the
furniture to hear:
She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the
broom, and so she needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but
the cat …”
There are two examples of aposiopesis in this excerpt. First, the writer pauses at “hold of you I’ll
–,” and then at the end of the excerpt, “nothing but the cat.” Both sentences are left incomplete.
Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)
Again, Shakespeare uses aposiopesis in the soliloquy spoken by Antony at Caesar’s funeral
ceremony. Anthony is making an emotional speech; hence, he is unable to finish his thought.
This gives a perfect dramatic impact.
Function of Aposiopesis
The purpose of using aposiopesis is to create dramatic or comic effect. The writers or speakers
use it whenever they want to express ideas that are too overwhelming to finish. Several
playwrights use this technique to make dialogues seem sincere and realistic. But the most
effective use of aposiopesis is seen when readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts
that the writer has left unfinished.
Apostrophe
Apostrophe Definition
It is important not to confuse apostrophe, the literary device, with the apostrophe punctuation
mark (‘). The punctuation mark shows possession, or marks the omission of one or more letters
(contraction). Apostrophe in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent
person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding
feelings.
English literature is replete with instances of apostrophe. Let us have a look at a few examples.
In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger
and talks to it as if it were a person.
Example #2: The Star (By Jane Taylor)
This poem became one of the most popular nursery rhymes told to little children – often in the
form of song. In this nursery rhyme, a child speaks to a star (an inanimate object). Hence, this is
a classic example of apostrophe.
“Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush
sensation and memory; let me become as naught; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in
darkness.”
Here, Donne speaks to death, an abstract idea, as if it were a person capable of comprehending
his feelings.
John Donne once more uses apostrophe in his poem The Sun Rising:
The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being.
He asks the Sun in a rude way why the Sun appeared and spoiled the good time he was having
with his beloved.
Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
James Joyce uses apostrophe in his novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man:
“Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in
the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.”
Being able to talk to something abstract – like life itself – is possible only in literature.
Example #6: To a Stranger Born in Some Distant Country Hundreds of Years from Now (By Billy
Collins)
In this excerpt, the poet uses conventional apostrophe starting with “O”:
Another apostrophe example comes from the poem Sire, written by W. S. Merwin:
Function of Apostrophe
By employing apostrophe in their literary works, writers try to bring abstract ideas or non-
existent persons to life, so that the nature of emotions they want to communicate comes across
in a better way. It is more convenient for readers to relate themselves to abstract emotions
when they observe them in their natural surroundings. In addition, the use of apostrophe
motivates readers to develop a perspective that is fresh, as well as creative.
Appositive
Definition of Appositive
When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is
called appositive. This is a literary device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It
is always used with a comma. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase or a noun that defines
or explains another noun, which it follows.
In this grammatical structure, writers place elements like noun phrases side-by-side, where one
element serves to define the other, and one is in apposition to the other. For instance:
“We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like
small animal cages.” (A Hanging, by George Orwell)
In this line, “the condemned cells” is a noun phrase, while “a row of sheds” is an appositive that
explains this noun phrase.
Types of Appositive
Restrictive Appositive
Restrictive appositive gives essential information to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. It
clarifies the meaning of a phrase but, if the appositive is removed, the meaning of the entire
sentence changes. Commas are not necessarily used in this type of appositive, such as in,
“John’s friend, Michael, likes chocolates.” Here, John has others friends, but the statement is
restricted to only Michael.
Non-Restrictive Appositive
“Christmas Eve afternoon we scrape together a nickel and go to the butcher’s to buy Queenie’s
traditional gift, a good gnawable beef bone.”
In the above excerpt, a restrictive appositive is clarifying and describing a noun “traditional gift.”
Here, this literary device has appeared after the noun, specifying the type of gift.
“Though her cheeks were high-colored and her teeth strong and yellow, she looked like a
mechanical woman, a machine with flashing, glassy circles for eyes.”
In this example, the noun “mechanical woman” is defined and identified by a long noun phrase,
a restrictive appositive, “flashing, gassy circles for eyes,” which serves as a useful device in this
excerpt, and brings variety to the sentence, enhancing its meaning.
Example #3: The Pride of the Yankees (By Gary Cooper as Lou Gehrig)
“I have had the great honor to have played with these great veteran ballplayers on my left –
Murderers Row, our championship team of 1927. I have had the further honor of living with and
playing with these men on my right — the Bronx Bombers, the Yankees of today.
Gehrig identifies a noun, “ballplayers,” by using the restrictive appositive “murderers row,” and
he adds a noun “championship team.” These two appositives are used with commas and add
meaning and significance to the sentence.
“The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, Africa’s only nuclear power plant, was inaugurated in
1984 by the apartheid regime and is the major source of electricity for the Western Cape’s 4.5
million population.”
In the above extract, Hammer has used an appositive immediately after the noun phrase
“Nuclear power station,” which adds information to the sentence. This presents an example of
non-restrictive appositive which, if removed, does not change the meaning of the sentence.
Example #5: Beauty: When the Other Dancer is the Self (By Alice Walker)
“My father, a fat, funny man with beautiful eyes and a subversive wit, is trying to decide which of
his eight children he will take with him to the county fair.”
This is another good example of non-restrictive appositive, in which the noun “father” does not
need extra information, but the author has used a long noun phrase, “a fat, funny man … and a
subversive wit,” to describe it.
Function of Appositive
The function of appositive in literary works is to provide information, which is either essential or
additional. It also gives meanings to different sentences in literary texts, and helps in identifying
other nouns. An appositive noun also defines, explains, and clarifies the meaning of a sentence.
It is helpful to combine sentences to avoid too many choppy and short sentences. In addition,
an appositive phrase gives variety to a literary work by using sentences of varied lengths,
allowing the writers to use interesting details with smooth flow of the reading experience.
Archaism
Definition of Archaism
Archaism is the derivative of the Greek word archaïkós, which means “beginning,” or “ancient.”
It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and
outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax.
Archaism is the use of writing or speech that is now rarely used; the use of older versions of
language and art. Such as in these lines, “To thine own self be true” (Hamlet, by William
Shakespeare). Sentences that may be considered examples of archaism will most probably
contain words like “thine” and “thou.”
Evolution of Archaism
Archaism is also known as “archaic diction.” Languages evolve over the years. The English
language written and spoken by Shakespeare was very different from English used today. The
use of archaic language is found in the literary works of ancient medieval ages, as well as in the
Victorian and Edwardian, 19th and 20th centuries.
In the following extract, archaic words are used extensively. These words are shown in bold.
Example #2: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Earnest Hemingway)
“‘Where the hell are you going?’ Agustín asked the grave little man as he came up…
‘Thy duty,’ said Agustín mockingly. ‘I besmirch the milk of thy duty.’ Then turning to the woman,
‘Where the un-nameable is this vileness that I am to guard?’
‘In the cave,’ Pilar said. ‘In two sacks. And I am tired of thy obscenity.’
‘I obscenity in the milk of thy tiredness,’ Agustín said.
‘Then go and befoul thyself,’ Pilar said to him without heat.
‘Thy mother,’ Agustín replied.”
Hemingway has filled this paragraph with archaism. For instance, the words “un-namable” and
“vileness” are old fashioned and out of use. He has, however, used them purposefully to create
special mysterious effect.
John Keats has used archaism frequently in his poems. This example is also based on old
fashioned words. Like, “hath” is an older version of “has,” “thou” has replaced “you,” and
“watchest” is used as the past participle of “watch.”
Shakespeare is famous for using archaic words to make his work more rhythmic, realistic, and
to draw the attention of readers. Here, the words marked in bold are considered archaic.
Function of Archaism
Archaism is frequently used in poetry, prose, science, law, geography, ritual, and technology
speech and writing. It may have been used accidentally or purposefully. The role of archaism in
history is to suggest a superior, but maybe mythical, ancient golden age. Also, it can be used for
creating humor and irony. However, the most effective use of archaism is in poetry. The sound
patterns of archaic words are helpful when it comes to assonance, alliteration, and rhyme
scheme.
Archetype
Archetype Definition
Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the “collective
unconscious” of mankind. The phrase “collective unconscious” refers to experiences shared by
a race or culture. Such experiences include such things as love, religion, death, birth, life,
struggle, and survival. These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual, and are
re-created in literary works, or in other forms of art.
Archetypes in Characters
Example #1: The Hero
He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness, and struggles against evil in
order to restore harmony and justice to society. Examples of hero include Beowulf, in the book
Beowulf, Hercules, in the book Hercules, and d’Artagnan, from The Three Musketeers.
Such a character may be represented as a Fairy God Mother, who guides and directs a child,
Mother Earth, who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, or a
Stepmother who treats their stepchildren poorly. Examples of a mother figure include:
In Literature:
• Lucy and Madame Defarge, from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities
• Disely, from William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury
• Gladriel, from J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings
• Glinda, from the Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
In Fairy Tales:
In Mythology:
His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice and training of a
mentor that the main character achieves success in the world. Examples of mentor include:
It is a duplicate or shadow of a character, which represents the evil side of his personality.
Examples of doppelganger in popular literary works include:
A character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens. Examples of scapegoat
include:
A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero, or whom the hero
must annihilate in order to bring justice. Examples of villain include:
Archetypes in Situations
Example #8: The Journey
The main character takes a journey, which may be physical or emotional, to understand his or
her personality, and the nature of the world. Examples of archetype in journey include:
The main character undergoes experiences that lead him towards maturity. Examples of
archetypes in initiation include:
It represents the clash of forces that represent goodness with those that represent evil.
Examples of this archetype include:
The main character falls from grace in consequence of his or her own actions. Examples of
archetype in fall include:
Function of Archetype
The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal acceptance,
as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context. By using
common archetypes, writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the situations and
characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.
Argument
Argument Definition
An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel, which usually
appears as an introduction, or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to
convince his readers.
Literature does not merely entertain. It also intends to shape the outlook of readers. Therefore,
an argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction, but it attracts the reader’s focus to
an issue that will be made clear gradually.
For example, the subject of an argument might be, “The internet is a good invention.” Then, we
support this contention with logical reasons, such as “It is a source of endless information,” and
“It is a hub of entertainment,” and so on. In the end, we conclude the argument by giving our
verdict.
Charles Dickens starts his novel David Copperfield with this literary argument:
“Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by
anybody else, these pages must show.”
The above opening line is considered one of the best opening lines of a novel. It becomes the
main statement or argument of the novel, as the whole novel depicts the adventures of the
narrator, David. Many people let him down, and many others support him in hard times. In the
end, he alone was not the hero of his life, but there were others who deserve the same status.
John Milton provides his argument or purpose of the poem in the first five lines of Paradise Lost,
Book I:
In the above lines, Milton states the reasons why man was thrown out of Eden, what is the
reason for all our “woes,” and how “one greater Man” (Jesus Christ) restored our status. The
rest of the epical poem develops this argument – to “justify the ways of God to men”.
Similarly, the opening lines of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice give a suitable example of
argument:
“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must
be in want of a wife.”
The plot of the novel revolves around this argument. We see girls and their parents hunting for
rich bachelors. The eligible bachelors seem to have no other worries in their life except looking
for beautiful partners. Hence, we see a game of matchmaking occupying the entire novel.
S. T. Coleridge appended his argument at the beginning of his poem Rime of the Ancient
Mariner. He writes:
“How a Ship having passed the Line was driven by storms to the cold Country towards the
South Pole; and how from thence she made her course to the tropical Latitude of the Great
Pacific Ocean; and of the strange things that befell; and in what manner the Ancyent Marinere
came back to his own Country.”
Function of Argument
Literature, on face value, may be seen as a tool to entertain us – with attractive verse, with
sweet melody, or with a story with instances of humor or emotion displayed by interesting
characters. However, this is not its ultimate aim. Writers consider literature as a powerful tool in
their hands to shape or reform our thinking. Arguments come into play at this time. Writers
carefully play with words, as well as giving reasons and examples, to persuade us to their points
of view. Our outlook is molded by words that also entertain us.
Argumentative Essay
Definition of Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an
issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is
presented more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the writer, and what side he supports
the most. The general structure of an argumentative essay follows this format:
There are two major models besides this structure given above, which is called a classical
model. Two other models are the Toulmin and Rogerian models.
“When we consider the ubiquity of cellphones, iPods, personal computers and the Internet, it’s
easy to see how science (and the technology to which it leads) is woven into the fabric of our
day-to-day activities. When we benefit from CT scanners, M.R.I. devices, pacemakers and
arterial stents, we can immediately appreciate how science affects the quality of our lives. When
we assess the state of the world, and identify looming challenges like climate change, global
pandemics, security threats and diminishing resources, we don’t hesitate in turning to science to
gauge the problems and find solutions.
And when we look at the wealth of opportunities hovering on the horizon—stem cells, genomic
sequencing, personalized medicine, longevity research, nanoscience, brain-machine interface,
quantum computers, space technology—we realize how crucial it is to cultivate a general public
that can engage with scientific issues; there’s simply no other way that as a society we will be
prepared to make informed decisions on a range of issues that will shape the future.”
These two paragraphs present an argument about two scientific fields — digital products and
biotechnology. It has also given full supporting details with names.
Example #2: Boys Here, Girls There: Sure, If Equality’s the Goal (by Karen Stabiner)
“The first objections last week came from the National Organization for Women and the New
York Civil Liberties Union, both of which opposed the opening of TYWLS in the fall of 1996. The
two groups continue to insist—as though it were 1896 and they were arguing Plessy v.
Ferguson—that separate can never be equal. I appreciate NOW’s wariness of the Bush
administration’s endorsement of single-sex public schools, since I am of the generation that still
considers the label “feminist” to be a compliment—and many feminists still fear that any public
acknowledgment of differences between the sexes will hinder their fight for equality.”
This paragraph by Karen Stabiner presents an objection to the argument of separation between
public schools. It has been fully supported with evidences of the court case.
This is an argument by Sherry Turkle, beautifully presented it in the first person plural dialogues.
However, it is clear that this is part of a greater argument instead of the essay.
Aside
Definition of Aside
Normally playwrights use characters’ dialogues to tell their stories, but often it becomes difficult
for them to express what their characters are thinking. Hence, they use a typical dramatic
device, called “aside,” to solve this problem. An aside is a short comment or speech that a
character delivers directly to the audience, or to himself, while other actors on the stage appear
not to hear. Only the audience knows that the character has said something to them.
In essence, through an aside, a character comments on what happens in the play. Simply, we
can define aside as a short commentary that reveals private opinions and reactions of the
character. However, it refers to the major conflict in a play, though it may not involve his
personal conflict.
Both asides and soliloquies are dramatic devices; they have similarities and differences. The
similarity between them is that a single character speaks directly to himself, or to the audience,
and no other character can hear his comments. The difference between them is that an aside is
a shorter comment, while a soliloquy is a longer speech. Another difference is that an aside
reveals hidden secrets or judgments, whereas the soliloquy reveals motives, inner thoughts, or
internal struggles going on in the mind of the character.
Aside became a popular dramatic technique during the Elizabethan era, when structure and
arrangement of the theaters themselves were changing. The structure of stages was
transformed into a three-sided shape that allowed spectators to come closer to actors than ever
before. Hence, this friendly setting made asides more realistic. Following are a few examples of
aside from literature:
Here, readers learn that the leading character, Macbeth, feels regret to launch an attack on
MacDuff. However, his speech announces that Macbeth would attack MacDuff’s castle and kill
his family. This speech reveals Macbeth has lost his moral values. First, he struggles with the
decision to kill the king, but now he does not feel hesitation to murder the king’s whole family.
This aside makes it clear that he has transformed into a violent and ambitious man.
Arthur Miller, in his play Crucible, uses aside through the last words of Elizabeth towards the
conclusion of the play, when she says:
“He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him.”
Elizabeth forgives her husband of his adultery, and John – after making many mistakes – makes
the right decision and confesses his sin. This good moral decision restores his goodness.
Therefore, when Reverend Hale asks Elizabeth to convince her husband not to give up his life,
she makes an aside, saying that she cannot do this when he finally realizes that he has his
goodness.
Another example of aside occurs in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In this play, after the death of the
King of Denmark, the king’s brother Claudius takes the charge of the throne, rather than Prince
Hamlet. Moreover, Claudius marries the king’s wife. In the first act of this play, when Claudius
talks to Hamlet, by calling him his son and nephew, Hamlet makes an aside by saying:
Yasha: (Aside.)
“Lyubov Andreyevna, could I have a word? I was wondering if Madame would be going back to
Paris … the food’s uneatable, that old man wandering about muttering to himself …”
In this example, Yasha makes an aside to express that he wants to go back to Paris with Mrs.
Ranavesky, as there are no standards living in her estate, and also he is not satisfied with the
behavior of its residents.
Function of Aside
Aside gives special information to the audience about the plot and other characters onstage. It
is like a window into the thoughts of characters. Since aside is a comment about the characters
without bringing into their knowledge, it gives better understanding to the audience about the
essence of the matter.
Asides also create an enjoyable experience for the audience, as a character talks to them
directly, drawing them closer to his or her actions and thoughts. They can enter into the true
thoughts and feelings of the characters. However, in comedies asides are delightful, and as a
result, playwrights could imagine how the audience enjoys their work.
Assertion
Definition of Assertion
When someone makes a statement investing his strong belief in it, as if it is true, though it may
not be, he is making an assertion. Assertion is a stylistic approach or technique involving a
strong declaration, a forceful or confident and positive statement regarding a belief or a fact.
Often, it is without proof or any support. Its purpose is to express ideas or feelings directly, for
instance, “I have put my every effort to complete this task today.”
Types of Assertion
Basic Assertion
It is a simple and straightforward statement for expressing feelings, opinions, and beliefs such
as:
• “I wish I could have expressed this idea earlier, because now someone else has taken
the credit.”
• “Excuse me, first I want to finish my work, then I shall go with you.”
Emphatic Assertion
It conveys sympathy to someone, and usually has two parts: the first encompasses recognition
of the feelings or situations of the other person, and the second is a statement that shows
support for the other person’s viewpoint, feelings, or rights such as:
• “I understand you are busy, and me too, but it is difficult for me to finish this project on
my own. So, I want you to help me complete this project.”
• “I know this is making you angry and frustrated because you have not gotten a response
yet. But I can help you by giving you an estimate of how long it might take.”
Escalating Assertion
It occurs when someone is not able to give a response to a person’s basic assertions, and
therefore that person becomes firm about him or her such as:
• “If you do not finish this work by 6:00 tonight, I I will engage the services of another
worker.”
• “I really want to finish this point before you start yours.”
Language Assertion
It involves the first person pronoun “I,” and is useful for expressing negative feelings.
Nevertheless, it constructively lays emphasis on a person’s feelings of anger such as:
• “When you speak harshly, I cannot work with you because I feel annoyed. Therefore, I
want you to speak nicely and then assign me a task.”
• “When I don’t get enough sleep, it affects my nerves and I feel irritated. Therefore, I try
to go to bed earlier.”
In Animal Farm, pigs make use of assertion as a tool for making propaganda in the entire novel.
This is to weaken the position of other animals, preventing contradiction with their rules and
leadership. In chapter seven, Squealer informs other animals that they need not sing the original
anthem of the Old Major, Beasts of England — a song they used to inspire the revolution in the
chapter one. Squealer asserts, saying:
“It’s no longer needed, comrade … In Beasts of England we expressed our longing for a better
society in days to come. However, that society has now been established. Clearly this song has
no longer any purpose.”
Look at his language where he gives them information that is obvious, which they have realized
already, and no one can make arguments against it. Thus, no one argued against his assertion.
Elizabeth conceals her surprise at the news of Darcy’s plan to marry her. When Lady Catherine
objects to this marriage, as Bennets have low connections and their marriage would ruin
Darcy’s position before his friends and society, Elizabeth attempts to defend her family
background by asserting:
“I am a gentleman’s daughter.”
In fact, she sets herself free from the exasperating control of snobs like Miss Bingley, Mr.
Collins, and Lady Catherine, and declares:
“I am … resolved.”
“… to act in that manner, which will, in my own opinion, constitute my happiness, without
reference to you, or to any person so wholly unconnected with me.”
Trofimov and Lopakhin exchange barbed words, and Lopakhin calls Trofimov an “eternal
student.” When Lopakhin asks Trofimov’s views about him, Trofimov replies that he considers
Lopakhin as “a soon-to-be-millionaire,” and “a beast of prey.” Then, Gayev points towards the
conversation about pride the two men had earlier.
Trofimov asserts with reasoning about the folly of their pride, as man is a “pretty poor
physiological specimen,” they are in misery, and “the only thing to do is work.” Although, he was
pessimistic about the current situation of humans, however, he starts feeling optimistic for their
future. He expresses this idea with assertion and rebukes Russian intellectuals, as they do not
even know the meaning of work.
DESDEMONA:
“I never did
Offend you in my life, never loved Cassio
But with such general warranty of heaven
As I might love. I never gave him token.”
In these lines, Desdemona makes a dying assertion that she is innocent, denying Othello’s
accusations. However, blinded by emotion and furious, Othello is resolved to kill her.
Function of Assertion
The function of assertion is to let readers to feel that they should not disagree or dispute what
they read or hear; rather, they should accept the idea or notion as an indisputable fact. It has
proved to be one of the best approaches for writers to express their personal feelings, beliefs,
and ideas in a direct way. By using this technique, writers can defend others’ feelings and rights
if violated. This rhetorical style also expresses self-affirmation and rational thinking of personal
respect or worth. It is very common in various fields of life, like literature, politics,
advertisements, and legal affairs.
Assonance
Assonance Definition
Assonance takes place when two or more words, close to one another repeat the same vowel
sound, but start with different consonant sounds.
The same vowel sound of the short vowel “-e-” repeats itself in almost all the words, excluding
the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds, but start with different
consonant sounds – unlike alliteration, which involves repetition of the same consonant sounds.
Below are a few assonance examples that are common.
Assonance is primarily used in poetry, in order to add rhythm and music, by adding an internal
rhyme to a poem. Let us look at some examples of assonance from literature:
Try to recognize the use of assonance in Robert Frost’s poem Stopping by Woods on a Snowy
Evening:
The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create
assonance.
“Poetry is old, ancient, goes back far. It is among the oldest of living things. So old it is that no
man knows how and why the first poems came.”
Notice how the long vowel, “o”, in the above extract, helps emphasize the idea of something
being old and mysterious.
The sound of long vowels slows down the pace of a passage, setting an atmosphere that is
grave and serious. Look at the following example from Cormac McCarthy’s Outer Dark:
“And stepping softly with her air of blooded ruin about the glade in a frail agony of grace she
trailed her rags through dust and ashes, circling the dead fire, the charred billets and chalk
bones, the little calcined ribcage.”
The repetition of the long vowel sound in the above passage lays emphasis on the frightening
atmosphere that the writer wants to depict.
Example #4: Do Not Go Gentle into the Good Night (By Dylan Thomas)
Similarly, we notice the use of long vowels in a passage from Dylan Thomas’ famous poem, Do
Not Go Gentle into the Good Night:
The poet deliberately uses assonance in the above lines to slow down the pace of the poem,
and to create a somber mood, as the subject of the poem is death.
William Wordsworth employs assonance to create an internal rhyme in his poem Daffodils:
“From folk that sat on the terrace and drew out the even long
Sudden crowings of laughter, monotonous drone of song;
The quiet passage of souls over his head in the trees;
And from all around the haven the crumbling thunder of seas.”
Farewell, my home,” said Rua. “Farewell, O quiet seat!
To-morrow in all your valleys the drum of death shall beat.”
This is a good example of assonance, in which almost all the lines contain one example of
assonance. All the examples have been written in bold. In the first line, the /a/ sound has been
repeated. In the second line, the /o/ sound, as in dog, has been repeated. In the third line, the
/o/ sound as in go has been repeated. In fourth line, /ʌ/ as in must has been repeated. In the
fifth line, the /a/ sound as in air, and the /e/ sound, as in ten have been repeated. In the sixth
line, the long /e/ sound, as in sheep has been repeated.
Example #7: When I have Hears (By John Keats)
This excerpt has been taken from John Keats’ sonnet, When I Have Fears. The first line exhibits
repetition of the long /i/ sound, as in tripe. The second line again contains the same long /i/
sound. The fourth line repeats /ai/ sound as in bye.
The Master, by Edgar Allan Poe, is teeming with the examples of assonance. The first line
repeats the /ur/ sound, as in bird. The second line starts with the repetition of the short /i/ sound,
and ends with the repetition of the short /e/ sound. The fourth line repeats the long /i/ sound
twice. The third line has a short /i/ sound twice. The last line has again short /i/ sound repeated
four times.
Function of Assonance
Similar to any other literary device, assonance has a very important role to play in both poetry
and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating
internal rhyme. This consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition,
it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.
Asyndeton
Definition of Asyndeton
Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means “unconnected.” It is a
stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the
phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in
reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first used
in Greek and Latin literature.
Types of Asyndeton
Syndeton and asyndeton are opposite to one another. Syndeton includes the addition of
multiple conjunctions, such as in this example: “He eats and sleeps and drinks.” On the other
hand, asyndeton is the elimination, or leaving out, of conjunctions, such as in this example: “He
eats, sleeps, drinks.”
Each creates a completely different effect. Syndeton slows down the rhythm of speech, and
makes it moderate, whereas asyndeton speeds up the rhythm of the speech.
IAGO
“Call up her father.
Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight,
Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen,
And, though he in a fertile climate dwell…”
This is a good example of asyndeton. The conjunctions are missing in the sentences, such as
the second and sixth lines are not connected with adjoining words. However, it produces speed
in the poem.
In this excerpt, we can observe both types of asyndeton. The first type (between the words)
such as “from” is removed between the words “leaning” and “cheek” and similarly the second
type (between the sentences) with the sentences not being joined by conjunctions.
“This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you
completely…”
The word “and” is not featured in the given lines, which could have functioned as a conjunction
here. Aristotle believed that asyndeton could be effective if used in the ending of the texts. Here
he himself employed this device.
Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
“Consciousness of place came ebbing back to him slowly over a vast tract of time unlit, unfelt,
unlived…”
Joyce has also used this device, omitting the conjunctions in order to give rhythm and pace to
the text. Here, we can see the elimination of conjunctions, which could have joined the words
unlit, unfelt, and unlived. This creates are creating a frantic and hurried effect.
Function of Asyndeton
Asyndeton helps in speeding up the rhythm of words. Mostly this technique is employed in
speech but can be used in written works too. It helps in attracting readers to collaborate with the
writers, since it suggests that words, phrases, and sentences are incomplete, and the readers
would have to do some work to deduce meanings. This version creates immediate impact, and
the readers are attuned to what the author is trying to convey.
Asyndeton is often applied intentionally in order to give a unique emphasis to the text, thereby
drawing the attention of readers towards a particular idea the author wants to convey.
Atmosphere
Definition of Atmosphere
A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on
details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle
for establishing atmosphere. In literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an
author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings, such as in J. K.
Rowling’s Harry Potter tales, in which she spins a whimsical and enthralling atmosphere. Bear
in mind that atmosphere may vary throughout a literary piece.
Difference Between Atmosphere and Mood
Many people use both terms interchangeably, as there is no concrete difference between them.
However, in literature we find a mild difference. This is because atmosphere is a broader term,
and may be set by a certain venue, such as a theater.
However, mood is a more specific and narrow term, concerning emotions of a certain individual
or group of individuals, and it does not incorporate the emotions or feelings radiating throughout
a venue. Simply, mood is about internal feelings, while atmosphere exists at a particular spot.
Besides, a mood contributes for building up the entire atmosphere of a narrative.
“It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives – one avocado between us, cut neatly in half,
twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the green fleshy boats in hand, we slice
vertical strips from one end to the other. Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa,
hot chiles at noon in the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp
silver blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly.”
Here, Williams creates a dangerous atmosphere, where she presents the hazards of knives and
avocados. In fact, when an author tries to establish atmosphere by using objects, these objects
represent unspoken reality. Besides, appearance of two characters also adds to a sexually
charged atmosphere.
“The woman raised her hands and stared at them; stared through them.
Her voice was soft but tense. ‘Blood on his hands.’ Her own hands were clean and pale.”
When we read these lines, they immediately bring to our mind an emotional response, and draw
our attention. This is exactly what atmosphere does in a literary work.
In this excerpt, the experience of readers is suspenseful and exciting, as they anticipate horror
due to feelings within the narrative. As we see, this character hears tapping on the door and,
when opens it, he finds nobody there, only darkness; making the atmosphere fearful and tense.
Within this, the author gives attributes to these places with different concepts and ideas. For
instance, when Jerry goes to find Dover mail, to convey a message to Mr. Lorry, Dickens
creates a gloomy and mysterious atmosphere, alluding to the darker end. Another type of
atmosphere we see in the courtroom towards the end. During the scene, you would notice the
public is searching and buzzing for victim after victim. Thus Dickens links the atmosphere of this
place with death.
Function of Atmosphere
The purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It makes a literary work
lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping the audience more engaged. It appeals to the
readers’ senses by making the story more real, allowing them to comprehend the idea easily.
Since atmosphere makes the audience feel in an indirect way, writers can convey harsh feelings
with less severity. Writers control the impact of prevailing atmosphere by changing the
description of settings and objects.
Attitude
Definition of Attitude
Generally, attitude is a behavior a person adopts toward other people, things, incidents, or
happenings. In literature, the term “attitude” can be referred as perspective or tone of the writer
he adopts in a certain work.
It is the way a writer develops his characters, describes his stories and designs his narratives.
His attitude explains the real nature of the characters and the story. He makes use of an
appropriate attitude to provide an in-depth insight into a character’s personality. The attitude of a
writer can be serious as well as humorous. In certain cases, the attitude can be critical or witty.
It is through the attitude readers come to know the feelings of a writer regarding his topic,
subject or belief.
As written works have a central idea or theme for the audiences, different writers approach
themes with different attitudes and tone, which are developed by the choice of words and style.
The two examples given below discuss the same subject matter; however, the first
demonstrates an informal and casual attitude, while the second example discusses the same
theme in a highly formal attitude.
• “I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic?
It is eating up lives like a monster.”
• “I want to draw the attention of the concerned authorities toward damage caused by the
epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community”
Examples of Attitude in Literature
Attitude plays a significant role in literature, because it bridges the gap between the reader and
the writer.
“If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she’s late? Nobody.”
This is a selection of dialogues from J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, all of which are
uttered by Holden Caulfield. It is easy to understand the nature and real personality of the
character through these statements. Most of the remarks are quite sarcastic, as Holden talks
about real things in criticizing manner. It is not only a way to know the personality of the
character, but it opens a window to the writer’s viewpoint of real life objects. In fact, the
characters are the mouthpieces of the writer’s attitude and thinking. That is why this shows the
attitude of D. J. Salinger too.
“And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they just died.
Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn’t the
best. We complained about it. So we’ve got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little
tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown
sticks, it was depressing.”
A fine example of attitude is presented in this passage. This passage is from Donald
Barthelme’s short story The School. The author uses certain adjectives like “dead” and
“depressing,” which develop a gloomy attitude toward the story. Trees symbolize life in these
lines, and their death, which has been unexpected, colors the passage with gloomy and
negative shades. This is the attitude of the writer as well.
The influence of attitude can easily be perceived in the last stanza of The Road Not Taken, a
poem composed by Robert Frost. When the poet, Robert Frost, talks about his past, he
mentions it with a “sigh.” The use of the sigh draws a picture of nostalgia for the past. The poet’s
attitude reveals that the speaker was compelled to make a choice that was very difficult for him,
but now he is nostalgic about it.
Function of Attitude
The function of attitude is to give a certain shape and form to a piece of writing. While reading it,
the attitude helps the reader to treat it in a specific way. The attitude makes the readers feel in a
particular way about the topic the author wants him to feel. It is attitude, which stimulates the
feelings of seriousness, comedy or distress while going through a piece of literature. Not only
does it give tongue to characters to speak, but also highlights the personality and nature of the
characters for readers’ full understanding of the given perspective.
Audience
Definition of Audience
An Audience is the person for whom a writer writes, or composer composes. A writer uses a
particular style of language, tone, and content according to what he knows about his audience.
In simple words, audience refers to the spectators, listeners, and intended readers of a writing,
performance, or speech. For instance, Stephenie Meyer’s novel series, Twilight, has targeted
primarily younger female audiences. Similarly, J. K Rowling’s Harry Potter series became a
blockbuster hit, with a target audience of youth, and adult fantasy fiction lovers.
Ray Bradbury, in his novel, Fahrenheit 451, has targeted both adults and young adult readers
as his audience. This story is equally appealing to the people of all ages, because its themes
concern nuclear destruction, and readers see a battle between nature and technology. It depicts
how technology is replacing curiosity, intellectualism, and literature. Above all, it has become a
replacement for friendship, family, and real conversation. In this story, the audience sees a
future in which the world has evolved into technology, and how government in such a time treats
its people differently.
Harper Lee tells the story, To Kill a Mockingbird, through the eyes of a character named Scout;
reflecting upon the life of an adult. Throughout the narrative, readers observe her perspective
from the lens of one person’s recollection, which appears on the very first page of the story. It
begins as, “When enough years had gone by to enable us to look back on them, we sometimes
discussed the events leading to [Jem’s] accident.” After this, the author takes the readers back
to the times of Scout’s first grade, and then onward to her eighth birthday. She is not only a first-
person narrator, but also a participant in the story. The story evolves uniquely, through both a
child’s eyes, and from a mature perspective. This benefit of hindsight is what makes this story
so appealing for both children its adult audience.
Example #4: The Declaration of Independence (by Thomas Jefferson and Ben Franklin)
“The Declaration of Independence” had three types of audiences: American colonists, the British
government, and the general public. For American audiences, the purpose was to explain to
them why they needed to create a new nation, and why their leaders needed their support.
Immediately, they distributed the Declaration throughout the states and colonies to, pushing it
out to reach as many people as possible.
The second target audience was the British Parliament. By putting blame on the king, and
delivering eloquent arguments on freedom and democracy, they were hopeful that the British
would support the Americans. This won support of some of the British Parliamentarians, such as
Edmund Burke. The third intended audience included the peoples of the world, particularly
European nations that were at odds with the British, in an attempt to convince them to support
the revolution. The Declaration of Independence did, in fact, affect the American allies: Spain,
France, and the Dutch Republic.
Function
Since the term audience refers to the readers, many writers prefer to adopt different styles of
voice – mixed, formal, or casual – depending upon their intended audience. Knowing his
audience helps the writer to determine what level of details he should provide, and what type of
word choices he may make, because the word choice and tone should match the expectations
of the audience.
The role of the audience in dramas and stage plays is unique, as the audience members
transmit their energy and emotion to the players and actors through their responses during the
performance. In this example, the function of the audience is to respond to the performance of
the work.
Autobiography
Definition of Autobiography
Autobiography is one type of biography, which tells a life story of its author, meaning it is a
written record of the author’s life. Rather than being written by somebody else, an
autobiography comes through the person’s own pen, in his own words. Some autobiographies
are written in the form of a fictional tale; as novels or stories that closely mirror events from the
author’s real life. Such stories include Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield, and J.D Salinger’s
The Catcher in the Rye. In writing about personal experience, one discovers himself. Therefore,
it is not merely a collection of anecdotes – it is a revelation to the readers about author’s self-
discovery.
In an autobiography, the author attempts to capture important elements of his life. He not only
deals with his career, and growth as a person, he also uses emotions and facts related to family
life, relationships, education, travels, sexuality, and any types of inner struggles. A memoir is a
record of memories, and particular events that have taken place in the author’s life. In fact, it is
the telling of a story or an event from his life; an account that does not tell the full record of a life.
A noble laureate and novelist, Gunter Grass, has shown a new perspective of self-examination
by mixing up his quilt of fictionalized approach in his autobiographical book, “The Box: Tales
from the Darkroom.” Adopting the individual point of view of each of his children, Grass narrates
what his children think about him as their father and a writer. Though it is really an experimental
approach, due to Grass’ linguistic creativity and dexterity, it gains an enthralling momentum.
In her autobiography, The Story of My Life, Helen Keller recounts her first twenty years,
beginning with the events of the childhood illness that left her deaf and blind. In her childhood, a
writer sent her a letter and prophesied, “Someday you will write a great story out of your own
head that will be a comfort and help to many.”
In this book, Keller mentions prominent historical personalities, such as Alexander Graham Bell,
whom she met at the age of six, and with whom she remained friends for several years. Keller
paid a visit to John Greenleaf Whittier, a famous American poet, and shared correspondence
with other eminent figures, including Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Mrs. Grover Cleveland.
Generally, Keller’s autobiography is about overcoming great obstacles through hard work and
pain.
In his autobiography, “Self Portraits: Fictions,” Frederic Tuten has combined fringes of romantic
life with reality. Like postmodern writers, such as Jorge Luis Borges, and Italo Calvino, the
stories of Tuten skip between truth and imagination, time and place, without warning. He has
done the same with his autobiography, where readers are eager to move through fanciful stories
about train rides, circus bears, and secrets to a happy marriage; all of which give readers
glimpses of the real man.
Reliving his success of his literary career through the lens of the many prizes he has received,
Thomas Bernhard presents a sarcastic commentary in his autobiography, “My Prizes.”
Bernhard, in fact, has taken few things too seriously. Rather, he has viewed his life as a farcical
theatrical drama unfolding around him. Although Bernhard is happy with the lifestyle and
prestige of being an author, his blasé attitude and scathing wit make this recollection more
charmingly dissident and hilarious.
“The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin” is written by one of the founding fathers of the United
States. This book reveals Franklin’s youth, his ideas, and his days of adversity and prosperity.
He is one of the best examples living the American dream – sharing the idea that one can gain
financial independence, and reach a prosperous life through hard work.
Function
Through autobiography, authors can speak directly to their readers, and to their descendants.
The function of the autobiography is to leave a legacy for its readers. By writing an
autobiography, the individual shares his triumphs and defeats, and lessons learned, allowing
readers to relate and feel motivated by inspirational stories. Life stories bridge the gap between
peoples of differing ages and backgrounds, forging connections between old and new
generations.
Balanced Sentence
Definition of Balanced Sentence
A balanced sentence is made up of two segments which are equal, not only in length, but also
in grammatical structure and meaning. It could be a periodic or cumulative sentence. A reader
finds both parts equal when he goes through such a sentence.
For instance, Abraham Lincoln, in his Gettysburg speech, “… government of the people, by the
people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth,” gives us an example of parallel forms. In
writing, both parts are clearly parallel forms, and they appear grammatically parallel. If there are
multiple parts of a balanced sentence, then they are separated by a semicolon or adjoining
words, such as “but,” “or,” “and,” etc. Since balanced sentences always have parallelism, writers
need to use parallelism with similar grammatical forms, structure, and word order.
“While the Inaugural Address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving
the Union without war, insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war,
seeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects by negotiation” and “All dreaded it, all sought to
avert it.” [Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address, 1865]
Lincoln has used balanced syntax in this address, with a combination of short and long
sentences, which evokes an idea of a united and balanced nation. This difference in sentence
lengths represents differences between North and South, and by combining them he
emphasizes on the unity of the divided nation.
“On days when warmth is the most important need of the human heart, the kitchen is the place
you can find it; it dries the wet socks, it cools the hot little brain.”
This is a good example of a balanced sentence. The last two clauses are parallel in this
sentence, having the same length and the same grammatical structure. The two identical pieces
are giving rhythmical flow to the lines.
“Like the waters of the river, like the motorists on the highway, and like the yellow trains
streaking down the Santa Fe tracks, drama, in the shape of exceptional happenings, had never
stopped there.”
This balanced sentence is also a periodic sentence, as the main action happens at the end.
There are parallel grammatical structures in each part of this sentence which makes its rhythmic
and clear to understand.
“Every man has a right to utter what he thinks truth, and every other man has a right to knock
him down for it.”
This is another very simple and clear example of a balanced sentence. Both clauses have the
same length and word order, emphasizing the idea of truth and adding pleasing rhythm.
“… and though the mother was found to be intolerable, and the younger sisters noted worth
speaking to, a wish of being better acquainted with them was expressed towards the two
eldest.”
Austen is famous for using balanced sentences to illustrate contrast between things, people, or
duality of situations. In these lines, she does the same and compares Bennet sisters and their
mother.
“Her needle-work was seen on the ruff of the Governor; military men wore it on their scarfs, and
the minister on his band; it decked the baby’s little cap; it was shut up, to be mildewed and
moulder away, in the coffins of the dead.”
By using a series of parallel clauses, narrator compares members of government, military, and
religion to rotting dead and infants. This balanced syntax makes a commentary on the
corruption and blindness of governing bodies.
A balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the
sentence and makes it stand out among the rest. Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize
particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms. In fact, it puts a
spotlight on a series of clauses or a sentence. Hence, it helps the writers to make their work
stand out from the rest of the text. On the other hand, public speakers, singers, and advertising
agencies use it, because its rhythmical qualities have a good impact on the audience.
Ballad
Ballad Definition
The word ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry or verse which was basically
used in dance songs in ancient France. Later on, during the late 16th and 17th centuries, it
spread over the majority of European nations. Owing to its popularity and emotional appeal, it
remained a powerful tool for poets and lyricists to prepare music in the form of lyrical ballads,
and earn a handsome income from it.
The art of lyrical ballad, as well as ballad poetry, lost popularity during the latter half of the 19th
century. However, it is still read and listened to with interest in most European countries,
including the British Isles.
Evolution of Ballad
Two schools of thought, namely the communal school of thought, and the individualist school of
thought, have dominated the world of ballad throughout its development. Communalists believe
that the evolution of the ballad was a result of the joined and shared literary endeavors of many
people. Individualists negate this approach to the extent that they consider the later
development as a modification of the archetype.
Most of the ballad examples in ancient times used to be passed from generation to generation
through oral traditions. This is because there was no language in which to write them down.
However, in the modern world, the preservation and transmission of such literary treasures has
become easier. The availability of advanced technology and common languages has improved
not only the documentation, but the accessibility of these resources for people in every part of
the world.
Ballads, no matter which category they fall into, mostly rely on simple and easy-to-understand
language, or dialect from its origin. Stories about hardships, tragedies, love, and romance are
standard ingredients of the ballad. This is irrespective of geographical origins.
Another conspicuous element of any ballad is the recurrence of certain lines at regular intervals.
Ballads can also be in interrogative form, with appropriate answers to every question asked.
Ballads seldom offer a direct message about a certain event, character, or situation. It is left to
the audience to deduce the moral of the story from the whole narration.
Categories of Ballad
• Stall ballad
• Lyrical ballad
• Popular ballad
• Blue ballad
• Bush ballad
• Fusion ballad (pop and rock)
• Modern ballad
All these categories are primarily meant to convey popular messages, stories, or historical
events to audiences in the form of songs and poetry.
Examples of Ballad
Example #1: Tam Lin (Unknown)
Lyrical ballad
Example #5: The Ballad of Billy the Kid (By Billy Joel)
Modern ballad
Ballads, as stage performances, enjoyed the status of being one of the main sources of
entertainment in ancient times. Legends and historical events were narrated in the form of a
ballads, which would comprise song and dance.
Ballad was a perfect substitute for our current day technology-based entertainment, albeit with
more emotional appeal. In the 18th century, the ballad-based stage entertainment came to be
known as “ballad opera.” According to ballad aficionados, the first formal ballad opera was
staged in the first half of the 18th century, with the theme of “The Beggar’s Opera.”
Bandwagon
Definition of Bandwagon
While listening to a politician, or reading a book, it is often observed that the speaker or the
writer tries to encourage the audience to think or act in a particular way because others are
doing that, despite having ideas and beliefs of their own.
Bandwagon technique continues to exist as the animals only accept the ideals and changing
commandments because other animals are doing the same. Another bandwagon technique
comes out when Mollie is curious to know whether she will be able to wear precious ribbons and
have sugar after Rebellion. However, Snowball informs her that they symbolize slavery and
Mollie accepts this without any resistance, although she never believes it.
In William Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony delivers his famous speech at the
funeral of Caesar, which is a brilliant example of bandwagon. Mark Antony has delivered this
magnificent speech to win over the favor of the audience. He negates excuses that Brutus had
made, though he had calmed down the public and persuaded them that Caesar had to die for
their good.
Antony comes forward and tells them that he hopes the crowd would not riot, and convinces
them that Cassius and Brutus were murderers and responsible for ripping apart the town.
Speaking on a personal level, Antony grabs public attention as he leaves his position and, being
a commoner saying, “Friends, Romans, Countrymen.”
Abigail: “I go back to Jesus; I kiss His hand. I saw Sarah Good with the Devil! I saw Goody
Osburn with the Devil! I saw Bridget Bishop with the Devil!”
Betty: “I saw George Jacobs with the Devil! I saw Goody Howe with the Devil!…I saw Martha
Bellow with the Devil!”
In this excerpt, Abigail Williams claims that she has seen many women with the devil. While she
proposes this idea, suddenly all of the girls jump on the bandwagon, and start following Abigail
by accusing those women whom they dislike.
Its best example is “Two Minute Hate” – a particular time in which everyone shouts at Goldstein,
the enemy of the party. Everyone participates in this bandwagon and consequently intense
hatred overwhelms Winston, who also takes part and produce feelings of achievement in his
heart.
Function of Bandwagon
The purpose of this technique is to make the audience think and act in a way that the majority
follows. This tendency of following the beliefs and actions of others occurs when an audience
sees others are also conforming. We see its usage in literature, politics, and advertisements.
Bandwagon is in fact a good approach for persuasive writing that successfully works on human
minds and psychology. Conversely, writers often use it as a pressure tactic by creating a sense
of fear among the readers if they do not agree with their beliefs.
Bathos
Definition of Bathos
Bathos is a literary term derived from a Greek word meaning “depth.” Bathos is the act of a
writer or a poet falling into inconsequential and absurd metaphors, descriptions, or ideas in an
effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate.
Some confuse bathos with “pathos.” The term was used by Alexander Pope to explain the
blunders committed inadvertently by unskilled writers or poets. However, later on, comic writers
used it intentionally to create humorous effects. The most commonly used bathos involves a
sequence of items that descend from worthiness to silliness.
The Mary Tyler Moore Show had an episode that involved the death of the clown Chuckles, who
was killed very brutally by a stampeding elephant. Everyone on the station keeps making jokes
about it that Mary does not approve of. Later on, when she attends the funeral, she starts
laughing hysterically while the rest of the people stare at her exasperated.
Example #2: The Naked Gun (By David Zucker, Jim Abrahams, Jerry Zucker, Pat Proft)
Absurd styles of humor can use the bathos method. Such is the television series Police Squad!,
which uses bathos very often. Excerpts from The Naked Gun show numerous points where a
serious scenario is built up only to knock it down subsequently with Frank Drebin’s silly
comments. For example:
FRANK: “A good cop – pointlessly cut down by some spineless hoodlums.”
FRANK: “No … you’re right, Ed. A parachute not opening … that’s a way to die, getting caught
in the gears of a combine … having your nuts bit off by a Laplander, that’s the way I want to go!”
ED: “Don’t you worry, Wilma. Your husband is going to be alright. Don’t you worry about
anything! Just think positive. Never let a doubt enter your mind.”
FRANK: “He’s right, Wilma. But I wouldn’t wait until the last minute to fill out those organ donor
cards.” (The Naked Gun, 1988)
Jane Austen is among the few serious writers who used this tool. It helped her give a sense of
merriness to her novel Northanger Abbey. In this novel, Austen highlights the ingenuous and
imaginative nature of the leading character, Catherine Morland. She uses Catherine’s
increasingly active imagination to work like bathos in order to parody the plot used in Ann
Radcliffe’s Gothic novels, and the likes of her.
In Radcliff’s The Romance of the Forest, a character finds a human skeleton in the chest. In
Northanger Abbey, Austen uses a mysterious chest in her story as a prop to build on, and to
successfully satirize the extremes of the Gothic fiction of the 18th century.
Catherine became skeptical when she saw the enormous chest in her room during her stay at
the Abbey. Certain questions arose in her mind about that chest, and about what it held, and
why it was placed in her room. Catherine, who seemed to be very naïve, went on investigating
the chest.
You can see that the novel at this particular point adopts a very gothic tone. It starts using short
clauses that consist of many inauspicious words, for instance “trembling hands,” “alarming
violence,” and “fearful curiosity.” The selection of words at this point aids in building up the
suspense in the readers’ and audience’s minds, only to discover consequently that the chest
holds only a folded bed sheet.
Example #4: I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again (BBC Radio Comedy)
The British radio series I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again also provides us with many bathos
examples. John Cleese and Jo Kendall appeared in the roles of a couple whose relationship is
on the brink of failure.
MARY: “John – once we had something that was pure, and wonderful, and good. What’s
happened to it?”
Function of Bathos
Bathos is a device which, if used skillfully, can really build up a nice comic scene. Bathos brings
a certain degree of wit to a scene by highlighting the contrast in tone. Initially, it is used to create
a serious and powerful dramatic situation. This might be slightly hard to create for comedy
writers. Thus, comedy writers must be very careful when they insert jokes here and there in the
middle of a serious scene. There is a great danger that their jokes will break the tempo of a
serious scene in a prose.
Bildungsroman
Bildungsroman Definition
Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of
its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood.
A bildungsroman is a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for answers to his
questions through different experiences. Generally, such a novel starts with a loss or a tragedy
that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she leaves on a journey to fill that vacuum.
During the journey, the protagonist gains maturity, gradually and with difficulty. Usually, the plot
depicts a conflict between the protagonist and the values of society. Finally, he or she accepts
those values, and they are accepted by society, ending the dissatisfaction. Such a type of novel
is also known as a “coming-of-age” novel.
Example #1: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (By Henry Fielding)
This is among the famous bildungsroman examples written in a comic mode. Squire Allworthy, a
wealthy landowner, discovers a foundling, Tom Jones, on his property. Tom Jones grows up
into a lusty but honest young man, in contrast to his half-brother Blifil, who was a personification
of hypocrisy.
Tom falls in love with Sophia Western, but the relationship is opposed by her father, on the
basis that Tom is a “bastard.” After this loss, Tom undergoes many experiences, and finally it is
revealed that Tom is the son of Mr. Summer, a friend of Allworthy, and Mrs. Waters, who is
Allworthy’s sister. Therefore, society accepts him when it is established that he is not a bastard.
Example #3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
This is a coming-of-age story of the character Stephen Dedalus. The story starts with Stephen
in a boarding school at the age of sixteen. One day he goes back to his room, falls sick due to
the unbearable load of his sins, and decides to change himself. He goes to the church for a
confession, and the cleric is exceptionally kind. Thus, Stephen discovers another path in his life,
as he becomes a cleric. Later in the novel, Stephen’s life takes another turn. He realizes that he
cannot waste his life as a cleric. He needs to live in society and be innovative like an artist.
This is a recent example of a bildungsroman novel. The novel is divided into three acts:
childhood, adult and donor. It traces the life of Kathy, the protagonist and narrator of the novel.
She is a “donor” who is harvested for organs to be donated to gravely ill patients.
We see Kathy as free-spirited, kind, and loving in her childhood. As a young woman she shows
less emotion looking back at her past. At the end of the novel, she is a mature woman, and
accepts the lives of herself and her friends.
Function of Bildungsroman
The bildungsroman novel depicts and criticizes those vices of society which cause the
protagonist to suffer. The novel conveys a sense of realism, because the protagonist is a
common sensitive person who is affected by the loss that they suffer, and this loss, ultimately,
changes the course of their life.
In addition, the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist gives us a deep insight into
the character, and also helps to understand the conflict in his or her life. As a result, we can
identify ourselves with the coming-of-age characters, and feel emotionally attached and
interested as we see them pass different stages of their lives, until they finally change for the
good.
Biography
Definition of Biography
A biography is simply an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It entails
basic facts, such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family, and death. Biography is
a literary genre that portrays the experiences of all these events occurring in the life of a person,
mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, a biography provides a life story of a
subject, highlighting different aspects of his of her life. A person who writes biographies, is
called as a “biographer.”
Types of Biography
Autobiography
An autobiography tells the story of a person’s own life. While that person writes his own
account, he or she may take guidance from a ghostwriter or collaborator.
Biography
A biography narrates the life story of a person, as written by another person or writer. It is
further divided into five categories:
1. Popular biography
2. Historical biography
3. Literary biography
4. Reference biography
5. Fictional biography
Memoir
This biography is the most accurate, up-to-date, and complete narrative ever written about the
life of William Shakespeare. Park Honan has used rich and fresh information about
Shakespeare in order to change the perceptions of readers for the playwright, and his role as a
poet and actor.
This book completely differs from other biographies that imagine different roles for him,
commenting on his sexual relationships and colorful intrigues. Though detailed psychological
theories and imaginative reforms about the famous playwright could be amusing, in fact, they
damage the credibility of the sources. Therefore, many attempts have been made to know about
Shakespeare, but this one is a unique example.
Example #2: Arthur Miller: Attention Must Be Paid (By James Campbell)
This biography is written in the form of a drama, presented in just two acts. In the first act, the
author shows the famous dramatist, Arthur Miller, in his early success, having the love of the
most beloved woman in the world, and resisting tyranny. However, in the second act of this
biography, the author shows that the hero was badly assaulted and ridiculed by a rowdy mob
called critics, who are expelled from the conventional theater. He ends his book with rhetorical
details related to a revitalization in the fortunes of the playwright.
Emily, Anne, and Charlotte Bronte were very famous and eminent writers in the history of
English literature. Many rumors and gossips were associated with them when they reached the
peaks of their careers and received great approval for writing the most admired novels of the
nineteenth century. In their biography, Lucasta Miller chunks the myths related to these young
enigmatic women. This is a fine example of a biography.
Example #5: Why this World: A Biography of Clarice Lispector (By Benjamin Moser)
After perusing his own private manuscripts and writings, this modernist writer, Benjamin Moser,
has explored the mystique surrounding Brazilian writer Clarice Lispector. This is one of Moser’s
biographies, which comes a little closer to finding her true nuances. All those readers who are
going to read her myriad of works for the first time would find this biography interesting, and her
life as beautiful and tragic, yet riveting.
Function of Biography
The function of writing biographies is to provide details regarding the life of a person or a thing
in an entertaining but informative manner. By the end of a biography, readers feel like they are
well-acquainted with the subject. Biographies are often non-fictional, but many biographers also
use novel-like format, because a story line would be more entertaining with the inclusion of
strong exposition, rising conflict, and then climax. Besides, the most inspirational life stories
could motivate and put confidence into the readers.
Blank Verse
Definition of Blank Verse
Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In
poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where,
unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme.
It is also known as “un-rhymed iambic pentameter.”
The Earl of Surrey introduced blank verse in English literature in 1540. Milton, Shakespeare,
Marlowe, John Donne, John Keats, and many other poets and dramatists have used this device
in their works. Have a look at some examples of blank verse:
This poem has no proper rhyme scheme. However, there is consistent meter in 10 syllables of
each line. It is following the iambic pentameter pattern with five feet in each line. Only the first
line is written in trochee pattern. All the stressed syllables are marked in bold.
Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)
Hamlet gives us a perfect example of a typical blank verse, written in iambic pentameter.
Shakespeare employed the deliberate effort to use the syllables in a particular way. He brought
variation by using caesuras (pause) in the middle of the line, as in the third line. Shakespeare
has other literary pieces that are also good sources of blank verse examples.
Marlowe developed this potential in the late 16th century. Marlowe was the first author who
exploited the potential of blank verse for writing a powerful speech, as given here. The pattern
utilized here is iambic pentameter.
Just look at the above example in which the first line is written in regular pentameter. However,
there is a little variation in the stressed pattern in the following lines that is again revived in the
last two lines, and does not follow any rhyme scheme.
William Shakespeare wrote verses in iambic pentameter pattern, without rhyme. Macbeth is a
good example of blank verse. Many speeches in this play are written in the form of blank verse.
Coleridge has used iambic pentameter – ten syllables, with five stressed syllables in this
example. Though there is no rhyme scheme, readers can feel the rhythm of a real speech due
to proper use of meter in this blank verse.
This blank verse does not have any rhyme scheme, but it brings a slight rhythm and cadence
that mimics a pattern readers could hear and feel like listening to nature.
This example does not follow any rhyme scheme, but it is written in blank verse with iambic
pentameter patterns of unaccented and accented syllables.
Coleridge has jotted down these lines as a spontaneous feel while sitting in his garden. He has
written it in a blank verse without any rhyme scheme, yet it follows iambic pentameter.
Function of Blank Verse
Originating from Latin and Greek sources, blank verse is widely employed as a vehicle in
English dramatic poetry and prose, to create specific grandeur. Blank verse has similarity to
normal speech but it is written in a variety of patterns, which bring interruptions such as pauses.
Therefore, the intention is to produce a formal rhythmical pattern that creates musical effect.
Hence, it tends to capture the attention of the readers and the listeners, which is its primary
objective.
Cacophony
Cacophony Definition
If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation in which there is a mixture of harsh and
inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp,
harsh, hissing, and unmelodious sounds – primarily those of consonants – to achieve desired
results.
In everyday life, an example of cacophony would be the amalgamation of different sounds you
hear in a busy city street or market. You hear sounds of vehicles, announcements on
loudspeakers, music, and chatter of people, or even a dog barking at the same time and without
any harmony. You can rightly point to the situation as being the cacophony of a busy street or
market. We can notice the manifestation of cacophony in language as well. For instance, in the
sentence,
The phrase “because cause” is cacophonic as because is followed by the word cause, which
has a similar sound, but different meaning. Generally, it sounds unpleasant as the same sound
is repeated in two different words.
Cacophony is opposite to euphony, which is the use of words having pleasant and harmonious
effects. Generally, the vowels, the semi-vowels, and the nasal consonants (e.g. l, m, n, r, y) are
considered to be euphonious. Cacophony, on the other hand, uses consonants in combinations
that require explosive delivery (e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc.).
Abundant use of cacophonic words can be found in Lewis Carroll’s nonsense poem
Jabberwocky, in his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There.
In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words, which are at the same time unmelodious.
After reading the poem, Alice, the main character of the novel, gives her impression, which
clearly reflects the purpose of the poem. She says:
“Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don’t exactly know what they are!
However, somebody killed something: that’s clear, at any rate.”
The disorder and confusion of the industrial world has been expressed here by the writer,
through deliberate selection of cacophonic words and phrases.
“And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins,
muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks,
undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights…”
In order to describe the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words and
arranges them in an order that produces an effect that is unmelodious, harsh, and jarring, which
corresponds with the subject matter.
Example #4: Rime to the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
Read the following lines from Coleridge’s Rime to the Ancient Mariner:
These lines illustrate cacophony by using the words black, baked and agape, which
corresponds with the severity of the situation faced by the Mariner and other people on board.
Function of Cacophony
Writers use cacophony as a tool to describe a discordant situation using discordant words. The
use of such words allows readers to picture and feel the unpleasantness of the situation the
writer has described through words.
Cadence
Definition of Cadence
Cadence is derived from the Latin word cadentia, which means “a falling.” It is the term used to
signal the rising and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In poetry, it is the
momentary changes in rhythm and pitch. Cadences help set the rhythmic pace of a literary
piece.
Types of Cadences
Rain is coming in from the west; the garden is lush and damp,
The draught is over, and the day is at the eleventh hour,
Sleep is nearly here on fern-patterned pillowcases,
Books slither to the floor, cats is stretched on the quit…”
In this poem, cadence appears in the middle of the fourth line of each stanza, giving the speech
a pause. This pause is shown by a semi-colon. It also gives a momentary variation to the
rhythm of poem.
The Raven is a perfect example of cadence. Here we can see breaks and ends within a piece of
poetry. These endings come in the middle of the poem, and are represented by dashes and
semi-colons. Due to these pauses, it speeds up and slows down the tone of the whole poem.
The style of this poem is a free verse, which does not have a distinct meter. Since most of the
free verse poems have cadences, the same is the case here. In this poem, cadence is used in
the middle as a little pause that changes the rise and fall of the tone when reading out loud.
Function of Cadence
Caesura
Definition of Caesura
Everyone speaks, and everyone breathes while speaking. For instance, when you say, “Maria
has taken a break,” you take breath before further saying, “But Adam did not.” Then again you
take a little breath and say, “He fell on his ankle.” Such pauses come from natural rhythm of
your speech. Poetry also uses pauses in its lines.
One such pause is known as “caesura,” which is a rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a
sentence. It often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At
times, it occurs with punctuation; at other times it does not. Poets indicate such a pause with a
parallel symbol thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the middle of line), initial (occurring
at the beginning of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end of a poetic line).
Types of Caesura
Feminine Caesura
A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and short syllable in a poetic line. This is
softer and less abrupt than the masculine version. For instance:
• Epic Caesura
• Lyric Caesura
Masculine Caesura
Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato effect in
the poem, such as:
This passage is an instance of feminine caesura, which occurs immediately after an unstressed
syllable like “speak,” the second syllable “bused,” in abused, “him,” and “ters” in word daughters.
This poem presents a perfect example of masculine caesura. Look at the pauses occurring after
stressed syllables including “at,” “babes,” “boys,” “hurt,” and “proud.” You can see the first line
uses initial caesura, at “Dead,” followed by a pause at the beginning of line.
Pope has frequently used caesural pauses in his poems to bring depth. Mostly he has used
masculine caesura happening in the middle of the lines. However, sometimes initial caesura
occurs, such as in the sixth line, it comes after “Death.” This variation clears the meaning of the
text.
Example #4: I’m Nobody! Who Are You? (By Emily Dickinson)
Dickinson has used masculine caesural pauses in the middle of verses. These breaks create a
staccato effect, an uneven rhythm in the flow of sound, conveying the depth of an idea.
This couplet uses both caesura and enjambment. Enjambment appears in the first line. In the
second, fourth, and fifth lines, the periods cause readers to pause for a while and create a
caesura.
The caesuras in this example tell readers that the speaker is hiding something and stopping to
think. Through these pauses, the Duke is trying to distract the attention of his readers from his
own persona.
The poet has broken up all the lines rhythmically by using punctuation. The use of multiple
caesuras serves to make lines more interesting. In the third and fourth lines, they emphasize the
pride of Ozymandias’ works, while the fourth line has used initial and medial caesuras.
Function of Caesura
A caesural break creates various effects, depending upon the way it is used. Sometimes it
breaks the monotonous rhythm of a line and forces readers to focus on the meaning of the
phrase preceding the caesura. In some other cases, it might create a dramatic or ominous
effect. Normally, it happens in the middle of a sentence, or phrase in poetry. It also adds an
emotional and theatrical touch to a line, and helps convey depth of the sentiments.
Canon
Definition of Canon
Originated from the Greek term “kanon,” canon means “a yard stick,” or “a measuring rod.”
Generally, the term canon is used in three different meanings.
First, it is defined as a traditional collection of writings, against which other writings are
evaluated. In other words, it means “a long list of works taken as authentic.” For example, the
Bible – both written in Hebrew, and even translated versions. This sense of the term makes
canon opposite to “apocrypha,” which means “written works having anonymous authors.” The
Bible was considered a yardstick to evaluate other literary pieces, according to a certain
criterion.
The third definition of the term indicates the literary writings of a particular author, which are
considered by scholars and critics in general to be the genuine creations of that particular
author. This is based on some already deduced rules intended to be applied on the future
pieces in the same genre. The term “canon” is also confused with a homonym “cannon,” which
means “a military weapon.”
Apocrypha is also a literary term, which means “hidden,” or “anonymous literary pieces,” which
were considered not to have confirmed to the rules set by the written Bible, in Hebrew or in
Latin. It describes those books, which have dubious authorship or the authority, or where the
accuracy of the writers is questionable. However, canon is a literary rule that is used to evaluate
books and writings against certain models, such as plays are evaluated against Oedipus the
King by Sophocles, where Oedipus the King is a yardstick which has set canons for plays.
Taken from The Plowman’s Tale, these lines exemplify the third definition of canon. Chaucer’s
canon includes “The Canterbury Tales”, for instance, but it does not include the apocryphal
work, “The Plowman’s Tale,” which has been mistakenly attributed to him in the past. The canon
is the use of archaic language that Chaucer used in his works but not used in this part.
In the history of literature, a number of authors and poets have made such an extraordinary
contributions that their literary works are considered yardsticks to have set canons to evaluate
other works. Their literary works obtain in themselves the position of literary canon which the
successive writers use as touchstone to compare their creations with. For example:
For a very long time the world considered the Greek epics of Homer, the Iliad, and Odyssey, as
the most sublime examples of literature. However, we have no idea whether the popular and
well-known author was a genuine person. Homer, and the other writers inspired by him, have
made their way to the list of the greatest literary brains of the world since antiquity – only by
following the literary canons of writing.
Jane Austen is one of those female writers who came to the limelight by breaking all the
traditional and conventional shackles. She wrote mild and smiling romantic novels, such as
Pride and Prejudice and Emma, setting them in England, and making marriage her subject to be
explored. As she used round characters in her novels, uniquely different from her counterparts,
this became her style, and finally a canon against which other female writers would be
evaluated.
Function of a Canon
The function of a canon has always raised confusion and complexity. The works, traditionally
considered as following a certain canon, belong to the writers who have long been dead.
Moreover, only the white and male writers of antiquity have been given membership to this
exclusive club. Women, minorities, and non-Western writers were kept out of this kind of
arbitrary practice for a long time – until they won recognition such as the writers of the Harlem
Renaissance.
Furthermore, philosophical and political biases also resulted in disputes over literary canons.
Hence, a number of critical circles suggest that the idea of having specific canons for specific
genres needs to be abandoned. On the contrary, some other critics advocate the expansion of
canons by including the extended range of sampling to broaden the horizon literary canons.
Canto
Definition of Canto
Canto is a subdivision or part in a narrative or epic poem, consisting of five or more lines such,
as a stanza, which could also be a canto. The word “canto” originates from the Latin word
cantus, which means “a song.”
The Italian poets Dante, Matteo Boiardo, and Ludovico used cantos to divide their poems into
shorter sections for thematic understanding. In English literature, Edmund Spenser is the first
poet who used this division in his famous poem “The Faerie Queene.” Lord Byron also used this
division in his poem, “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.”
This canto describes the character of the knight, who represents all the qualities of chivalry,
such as bravery and fighting spirit. It comprises eleven lines, as compared to six or seven lines
of Italian cantos.
This is another good example of canto, a major section of Dante’s “Divine Comedy.” Here,
Dante describes how he loses the right path when travelling through the forest. However, this
canto comprises ten lines as opposed to eleven lines of the first example.
Ezra Pound has written this poem in 129 parts, and each part is a separate canto. This is the
first part in which he describes a journey by ship, which is loaded with sheep, and is sailing
away from some hidden place. The word ‘Circe’ is a reference to Homer’s epic, “The Odyssey,”
which points to the eerie atmosphere created by Pound in this poem.
This is the fourth canto of “Child Harold’s Pilgrimage,” in which he describes his journey to Italy.
It also shows his lamentation on the decay of ancient civilization.
This is the first canto, in which Lord Byron says that his own age is unable to provide a suitable
hero for his poem – the reason that he is using an old friend, Don Juan, as a hero.
Function
Caricature
Definition of Caricature
Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts, in which particular aspects of a
subject are exaggerated, to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a
plastic illustration, derisive drawing, or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural
features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject.
During the 16th century, numerous painters (Holbein, Bruegel, and Bosch, for example) used
particular aspects of caricature in their work. However, it did not involve anything comic until the
17th century. Later, in the 18th century, Carracci introduced caricature in a witty way in his
works. Caricatures started gaining popularity in England when artists like Hogarth, Rowlandson,
and Gillray followed Carracci’s footsteps. The genre slowly developed to accommodate social
and political satire as well.
Examples of Caricature in Literature
Example #1: Ethnic Distinctions, No Longer So Distinctive (By Matt Bai, New York Times, June
29, 2010)
Several authors have written about how President Obama is unpredictable. A piece of writing
was published in The New York Times that shed light on this particular subject by highlighting
how people have exaggerated certain aspects of the President’s personality. Following is an
excerpt from the same paper by Matt Bai:
“Over the course of the last several weeks, commentators have taken to portraying Mr. Obama
as clinical and insufficiently emotive, which is really just another way of saying the president is
not really knowable. It is a caricature his opponents can exploit in part because a lot of voters
remain murky on his cultural identity.”
Caricature arises from the forcing and the embellishment of the basic rule of good description,
that is, the principle of the dominant impression.
One of the great examples of caricature from Charles Dickens has been given below:
“Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a
good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr.
Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught to walk upright.
He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to him.”
Function of Caricature
The caricature examples above have underscored the functions and role of caricature, and how
it has evolved in modern day literature. Coming up with novel ideas to explain oneself, and the
nature of the human race in general, is not something new to the world. This sort of
representation has been witnessed since the time when men lived in caves.
Caricature was introduced to the masses during the age of enlightenment, and it bestowed the
age it belongs to, with its subtlety and critical attitude. As a branch of modernism, it played a
great role in expressing facts that were suppressed because of the conformists in the society at
that point in time. It was a reminder for those who believed that the sword was mightier than the
pen, and it started being used as a visual expressioof conventional society.
Nowadays, caricature is a highly dignified form of art that is approved of and used worldwide.
Newspaper editors show great respect for the artists who create caricatures for their papers,
which ofttimes publish caricatures that might even represent a conflicting ideology. Where this
distinctive form of art can be used to portray important and transforming social and political
ideas, it can also be provocative to certain groups. Underdeveloped countries have had a hard
time warming up to this form of expression because they believe it is a creation of evil by
governments.
Catachresis
Definition of Catachresis
Catachresis is a figure of speech in which writers use mixed metaphors in an inappropriate way,
to create rhetorical effect. Often, it is used intentionally to create a unique expression.
Catachresis is also known as an exaggerated comparison between two ideas or objects.
Features of Catachresis
Mixed metaphors are good examples of catachresis, and writers often use them to create
rhetorical effect. They are used to express extreme alienation or heightened emotions.
Catachresis is considered as a mistake in language, as it may change the meanings of words. It
is a combination of different types of figures of speech. It is prominently used in post-
structuralist literary works, since those writers were expert in using wordplay, and creating
confusion in literary texts, which is an important part of catachresis.
• Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from the literal
meaning of that word. Such as in this example, “Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon’s
purse; that is, one may reach deep enough, and find little” (Timon of Athens, by William
Shakespeare).
• Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, “A
chair’s arm.”
• Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such
as, “Take arms against a sea of troubles.”
• Abusio is a subtype of catachresis, which results from the combination of two
metaphors.
Bacon uses metaphorical language by comparing revenge with wounds. The writer has made a
connection between seemingly unconnected topics. However, catachresis is creating a
rhetorical effect in this serious text.
In the first and second lines, we can see the paradox in phrases that are shown in bold. These
describe two differing distances that spread hopelessness. In the same way, “white sustenance”
means colorless nourishment that actually does not nourish the body.
Hamlet:
“… Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And, by opposing, end them? To die, to sleep—”
Here, Hamlet is just thinking futilely after facing a sea of problems. In this way, Shakespeare
has used a straight metaphor, albeit taken as a catachresis here.
Example #5: somewhere i have never travelled, gladly beyond (By E. E. Cummings)
In this extract, the poet is making an illogical comparison between the voice of his beloved’s
eyes, and roses and rain with the hands. The poet is trying to express the power of his beloved
over him, and her importance to him.
In the given line, the character Gonzalo is implying that Boatswain looks like a criminal, and
must be hanged. Here, “perfect gallows” is used as a mixed metaphor. The two objects are
compared, though there is no obvious similarity between them.
Function of Catachresis
Catachresis can be used both in poetry and prose. In poetry it is used by misusing a phrase or
word to deliberately create a mixed metaphor. Poets use catachresis to achieve a stylistic effect,
or to exert great compression in both comic as well as serious writing. Also, sometimes it is
used to create a reference that did not exist, but the major reason of using this technique is to
express the ideas in a unique and creative way.
Catastrophe
Definition of Catastrophe
Catastrophe is a final resolution that appears in a narrative plot or a long poem. It unravels the
mystery or intrigue, and brings the story toward a logical end. In a tragedy, it could be the death
of a protagonist or other character; and in a comedy, it could be the union of major characters.
Catastrophe is a synonym of denouement. It is, in fact, the final part following protasis, epitasis,
and catatasis.
Catastrophe wraps up the messy and noisy beginning, such as in Arthur Miller’s play, Death of a
Salesman, in which catastrophe is brought on when the main character, Willy Loman, dies in a
car wreck, ostensibly committing suicide, so that his family could collect his life insurance. His
widow says at his funeral that “Willy, I can’t cry … I made the last payment on the house
today…”
Types of Catastrophe
• Simple Catastrophe
In a simple catastrophe, the main characters do not undergo any change, nor does
anything unravel; the plot merely serves as a passage. Simple catastrophe usually
appears in epic poems, rather than in tragedies.
• Complex Catastrophe
Complex catastrophe is a very common tool, in which the protagonist either undergoes a
major change of fortune. This type of change is probable and necessary to resolving the
plot. Complex catastrophe usually appears in novels, plays, movies, and theatrical
performances.
Eugene O’Neil’s play “Mourning Becomes Electra” contains a series of catastrophic events,
beginning with the murder of Ezra. Christine manipulates her lover Brant into helping her kill her
husband with poison. After his murder, Lavinia and Orin find Brant and shoot him with a pistol.
This catastrophe leads to another catastrophe, in the form of Christine’s suicide. Orin,
consumed by a sense of guilt that he had driven their mother into killing herself, goes insane
and commits suicide. Now Lavinia lives in a house of her dead relatives’ ghosts, which is a
punishment for what they have done.
There are multiple characters who invited catastrophe in the play “Romeo and Juliet.” However,
Romeo himself has invited the worst type of catastrophe after he kills Tybalt. Everything in his
and Juliet’s life crumbles after that; as a result, Romeo faces a period of exile, leading to a
number of other catastrophic events. Had Romeo not killed Tybalt, Friar would have provided a
much better plan to hide Juliet, rather than using poison.
The best scene of catastrophe happens in Act-V, Scene-III, in which the fall of Paris and two
lovers occurs. After the tragic conclusion of the love scene, Friar tells about the marriage and
intrigue. The story ends with the death of star-crossed lovers.
Catastrophe in Hardy’s novel, The Return of the Native, comes at the point when Eustacia
becomes closer to her old lover, Damon Wildeve; which leads to the death of Clym’s mother. It
happens when Clym goes blind, and the couple faces economic crisis. After this tense period,
Clym has a serious fight with his wife and the two separate. Eustacia plans to run away with her
lover in the night. However, there comes a heavy storm, which ends up drowning them.
Function
The function of a catastrophe is to unravel the plot in a story. It comes after the falling action. It,
in fact, serves as a conclusion of the narrative, when the conflict in the story in question is
resolved. Catastrophe returns the situation to normal, as the characters experience catharsis,
and readers feel a sense of relief. Catastrophe is also a moment when the protagonist faces the
world with a new outlook. It tests human qualities, and makes readers decide if the character is
good or bad.
Catharsis
Catharsis Definition
A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or
spiritual renewal, or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek
word meaning “cleansing.” In literature, it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the
characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a
person.
Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle, to explain the impact of
tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic
work, and that it marked its quality. He further said, in Poetics:
William Shakespeare wrote two famous examples of catharsis. One of these catharsis
examples is his tragic drama Macbeth. The audience and readers of Macbeth usually pity the
tragic central figure of the play because he was blinded by his destructive preoccupation with
ambition.
In Act 1, he is made the thane of Cawdor by King Duncan, which makes him a prodigy, well-
regarded for his valor and talent. However, the era of his doom starts when he, like most
people, gets carried away by ambition, and the supernatural world as well. Subsequently, he
loses his wife, his veracity, and eventually his life. The temptation of ambition robs him of the
essence of his existence as a human being, and leaves behind nothing but discontent and a
worthless life. In Act V, Macbeth gathers this idea in his soliloquy. He says, while speaking of
his life:
“… a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.”
“Here’s to my love! [Drinks] O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die.
[Falls]”
In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide by drinking the poison that he erroneously thinks
Juliet had tasted too. The audience usually finds themselves crying at this particular moment for
several reasons. Primarily because losing a loved one is a feeling that all of us have
experienced. Watching or reading such a scene triggers the memories of someone we have lost
(either by death or by mere separation), and because we are able to relate to it, we suddenly
release the emotions that we have been repressing.
In dramatic art, the term catharsis explains the impact of tragedy, comedy, or any other form of
art on the audience – and in some cases even on the performers themselves. Aristotle did not
elaborate on the meaning of “catharsis,” and the way he used it in defining tragedy in Poetics.
According to G. F. Else, the conventional and the most prevalent explanation of catharsis as
“purgation” or “cleansing” does not have a basis in Poetics. It has rather stemmed from other
non-Aristotelian and Aristotelian contexts. Such confusion regarding the origin of the term has
led to assorted interpretations of its meaning.
However, the kind of discussion he conducts on these terms is not as precise as other leading
scholars would want it to be. He does not consider any interpretations other than his own, and
rather takes a different approach. His approach is centered on “the Greek doctrine of Humours,”
which was not received too well.
The most common interpretations of the term are purgation and purification, which are still
widely used. The most recent interpretation of the term catharsis is “intellectual clarification.”
Human beings often try to find root causes of things, happenings and phenomena. This
research leads to the discovery of effects, too. It is because human beings always desire to
understand reasons for things, and why they happen. A composition written to find out reasons
and results is called a cause and effect essay. It makes discovery of the causes of something
and resultantly finds out effects.
Cause and effect uses special words for causes, effects, and predictions, such as led to,
because, cause, reason, explanation, so etc. However, for effects, the words most commonly
used are therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, then, and thanks to. For predictions, the
most commonly used words are if, when, after, as soon as, may, might, or possible.
“I think that we’re all mentally ill: those of us outside the asylums only hide it a little better—and
maybe not all that much better, after all. We’ve all known people who talk to themselves, people
who sometimes squinch their faces into horrible grimaces when they believe no one is watching,
people who have some hysterical fear—of snakes, the dark, the tight place, the long drop …
and, of course, those final worms and grubs that are waiting so patiently underground.
When we pay our four or five bucks and seat ourselves at tenth-row center in a theater showing
a horror movie, we are daring the nightmare.
Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are not
afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. Which is not to say that a really good horror movie
may not surprise a scream out of us at some point, the way we may scream when the roller
coaster twists through a complete 360 or plows through a lake at the bottom of the drop. And
horror movies, like roller coasters, have always been the special province of the young; by the
time one turns 40 or 50, one’s appetite for double twists or 360-degree loops may be
considerably depleted.”
Stephen King tells the reasons people like to watch something horrible or terrible. This passage
sheds light on those reasons.
“We are clinging to the supposed virtues of high school athletics with particular zeal. Everybody
knows that pro sports is too far gone (take your pick of recent scandals). Everybody knows that
college sports is too far gone (take your pick of recent scandals). But still there’s high school
sports, still the classic battle of one rival against the other in shaggy glory, what James Jones
described in From Here to Eternity as “the magnificent foolishness of youth as if the whole of life
depended on this game.” A half-century later, the depiction of noble sacrifice at the high school
level still forms our baseline, gives us hope that something in sports is still unsullied, restores
our faith in the family values fad that has overtaken the low-carb diet.”
This passage sheds light on the reasons that school sports are necessary. The whole essay
revolves around the games, reasons for the games, and their effects.
Example #3: Black Men and Public Space (by Brent Staples)
“My first victim was a woman—white, well dressed, probably in her early twenties. I came upon
her late one evening on a deserted street in Hyde Park, a relatively affluent neighborhood in an
otherwise mean, impoverished section of Chicago. As I swung onto the avenue behind her,
there seemed to be a discreet, uninflammatory distance between us. Not so. She cast back a
worried glance. To her, the youngish black man—a broad six feet two inches with a beard and
billowing hair, both hands shoved into the pockets of a bulky military jacket—seemed
menacingly close. After a few more quick glimpses, she picked up her pace and was soon
running in earnest. Within seconds she disappeared into a cross street.”
This passage describes the cause of a woman’s fear in a narrative, as well as the effect of her
fear. As it is part of a long essay, the next passage sheds light on the effects on women.
Function of Cause and Effect Essay
A cause and effect essay explains the real situation to readers. Readers understand what lies
behind a happening, and how it effects, or how it will impact, human beings. Mostly, such
essays are used for scientific topics. It is because these essays explore the nature of things,
and their likely effects on us, or the things around us.
Character
Definition of Character
All stories need certain necessary elements. Without these elements, literary works often fail to
make sense. For instance, one of the essential elements of every story is a plot with a series of
events. Another important element is a character. A character can be any person, a figure, an
inanimate object, or animal. There are different types of characters, and each serves its unique
function in a story or a piece of literature.
Types of Character
Confidante
A confidante is someone in whom the main character confides. He reveals the central
character’s thoughts, intentions, and personality traits. However, a confidante need not
necessarily be a person. An animal can also be a confidante.
Dynamic Character
A dynamic character changes during the course of a novel or a story. This change in character
or his/her outlook is permanent. That is why sometimes a dynamic character is also called a
“developing character.”
Static Character
A static character remains the same throughout the whole story. Even the events in a story or
novel do not change character’s outlook, perceptions, habits, personality, or motivations.
Antagonist
An antagonist is a bad guy, or an opponent of the protagonist or the main character. The action
in the story arises from a conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist. The antagonist
can be a person, an inanimate object, an animal, or nature itself.
Protagonist
Every story has a protagonist, the main character, who creates the action of the plot and
engages readers, arousing their empathy and interest. The protagonist is often a hero or
heroine of the story, as the whole plot moves around him or her.
Round Character
The round characters are well-developed and complex figures in a story. They are more
realistic, and demonstrate more depth in their personalities. They can make surprising or
puzzling decisions, and attract readers’ attention. There are many factors that may affect them,
and round characters react to such factors realistically.
Flat Character
A flat character does not change during a story. Also, he or she usually only reveals one or two
personality traits.
Stock Character
A stock character is a flat character that is instantly recognizable by readers. Like a flat
character, the stock character does not undergo any development throughout the story.
In The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, Frodo and his friend Sam discover their unexpected personal
commitment, emotional and physical strength, and dedication to the cause. Gandalf discovers
that his trust was broken by his fellow wizards, thus he transforms into a magician with a
stronger character. Aragorn, an heir to line of kings, gives up his title; however, over the period
of time he discovers his leadership skills, and decides to regain his crown. All of these
characters provide us with good examples of round characters, each having depth of
personality, and abilities to surprise the readers.
In Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a tightfisted person. He forces his
workers to work hard, but gives them peanuts in return. However, after undergoing some very
strange and disturbing experiences with the ghosts, he changes his ways – paying his
employees more than their fair wages, giving them days off work, and even gives gifts. This
transformation makes him fit into the role of a dynamic character.
Hedda Gabler is manipulative, cold, and “demonic,” even though she is the title character – the
focus of the play. She is the most complex and psychologically compelling character, the reason
that she is a dynamic character.
Function of Character
The main function of a character in a story is to extend or prolong the plot, make it readable and
interesting. Many stories use multiple characters, and every story has a main character that
affects the plot a great deal. The main character could be a protagonist, an antagonist, a
dynamic, a static, a flat, or a round character. Readers feel that the characters given in the
literary pieces exist, and they enjoy reading their real and lifelike figures and actions.
Characterization
Characterization Definition
Characterization is a literary device that is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and explain
the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage in which the writer introduces the
character with noticeable emergence. After introducing the character, the writer often talks
about his behavior; then, as the story progresses, the thought-processes of the character.
The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas, and getting into
conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story
respond to the character’s personality.
Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics
argued that “tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life.” Thus the assertion of
the dominance of plot over characters, termed “plot-driven narrative,” is unmistakable. This point
of view was later abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character
over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels.
Types of Characterization
An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image
of it. These two types of characterization include:
This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses
another character, narrator, or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the
subject.
This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to
deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process,
behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and manner of communication with other
characters, as well as by discerning the response of other characters.
Characterization in Drama
On stage or in front of the camera, actors usually do not have much time to characterize. For
this reason, the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy,
realists take a different approach, by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the
theme of their character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov,
Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg.
Classic psychological characterization examples, such as The Seagull, usually build the main
character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it
slowly discloses the inner turmoil of the character, over the course of the show, and lets the
audience connect better.
The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the
personalities of their respective characters. Often, during such shows, plays, or dramas, no
direct statements about the character’s nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors
to build the character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is
more of a subtle art, which cannot directly be recognized.
There are many examples of characterization in literature. The Great Gatsby, is probably the
best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of each character.
The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich, but he does not belong to the
upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by
his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained
by Gatsby as having a voice “full of money.”
Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are
symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered
less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay’s
and Daisy’s social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan, and Daisy live in
East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in
their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports
Gatsby against the rest of the folk.
Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain
protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his
profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune, but failed to get him
into the upper class of New York society. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a “bond
man” that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson, who fixes rich people’s cars, befriends his
wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.
Function of Characterization
Chiasmus
Chiasmus Definition
Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other
by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect.
Notice that the second half of this sentence is an inverted form of the first half, both
grammatically and logically. In the simplest sense, the term chiasmus applies to almost all
“criss-cross” structures, and this is a concept that is common these days. In its strict classical
sense, however, the function of chiasmus is to reverse grammatical structure or ideas of
sentences, given that the same words and phrases are not repeated.
“You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to forget.”
Antimetabole examples resemble chiasmus, as they are marked by the inversion of structure. In
examples of chiasmus, however, the words and phrases are not repeated. Generally, chiasmus
and antimetabole are regarded by many critics as similar tools of rhetoric.
The use of chiasmus as a rhetorical device dates back to the ancient Greek and Roman
civilizations. Its traces have been found in the ancient texts of Sanskrit, and also in ancient
Chinese writings. Greeks, however, developed an unmatched inclination for this device, and
made it an essential part of the art of oration.
Example #3: Do I Love You Because You’re Beautiful? (By Oscar Hammerstein)
“Lust is what makes you keep wanting to do it, Even when you have no desire to be with each
other. Love is what makes you keep wanting to be with each other, Even when you have no
desire to do it.”
“Some have an idea that the reason we in this country discard things so readily is
because we have so much. The facts are exactly opposite – the reason we have so much is
simply because we discard things so readily.”
Function of Chiasmus
As the above discussion reveals, chiasmus is a unique rhetorical device that is employed by
writers to create a special artistic effect, in order to lay emphasis on what they want to
communicate. In his treatise, Analyzing Prose, Richard A. Lanham puts forward his interesting
point of view about chiasmus in the following words:
“By keeping the phrase but inverting its meaning we use our opponent’s own power to
overcome him, just as a judo expert does. So a scholar remarked of another’s theory, ‘Cannon
entertains that theory because that theory entertains Cannon.’ The pun on ‘entertain’
complicates the chiasmus here, but the judo still prevails — Cannon is playing with the power of
his own mind rather than figuring out the secrets of the universe.”
Circumlocution
Definition of Circumlocution
Common Features
Examining all the examples of circumlocution, one would find that they share the following
features:
• It is used when the speaker is unable to choose the right words to express or say
something.
• It is used for social purposes in order to avoid using offensive words.
• It is used in politics and law, and sometimes it becomes difficult to judge which
perspective of a politician or a lawyer should be supported.
• In poetry and verse, it is used to create a regular meter.
Laertes gives his domineering suggestion genuinely here, but his tone seemed to be of a
prepared speech. He neither shows real awareness of, nor consideration for, Ophelia’s feelings.
By using circumlocution, he underscores her feminine inferiority.
In the preceding excerpt, Pope criticizes the aristocracy by describing Hampton Court Palace.
Circumlocution is employed to reveal the harsh realities, apart from the amusement of court.
Pope points out both serious matters and trivial occasions happening in royal houses.
Here, Coleridge uses circumlocution to illustrate the underlying concepts. He describes the
outside natural world, which is wild, and the things that are protected and peaceful within the
palace walls.
“The edge of a colossal jungle, so dark green as to be almost black, fringed with white surf, ran
straight, like a ruled line, far, far away along a blue sea whose glitter was blurred by a creeping
mist. The sun was fierce, the land seemed to glisten and drip with steam…”
Conrad is intentionally presenting ambiguous descriptions of the nature of morality and truth,
which forces readers to take part in comprehending the novella. Here, the depiction of nature –
of forests, and sea, of sun and mist – represents racial, political, psychoanalytical, and feminist
perspectives.
“I was within a hair’s breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with
humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say…”
In this excerpt, the idea of earnestness has appeared in various forms. It can be understood by
its opposites. Here, it is offered as the reverse of triviality, and elsewhere as the opposite of
seriousness. Though ostensibly it is a quality of candor, the exact meanings are still vague.
Donne talks about the conflict that rages within himself, which he expresses through
circumlocution. He says a man cannot avoid Satan’s influence, but he must rely on God to get
freedom spiritually from Satan.
Function of Circumlocution
Circumlocution is extensively used in poetry, music, and rhetorical speech. It is, in fact, the
embellishment of putting different words together so as not to say what a person wants not to
say. Circumlocution makes the verses soft and beautiful, since it is a way to set aside harsh
speech, and make words sound sweeter. However, the major use of circumlocution is to
express something ambiguously, and often in poetry to create regular rhyme. Also, it is
employed to give different ideas to readers.
Claim
Claim Definition
A statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument
is called a claim. If somebody gives an argument to support his position, it is called “making a
claim.” Different reasons are usually presented to prove why a certain point should be accepted
as logical. A general model is given below to explain the steps followed in making a claim:
Premise 1
Premise 2
Premise 3 …
Premise N
Therefore,
Conclusion
In this model, the symbol and the dots before it signify that the number of premises used for
proving an argument may vary. The word “therefore” shows that the conclusion will be restating
the main argument, which was being supported all the way through.
With the help of a claim, one can express a particular stance on an issue that is controversial,
so as to verify it as a logically sound idea. In case of a complex idea, it is always wise to start by
classifying the statements you are about to put forward. Many times, the claims you make stay
unnoticed because of the complex sentence structure; specifically, where the claims and their
grounds are intertwined. However, a rhetorical performance, such as a speech or an essay, is
typically made up of a single central claim, and most of the content contains several supporting
arguments for that central claim.
Types of Claim
There are many types of claim used in literature, and all of them have their own significance.
The type that we will be discussing here has great importance in writing and reading about
literature because it is used frequently to build arguments. It is called evaluative claim.
Evaluative claims involve the assessment or judgment of the ideas in the original piece. They
have been divided further into two types: ethical judgment and aesthetic judgment. As the name
implies, aesthetic judgment revolves around deciding whether or not a piece of writing fulfills
artistic standards.
You can easily find evaluative claim examples in book reviews. This type is about assessing an
argument, or the entire essay on ethical, social, political, and philosophical grounds, and
determining whether an idea is wise, good, commendable, and valid. The evaluative and
interpretive claims typically consist of well-versed viewpoints. Where interpretive claims strive to
explain or clarify the views communicated in and by the text, evaluative claims study the validity
of those views by drawing comparison between them and the writer’s own opinions.
Claim Examples
Interpretive Claims
Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
The great thing about Animal Farm by George Orwell is that it has presented all animals equal
in the eyes of the laws framed by them. They framed Ten Commandments when they expelled
Mr. Jones from Manor Farm, and this rule, “All animals are equal,” became a shibboleth for
them.
This interpretive claim presents an argument about the exploration of the meanings, and the
evidence that is given within quotation marks has been interpreted as well.
Similarly, “To be or not to be…” is an evidence of the excessive thinking of Prince Hamlet in the
play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. If a person interprets the play, he has evidence to
support his claim. Papers on literary analysis are treasure troves of examples of claim.
Evaluative Claims
Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
As the majority of the animals were in the process of framing rules, it was understood that,
although rats and several other animals were not present, whatsoever had four legs is an
animal, and therefore is equal to any other animal. Hence, a general rule was framed that
whatever walks on four legs is good. Later on, birds (having two wings and two legs) and other
non-four-legged animals were also considered as animals. Therefore, all are equal.
Now this argument clearly shows the judgment given at the end, but it is after evaluation of the
whole situation presented in the novel. This is called evaluative claim.
Function of Claim
The role of claims in writing any narrative or script is essential. If used correctly, they can
strengthen the argument of your standpoint. The distinction between different types of claim can
be highly confusing, and sometimes complicated. For instance, a composition that claims that
Vogel’s play gives out a socially and ethically impolite message about abuse, can also assert
that the play is aesthetically flawed. A composition that goes on developing and advocating an
interpretive claim about another script shows that it at least deserves philosophical or
aesthetical interpretation. On the other hand, developing an evaluative claim about a
composition always remains in need of a certain level of interpretation.
Hence, the dissimilarities are subtle, and can only be identified after close and profound
observation; but all things considered, they are important. Thus, lest it is suggested you do
otherwise, you must always leave the evaluative claims for conclusions, and make your essay
an interpretive claim.
Cliché
Cliché Definition
Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original
meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable because
of some previous events.
All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in
the public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring
and at times irritating, due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For instance, the
phrase “as red as a rose” must have been a fresh and innovative expression at some point in
time, but today it is considered universally as a cliché, and does not make such an impact when
used in everyday or formal writing.
It is important to keep in mind that constant reuse of expressions does not necessarily create a
cliché. Typical expressions that are used almost at all times in formal ceremonies, festivals,
courts, etc. are not considered cliché examples; rather they befit such occasions, and are
regarded as more appropriate. Following are a few examples:
Similarly, certain epithets like “reverend” and “father” are attached to the names of church
officials. Besides, people of the royal family are addressed with epithets “Your Grace,” “Your
Highness,” or “Your Royal Highness.” Such expressions are part of proper etiquette, and do not
fall under the category of cliché.
Example #2
Example #3
Example #4
Below is a list of some more common clichés:
Function of Cliché
Anton C. Zijderveld, a Dutch sociologist, throws light on the function of cliché in the following
excerpt, taken from his treatise On Clichés:
“A cliché is a traditional form of human expression (in words, thoughts, emotions, gestures,
acts) which – due to repetitive use in social life – has lost its original, often ingenious heuristic
power. Although it thus fails positively to contribute meaning to social interactions and
communication, it does function socially, since it manages to stimulate behavior (cognition,
emotion, volition, action), while it avoids reflection on meanings.”
Cliffhanger
Cliffhanger Definition
A cliffhanger is a type of narrative or a plot device in which the end is curiously abrupt, so that
the main characters are left in a difficult situation, without offering any resolution of conflicts.
As a result of a sudden end, suspense is created at the very end of the novel, leaving the
readers in such a state that they could not help but to ask, “What will happen next?” This type of
end is common to serially-published novels, which end at a dramatic or suspenseful moment.
The cliffhanger plot device ensures readers will buy the next installment, in order to read and
find out what happens.
Cliffhanger examples in television series are abundant. Episodes of TV series end during
moments of high drama in order to ensure the following of viewers in the next episode. One
famous example is the TV series Lost, which ended almost every episode with a cliffhanger.
Commercial breaks compel writers to include a cliffhangers in the plot before each break to
maintain suspense, and ensure viewership following the break.
Cliffhanger has its roots in ancient oriental literature. One example is in the collection of stories
known as One Thousand and One Nights, in which the king Shehreyar orders his queen
Scheherzade to be hanged. She devises a plan to tell a story to the king every night, ending that
story with a cliffhanger. The king postponed the order of execution every day to hear the rest of
the story.
The term “cliffhanger” seems to get its name from the Thomas Hardy’s novel A Pair of Blue
Eyes, which was published in a magazine in a series format, with a chapter published every
month. At the end of one of the episodes, Hardy left his main character, Henry Knight, hanging
onto a cliff, staring at the stony eyes of a fossil embedded in rocks below. Since then, every
abrupt end has been termed a “cliffhanger.”
William Shakespeare could not afford for his audience to be bored, and for this reason he uses
a cliffhanger in Act 1, Scene 1 of his play The Tempest. The scene of a storm and shipwreck is
depicted in a most vivid manner, but the audience is unsure if anybody on the ship has survived.
The device is employed with the purpose that the audience will return to see the next act.
Finally, the fate of the crew on board is revealed in Act 2, Scene 1 and the focus of the audience
is ensured by that time.
Example #4: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (By J. K. Rowling)
J. K. Rowling, in her famous work Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, employs many
cliffhangers. To cite an example from Chapter 3, ” Letters from No One”:
“One minute to go and he’d be eleven. Thirty seconds…twenty…ten…nine – may be he’d wake
Dudley up, just to annoy him – three…two…one…
BOOM!
The whole shack shivered and Harry sat bolt upright, staring at the door. Someone was outside,
knocking to come in.”
Obviously, you will turn the page and start reading the next chapter to know who was outside
knocking at the door. The obvious reason for such endings is to create interest in the readers,
so they will move on to the next chapter without the slightest hesitation.
Function of Cliffhanger
By nature, man is a curious creature. Cliffhangers in any form of literature appeal to our
curiosity. The main purpose of employing this device is to maintain suspense in the plot in order
to ensure the interest and focus of the readers. It acts as bait to lead the readers from one part
of the text to another with more interest than before.
Cliffhangers, undoubtedly, are enjoyable to read at the end of the chapters of novels. However,
it can be very frustrating at the very end of a novel, as it leaves readers discontented after all
the effort they put in to read the novel.
In TV series, where the cliffhanger tool is perhaps most popular, they make use of this device to
great effect. The viewers’ favorite characters are left in a lurch, and the viewers yearn to know
more about their fate. As a result, viewers are likely to want to keep up in the next episode.
Climax
Climax Definition
Climax, a Greek term meaning “ladder,” is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict
or tension hits the highest point. It is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a
“crisis.” It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns
around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its
peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is
close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by three-
act plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play.
In William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the
first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio:
He realizes that he has killed his wife’s cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax, as the
audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a
climax because, after this act, all the prior conflicts start to be resolved, and mysteries unfold
themselves, thus moving the story toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.
In Joseph Conrad’s novel The Heart of Darkness, the narrative reaches its climax when
Marlowe starts his journey in his steam boat, in the direction of the inner station, and his final
discovery upon reaching the station and meeting “Kurtz.” He was shocked to discover that Kurtz
had abandoned all norms and morals of his civilization, after giving in to the savage customs of
the wild Congo. Following this point in the novel, the mystery surrounding Kurtz is unfolded, and
the questions in the mind of Marlow find their answers automatically when he sees the real
situation.
As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases, and
clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. The following
are examples of climax as a stylistic device:
See how William Shakespeare achieves climax in the passage below, taken from his Sonnet
The Passionate Pilgrim:
The phrase “dead within an hour” is placed at the very end, as it marks the climax of the fate of
beauty, which he introduces as “a vain and doubtful good.”
Example #4: I Have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King, Jr.)
“This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be
guaranteed the unalienable Rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
This line from Martin Luther King’s famous speech, I Have a Dream, qualifies as the climax of
the speech. It criticizes and rejects racial discrimination suffered by black Americans at the
hands of white Americans.
Function of Climax
A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the
previously rising action to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The climax of
the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, it is
important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a
figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being pre-employed, it
qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners
and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated
Coherence
Definition of Coherence
Coherence is a Latin word, meaning “to stick together.” In a composition, coherence is a literary
technique that refers to logical connections, which listeners or readers perceive in an oral or
written text. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical,
but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. The
structure of a coherent paragraph could be general to particular and particular to general or any
other format.
Types of Coherence
“Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and
unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it
as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his
own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value
when exposed to the weather … But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather
– better weather than you usually get in June.”
This is a global level coherent text passage in which White has wonderfully unified the
sentences to make it a whole. He has started the passage with a general topic, scientific
agriculture, but moved it to a specific text about farmers and their roles.
“The wine was red wine, and had stained the ground of the narrow street in the suburb of Saint
Antoine, in Paris, where it was spilled. It had stained many hands, too, and many faces, and
many naked feet, and many wooden shoes. The hands of the man who sawed the wood, left
red marks on the billets; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was stained with
the stain of the old rag she wound about her head again. Those who had been greedy with the
staves of the cask … scrawled upon a wall with his finger dipped in muddy wine-lees—BLOOD.”
Taken from the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, this passage’s emphasis is on the idea of staining,
and scrawling the word “blood,” which further brings coherence into the lines. The connection is
thus made through the appearance of Wood-Sawyer, a man who scares Lucie later. This is how
it achieves coherence.
“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable,
laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our
bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength
…
“No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. The life
of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth.”
Through the speech of the Old Major, Orwell starts the passage about the miserable nature of
the life of animals on the animal farm, and then he inspires them to think about how to
safeguard their interests on the farm. The entire paragraph is an example of coherent speech.
“The word “philosophy” is one of which the meaning is by no means fixed. Like the word
“religion,” it has one sense when used to describe certain features of historical cultures, and
another when used to denote a study or an attitude of mind which is considered desirable in the
present day. Philosophy, as pursued in the universities of the Western democratic world, is, at
least in intention, part of the pursuit of knowledge, aiming at the same kind of detachment as is
sought in science …”
See how brilliantly Russell has connected the ideas of philosophy and politics, by moving from a
general to a specific topic, with sentences connecting one to another, creating coherence.
Function
Coherence links the sentences of a work with one another. This may be done with paragraphs,
making sure that each statement logically connects with the one preceding it, making the text
easier for the readers to understand and follow. Also, ordering thoughts in a sequence helps the
reader to move from one point to the next smoothly. As all of the sentences relate back to the
topic, the thoughts and ideas flow smoothly.
Colloquialism
Colloquialism Definition
In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases, or even slang in a piece of
writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced
by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions
to their vocabulary.
However, writers use such expressions intentionally too, as it gives their works a sense of
realism. For instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting “what’s up?”
between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal “How are you?” or “How do
you do?”
Colloquial expressions vary from region to region. Below is a list of some colloquialism
examples of American origin:
• Bamboozle – to deceive
• Bo bananas, or go nuts – go insane or be very angry
• Wanna – want to
• Gonna – going to
• Y’all – you all
• Be blue – to be sad
• Buzz off – go away
“I didn’t want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn’t like it; but
now I took to it again because pap hadn’t no objections… But by-and-by pap got too handy with
his hick’ry, and I couldn’t stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too,
and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome.”
The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage, and was used as a typical
characteristic of black-American vernacular.
The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being.
He asks the sun in a rude manner why he had appeared and spoiled the good time he was
having with his beloved. Not finishing there, he commands the “saucy pedantic sun” to go away.
We cite the use of colloquial expressions in the play Burro Genius, by Victor Villasenor:
“‘I don’t understand!’ roared my father, putting his money back in his pocket. ‘Hell, I’ve forgotten
more than you or most people will EVER UNDERSTAND!’
‘Salvador,’ said my mother as quietly as she could, ‘why don’t you and Mundo go outside and let
me talk to this woman alone.’
Yet another instance of colloquialism can be seen in Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck:
‘Don’t let him pull you in—but—if the son-of-a-bitch socks you—let ‘im have it.’
‘Never mind, never mind. I’ll tell you when. I hate that kind of guy. Look, Lennie, if you get in any
kind of trouble, you remember what I told you to do?’
Lennie raised up on his elbow. His face contorted with thought. Then his eyes moved sadly to
George’s face. ‘If I get in any trouble, you ain’t gonna let me tend the rabbits.'”
In the above example, the writer shows how vulgar colloquial expressions can be, depending
upon who uses them, and how they use them. The above colloquial expressions are realistic
enough as they are uttered by middle-aged men of a working class who are not well educated
or refined.
Function of Colloquialism
Colloquial expressions in a piece of literature may give us deep insights into the writer’s society.
They tell us about how people really talk in their real lives. Therefore, they help a writer to form
strong connections with readers. Colloquial expressions impart a sense of realism to a piece of
literature, which again attracts readers as they identify it with their real life. Moreover, they add
variety to the characters which makes them more interesting and memorable.
Comedy
Definition of Comedy
Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone,
mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant
circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion.
Thus, the purpose of comedy is to amuse the audience. Comedy has multiple sub-genres
depending upon the source of the humor, context in which an author delivers dialogues, and
delivery methods, which include farce, satire, and burlesque. Tragedy is opposite to comedy, as
tragedy deals with sorrowful and tragic events in a story.
Types of Comedy
Romantic comedy involves a theme of love leading to a happy conclusion. We find romantic
comedy in Shakespearean plays and some Elizabethan contemporaries. These plays are
concerned with idealized love affairs. It is a fact that true love never runs smoothly; however,
love overcomes difficulties and ends in a happy union.
Comedy of Humors
Ben Johnson is the first dramatist who conceived and popularized this dramatic genre during
the late sixteenth century. The term humor derives from the Latin word humor, which means
“liquid.” It comes from a theory that the human body has four liquids, or humors, which include
phelgm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. It explains that, when human beings have a balance
of these humors in their bodies, they remain healthy.
Comedy of Manners
This form of dramatic genre deals with intrigues and relations of ladies and gentlemen living in a
sophisticated society. This form relies upon high comedy, derived from sparkle and wit of
dialogues, violations of social traditions, and good manners, by nonsense characters like
jealous husbands, wives, and foppish dandies. We find its use in Restoration dramatists,
particularly in the works of Wycherley and Congreve.
Sentimental Comedy
Sentimental drama contains both comedy and sentimental tragedy. It appears in literary circles
due to reaction of the middle class against obscenity and indecency of Restoration Comedy of
Manners. This form, which incorporates scenes with extreme emotions evoking excessive pity,
gained popularity among the middle class audiences in the eighteenth century.
Tragicomedy
This dramatic genre contains both tragic and comedic elements. It blends both elements to
lighten the overall mood of the play. Often, tragicomedy is a serious play that ends happily.
In his play Every Man in His Humor, Ben Johnson brings a comedy of humors. An overpowering
suspicion of, and obsession with, his wife – that she might be unfaithful to him – controls Kitely.
Then a country gull determines every decision of George Downright in order to understand the
manners of the city gallant. Kno’well worried for moral development of his son, tries to spy on
him.
Example #3: The Conscious Lovers (By Sir Richard Steele)
Sir Richard Steele’s play, The Conscious Lovers, is a best-known and popular sentimental
comedy, which is like a melodrama. It characterizes extreme exaggeration, dealing with trials of
its penniless leading role Indiana. The play ends happily with the discovery of Indiana as
heiress.
Example #4: All’s Well that Ends Well (By William Shakespeare)
Shakespeare’s play, All’s Well that Ends Well, perfectly sums up tragic and comic elements.
This tragicomedy play shows antics of low-born but devoted Helena, who attempts to win the
love of her lover, Bertram. She finally succeeds in marrying him, though she decides not to
accept him until she wears the family ring of her husband and bears him a child. She employs a
great deal of trickery by disguising herself as Bertram’s other, and fakes her death. Bertram
discovers her treachery at the end but realizes Helena did all that for him and expresses his
love for her.
Function of Comedy
Comedy tends to bring humor and induce laughter in plays, films, and theaters. The primary
function of comedy is to amuse and entertain the audience, while it also portrays social
institutions and persons as corrupt, and ridicules them through satirizing, parodying, and poking
fun at their vices. By doing this, authors expose foibles and follies of individuals and society by
using comic elements.
Comparatives
Definition of Comparatives
Every day, people compare things, places, and people. They compare things and objects using
specific words such as than, more, or less, etc. This comparison is called “comparative form.” In
grammar, a comparative is an adjective or adverb form used to make a comparison between
two nouns, such as people, places, or things, to describe actions (verbs), or the words
describing verbs (other adverbs).
For instance, in the excerpt ” ‘Take some more tea,’ the March Hare said to Alice, very
earnestly. ‘I’ve had nothing yet,’ Alice replied in an offended tone, ‘so I can’t take more.’ ‘You
mean you can’t take less,’ said the Hatter: ‘it’s very easy to take more than nothing.’ ” (Alice’s
Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass, by Lewis Carroll) See that all
underlined words in the above lines are comparatives.
Characteristics of Comparatives
“He had been looking like a dead fish. He now looked like a deader fish, one of last year’s, cast
up on some lonely beach and left there at the mercy of the wind and tides.”
In this example, the comparative is shown underlined as “deader.” This presents a single
syllable adjective or comparative, to which “-er” has been added at the end.
Example #2: I’ll Mature When I’m Dead (by Dave Barry)
“[W]e did learn some important life lessons from sports. I learned, for example, that even though
I was not as big, or fast, or strong, or coordinated as the other kids, if I worked really hard–if I
gave 100 percent and never quit–I would still be smaller, slower, weaker, and less coordinated
than the other kids.”
This is another good instance of single syllable and two or more syllable comparatives. The
single syllable adjectives are “small,” “slow,” and “weak.” The example of a two or more syllable
comparative is “less coordinated.”
“Keg beer … poured at random, got everywhere, and always ran out. But in its benign gleam,
the music sounded better, the lights were softer, the girls more beautiful and potentially yielding,
oneself manlier, one’s friends friendlier, the night darker, the stars brighter, the moon fuller, the
air warmer, the hour later, the future brighter, the present aching with that particular adolescent
promise which does not need to be fulfilled to make it miraculous.”
This excerpt presents an excellent example of all types of comparatives, the single-syllable
comparatives include “better,” “softer,” “darker,” “brighter,” “fuller,” “warmer,” and “later.” The
two-syllable comparatives are “manlier” and “friendlier. Two or more than two syllables
comparative include “more beautiful.”
Example #4: The Sacred and Profane Love Machine (by Iris Murdoch)
“After a second of shock he had recognized Edgar Demarnay. They had not met for several
years. An Edgar grown fatter and grosser and older, but Edgar still, with his big pink boy’s face
and his fat lips and his copious short fluffy hair now pale grey instead of pale gold.”
There are three comparatives in this example: “fatter,” “grosser,” and “older.” Through the given
comparatives, the author has described the physical features of a character, Edgar.
Function of Comparatives
The basic function of comparatives is to a make comparison between two people or things.
They help define and describe people, things, and actions. By comparing two things, in fact,
comparatives highlight the good or bad qualities of the two things being compared, and let the
audience see it. Also, they give a better understanding of the things and people.
Comparison
Comparison Definition
Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people,
places, things, or ideas. In our everyday life, we compare people and things to express
ourselves vividly. So when we say, someone is “as lazy as a snail,” you compare two different
entities to show similarity i.e. someone’s laziness to the slow pace of a snail.
Comparisons occur in literary works frequently. Writers and poets use comparison in order to
link their feelings about a thing to something readers can understand. There are numerous
devices in literature that compare two different things to show the similarity between them, such
as simile, metaphor, and analogy.
In the following comparison examples, we will try to analyze literary devices used to show
comparisons.
Metaphor
A metaphor makes a hidden comparison between two things or objects that are dissimilar to
each other, but have some characteristics common between them. Unlike simile, we do not use
“like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. Consider the following examples:
“All the world’s a stage and men and women merely players…”
Shakespeare uses a metaphor of a stage to describe the world, and compares men and women
living in the world with players (actors).
Simile
A simile is an open comparison between two things or objects to show similarities between
them. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words “like” or “as.”
“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”
In this line, Vladimir Nabokov compares old women leaning on their sticks to the Leaning Tower
of Pisa. Here the comparison made between two contrasting things creates a hilarious effect.
Analogy
These lines are from Walt Whitman’s poem The Noiseless Patient Spider“:
Walt Whitman uses an analogy to show similarity between a spider spinning a web and his soul.
Allegory
An allegory uses symbols to compare persons or things, to represent abstract ideas or events.
The comparison in allegory is implicit.
Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that compares animals on a farm to the
Communist Revolution in Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm can be
compared with the greed and corruption after the revolution. The animals on the farm represent
different sections of Russian society after the revolution.
For instance, “Pigs” can be compared to those who became the authority after the
revolution;”Mr. Jones,” the owner of the farm, is likened to the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and
“Boxer,” the horse, stands for the laborer class.
Faerie Queen is an allegory by Edmund Spenser, in which the good characters of the book can
be compared to the various virtues, while the bad characters can be compared to vices. For
example, “The Red-Cross Knight” represents Holiness, and “Lady Una” Truth, Wisdom, and
Goodness. Her parents symbolize the Human Race, and the “Dragon,” which has imprisoned
them, stands for Evil.
Function of Comparison
The above examples of comparison help us realize that, in general, writers utilize different kinds
of comparison to link an unfamiliar or a new idea to common and familiar objects. It helps
readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand
otherwise. The understanding of a new idea turns out to be simpler when viewed with a
comparison to something that is familiar to them.
In addition, by making use of various literary tools for comparison, writers increase their
chances of catching the attention and interest of their readers, as comparisons help them
identify what they are reading to their lives.
A comparison and contrast essay compares two similar objects, or contrasts dissimilar objects,
in a way that readers become informed about the advantages and disadvantages of both the
objects. Readers are then able to weigh pros and cons of the objects compared and contrasted
to select a better product. It, however, does not mean that it is only a comparison or contrast of
products, it could be a situation after which readers are to make a decision, weighing pros and
cons. Although a comparison and contrast essay is set to demonstrate both similarities as well
as differences, sometimes it only shows similarities, and at other times, only differences.
Difference Between a Division/Classification and Comparison/Contrast Essay
A division and classification essay, like comparison and contrast essay, is also an analysis
essay whose objective is to break a thing or idea, or an essay into bits for analysis. A
comparison and contrast essay, however, intends to point out qualities and deficiencies in
things, or explain bad and good aspects of an issue. This is mostly done for decision making
purposes.
“His name was John Solomon Willis, and when at age 5 he heard from the old folks that “the
Emancipation Proclamation was coming,” he crawled under the bed. It was his earliest
recollection of what was to be his habitual response to the promise of white people: horror and
an instinctive yearning for safety. He was my grandfather, a musician who managed to hold on
to his violin but not his land. He lost all 88 acres of his Indian mother’s inheritance to legal
predators who built their fortunes on the likes of him. He was an unreconstructed black
pessimist who, in spite of or because of emancipation, was convinced for 85 years that there
was no hope whatever for black people in this country. His rancor was legitimate, for he, John
Solomon, was not only an artist but a first-rate carpenter and farmer, reduced to sending home
to his family money he had made playing the violin because he was not able to find work. And
this during the years when almost half the black male population were skilled craftsmen who lost
their jobs to white ex-convicts and immigrant farmers.”
This passage compares two types of attitudes about the author’s grandfather; one of the black
community and the other of the response of the white to this blackness.
Example #2: Reality TV: Surprising Throwback to The Past? (by Patricia Cohen)
“To many critics, Cupid and other matchmaking shows that mix money and real-life marital
machinations represent a cynical and tasteless new genre that is yet another sign of America’s
moral decline. But there’s something familiar about the fortune hunters, the status seekers, the
thwarted loves, the meddling friends, the public displays, the comic manners, and the sharp
competitiveness—all find their counterparts in Jane Austen and Edith Wharton. Only now, three-
minute get-to-know-you tryouts in a TV studio substitute for three-minute waltzes at a ball.
Traditional family values, it turns out, are back on television after all.”
In this passage, Patricia Cohen compares two attitudes: one of materialism, and the other of
morality. She bemoans moral decline, but praises the literary taste.
“Euromail is stiff and cold, often beginning with a formal ‘Dear Mr. X,’ and ending with a brusque
‘Sincerely.’ You won’t find any mention of kids or the weather or jellyfish in Euromail. It’s all
business. It’s also slow. Your correspondent might take days, even weeks, to answer a
message. Euromail is also less confrontational in tone, rarely filled with the overt nastiness that
characterizes American e-mail disagreements. In other words, Euromail is exactly like the
Europeans themselves. (I am, of course, generalizing. German e-mail style is not exactly the
same as Italian or Greek, but they have more in common with each other than they do with
American mail.)”
In this passage, Eric Weiner compares euromail and Amerimail to point out the drawbacks of
one, and highlight the qualities of the other.
A comparison and contrast essay helps readers reach a critical decision. It could be a
comparison and contrast of two products, two objects, two things, or two issues. Readers read
the essays, weigh all aspects, and then decide whether to make a purchase and decide in favor
of one thing or not. This type of essay also makes readers more cognizant of the situations or
issues discussed.
Conceit
Conceit Definition
Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the
help of similes or metaphors.
Conceit develops a comparison which is exceedingly unlikely but is, nonetheless, intellectually
imaginative. A comparison turns into a conceit when the writer tries to make us admit a similarity
between two things of whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious. For this reason, conceits
are often surprising.
For example, it will not surprise us to hear someone saying, “You are a snail,” or “You are as
slow as a snail,” as we understand that the similarity is drawn on a common quality of slowness.
However, we will definitely be surprised to hear someone comparing “two lovers with the legs of
a draftsman’s compass.” Thus, conceit examples have a surprising or shocking effect on the
readers because they are novel comparisons, unlike the conventional comparisons made in
similes and metaphors.
In everyday life, we can surprise and amuse others by using conceits like “Love is like an oil
change,” or “The broken heart is a damaged china pot.” In these examples, the attempt to
compare two noticeably unrelated objects makes the comparisons conceits. Conceits in real life
may give complex ideas and emotions an air of simplicity, by comparing them to simple day-to-
day objects, as in “My life is like a free online game, people seem to be playing with it.”
William Shakespeare makes use of a conceit in Act 3, Scene 5 of his play Romeo and Juliet.
Here, Capulet comes to Juliet’s room after Romeo has left. He finds her weeping and says:
The term conceit usually brings to mind certain examples from metaphysical poets of the 17th
century. Of these, John Donne stands out as the best exponent of the use of metaphysical
conceits. John Donne, in his poem A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, says:
This is one of Donne’s most ingenious conceits. He compares his and his beloved’s souls with
the two legs of a drafting compass. He compares her soul to the fixed foot, and his to the other
foot. He says the bodies of lovers may be separate like the two legs of a compass, but are
always joined at the top that reminds us of the spiritual union of the two lovers.
We find another striking example of conceit in John Donne’s poem, The Flea:
In the above lines, the poet tells his darling that she has no reason to deny him sexually, as the
flea has sucked blood from both of them, and their blood has mingled in its gut, so the flea has
become their “marriage bed,” though they are not married yet.
Function of Conceit
Because conceits make unusual and unlikely comparisons between two things, they allow
readers to look at things in a new way. Similes and metaphors may explain things vibrantly, but
they tend to become boring at times because of their predictable nature. Conceits, on the other
hand, surprise and shock readers by making farfetched comparisons. Hence, conceit is used as
a tool in literature to develop interest in readers.
Concession
Definition of Concession
Concession is a literary device used in argumentative writing, where one acknowledges a point
made by one’s opponent. It allows for different opinions and approaches toward an issue,
indicating an understanding of what causes the actual debate or controversy. It demonstrates
that the writer is a mature thinker, and has considered the issue from all angles.
Concession writing style also shows that the writer is a logical and fair-minded person, able to
realize that every argument has several sides to consider before it is presented. This type of
writing can be considered strong as it finds common ground between the writer and his
opponent.
Concession Examples
Example #1:
“Dad, I know taking a trip to another country with my friends may be expensive and unsafe, but I
have studied so hard the past year and I think I deserve a vacation. You already know how
responsible I have been all my life; I don’t think there will be any problem.”
The above statement is an example of concession writing. It demonstrates the negative aspects
of traveling as a young group of boys, but argues against this with the fact that this particular
boy has always been a responsible person and is not likely to get into trouble.
Example #2:
“I agree that many students act and lie about being sick, so that they can avoid school for
whatever reason. However, most students who do not come to school are actually sick. Being
sick, they should be focusing on getting better, not worrying about school and grades just
because some students take advantage of the absentee policy.”
This statement also shows the concession form of writing where the writer agrees that some
students do lie about being sick, and that the writer is able to understand this issue. At the same
time, the writer argues as to why students who are actually sick suffer because of those
irresponsible students.
Example #3:
“An individual does have his own right to freedom, but medical evidence proves that second-
hand smoke is harmful. Nobody has the right to harm the health of another, and smoking does
just that.”
Using concession, the writer has noted that everybody has freedom rights, but argues about the
fact that nobody has the right to harm another person’s health, no matter what the case is.
Example #4:
“It is true that issues may sometimes become polarized and debated heatedly. Certainly, there
is a need for matters of public concern to be discussed rationally. But that does not mean that
such concerns should not be expressed and investigated. After all, improper interference with
academic freedom was found to have taken place. And the allegations raised by doctors are
ones which deserve further inquiry.”
The above statement demonstrates the concession writing technique, where the writer agrees
that debating on issues can turn into a heated argument, but that does not mean the issues
should stop being discussed and investigated. Using concession, the writer has considered the
different viewpoints of the issue, and then stated his argument.
Example #5: Politics and the English Language (By George Orwell)
“I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny this
would argue, if they produced an argument at all, that language merely reflects existing social
conditions, and that we cannot influence its development by any direct tinkering with words or
constructions. So far as the general tone or spirit of language goes, this may be true, but it is not
true in detail.”
This is another example of concession writing showing that the writer is a fair person who has
thought about the issue before giving his opinion. The writer agrees with the fact that we cannot
do anything to develop the language. However it is not true if we go into details, Orwell says,
because writers influence it too.
Function of Concession
Concession writing acknowledges that there are many different views to a story. This type of
writing allows for different opinions that can or could be made toward an issue. It also shows
that all points, positive as well as negative, have been considered before an argument is put
forward. Presenting the other side and then arguing against it with valid points can make it a
very strong piece of writing. Acknowledging the other side demonstrates respect for the other
opinion. The concession writing technique is also known used as a method of persuasion and
reasoning.
Conflict
Conflict Definition
In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces,
usually a protagonist and an antagonist.
Careful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that they may be internal or
external.
An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite
emotions or desires – usually virtue and vice, or good and evil – inside him. This disagreement
causes the character to suffer mental agony, and it develops a unique tension in a storyline,
marked by a lack of action.
Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main driver in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet.” It decides
his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the
play:
The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but he also looks
for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved ones. Due to
his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s
love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide.
Hamlet’s indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution came
when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any
justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle
Claudius.
Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe’s
Doctor Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold
his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and
limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic, and defies Christianity.
After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he
thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of “the good angel,” but “the bad angel”
or the evil inside him distracts him by saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the resolution comes
when devils take his soul away to Hell, and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-
ambition.
Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding)
The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles
against another character physically. In William Golding’s novel The Lord of the Flies, for
example, Ralph (the leader of the “good guys”) steadily comes into conflict with Jack – a bully
who later forms a “tribe” of hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make
attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph.
Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In
this case, a character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in
Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against the
racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson,
who has been falsely accused of a rape. Though Atticus has the support of a few like-minded
people, most of the townspeople express their disapproval of his defense of a black man.
Function of Conflict
Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a
writer to introduce and develop them, whether internal, external, or both, in his storyline in order
to achieve the story’s goal. Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers.
Connotation
Connotation Definition
Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes
explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal
meanings or denotations.
For instance, “Wall Street” literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan, but
connotatively it refers to wealth and power.
Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural, and
personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have
the same denotative, but different connotative, meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative
connotation, as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a
person is lively and energetic.
Below are a few connotation examples. Their suggested meanings are shaped by cultural and
emotional associations:
• “He’s such a dog.” – In this sense, the word dog connotes shamelessness, or ugliness.
• “That woman is a dove at heart.” – Here, the dove implies peace or gentility.
• “There’s no place like home.” – While home may refer to the actual building someone
lives in, connotatively, it most often refers to family, comfort, and security.
• “What do you expect from a politician?” – Politician has a negative connotation of
wickedness and insincerity. To imply sincerity, the word statesperson might be used.
• “That woman is so pushy!” – Pushy refers to someone who is loud-mouthed, insisting,
and irritating.
• “My mom and dad worked hard to put me through college.” – The words Mom and Dad,
when used in place of mother and father, connote loving parents, rather than simply
biological parents.
In literature, it is a common practice among writers to deviate from the literal meanings of words
in order to create novel ideas. Figures of speech frequently employed by writers are examples
of such deviations.
Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings.
Shakespeare, in his Sonnet 18, says:
Here, the phrase “a Summer’s Day” implies the fairness of his beloved.
Similarly, John Donne says in his poem The Sun Rising says:
This line suggests the speaker’s belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states,
kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love.
Irony and satire exhibit connotative meanings, as the intended meanings of words are opposite
to their literal meanings. For example, we see a sarcastic remark made by Antonio to Shylock,
the Jew, in William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice:
The word “Jew” generally had a negative connotation of wickedness, while “Christian”
demonstrated positive connotations of kindness.
Metonymy is another figure of speech that makes use of connotative or suggested meanings, as
it describes a thing by mentioning something else with which it is closely connected. For
example, Mark Anthony, in Act III of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, says:
Here, the word “ear” connotes the idea of people listening to him attentively.
Read the following lines from Robert Frost’s poem Out, Out:
In the line “The life from spilling,” the word “life” connotes “blood.” It does make sense as well
because loss of blood may cause loss of life.
Connotation provides the basis for symbolic meanings of words because symbolic meanings of
objects are different from their literal sense. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare’s play
As you Like It:
Here, a stage connotes the world; players suggests human beings; and parts implies different
stages of their lives.
Function of Connotation
In literature, connotation paves way for creativity by using figures of speech like metaphor,
simile, symbolism, and personification. Had writers contented themselves with only the literal
meanings, there would have been no way to compare abstract ideas to concrete concepts, in
order to give readers a better understanding. Therefore, connotative meanings of words allow
writers to add to their works dimensions that are broader, more vivid, and fresher.
Consonance
Definition of Consonance
It is classified as a literary device used in both poetry as well as prose. For instance, the words
chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with one another, due to the existence of common
interior consonant sounds (/ck/).
The literary device of consonance is inherently different from assonance, which involves the
repetition of similar vowel sounds within a word, sentence, or phrase. Another distinction to be
appreciated is that between consonance and rhyme. In the case of rhyme, consonant sounds
can be present at the beginning, middle, or end of several successive words, rather than merely
at the ends of words. Further, the device of consonance needs to be distinguished from
alliteration. In contrast to alliteration, consonance involves repetition of consonant sounds only.
William Harmon, his book A Handbook on Literature, notes that “most so-called eye
rhymes (such as ‘word’ and ‘lord,’ or ‘blood,’ ‘food,’ and ‘good’) are the most common examples.
The following lines from a song also show how consonant sounds have been used repeatedly.
Example #2: T was later when the summer went (By Emily Dickson)
Here, the use of consonance can be seen through in the letters r, d, and f.
“A Quietness distilled
As Twilight long begun,
Or Nature spending with herself
Sequestered Afternoon—
Here, Emily Dickinson has relied on the consonant “n” to create the intended effect.
Function of Consonance
A writer normally employs the tool of consonance for the purpose of reiterating the significance
of an idea or theme. Further, the use of the device makes the structure of poetry or prose
appealing for the reader. The poet generally makes use of consonance in an attempt to
underscore the emotions behind their words that simple words cannot convey.
Furthermore, the use of consonance adds a lyrical feeling to the poetry that otherwise cannot be
added. The significance of the use of consonance in poetry is enhanced by the fact that it is
often used to make the imagery clearer. It acts as a tool that enables the poet to formulate a fine
and powerful structure for his poetry, and to create a background for the themes underlying the
poetry.
Context
Definition of Context
Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or
occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea or
statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece. It
is necessary in writing to provide information, new concepts, and words to develop thoughts.
Whenever writers use a quote or a fact from some source, it becomes necessary to provide
their readers some information about the source, to give context to its use. This piece of
information is called context. Context illuminates the meaning and relevance of the text, and
may be something cultural, historical, social, or political.
Dickens begins his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, in 1770, by describing the release of Doctor
Manette from Bastille, before taking the story to 1793 and early 1794. In this time span, the
narrative covers a broad story. In a larger view, this novel begins in 1757, while its final scene
looks forward to the situation of the post-revolutionary Paris.
This story has a historical context, which Dickens has organized around various events that
occurred during the French Revolution. He has drawn historical features from major events,
including the fall of Bastille, the September Massacres, and the Reign of Terror. This backdrop
is the story’s context.
George Orwell felt disillusioned by Soviet Communism, and its revolution during his time. In the
phenomenal novel, Animal Farm, Orwell has expressed himself by using satire through the
allegorical characters of Old Major and Boxer; relating them to the Russian Revolution and its
characters. Orwell uses animals to explain history and context of Soviet Communism, some of
which relate to party leaders. For instance, the pig Napoleon represents Joseph Stalin, and
Snowball represents Leon Trotsky. In fact, Orwell uses this fable for political and aesthetic
reasons, following the Russian Revolution as its context.
There is a popular saying that stories indicate values and cultures of the societies in which their
authors live. In Oedipus Rex, Sophocles presents his protagonist, Oedipus, struggling to
implement his will against the destiny set forth by the Greek gods. During this process
Sophocles reveals Greek values of the period during which he wrote the play.
He has illustrated the context of this play through the words and actions of Oedipus and other
characters; as their Greek ideals concerning their governance, fate, and human relationships
with the gods. These were some of the more popular themes of that era, and so form context of
the Oedipus Rex.
“While stranded on a deserted island, a group of boys believe there is a dangerous creature
lurking in the underbrush; Simon is the first to identify this menace, suggesting to the boys that
‘maybe,’ he said hesitantly, ‘maybe there is a beast’.”
Function
Context is all about providing a background or picture of the situation, and of who is involved.
Context is an essential part of a literary text, which helps to engage the audience. If writers
ignore context, they may overlook a critical aspect of the story’s intent. Without context, readers
may not see the true picture of a literary work. Context helps readers understand the cultural,
social, philosophical, and political ideas and movements prevalent in society at the time of the
writing.
Contrast
Definition of Contrast
Contrast is a rhetorical device through which writers identify differences between two subjects,
places, persons, things, or ideas. Simply, it is a type of opposition between two objects,
highlighted to emphasize their differences.
Contrast comes from the Latin word, contra stare, meaning to stand against. Usually, though not
always, writers use phrases and words to indicate a contrast such as but, yet, however, instead,
in contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary, and unlike. for instance, E. B. White, in his novel
Stuart Little, brings a contrast between Stuart and other babies, using the word unlike:
Types of Contrast
• Point-by-point Contrast – In this type of contrast, writers deal with a series of features
of two subjects, and then present their contrast, discussing all points successively.
• Subject-by-subject Contrast – In this type of contrast, a writer first discusses one
subject thoroughly, and then moves on to another.
In this example, Russell presents a point-by-point contrast between two persons, Vladimir Lenin
– a Russian communist revolutionary, and William Gladstone – a British Liberal politician. By the
end, the author expresses his favor for Gladstone over Lenin.
In the first five lines of this poem, Shakespeare employs a number of contrasts to lay emphasis
on his beloved’s qualities. He contrasts her with the sun, coral, snow, and wire. Simply, he
wants to convey the idea that, while his woman is not extraordinary, she is substantial.
Charles Dickens, in the very first chapter of his novel A Tale of Two Cities, presents a sweeping
background of events and forces, which shape the characters’ lives later on. In the first
paragraph, he begins to share a dual theme, as he compares and contrasts the ideas of “best”
and “worst” of times, “light” and “darkness,” and then “hope” and “despair.”
These contrasting ideas reflect images of good and bad that would recur in situations and
characters throughout the novel. Dickens makes contrast between two countries, England and
France. Both countries experience very different and very similar situations simultaneously. The
differences he compares are concepts of justice and spirituality in each country.
William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet is about contrasts of love and hate. This tragic
play embodies these emotions in different ways, as we see a romance between two young
lovers, Romeo and Juliet, whereas their families are at war and hate each other. However, their
love forbids this war.
Characters in this play also contrast each other. Romeo and Juliet, though both are lovers, are
different too. Romeo is impulsive and dependent, while Juliet is organized, brave and practical.
Montague’s marriage is successful, while Capulet’s is not. Along with a steady contrast in
characters, we notice contrasts in mood, theme, and action of the play as well.
Function of Contrast
Writers address a number of features and characteristics of two subjects, persons, places, and
events by contrasting them from one point to another. While the major purpose of contrast is to
elucidate ideas and clear their meanings, readers can easily understand through this device
what is going to happen next. Through opposite and contrasting ideas, writers make their
arguments stronger, thus making them more memorable for readers due to emphasis placed on
them. In addition, contrasting ideas shock the audience, heighten drama, and produce balanced
structures in literary works.
Couplet
Definition of Couplet
A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a
verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm,
rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances.
It could be an independent poem, and might be a part of other poems, such as sonnets in
Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is
independent, and hence it is called a “closed couplet.” A couplet that cannot render a proper
meaning alone is called an “open couplet.”
One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William Shakespeare’s
Hamlet:
Types of Couplets
• Short Couplet
• Split Couplet
• Heroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets)
• Shakespearean Couplet
• Alexandrine Couplet
• Qasida
• Chinese Couplet
This excerpt is an example of closed heroic couplets. The lines are following an iamb
pentameter pattern. All the couplets are forming complete separate thoughts and ideas, and the
rhyme scheme is perfect.
This is another very good example of open heroic couplets, where the end of each couplet is
enjambed – its phrasal and syntactic sense is carried to the next lines. Or in poetic terms, it can
be said that there is no caesura.
This excerpt is a good example of closed heroic couplets. Here, all the couplets make complete
sense – meaning they do not carry their sense into the following lines. Moreover, these couplets
also rhyme.
This excerpt is an example of open heroic couplets that have iambic pentameter pattern. All the
lines rhyme, they do not give independent meanings in a single line, and the sense is carried to
subsequent lines.
Function of Couplet
The rhyming couplets are usually used in poetry in order to make a poem interesting and
rhythmic. They help create a rhyming effect in a poem. In literature, Chaucer, Dryden, Pope and
Shakespeare have been famous for using rhyming heroic couplets. In Arabic and Chinese
literature, rhyming couplets have also been used extensively.
Critical Essay
Definition of Critical Essay
Contrary to the literal name of “critical,” this type of essay is not only an interpretation, but also
an evaluation of a literary piece. It is written for a specific audience, who are academically
mature enough to understand the points raised in such essays. A literary essay could revolve
around major motifs, themes, literary devices and terms, directions, meanings, and above all –
structure of a literary piece.
Critical essays in English started with Samuel Johnson. He kept the critical essays limited to his
personal opinion, comprising praise, admiration, and censure of the merits and demerits of
literary pieces discussed in them. It was, however, Matthew Arnold, who laid down the canons
of literary critical essays. He claimed that critical essays should be interpretative, and that there
should not be any bias or sympathy in criticism.
“The personages being now seen, their situation is next to be discovered. Of this we are
immediately informed in the subsequent line, when we are told,
Here the imagery is distinct, yet the description concise. We instantly figure to ourselves the two
persons traveling up an ascent, which we may accommodate to our own ideas of declivity,
barrenness, rockiness, sandiness, etc. all which, as they exercise the imagination, are beauties
of a high order. The reader will pardon my presumption, if I here attempt to broach a new
principle which no critic, with whom I am acquainted, has ever mentioned. It is this, that poetic
beauties may be divided into negative and positive, the former consisting of mere absence of
fault, the latter in the presence of excellence; the first of an inferior order, but requiring
considerable critical acumen to discover them, the latter of a higher rank, but obvious to the
meanest capacity.”
This is an excerpt from the critical essay of Joseph Dennie. It is an interpretative type of essay
in which Dennie has interpreted the structure and content of Jack and Jill.
Example #2: On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth (by Thomas De Quincey)
“But to return from this digression, my understanding could furnish no reason why the knocking
at the gate in Macbeth should produce any effect, direct or reflected. In fact, my understanding
said positively that it could not produce any effect. But I knew better; I felt that it did; and I
waited and clung to the problem until further knowledge should enable me to solve it. At length,
in 1812, Mr. Williams made his debut on the stage of Ratcliffe Highway, and executed those
unparalleled murders which have procured for him such a brilliant and undying reputation. On
which murders, by the way, I must observe, that in one respect they have had an ill effect, by
making the connoisseur in murder very fastidious in his taste, and dissatisfied by anything that
has been since done in that line.”
This is an excerpt from Thomas De Quincey about his criticism of Macbeth, a play by William
Shakespeare. This essay sheds light on Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and their thinking. This is
an interpretative type of essay.
Example #3: A Sample Critical Essay on Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises (by Richard
Nordquist)
“To keep Jake Barnes drunk, fed, clean, mobile, and distracted in The Sun Also Rises, Ernest
Hemingway employs a large retinue of minor functionaries: maids, cab drivers, bartenders,
porters, tailors, bootblacks, barbers, policemen, and one village idiot. But of all the retainers
seen working quietly in the background of the novel, the most familiar figure by far is the waiter.
In cafés from Paris to Madrid, from one sunrise to the next, over two dozen waiters deliver
drinks and relay messages to Barnes and his compatriots. As frequently in attendance and as
indistinguishable from one another as they are, these various waiters seem to merge into a
single emblematic figure as the novel progresses. A detached observer of human vanity, this
figure does more than serve food and drink: he serves to illuminate the character of Jake
Barnes.”
This is an excerpt from an essay written about Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises. This
paragraph mentions all the characters of the novel in an interpretative way. It also highlights the
major motif of the essay.
A critical essay intends to convey specific meanings of a literary text to specific audiences.
These specific audiences are knowledgeable people. They not only learn the merits and
demerits of the literary texts, but also learn different shades and nuances of meanings. The
major function of a literary essay is to convince people to read a literary text for reasons
described.
Critique
Definition of Critique
Critique is a literary technique that means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work, or a
political or philosophical theory in detail. A critique could be a critical essay, an article evaluating
a literary piece, or a review. It may be just like a summary that identifies the central issue, raises
questions, takes notice of theoretical and experimental approaches, and reviews the
significance of the results. Apart from that, its purpose is to highlight both the shortcomings as
well as strengths of a literary piece or a work of art. Moreover, critical evaluation or assessment
requires sufficient knowledge about the subject matter.
In The Guardian, critic Philip Hope-Wallace has portrayed Beckett’s play, Waiting for Godot, as
“inexplicit and deliberately fatuous.” He also claimed this play to have “bored some people
acutely. [while] Others found it a witty and poetic conundrum.” Godot would possibly be a God,
and the dresses of tramps are like Chaplinesque zanies in a circus. Both speak futile cross talks
like music hall exchanges. This play bored audience acutely, while others consider it as a poetic
and witty conundrum. Finally, he calls the play a dramatic vacuum. It is without any plot, climax,
denouement, beginning, middle and end.
A famous writer, Jonathan Yardley, gives a complete analysis of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s popular
novel, The Great Gatsby in The Washington Post. He calls the novel an enormous achievement
in Fitzgerald’s career. It is his masterwork and seems that no other American novel could ever
come close to its literary artistry.
This novel is very popular, and its every passage is famous, thus there is no need to retrace its
details and familiar background. Fitzgerald has written it with unusual subtlety and sustained
that tone in the entire novel. In the end, he says that this novel is “the most beautiful, compelling
and true in all of American literature.” Then he says, “If from all of our country’s books I could
have only one, The Great Gatsby, would be it.”
In his book, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited, Harold Bloom declares William Shakespeare’s Hamlet as
“unlimited,” coming “of no genre,” because its greatness “… competes only with the world’s
scriptures.” This amazing significance cannot emerge from a work, which is about tendentious
and politicized things.
Bloom abandons the idea that Prince Hamlet’s double shock of his father’s death and his
mother’s second marriage has brought a drastic change in Hamlet. The truth, however, is that
“Something in Hamlet dies before the play opens.” In fact, the theme or central idea of this play
is “Hamlet’s consciousness of his own consciousness, unlimited yet at war with itself.” Thus, the
play is about awakening of self-awareness, and Hamlet fights with “his desire to come to an end
of playacting.”
Victoria Lambert, in The Daily Telegraph, writes her critical reviews on Jane Austen’s novel,
Pride and Prejudice. She describes the novel as surprisingly comforting as much as
iconoclastic. It is a great story that challenges the people’s perceptions, and also draws a line
through their thoughts and female history.
Certainly, there is an enjoyment of the Georgian grace, a world where we can solve problems
by a ball invitation, a new gown, and scrumptious gossip. The social life at Hampshire Vicarage,
its complex social mores, obsessions with money and class, its picnics and parities, draw the
readers – especially females – to a point of obsession. The critics appreciate Austen’s overall
depiction of the way money rules a society. She also admits Austen’s ability to describe the
human heart in detail, setting her literary pulse racing.
Function of Critique
Critiques vary widely, ranging from giving reviews of books, as these reviews might determine
whether a book is going to be popular or not, to rhetorical analysis of articles and pieces of
artwork. Its advantage is that, despite negative criticism and reviews, many books win
commercial success. Sometimes a critic serves as a scholarly detective, authenticating
unknown books and unearthing master pieces. Thus, obscure scholarly skills could work as a
most basic criticism, bringing literary pieces to public attention.
Besides, a critique may antagonize the author. Many authors do not feel that literature needs
investigators, and advocates are not happy when they hear that their works are imitative,
incomplete, or have unintended meanings. However, most critiques are useful, as they help
improve the works of authors.
Cumulative Sentence
Definition of Cumulative Sentence
A cumulative sentence is known as a “loose sentence,” that starts with an independent clause
or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate
elements or modifiers. It adds subordinate or modifying elements after the subject and the
predicate. Writers use these types of sentences when they want to put forth the main idea first,
and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter. They use these details in the form of
dependent or subordinate phrases or clauses.
These types of sentences work better in various forms of writing, specifically in explaining
theories, by giving the main idea at the beginning, and then adding more information to build up
the idea further. For instance, in the sentence, “Llanblethian hangs pleasantly, with its white
cottages, and orchard and other trees…” (The Life of John Sterling, by Thomas Carlyle), the
main clause is short, independent, and straightforward, while the subordinate elements clarify
the idea further.
“The radiators put out lots of heat, too much, in fact, and old-fashioned sounds and smells came
with it, exhalations of the matter that composes our own mortality, and reminiscent of the
intimate gases we all diffuse.”
In these lines, the main idea is simply the heat of radiators. After that, comes additional
information, telling how dangerous the smell of these radiators could be for the humans.
Example #2: Some Dreamers of the Golden Dream (by Joan Didion)
“The San Bernardino Valley lies only an hour east of Los Angeles by the San Bernardino
Freeway but is in certain ways an alien place: not the coastal California of the subtropical
twilights and the soft westerlies off the Pacific but a harsher California, haunted by the Mojave
just beyond the mountains, devastated by the hot dry Santa Ana wind that comes down through
the passes at 100 miles an hour and whines through the eucalyptus windbreaks and works on
the nerves.”
In this example, the main clause is independent, setting a scene for this essay, and describing
the location of San Bernardino Valley. The modifying elements further enhance this description.
“The unwieldy provision carts, draught horses, and heavily armed knights kept the advance
down to nine miles a day, the huge horde moving in three parallel columns, cutting broad
highways of litter and devastation through an already abandoned countryside, many of the
adventurers now traveling on foot, having sold their horses for bread or having slaughtered
them for meat.”
This is a perfect description of a cumulative sentence. The main clause is about carts, and then
there are further details that explain how carts move down the road.
Example #4: Gentlemen of the Road: A Tale of Adventure (by Michael Chabon)
“He wept silently, after the custom of shamed and angry men, so that when the pursuit party
came tumbling, pounding, scrabbling down the trail, past the fold in which he and Hillel stood
concealed, he could hear the creak and rattle of their leather armor with its scales of horn; and
when the Arsiyah returned, just before daybreak, at the very hour when all of creation seemed
to fall silent as if fighting off tears, Zelikman could hear the rumbling of the men’s bellies and the
grit in their eyelids and the hollowness of failure sounding in their chests.”
This is another very good example of cumulative sentence. The main clause is very short and
straight, telling someone has wept; thereafter, the author has given a detailed description of why
someone, mentioned in the main clause, wept silently.
Cumulative sentences are easier to understand, straightforward, and simple. The additional
details in these sentences become relatively important, as they elucidate the main idea, given in
a few words at the beginning. They are useful when the goal of a writer is clarity rather than
suspense. Cumulative sentences give an informal, conversational, and relaxed feeling to a work
of art.
Besides, one must be judicious while explaining a main clause through subordinate and
modifying phrases or clauses. At times, readers might not read full details in the entire
sentence, as they have already read the main idea. Moreover, if a sentence becomes too long,
they might lose interest, or forget the main idea at the end of a sentence.
Dactyl
Definition of Dactyl
Dactyl is a metrical foot, or a beat in a line, containing three syllables in which the first one is
accented, followed by second and third unaccented syllables
(accented/unaccented/unaccented) in quantitative meter, such as in the word “humanly.” In
dactyl, we put stress on the first syllable, and do not stress second and third syllables, try to say
it loud: “HU-man-ly.” Dactyl originates from the Greek word dáktylos, which means “finger,”
because it is like bones of human fingers, beginning from a central long knuckle, which is
followed by two short bones.
Opposite to Anapest
In this poem, Tennyson has used dactylic meter perfectly. Notice this dactylic pattern as one
accented syllable, followed by two unaccented syllables. Dactylic syllables give rhythm and
pause while reading, thus laying emphasis on certain words.
“THIS is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight …
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand–Pre …
Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor incessant …
Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman? …
List to the mournful tradition, still sung by the pines of the forest … “
This is a very popular example of dactylic meter appearing in combination with spondaic meter.
Look at the words shown in bold, with a stress pattern of one accented syllable followed by two
unaccented syllables.
Browning has used dactylic meter to create a great rhythmic effect. Most of the lines of the
above verses contain four dactyls.
Example #4: (Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking (By Walt Whitman)
Whitman is using dactyl in the phrase, “Out of the …” as a pulse riding throughout this poem,
which is generating a starting point for each new line.
“Higgledy piggledy,
Bacon, lord Chancellor.
Negligent, fell for the
Paltrier vice.
Function of Dactyl
Dactyl meter is rare in English poetry, as its prolong use has distorted the normal accent of
words. Also, it gives the lines a jerky movement. The major purpose of dactylic rhythm is to
create lilting movement and a break. Apart from this, it makes poems pleasing, as intrinsically it
is delightful, and makes it more meaningful by using stressed and unstressed patterns. As far as
the origin of its usage is concerned, Greek and Latin have introduced this metrical form in
classical epic poetry for melody. However, later in the nineteenth century, it started appearing
regularly after poets like Algernon Charles Swinburne and Robert Browning successfully used it.
Denotation
Definition of Denotation
Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for the meaning of
the word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is “a type of pigeon, a wild and
domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs.” In literature, however, you frequently
see “dove” used to mean a symbol of peace.
In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary
meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal
meanings are referred to as “figurative language,” or “literary devices,” e.g. metaphors, similes,
personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns. Even in our daily
conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words, preferring connotative or
associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message.
Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we
experience in our day-to-day life:
In the above lines, the word “wall” is used to suggest a physical boundary, which is its
denotative meaning, but it also implies the idea of an emotional barrier.
Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second
stanzas respectively. We are familiar with the meanings of the words used in the last line of the
second stanza: rock, stone, and tree. However, the poet uses them connotatively, where “rock”
and “stone” imply cold and inanimate objects, and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of
that dead girl.
Sara Teasdale develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative
meanings of the words. In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbols of youth. “Brown
and barren” is a symbol of transition from youth to old age. Finally, “bitter autumn” symbolizes
death.
Here, the poet uses denotative language to emphasize the personality of Richard Cory, who
was wealthy, indeed he was “richer than a king.” He was well-educated, and a perfect celebrity
– everyone in the town wished to be like him. He shines brightly in his speech and mannerisms,
nevertheless, he kills himself in the end.
“[C]ontemplation is both the highest form of activity (since the intellect is the highest thing in us,
and the objects that it apprehends are the highest things that can be known), and also it is the
most continuous, because we are more capable of continuous contemplation than we are of any
practical activity.”
In these lines, Aristotle explains the literal function of contemplation in the human mind. Also, he
explains that contemplation is a human activity that is done continuously. He uses phrases and
words that directly describe contemplation.
In the above lines, the poet has used a number of denotative meanings of words. Here, “some
say” denotes a group of people, and “I know” represents personal experience. Then “end,” “fire,”
“perish,” and “destruction” denote destruction and death.
“What the white whale was to Ahab, has been hinted; what, at times, he was to me, as yet
remains unsaid. Aside from those more obvious considerations touching Moby Dick…It was the
whiteness of the whale that above all things appalled me.”
Ishmael opens the above example by referencing the white whale, calling him “Moby Dick.”
Also, he specifies and refers to the white color of the whale, and using it in its literal meaning.
Function of Denotation
Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted
meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh
ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers
find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are
familiar to their literal meanings.
Denouement
Definition of Denouement
Denouement is derived from the French word denoue, which means “to untie.” Denouement is a
literary device that can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction.
The majority of examples of denouement show the resolution in the final part or chapter, often in
an epilogue.
Denouement is usually driven by the climax. In mystery novels, however, the climax and
denouement might occur simultaneously. In most of the other forms of literature, it is merely the
end of the story.
Denouement is a significant part of a literary piece, because it resolves the conflicts of the story,
as shown in the following denouement examples.
CAPULET:
“O brother Montague, give me thy hand.
This is my daughter’s jointure, for no more
Can I demand…”
MONTAGUE:
“But I can give thee more,
For I will raise her statue in pure gold,
That whiles Verona by that name is known…
As that of true and faithful Juliet…”
CAPULET:
“As rich shall Romeo’s by his lady’s lie,
Poor sacrifices of our enmity…”
PRINCE:
“A glooming peace this morning with it brings.
The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head…”
The denouement occurs in the play when the Capulets and Montagues see their beloved
children committing suicide at the tomb. The heads of the family realized that their bitter rivalry
must end. Lord Capulet and Lord Montague agree to end their dispute to avoid further tragedy
in the future.
“‘They’re a rotten crowd,’ I shouted across the lawn. ‘You’re worth the whole damn bunch put
together…'”
The denouement in The Great Gatsby happens when Nick decides to go back to Minnesota, to
get away from the rich people engaged in all those things Nick thinks are part of the moral
worthlessness in Gatsby’s life. All the people in Gatsby’s circle were unfaithful.
“… That’s all I’m going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and
how I got sick and all, and what school I’m supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but
I don’t feel like it. I really don’t. That stuff doesn’t interest me too much right now… I mean how
do you know what you’re going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don’t. I think I am, but
how do I know? I swear it’s a stupid question…”
The denouement in this story occurs in the last part of the novel. Here, the character Holden is
living in a psychiatric facility, from which he is recounting the story. He tells readers that, after
the merry-go-round ride of Phoebe, he would go home to attend school and face his parents.
Gentleman:
“One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/
Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she
The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access…”
Leontes:
“What with him? he comes not
Like to his father’s greatness: his approach…”
Florizel:
“Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter
His tears proclaim’d his, parting with her: thence
A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross’d…”
Leontes:
“My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? … His tears proclaim’d his, parting with her: thence…”
Leontes:
“My lord, Is this the daughter of a king…”
In this excerpt from The Winter’s Tale, the denouement occurs when Polixenes chases Florizel
and Perdita to Sicily. After the true identity of Paulina is discovered, Polixenes and Leontes
make up, and both families become happy. Leontes also reunites with the family and finds
Hermoin alive.
Function of Denouement
The denouement is a final resolution or clarification in a literary work. It is used in different types
of storytelling: novels, plays, movies, etc. In fact, it wraps up the whole story, and usually comes
after a huge climax. When a heart-racing climax has created anxiety and excitement,
denouement provides the audience a chance to breathe a sigh of relief. It places everything in
proper order, and allows the central theme or sentiments of the movie or novel to resonate.
Denouement is very important, as it resolves the issues in the end. The whole story can be
destroyed if the denouement is written poorly.
Deus Ex Machina
Definition of Deus Ex Machina
The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine
character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an
interesting outcome.
The use of deus ex machina is discouraged, for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is
viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for this view is
that the writer’s sudden resort to random, insupportable, and unbelievable twists for the purpose
of procuring an ending, highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex machina
is a rather debatable, and often criticized, form of literary device.
The term is Latin for “god out of the machine,” and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It
denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god
or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play.
Requirements of Deus Ex Machina
Deus ex machinas are solutions. They are not to be seen as unexpected twists and turns in the
storyline that end up making things worse, and not as something that contributes towards
changing the understanding of the story. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a
deus ex machina is one that is unsolvable or otherwise hopeless.
It is also that they are sudden or unexpected. This means that the inherent capacity of deus ex
machina to solve the mystery is not apparent until the time the device is actually employed to
procure a viable ending for the plot. However, if some other type of intervention – like common
sense – could have been employed to procure the same result, then no matter how sudden the
solution is, it would not be termed as deus ex machina.
Euripides was one of the most prominent users of deus ex machina. Some scholars believe that
he was the first writer to employ the device in his tragedies. His work is often met with criticism
for the way he structured his plots, and for his underlying ideas.
When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn’t present. From
her vantage point in the chariot, she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that
this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the deus ex machina device within the
plot of the tragedy.
There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of
Hippolytus’ affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However, it is only Artemis who appears. She
explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along, and that it was Aphrodite who had
sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves.
In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus
back with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the
ocean.
Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together. In
consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The
demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces – Helen’s brothers, and sons of Zeus and Leda – appear
astonishingly to interrupt.
Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing the
characters (and the audience) that Helen had been put amongst the stars, and therefore
Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in
their court, and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will
marry Hermione, and that Pylades and Electra will also marry.
The tool of deus ex machina remains a popular one even today, being employed in modern
films, novels, and short stories. However the scope of the term has been effectively widened to
present it as a multifaceted tool.
It can be employed for the purposes of moving a story forward, or when the writer has “painted
himself into a corner” and finds no other escape. He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring
a happy ending to the tale, or as a comedic device.
Diacope
Definition of Diacope
Diacope has originated from a Greek work thiakhop, which means “to cut into two.” This literary
device is a repetition of a phrase or word, broken up by other intervening words. For instance, a
very popular example of diacope is in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, “to be, or not to be!” In
this line, you can notice that the speaker has repeated the phrase “to be,” which is separated by
another phrase “or not.” This is called diacope.
In this song, the phrase “You held me down,” lays emphasis on main idea, which is confidence
and strength in the time of adversity. Then, the repetition of the phrase “you hear” and “I see it”
gives rhythm to the song.
Types of Diacope
Vocative diacope
This type of diacope just repeats a phrase or word for emphasis such as:
Elaborative diacope
This version of diacope repeats a phrase or word with an additional description or adjective that
describes, clarifies, or further lays emphasis on a particular aspect of the thing or subject such
as:
“He is standing with a lovely woman. A tall, well-dressed and beautiful woman.”
Here elaborative diacope adds further clarity to the appearance of a woman: tall, well-dressed
and beautiful.
“Cleopatra: O sun,
Burn the great sphere thou movest in!
darkling stand
The varying shore o’ the world. O Antony,
Antony, Antony! Help, Charmian, help, Iras, help;
Help, friends below; let’s draw him hither …
This is a very good example of vocative diacope, where Cleopatra is repeating the words
“Antony,” “help,” and “dying,” which are shown in bold, for emphasis.
“I can picture in my mind a world without war, a world without hate. And I can picture us
attacking that world, because they’d never expect it.”
This is another example of vocative diacope in which the author has repeated the phrase “a
world without” to emphasize the world.
“He wore prim vested suits with neckties blocked primly against the collar buttons of his primly
starched white shirts. He had a primly pointed jaw, a primly straight nose, and a prim manner
of speaking that was so correct, so gentlemanly, that he seemed a comic antique.”
In the excerpt given above, the author has used elaborative diacope using a word “primly” to
emphasize and illustrate man’s primness that he is prim in looks, actions and dressing, etc.
In the first sentence, the phrase “Life is not lost” is followed by same phrase “Life is lost,” which
is an instance of elaborative diacope. The author has re-defined and clarified it. Another
repetition is on the words “minute” and “day,” which emphasizes passing of time.
Function of Diacope
Dialect
Dialect Definition
A dialect is the language used by the people of a specific area, class, district, or any other group
of people. The term dialect involves the spelling, sounds, grammar and pronunciation used by a
particular group of people and it distinguishes them from other people around them.
Dialect is a very powerful and common way of characterization, which elaborates the
geographic and social background of any character.
Jim: “We’s safe, Huck, we’s safe! Jump up and crack yo’ heels. Dat’s de good ole Cairo at las’, I
jis knows it.”
Huck: “I’ll take the canoe and go see, Jim. It mightn’t be, you know.”
One of the best dialect examples in literature, in which it is used as a literary device, occurs in
this piece by Mark Twain. Here, Twain uses exaggerated dialect to distinguish between the
characters.
Characters that are less educated and less sophisticated are usually shown to be speaking with
a much stronger dialect. At certain points you might even need translations. Such as:
Walter: “Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say
he pizened ’em and put ’em over on the school side of the fence.”
Translation: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost
died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them, and keeping them over on the
school side of the fence.
You can also find great examples of dialect usage in two of George Eliot’s novels, Silas Mariner
and Middlemarch. Another method of using dialect is to knowingly misspell a word to build an
artistic aura around a character, which is termed “metaplasmus.”
There have been several very unique dialects in literature in the past, out of which some have
grown to be more dominant. Old and middle English had distinctive regional dialects. The major
dialects in old English involved Kentish, Northumbrian, Mercian, and West Saxon dialects. As
the years passed, the West Saxon dialect became the standard. Moreover, middle English
included Southern, West Midlands, Northern, East Midlands, and Kentish dialects.
In the British Isles, modern English give out hints of class as well as regional dialects. Almost
every British country has its own variation to a certain extent. A. C. Baugh pointed out that in
one place, at times, you can mark three dialectal regions in a single shire. Modern American
English consists of dialects such as Eastern New England, Mid-southern, Inland Northern,
Southern, General American North, Midland, New York, and Black English Vernacular.
Function of Dialect
The narrative voice in literature usually aspires to speak in concert with the reality it illustrates.
African American authors often criticize this condition, while discussing the significance of
speaking in so-called “standard” American English in comparison with African American English.
Toni Cade Bambara has made a remarkable contribution to this aspect by choosing the
language of her culture and community.
She used her language as a very productive critical tool, and her dialect illustration in The
Lesson functioned as an examination of how the people who listen to it ultimately hear the
disparaged speech. By reviving the language, which had long been marginalized, she
contributes towards the effort to salvage the cultural identity of African Americans. This
integration of non-standard linguistic features into the literature in “the lesson” works as an
insightful response to marginalization. It also proves the strength and power of language in
portraying the diverse realities of people from different places.
Dialogue
Definition of Dialogue
A dialogue is a literary technique in which writers employ two or more characters to be engaged
in conversation with one another. In literature, it is a conversational passage, or a spoken or
written exchange of conversation in a group, or between two persons directed towards a
particular subject. The use of dialogues can be seen back in classical literature, especially in
Plato’s Republic. Several other philosophers also used this technique for rhetorical and
argumentative purposes. Generally, it makes a literary work enjoyable and lively.
Types of Dialogue
• Inner Dialogue – In inner dialogue, the characters speak to themselves and reveal their
personalities. To use inner dialogue, writers employ literary techniques like stream of
consciousness or dramatic monologue. We often find such dialogues in the works of
James Joyce, Virginia Wolf, and William Faulkner.
• Outer Dialogue – Outer dialogue is a simple conversation between two characters,
used in almost all types of fictional works.
“I must go, Cathy,” said Heathcliff, seeking to extricate himself from his companion’s arms. “I
won’t stray five yards from your window…”
Miss Bronte has employed surprises, opposition, and reversals in this dialogue like will-it-
happen, when he says, “But, if I live, I’ll see you …” She has inserted these expressions in order
to develop conflict in the plot.
“And Porfiry.”
“And, by the way, do you have any influence over them, his mother and sister? Tell them to be
more careful with him today …”
“Why is he so set against this Luzhin? A man with money and she doesn’t dislike him …
In this excerpt, notice the use of conflict, emotions, information, conflict, reversal, and opposition
flowing by. The ideas and information are expressed with perfect timing, but here an important
point is that the characters are not responding with a definite answer. This is a beautiful piece of
dialogue.
Example #3: A Dialogue Between Caliban and Ariel (By John Fuller)
“Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year.
What a fine thing for our girls!”
“My dear Mr. Bennet, “replied his wife, “how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am
thinking of his marrying one of them…
My dear, you flatter me. I certainly have had my share of beauty, but I do not pretend to be
anything extraordinary now…she ought to give over thinking of her own beauty.”
Austen explores the characters in her novels through dialogue. Likewise, in this conversation,
the author unfolds Mrs. Bennet’s character as being stupid and worthless. Mr. Bennet makes
fun of her wife, and this dialogue sums up their relationship and gives hints about their
personalities.
Function of Dialogue
The use of dialogue is prevalent in fiction, but this technique can also be found in poetry, non-
fiction, films, and drama. The dialogue has several purposes, such as advancing the plot of a
narrative, and revealing the characters that cannot be understood otherwise. Further, it presents
an exposition of the background or past events, and creates the tone of a narrative. Its usage
can also be seen in modern literary works, where it colors the personalities of the characters,
creates a conflict, highlights the vernacular, and moves the storyline forward. Moreover,
dialogue makes a literary piece interesting and alive, and gives enjoyable experience to the
readers.
Diatribe
Definition of Diatribe
“The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a
different complexion or who have slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing…”
Further, he uses severe criticism terming it a “robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a
great scale,” and Europeans “grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got.”
The character Trofimov appears a stronger person in Act II of Anton Chekov’s Cherry Orchard,
and also the only person who speaks out words of wisdom. In one of the scenes, Trofimov and
Lopakhin begin quarrelling, needled by Lopakhin’s remarks about his status as “eternal
student,” and his flirtation with Anya. Thereby, Trofimov launches a diatribe against Lopakhin
and Russian intelligentsia, as they failed to improve the social conditions of deprived people by
saying,
“The vast majority of those intellectuals whom I know seek for nothing, do nothing, and are at
present incapable of hard work. They call themselves intellectuals, but they use ‘thou’ and ‘thee’
to their servants, they treat the peasants like animals, they learn badly, they read nothing
seriously, they do absolutely nothing, about science they only talk, about art they understand
little …”
In the chambers of Polonius, Laertes counsels Ophelia to rebuff the advances of Prince Hamlet.
Laertes uses diatribe by describing Hamlet in this manner:
Meanwhile, Polonius enters and launches his own diatribe about the topic going on between
Laertes and Ophelia, saying:
He calls Prince Hamlet a robust who is just playing with her feelings.
In Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift attacks humanity. Swift not only uses satire, but also a
diatribe against the follies of human learning, aristocracy, royalty, government of England, the
dominant Whig Party, and war with France. He criticizes the failures and flaws of humanity to
develop its order, reason, and harmony. His first voyage represents a commentary on the moral
state and political events of England. For instance, Swift describes Lilliputians as six inches in
height, displaying a smallness and pettiness symbolic of human institutions, such as state and
church, and the Lilliputian Emperor represents English King George I.
Geoffrey Chaucer has employed bitter criticism in his collection of stories, The Canterbury
Tales. Chaucer attacks Monk violently, by saying that, though his duty is to serve churches and
people, instead he takes an interest in hunting and riding most of the time. Then comes the
Friar, a clergyman whose duty is to hear confessions of the people, but he has married several
women in the town. Chaucer describes him:
“He hadde made ful many a marriage/ Of yonge women at his owene cost.”
Similarly, Chaucer criticizes other characters, such as a nun, the Prioress, the Wife of Bath, the
Parson, the Summoner, and the Pardoner.
Function of Diatribe
Diatribe sharpens the critical faculty of writers. It also enables readers to understand and access
a work, lending it a powerful effect on their lives. Diatribes or bitter criticisms appeal to multiple
readers in different ways, due to their conflicting interpretations and comparisons about the
objects criticized. In addition, diatribe makes readers aware of good and bad qualities of the
objects and persons in question. Besides, it is very common in literary works, politics, and
everyday speech.
Dichotomy
Definition of Dichotomy
Dichotomy is from the Greek word dichotomia, which means “dividing in two.” Dichotomy is a
literary technique that divides a thing into two equal and contradictory parts, or between two
opposing groups. In literary works, writers use this technique for creating conflicts in their stories
and plays. Its common examples in literature are good and evil, soul and body, real and
imaginary, heaven and hell, male and female, and savage and civilized, among others. Often,
dichotomy appears in a single character; however, sometimes writers use separate characters
for representing opposing ideas.
• We need to improve infrastructure of this country; therefore, we will have to raise taxes.
• He is simple, yet strangely entangled in intuition.
• The income of this company is increasing; while its revenue, on the other hand, is
decreasing.
• U.S. society claims to be the most affluent society in the world, but still there is a clear
demarcation between rich and poor.
Examples of Dichotomy in Literature
Example #1: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)
This is the most notable example of dichotomy, where good and bad angels represent two parts
of Faustus’s consciousness. Good angel asks Faustus to repent, and ensures his path to
heaven; while bad angel asks him to seek power, lust, and knowledge that would lead to eternal
damnation.
Conrad has employed different dichotomies in his novel Heart of Darkness, such as light versus
dark, turmoil versus calmness, and savagery versus civilization. In this story, the most
significant dichotomy is savagery and civilization, as in the novel the imperialistic powers are of
the view that they are representing civilization, while the natives are symbolizing savagery.
However, as the story progresses, the civilized imperialistic powers are engaged in brutality
against the locals. Kurtz himself presents an example of dichotomy as, though he is a modern
civilized man, he becomes savage and brutal while living among savages. He realizes this in the
end saying, “The horror…the horror.”
William Shakespeare opens his play, As You Like It, by providing a dichotomy of city versus
country life, where the pastoral mood depends on this contrast. In Act I, Scene I of the play,
Orlando talks about life’s injustices with Oliver, and complains by saying that he “know[s] no
wise remedy how to avoid it.“
When later in this scene, Charles shows a relation between Duke Senior’s whereabouts and his
followers, the remedy becomes clear as he says:
“… in the forest of Ardenne … many young gentlemen … fleet the time carelessly, as they did in
the golden world.”
Many people heal in the dense forest, lovers unite, and duke returns to his throne. However,
Shakespeare reminds his readers that life is not permanent in Ardenne. As the characters get
ready to move back to the court, the author does not favor country life over city life. Instead, he
suggests a necessary and delicate balance between these two sides.
This poem also contains the dichotomy of light versus darkness, such as when Grendel appears
to attack on mead hall at night, which shows evil and dark attacking good and light. Like
Grendel, death represents darkness, whereas treasures Beowulf receives represent light.
Function of Dichotomy
You can find the use of dichotomy in literature, linguistics, philosophy, politics, mathematics,
and life science, which is proof of its wide scope. Since it presents a striking contrast between
two opposite objects or persons, it gives a better understanding to the readers by emphasizing
the differences between opposite qualities of two things, or the same thing. In other words, it
allows the readers to see conflicting sides with more clarity. It is also a very useful literary tool to
identify things and ideas, and to differentiate contradictions between them.
Diction
Diction Definition
Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words by a
speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good writing from bad writing. It
depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words
should be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should
be such that the listener or reader understands easily.
Proper diction, or proper choice of words, is important to get the message across. On the other
hand, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers, which results in
misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed.
Types of Diction
Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings. Therefore, we come
across various types of diction.
• Formal diction – formal words are used in formal situations, such as press conferences
and presentations.
• Informal diction – uses informal words and conversation, such as writing or talking to
friends.
• Colloquial diction – uses words common in everyday speech, which may be different in
different regions or communities.
• Slang diction – is the use of words that are newly coined, or even impolite.
John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He
says:
Notice the use of the formal “ye,” instead of the informal “you.” The formality here is due to the
respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says:
In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem The Sun Rising:
Treating the sun as a real human being in this excerpt, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal
way, using colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because it has appeared to spoil the
good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the “saucy pedantic sun” to go away.
Writers skillfully choose words to develop a certain tone and atmosphere in their works. Read
the following excerpt from a short story The School, by Donald Barthelme:
“And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they just died.
Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn’t the
best. We complained about it. So we’ve got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little
tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown
sticks, it was depressing.”
The use of the words “died,” “dead,” “brown sticks,” and “depressing” gives a gloomy tone to the
passage.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
By repeating the phrase “It was the …” throughout the passage, the writer ensures that the
readers will give more consideration to the characteristic of the era they are going to read about
in the novel.
Function of Diction
In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone, and atmosphere
to their readers. A writer’s choice of words, and his selection of graphic words, not only affect
the reader’s attitude, but also conveys the writer’s feelings toward the literary work. Moreover,
poetry is known for its unique diction, which separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is
marked by the use of figures of speech, rhyming words, and other devices.
Didacticism
Didacticism Definition
Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes
the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions,
along with pleasure and entertainment.
The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts that are overloaded with informative
or realistic matter, and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic,
therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously
dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic.
Morality plays of medieval Europe were perhaps the best exemplars of didactic literature. These
plays were a type of theatrical performance that made use of allegorical characters to teach the
audience a moral lesson. The most common themes that were presented in morality plays were
what are commonly known as “the seven deadly sins”: pride, lust, greed, envy, wrath, sloth and
gluttony. Another theme that such plays exploited was that repentance and redemption were
possible for a person, even when that person intentionally gave in to temptation. Historically,
morality plays were a transitional step that lay between Christian mystery plays and the secular
plays of the Renaissance theatre.
The poem describes an ordinary sinner, “Christian,” who leaves the City of Destruction and
travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. On his way, he finds a
companion, “Faithful,” who helps him on his way to the City.
The moral or didactic lesson that this allegorical poem intends to instruct is that the road to
Heaven is not easy, and it is full of obstacles. Moreover, a Christian has to be willing to pay any
cost to achieve his salvation. Besides, a man is full of sin, but this does not stop him from
achieving glory.
Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man is a moral treatise. It is a satirical verse that intends to instruct
individuals in an indirect way by ridiculing vices of a society.
The above excerpt is taken from the first verse paragraph of the second book of the poem. It
clearly sums up the humanistic and religious principles of the poem.
George Orwell’s Animal Farm is an allegory, or a moral and didactic tale, that uses animals on a
farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar, Nicholas-II, and exposes the evil
of the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. Clearly, the actions of the various animals
on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also contains a
depiction of how powerful people can alter the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on
the farm is:
“All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.”
The animals on the farm stand for different sections of the then-Russian society occupying
Russia after the revolution. For example, “pigs” represents those who became the authority after
the revolution; “Mr. Jones,” the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II;
and “Boxer,” the horse, represents the laborer class. Didacticism in the novel permits Orwell to
make his position on the Russian Revolution apparent, in order to expose its evils.
Function of Didacticism
Didacticism in literature aims at offering something additional to its readers, rather than merely
offering pleasure and entertainment. Some critics may argue that didacticism may reduce
literature to a tool for boring instructions, nevertheless it definitely gives readers a chance to
improve their conduct, and comprehend evils which may lead him astray.
Digression
Definition of Digression
While reading a narrative, a reader comes across several sudden interruptions in the main
action of the story, which provides him background information, establish his interest, describes
a character’s motivation, and builds suspense. These interruptions are called “digressions.” A
digression is a stylistic device authors employ to create a temporary departure from the main
subject of the narrative, to focus on apparently unrelated topics, explaining background details.
However, after this temporary shift, authors return to the main topic at the end of the narrative.
Homer is one of the earliest users of digression during the Grecian Era. He uses digressions in
Iliad to provide the readers with a break from the main narrative, offering background
information and enhancing verisimilitudes of the story. For instance, in Book 11, Homer uses a
small digression when Agamemnon encounters the brothers Hippolokhos and Peisandros in a
battle. When they come to Agamemnon as suppliants, he reminds them that their father once
denied emissaries of Menelaos. Homer employs it as a short interlude that provides the readers
a serious note on the nature of rivalries and the beginnings of war.
J. D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye is rich with digression. Many thought patterns of
Holden Caulfield in the novel seem to be straying from the main topic, and hence unrelated.
However, these digressions are relevant and important for the main topic, as they allow readers
to gain insight into this character. For instance, his statements about the intelligence of his
sister, followed by a description of how carefully she listens, reveals Holding’s concerns.
Another example of digression is his tension about the nuns. Although he enjoyed discussion,
he was worried about being asked whether he is a Catholic or not. This shows his tension for
being judged morally and ethically, and his associations with moralists, who look down upon
those who hide such realities from them.
Dickens launches a lengthy discussion to show how the plot is progressing. This excerpt is a
perfect instance of breaks and digressions in the story, reminding the readers this is not a real
story but a novel, which keeps a distance between readers and characters.
Homer’s Odyssey also contains several interludes and digressions, which take readers away
from the main action of the story. Despite that, these digressions are thematically connected to
the main narrative, namely Odysseus’ journey to home and his several encounters during this
journey. The poem’s style ranges from comic and conversational, to pithy, compact, and
abstruse. For instance, the poem uses similes, comparing one event or action to another
situation or happening in an elaborate or extended manner. For instance, the poet compares a
squid clinging to a rock to Odysseus holding to his boat.
Function of Digression
Dilemma
Definition of Dilemma
Dilemma is a Greek word that means “double proposition,” or “perplexing situation,” which
presents two different possibilities, both of which seem practically acceptable. Dilemma is a
rhetorical device in which a conflicting situation arises for a person to choose between right and
wrong, where both seem of equal worth. Often times, dilemma involves an ethically wrong
decision that may produce desirable outcomes, but which could have moral consequences. Or it
involves a decision in which a person needs to choose one of the two options, both of which are
equally good or bad.
We find a perfect example of moral dilemma in Christopher Marlowe’s play, Dr. Faustus. His
major moral dilemma is he desires to get extensive knowledge for his benefit, but intends to use
it to exploit others. For this, he sells his soul to the representative of Mephistopheles. We see
his moral dilemma through his lust. He wishes to get things that were impossible to get, like
power to rule an entire kingdom, but at heart he feels that he is doing wrong.
William Shakespeare uses several conflicts in his play, Othello, and one of them is person
versus person. We find main the character, Othello, in a dilemma when he faces internal about
conflict whether he should believe in Desdemona or not, and whether she is faithful to him or
not. Othello trusts and loves her, until jealousy arises in him due to Iago’s cruel manipulations.
Charlotte Bronte, in her novel Jane Eyre, demonstrates the characters struggling with their
consciences after facing moral dilemmas. The most prominent characters are Rochester, Saint
John, and Jane. While analyzing Saint John’s character, we come to know that he is determined
to devote his life as a missionary. He thus feels inclined to like the work ethics of Jane, and
proposes to her.
Though John loves another girl, Rosamond Oliver, he cannot marry her, as she would not make
as good a wife as a missionary would. Jane, on the other hand, also struggles with a dilemma
when John tempts her. There is appeal to the life of a missionary, but then she refuses because
she does not love John. Jane’s second moral dilemma comes in the question of whether to
marry Rochester or not, as he is already married to Bertha Mason. She finally resolves this one
by marrying Rochester.
In Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov commits a murder in order
to test his assumption that some people have a right to act in this way because they are capable
of doing such things. Raskolnikov tries several times to justify his actions, and mentally
compares himself with Napoleon Bonaparte, determining that murder is acceptable for pursuing
a higher purpose.
Sophocles raises moral dilemma in his phenomenal play Oedipus Rex, in which he falls victim
to a great tragedy when he sets out to discover the truth of his birth. He seeks the truth with the
expectation that, after knowing the truth, he would be able to set things right in his city.
However, we learn that despite his righteous intentions, everything proves to be a trauma for
him. He faces the dilemma of relieving the people from plague, or leaving it to save himself.
Function of Dilemma
In literature, dilemma is a struggle occurring within the mind of a character. Therefore, it gives
readers an insight into characters’ lives. There may be a single or multiple dilemmas in a story.
However, the purpose is to create a tension and complexity in a narrative by adding confusing
and conflicting ideas. It also creates suspense and excitement in the story from the beginning to
the end. Simply put, the leading characters have to struggle, evolve, and make choices in a
story to change effectively.
Direct Characterization
Definition of Direct Characterization
Direct characterization means the way an author or another character within the story describes
or reveals a character, through the use of descriptive adjectives, epithets, or phrases. In other
words, direct characterization happens when a writer reveals traits of a character in a
straightforward manner, or through comments made by another character involved with him in
the storyline.
Direct characterization helps the readers understand the type of character they are going to
read about. For instance, in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, he describes his character John
Proctor in this way: “He was the kind of man – powerful of body, even-tempered, and not easily
led – who cannot refuse support to partisans without drawing their deepest resentment.”
“The first thing Rainsford’s eyes discerned was the largest man Rainsford had ever seen – a
gigantic creature, solidly made and black bearded to the waist. …
” ‘Ivan is an incredibly strong fellow,’ remarked the general, ‘but he has the misfortune to be
deaf and dumb. A simple fellow, but, I’m afraid, like all his race, a bit of a savage.’ “
The above passage shows a good example of a direct characterization. Here Zaroff has
explicitly described another character Ivan in the story The Most Dangerous Game, leaving
readers with no more questions about him. Ivan is a muscular, huge man, having a long black
beard. He is deaf and dumb, yet strong, Zaroff says.
Example #2: The Old Man and the Sea (by Earnest Hemingway)
“The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches
of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his
cheek … Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the
sea and were cheerful and undefeated.”
Hemingway uses the method of direct characterization to describe the old man’s personality
traits, especially the vivid eyes of his main character, the old man, Santiago in his novel.
“MISS JULIANA TESMAN, with her bonnet on a carrying a parasol, comes in from the hall,
followed by BERTA, who carries a bouquet wrapped in paper. MISS TESMAN is a comely and
pleasant- looking lady of about sixty-five. She is nicely but simply dressed in a grey walking-
costume. BERTA is a middle-aged woman of plain and rather countrified
appearance…GEORGE TESMAN comes from the right into the inner room … He is a middle-
sized, young-looking man … He wears spectacles, and is somewhat carelessly dressed in
comfortable indoor clothes.”
In this excerpt, Henrik Ibsen has described three characters: Miss Tesman, Berta, and George
Tesman. He has clearly shown their personalities and mannerism through direct
characterization.
“Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy,
unaffected manners. … he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above
being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a
most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his
friend.”
Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described in this
excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his pleasant
countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy.
Through monk’s portrait, his physical and social life, readers see a satire of the religious figures
that should live a proper monastic life of hard work and deprivation. This is the achievement of
the description of Chaucer that he has described a character through direct characterization.
Foucault presents possibly the best definition of discourse. He defines discourse as, “Systems
of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, and courses of action, beliefs and practices that
systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak.”
Originally, it has roots in the Latin language. The term assumes slightly different meanings in
different contexts. In literature, discourse means speech or writing, normally longer than
sentences, which deals with a certain subject formally. In other words, discourse is the
presentation of language in its entirety, while performing an intellectual inquiry in a particular
area or field, such as theological discourse or cultural discourse.
Exposition
The main focus of this type of discourse is to make the audience aware about the topic of the
discussion. Definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas and beliefs are examples of
discourse exposition.
Narration
Description
This type involves describing something in relation to the senses. Descriptive discourse enables
the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being discussed. Descriptive parts of novel
or essay are descriptive discourse examples.
Argument
This type of discourse is based on valid logic and, through correct reasoning, tries to motivate
the audience. Examples of argumentative discourse include lectures, essays, and prose.
Poetic discourse is a type of literary conversation which focuses on the expression of feelings,
ideas, imaginations, events, and places through specific rhymes and rhythms. Poetic discourse
makes use of common words in appealing ways to present feelings and emotions. The
mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps starting from different sources, then
entering the mental process, mental realization, and then finally into a finished product as
poetry.
Expressive Discourse
Expressive discourse does not involve the presentation of facts, or the motivating of others, but
is rather a reflection of our emotions that form the foundation of our expressions. This is a form
of basic or entry-level discourse, and is beneficial for beginners in the field of literature. It
primarily deals with generating ideas with no concrete source. Examples include academic
essays and diaries.
Example #2: The Diary of Samuel Pepys (By Samuel Pepys, 1660)
“We met very early at our office this morning to pick out the twenty-five ships which are to be
first paid off. After that to Westminster and dined with Mr. Dalton at his office, where we had one
great court dish, but our papers not being done we could [not] make an end of our business till
Monday next. Mr. Dalton and I over the water to our landlord Vanly, with whom we agree as to
Dalton …”
Transactional Discourse
The basic aim in this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a way that it is clearly
understood without any confusion. Whatever is said has no ambiguity – everything is clear for
the reader. Usually, this type of discourse is in active voice. Examples include instructions,
guidelines, manuals, privacy policies, and patient instructions as written by doctors.
Function of Discourse
The role of discourse is hard to ignore in our daily intellectual pursuits, for it provides a basis to
conduct a comparative analysis and frame our perceptions about different things. For instance,
two competing discourses about the civil war in Syria today can be used to qualify the war as
either “war against dictatorship,” or “war against imperialism.” On the other hand, it could be
deemed as “war against Islam,” or “war for humanity.” Thus, both discourses provide a distinct
style, vocabulary, and presentation, which are required to convey the respective ideas to a
specific audience.
According to Jacques Lucan and Ferdinand de Saussure, language (discourse) is the main
force which works behind all kinds of human activities and changes in social fabric; whereas
Modernists attribute discourse to development and progress. Another important function of
discourse is to generate and preserve truth as argued by the Postmodernist theories.
Dissonance
Definition of Dissonance
Dissonance is the use of impolite, harsh-sounding, and unusual words in poetry. In other words,
it is a deliberate use of inharmonious words, phrases, or syllables intended to create harsh
sounding effects. Dissonance is opposite of assonance, and similar to cacophony, which is also
a use of inharmonious sounds. This unpleasant combination of consonants and vowels create
an awkward sound, which makes the reading uncomfortable, and adds emotional depth to a
situation or moment.
Dissonant sounds also occur in everyday life. For instance, the sound of a crying baby and a
screaming person are dissonant sounds. These sounds are annoying and alarming to the
listeners. In music, dissonance might make listeners feel uncomfortable; however, it helps to
create a sense of tension in musical compositions.
Browning captures the attention of his readers by beginning and ending the above poem with a
word “Gr-r-r.” While in the rest of the stanza, he has employed dissonance.
Whitman has employed dissonance by describing eagles. He has combined assonance and
mono and bi-syllabic words to create dissonance.
This is a very good instance of dissonance, where harsh-toned words interrupt the smooth and
rhythmical flow of the words and hence create disturbing and jarring effect.
In the above lines, Shakespeare has used blank verse and variant vowel sounds to create
unpleasant effects.
Hopkins has used alliteration with high accented syllables and dissonance that echo speaker’s
inner turmoil and noise and uncomfortable situations.
These lines have used abrupt and conversational style. Also, the use of dissonance brings more
abruptness in its style, causing shock and surprise to the readers.
Function
The use of inharmonious sounds creates unpleasant effects and draws attention of the readers
by creating interesting variations. It is found in poetry, plays, advertising, music and everyday
life. Its purpose is to depict some sort of discomfort, making the readers or the audience to feel
shock and surprise. It helps to describe the situations, which are emotionally turbulent and
tumultuous. However, sometimes the poets use dissonance to create humorous effects too.
They often use these sounds in an unexpected manner to discover the limits of the language.
Distortion
Definition of Distortion
Distortion is a literary device that twists, exaggerates, changes, and makes something quite
different from what it actually is. Writers can distort a thought, an idea, a situation, or an image.
They may use symbolism, satire, and personification to present distortion. For instance, in his
novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses personification and symbolism to distort stereotypes
and historical figures. Read on to learn more about distortion in literature.
“Don’t you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range of thought? In the end,
we shall make thoughtcrime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to
express it. Every concept that can ever be needed will be expressed by exactly one word, with
its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten.”
“[…] Every year fewer and fewer words, and the range of consciousness always a little smaller.
Even now, of course, there’s no reason or excuse for committing thoughtcrime. It’s merely a
question of self-discipline, reality-control. But in the end there won’t be any need even for that.”
“[…] In fact there will be no thought, as we understand it now. Orthodoxy means not thinking –
not needing to think. Orthodoxy is unconsciousness.”
In the above excerpt taken from 1984, George Orwell has used distortion of several facts as a
manipulative device. He expresses that this is an important part of human thought, as it either
limits or structures the ideas of individuals. Orwell has rather focused on political language to
distort the story’s concepts and events by naming them differently than their names in our
reality.
Swift uses distortion in his writings, such as the use of diminution to launch an attack on human
grandeur. For instance, in Book I of Gulliver’s Travels, Swift presents the Lilliputian king as
greedy and powerful, and people as diminutive mortals. In fact, the author ridicules their king,
because kings are symbolic figures of grandeur and power. However, the Lilliputian king is just
six inches tall. By manipulating the fact of their physical smallness, the author emphasizes the
moral smallness and pettiness of the Lilliputians.
Shrek is contradictory to traditional fairy tales, because the author did not use a pretty princess
and pompous prince as his leading characters. Rather, he uses an Ogre as a hero, and a less-
than-attractive woman as the damsel in distress. This is a completely reverse situation, with the
author using distorted characters, creating humor as well as an odd storyline.
1. Fiona beats robin-hood, who tries to save her from the ogre. This shows distorts the
situation, showing Fiona to be a damsel in distress, who ends up rescuing herself.
2. The ogre takes the place of a prince, as he goes on a quest to save the princess with a
secret.
3. Donkey lives with the ogre, taking him as a friend – which is absurd, because ogres are
gruesome.
4. Donkey falls in love with a dragon that is likely to eat him. This is a reversal that is
unbelievable for the readers – that donkey and dragon could live together peacefully.
5. Finally, the distortion satire is complete when Fiona herself turns into an ogre at
sundown.
Function
The use of distortion is found mostly in novels, short stories, and advertising. Its basic purpose
is to create humor, and lay emphasis on a point, a thing, or a person by distorting reality.
Sometimes, distortion may highlight a remarkable action or feature through comparison and
contrast. It also criticizes, makes fun, and gives comic relief to readers. In addition, distortion
describes an important feature of the story as being worse or better than it actually is.
Doppelganger
Doppelganger Definition
Types of Doppelganger
It may also be figured as one person existing in two different places at the same time.
Sometimes, a doppelganger is a person’s past or future self. In some cases, it may simply be a
person’s look-alike.
Doppelganger in Folklore
The ghost of Hamlet’s father in Shakespeare’s Hamlet is an example of doppelganger. The idea
of getting revenge is put in Hamlet’s mind by the apparition of his father, who tells him that he
was murdered. The use of a doppelganger helps Shakespeare to set up the plot of his play,
which revolves around the theme of revenge.
William Wilson, a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, follows the theme of doppelganger. William,
the protagonist, meets another boy in school, who had the same name and looked surprisingly
like him. He dressed like him, and even walked like him. The only difference between them was
that William’s doppelganger could only talk in a whisper.
The doppelganger haunts William all his life. Worn out by interference from his double in his
affairs, William stabs him, only to discover – looking in the mirror –that he has stabbed himself.
He hears the voice of his rival as if it was his own:
“In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly
thou hast murdered thyself.”
Joseph Conrad uses a doppelganger theme in his short story The Secret Sharer. In the story,
Laggatt, the ex-skipper of a ship, acts as a doppelganger of the Captain. The Captain discovers
Laggatt swimming in the sea naked, helps him come aboard, and gives him his clothes to wear.
The men have both similarities and dissimilarities. Laggatt, who is full of calmness and self-
confidence, helps the Captain to get rid of his uncertainty and undue apprehensions. In fact,
Laggatt is other self of the Captain, whom he has failed to discover until then.
Example #4: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson)
Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde. Hyde is an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Jekyll creates Hyde by scientific
experiments, to prove his statement:
He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good, and Hyde is the manifestation of
the evil that existed in Dr. Jekyll. As a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill
the evil desires existing in him. Therefore, he separates his “evil-self,” giving him a separate
identity.
Function of Doppelganger
A survey of doppelganger examples leads one to conclude that this literary device serves a
variety of purposes in literature. It may be used to show the “other self” of a character, which he
or she has not discovered yet. This “other self” could be the darker side of the character that
troubles, or the brighter side that motivates. Hence, the use of doppelganger helps writers to
portray complex characters.
Moreover, doppelganger gives rise to a conflict in a story. The doppelganger acts in a way that
promises dire consequences for the main character, who puts in efforts to undo the actions of
his double. Sometimes, the conflict is an inner one, where a character tries to understand
himself by understanding his doppelganger.
Double Entendre
Definition of Double Entendre
A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a figure of speech that
might have multiple senses, interpretations, or two different meanings, or which might be
understood in two different ways. Oxford Dictionary says that it “conveys an indelicate
meaning.” The first meaning in double entendre is usually straightforward, while the second
meaning is ironic, risqué, or inappropriate.
Double entendre is used in literature, everyday life, films, magazines, and newspapers to
criticize and provide entertainment, and sometimes to make people laugh. It is widely used for
insinuation and irony. William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer have made use of double
entendre in their works.
Example #1: The 2,548 Best things Anybody Ever Said (By Robert Byrne )
“Marriage is a fine institution, but I’m not ready for an institution.” (Mae West)
The word “institution” in connection with marriage has two meanings in here. One, it refers to
marriage as an important custom of a society. Two, marriage is something that will cause an
individual to go to a mental institution.
The audience may wonder why the nurse reacted negatively when Mercutio was plainly stating
the time. This is because he was saying something quite different … something that is sexual in
meaning: bawdy, meaning “lustful,” and prick, meaning “penis.”
Example #3: Are You Being Served (By Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft)
Mrs. Slocombe: “Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to
complain about the state of our drawers. They’re a positive disgrace.”
Mr. Rumbold: “Your what, Mrs. Slocombe?”
Mrs. Slocombe: “Our drawers. They’re sticking. And it’s always the same in damp weather.”
Mr. Rumbold: “Really…”
Mrs. Slocombe: “They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse.”
Mr. Rumbold: “I’m not surprised.”
Miss Brahms: “I think they need sandpapering.”
Underwear and the sliding part of a cabinet (where items are placed) are both called “drawers.”
One can’t help but laugh when one thinks of drawers as underwear, and hears the characters
say their drawers are “sticking,” and are thus “a positive disgrace,” and when a man “…put
beeswax on them,” which “… made them worse.”
It happens that Odysseus lands on the island of one-eyed giant Polyphemus and enters his
caves with his twelve valiant soldiers. However, he is caught and imprisoned when the Cyclops
closed its door with a huge stone wheel. When the Cyclops asks his name, he tells him that his
name is “Nobody” and then plans with his surviving soldiers to blind him with a log made hot
and sharpened with knives. When they succeed, the Cyclops cries out at the top of his voice
saying, “Nobody has hurt me. Nobody is going to kill me.”
Here, “Nobody” has been used as a double entendre as it has double meanings. On the one
hand, it means that “Nobody” that is Odysseus has blinded him while on the other hand it
means that nobody has done this to the Cyclops.
As double entendre is a phrase that expresses double meanings, the purpose of using double
entendre is usually to articulate one thing perfectly and indirectly. This is generally an insult, or
an insinuation. Shakespeare made use of this device to add humor to his work. If the audience
is able to understand the different meanings that the actors or characters are trying to convey,
double entendres will surely create laughter, or put forward a certain suggestion.
Drama
Definition of Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the
literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for
theater, television, radio, and film.
Types of Drama
• Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a happy
conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience
laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks.
• Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and death.
Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their downfall.
• Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or
engages slapstick humor.
• Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals
directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of a single
dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.
• Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories through acting
and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic,
though it may also involve serious subjects.
Much Ado About Nothing is the most frequently performed Shakespearian comedy in modern
times. The play is romantically funny, in that love between Hero and Claudio is laughable, as
they never even get a single chance to communicate on-stage until they get married.
Their relationship lacks development and depth. They end up merely as caricatures,
exemplifying what people face in life when their relationships are internally weak. Love between
Benedick and Beatrice is amusing, as initially their communications are very sparky, and they
hate each other. However, they all of sudden make up, and start loving each other.
Sophocles’ mythical and immortal drama Oedipus Rex is thought to be his best classical
tragedy. Aristotle has adjudged this play as one of the greatest examples of tragic drama in his
book, Poetics, by giving the following reasons:
• The play arouses emotions of pity and fear, and achieves the tragic catharsis.
• It shows the downfall of an extraordinary man of high rank, Oedipus.
• The central character suffers due to his tragic error called hamartia; as he murders his
real father, Laius, and then marries his real mother, Jocasta.
• Hubris is the cause of Oedipus’ downfall.
Farce:
Oscar Wilde’s play, The Importance of Being Earnest, is a very popular example of Victorian
farce. In this play, a man uses two identities: one as a serious person, Jack (his actual name),
which he uses for Cesily, his ward, and as a rogue named Ernest for his beloved woman,
Gwendolyn.
Unluckily, Gwendolyn loves him partially because she loves the name Ernest. It is when Jack
and Earnest must come on-stage together for Cesily, then Algernon comes in to play Earnest’
role, and his ward immediately falls in love with the other “Ernest.” Thus, two young women
think that they love the same man – an occurrence that amuses the audience.
Melodrama:
The Heiress is based on Henry James’ novel the Washington Square. Directed for stage
performance by William Wyler, this play shows an ungraceful and homely daughter of a
domineering and rich doctor. She falls in love with a young man, Morris Townsend, and wishes
to elope with him, but he leaves her in the lurch. The author creates melodrama towards the
end, when Catherine teaches a lesson to Morris, and leaves him instead.
Function of Drama
Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can directly speak to their
readers, or the audience, and they can receive instant feedback of audiences. A few dramatists
use their characters as a vehicle to convey their thoughts and values, such as poets do with
personas, and novelists do with narrators. Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus
language of characters plays a vital role, as it may give clues to their feelings, personalities,
backgrounds, and change in feelings. In dramas the characters live out a story without any
comments of the author, providing the audience a direct presentation of characters’ life
experiences.
Dramatic Irony
Definition of Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays, movies, theaters,
and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a useful plot device for creating
situations in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and
their resolutions before the leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the
speech of actors takes on unusual meanings.
For instance, the audience knows that a character is going to be murdered, or will make a
decision to commit suicide; however, one particular character or others may not be aware of
these facts. Hence, the words and actions of characters would suggest a different meaning to
the audience from what they indicate to the characters and the story. Thus, it creates intense
suspense and humor. This speech device also emphasizes, embellishes, and conveys emotions
and moods more effectively.
“There’s no art
To find the mind’s construction in the face:
He was a gentleman on whom I built
An absolute trust.”
This is one of the best examples of dramatic irony. In this case, Duncan says that he trusts
Macbeth, not knowing about the prophecy of witches that Macbeth is going to be the king, and
that he would kill him. The audience, on the other hand, knows about the prophecy. This
demonstrates dramatic irony.
Jonathan Richman’s comedy movie, There’s Something About Mary, contains several instances
of dramatic irony. For instance, when Ted thinks that the police have arrested him for picking up
a hitchhiker, the audience knows that the police are actually interrogating him about a murder.
Therefore, when Ted delivers these seemingly-innocuous lines, it is comedic to the audience.
This is another very good example of dramatic irony, when Iago manipulates Othello, and
Othello puts his faith in Iago as an honest man. However, Iago is plotting against him without his
knowledge. Again, the audience knows that Iago is deceiving, but Othello does not.
Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)
Oedipus Rex presents one of the best examples of dramatic irony of all time. In the play,
Oedipus seeks to expose the murderer of King Laius to solve a riddle; nonetheless, he himself
is the murderer. Here, he declares that the murderer, who has killed Laius, might also kill him,
not realizing the fact that he himself is the murderer.
“To be able to be free from care, quite free from care; to be able to play and romp with the
children; to be able to keep the house beautifully and have everything just as Torvald likes it!”
Nora is delightedly looking forward to those moments when she would be able to pay off her
debts to Krogstad. This reflects that she would be free. However, her speech shows the use of
dramatic irony when the readers know that her freedom is, in fact, bondage, which she comes to
realize by the end of the story.
Many writers use dramatic irony as an effective tool to sustain and excite the readers’ interest.
Since this form of irony creates a contrast between situation of characters and the episodes that
unfold, it generates curiosity. By allowing the audience to know important facts ahead of the
leading characters, dramatic irony puts the audience and readers above the characters, and
also encourages them to anticipate, hope, and fear the moment when a character would learn
the truth behind events and situations of the story.
More often, this irony occurs in tragedies, where readers are lead to sympathize with leading
characters Thus, this irony emphasizes the fatality of incomplete understanding on honest and
innocent people, and demonstrates the painful consequences of misunderstandings.
Dynamic Character
Definition of Dynamic Character
Like a round character, a dynamic character also undergoes changes throughout the narrative,
due to conflicts he encounters on his journey. A dynamic character faces trials and tribulations,
and takes time to learn from his encounters, his experiences, and his mistakes, as well as from
other characters. Sometimes a character learns a lesson, and gains maturity, such as Prince
Hal in Shakespeare’s Henry IV.
Some characters discover mistakes in their points of view, and others discover important
aspects of their own personalities, such as Neville Longbottom did in Harry Potter and the
Sorcerer’s Stone. All of these changes make a character dynamic, but they are implied
changes, not stated outright.
Though dynamic and round characters both undergo character development, there is a slight
difference between them. The traits of a dynamic character are not described outright. Rather,
his traits are referred to as they change over time. On the other hand, a round character’s traits
are complex, and described by the author. Round characters are dynamic as well, such as
Hamlet.
The most important conflict in this novel is the inner conflict of Harry Potter, which makes him a
dynamic character. Harry perceives that he shares some abilities similar to Tom Riddle, who
becomes the evil Lord Voldemort, and this makes him worry that he might also turn out to be an
evil character.
Dumbledore mentions Harry’s presence in Gryffindor House, and Tom Riddle’s in Slytherin
House. Harry, in a defeated tone, says, “It only puts me in Gryffindor” because Harry did not
want to go in Slytherin. Beaming again, Dumbledore says, “exactly … Which makes you very
different from Tom Riddle. It is our choices, Harry … far more than our abilities.” Harry learns
this lesson about the importance of the choices one makes. It resolves his inner conflict, making
him a good example of a dynamic character.
Throughout the play, Hamlet is worried about life and death, and it is this apprehension that
makes him a dynamic character. The greatest fear of Hamlet is the afterlife, which is quite
understandable, because his father’s Ghost comes out of purgatory and tells him about the
horror and terror awaiting there.
Because of his preoccupation with this fear, Hamlet does not act out on his desire to take
vengeance on Claudius. Nevertheless, when he visits the graveyard, and holds Yorick’s dead
skull, he becomes apprehensive of the inevitability of death. Hamlet thinks that even great men,
such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, could not escape it. This philosophical change
in his perspective about death lets him finally take revenge on King Claudius.
There are four dynamic characters in this novel: Jack, Ralph, Simon, and Piggy. Jack is the
most prominent among them – an important dynamic character who goes through a lot of
changes during the course of the novel. On the island, Jack encounters life-changing
experiences that develop and change the character forever. He has never thought that he would
live the way he lives on the island. His authoritative nature, violence, and instinctual behavior
make him a dynamic character.
Example #4: Sydney Carton, A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens)
Sydney Carton is another good example of a dynamic character. At the very beginning of the
story, Carton describes himself as he states, “I am a disappointed drudge, sir. I care for no man
on earth, and no man on earth cares for me.” He throws himself in a depressed state – digging
a hole from which he is sure he could never escape.
Sydney is frustrated, and thinks his purpose in life is only to serve C. J. Stryver. The only
beautiful part of his life is his love for Lucie Manette. When he hears the news that she will
marry Charles Darnay, Sydney is heartbroken, which drives him to reveal his feelings to her.
This conversation brings a turning point in Sydney’s life, which causes him to begin taking better
care of himself and people around him.
A dynamic character plays an important role in a narrative. Often it is the main character of the
story, which helps to build a compelling and convincing story. By going through an important
transition, having a coming-of-age experience, pulling through trials, gaining maturity, feeling a
change of the heart, and developing likable qualities, a dynamic character shows he has made
a full transformation. All these changes bring a flavor to the story line and an element of surprise
to the readers.
Dysphemism
Definition of Dysphemism
Dysphemism is originated from the Greek word dys, means “miss,” or “none,” and pheme, which
means “reputation,” or “speech.” It is a figure of speech that is defined as the use of disparaging
or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive ones. Dysphemism is the use of negative
expressions instead of positive ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the
disapproved person or character. Dysphemism examples may be classified according to the
following types.
Types of Dysphemism
Opposite to Euphemism
Euphemism is a mild and positive expression used to replace an unpleasant or negative one.
Whereas dysphemism is the opposite of euphemism; it is the replacement of a positive or
neutral expression with an unpleasant or negative one.
“Let him remember too, cried Mr. Casey to her from across the table, the language with which
the priests and the priests’ pawns broke Parnell’s heart and hounded him into his grave. Let him
remember that too when he grows up.
“— Sons of bitches! cried Mr.Daedalus. When he was down they turned on him to betray him
and rend him like rats in a sewer. Low–lived dogs! And they look it! By Christ, they look it!
They behaved rightly, cried Dante. They obeyed their bishops and their priests. Honour to
them!”
In this excerpt, Mr. Daedalus uses very harsh words in order to express his anger. Though he
could have used less offensive words, Joyce has employed the dysphemistic technique. These
humiliating expressions are shown in bold.
HAMLET
“Oh, that this too, too sullied flesh would melt,
Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew,
Or that the Everlasting had not fixed
His canon ‘gainst self–slaughter! O God, God…
Fie on’t, ah fie! ‘Tis an unweeded garden
That grows to seed…
Hamlet feels despondency about his mother’s second marriage to his uncle. Hence, he uses
harsh language to state that his flesh could have melted away, or that God has not forbidden
suicide, and “fie on’t” means “damn it.” His father is like a god (Hyperion), and his uncle is like a
beast (satyr).
Example #3: The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
“Whatever else is unsure in this stinking dunghill of a world a mother’s love is not…”
Stephen Daedalus, in this excerpt, uses a harsh and disparaging term for a world that is a
“stinking dunghill,” while comparing it to a mother’s love which is opposite to that, being pure
and free of such negativities of the world.
OTHELLO
“By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in ‘s hand.
O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart…”
DESDEMONA
“Alas, he is betrayed and I undone.”
OTHELLO
“Out, strumpet! weep’st thou for him to my face?”
OTHELLO
“Down, strumpet.”
Here, Shakespeare uses the first type of dysphemism, which is Synecdoche, which means he
describes the character of Desdemona as a sinful person by calling her a “perjured woman,”
and a “strumpet,” which is an offensive word meaning “whore.”
Function of Dysphemism
Dystopia
Definition of Dystopia
Dystopia is a world in which everything is imperfect, and everything goes terribly wrong.
Dystopian literature shows us a nightmarish image about what might happen to the world in the
near future. Usually the main themes of dystopian works are rebellion, oppression, revolutions,
wars, overpopulation, and disasters. On the other hand, utopia is a perfect world – exactly
opposite of dystopia.
Characteristics of Dystopia
Suzanne Collins depicts a dystopic world, Panem, in a futuristic society in her series, The
Hunger Games. Consisting of a central government referred to as “Capitol,” and thirteen remote
districts, Panem displays a model of dystopian society due to harsh separation and
discrimination between the unkind Capitol and the poor, enslaved outlying districts.
We notice throughout the novel that Panem’s Capitol makes use of intimidation and violence to
control its people living in the Districts. It forces the districts to engage in “The Games” to
enforce servitude under the guise of celebrating an absence of war. Though Capitol itself might
appear utopian, due to an excessive availability of opulent consumer goods, its abundance of
riches comes at the expense of the remote Districts.
In his classic novel, 1984, George Orwell shows a dystopian society. He has written this novel
to describe the future, and the ways government takes advantage of new technologies in order
to rule and control the people. The leading character, Winston Smith, falls in a trap where Big
Brother, a leader of the party always watches him and other low-grade members of that society.
Inner party members live a life of luxury, while outer members live in dirty apartments. Besides,
there is no emotional and mental freedom. The party does not allow anyone to rebel, even by
using their minds. We see violence everywhere in this dystopic society, and the majority of
people are poor, which further proves it as a fine example of dystopia. We notice everything
goes decrepit, and its scenes are often dreary and dark.
Aldous Huxley, in his most challenging novel, Brave New World, depicts a futuristic society
where individual sacrifices for the cause of state, science controls and subjugates all types of
history, and the arts are outlawed. Shortly, this book perfectly fits into a classic form of
dystopian literature.
Huxley draws dystopia through emotional and political events. He brings a dystopian setting by
the mention of technology and higher authorities. With the increased use of technology, the
need for a human work force decreases, leaving them with a great deal of depression. The
novel explores the dark side of an apparently successful world, where everyone looks satisfied
and contented with excessive pleasures of technology, which they achieve by sacrificing their
personal freedoms.
Lois Lowry wrote a dystopian fiction, The Giver, because she thought it to be the best way to
express her dissatisfaction about the unawareness of human beings about their dependence
upon each other, their surroundings, and their environment. By using ironical situations of the
utopian appearances, she exposes dystopian realities, in order to provoke readers to raise
questions, and value their individual identities and freedom.
In this novel, Jonas’ community has no starvation, poverty, lack of housing, unemployment, or
prejudice, and everything seems perfect. However, as the novel advances, Jonas gets insight
into people’s personal lives, and notices that they have given up their individualities and
freedoms. Besides, the community is a hypocrite conforming to false ideas and becoming a bad
place in which to live.
Function of Dystopia
Through dystopia, authors express their concerns about issues of humanity and society, and
warn the people about their weaknesses. Authors use dystopia as a literary technique to
discuss reality, and depict issues that might happen in the future. Thus, the role of dystopia in
literary works is to educate and give awareness to the audience. Dystopias also serve as
warnings about the current state of affairs of a government, or of those in power. In dystopic
writings, authors point out the wrong-doings in a society or a system – the reason that it is often
called a critique.
Elegy
Elegy Definition
Elegy is a form of literature that can be defined as a poem or song in the form of elegiac
couplets, written in honor of someone deceased. It typically laments or mourns the death of the
individual.
Elegy is derived from the Greek work elegus, which means a song of bereavement sung along
with a flute. The forms of elegy we see today were introduced in the 16th century. Elegy Written
in a Country Churchyard, by Thomas Gray, and When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d, by
Walt Whitman are the two most popular examples of elegy.
Features of Elegy
• Just like a classical epic, an elegy typically starts with the invocation of the muse, and
then proceeds by referencing traditional mythology.
• It often involves a poet who knows how to phrase thoughts imaginatively in the first
person.
• Questions are raised by the poet about destiny, justice, and fate.
• The poet associates the events of the deceased with events in his own life by drawing a
subtle comparison.
• This kind of digression gives the poet space to go beyond the main or crude subject to a
deeper level where the connotations might be metaphorical.
• Towards the end the poet generally tries to provide comfort to ease the pain of the
situation. Christian elegies usually proceed from sorrow and misery, to hope and
happiness because they say that death is just a hindrance in the way of passing from the
mortal state into the eternal state.
• An elegy is not always based on a plot.
Examples of Elegy from Literature
Example #1: In Memory of W. B. Yeats (By W. H. Auden)
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will;
The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done;
From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won; 20
Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells!
But I, with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.”
Whitman wrote this elegy for Abraham Lincoln (16th president of the United States).
Function of Elegy
Elegy is one of the richest literary forms because it has the capacity to express emotions that
deeply influence people. The strongest of the tools elegy uses is its reliance on memories of
those who are no more. Most of the poets who wrote elegies were evidently awed by the frailty
of human beings, and how the world completely forgets about the deceased at some point.
However, the function of elegy is not as limited as it is thought. Whenever we take a look at
elegy examples, what comes to mind are feelings like sorrow, grief, and lamentation; but, a
study of the Latin elegy tells us otherwise. A great deal of genre created in western literature
was inspired by Latin elegy, which was not always so somber. The most famous elegiac poets
in Latin literature, such as Catullus, Ovid, and Propertius, used humor, irony, even slotted
narratives into a poem and still called them elegy.
Elision
Definition of Elision
By merely looking at contraction and elision examples, one would think the two are the same.
However, there is a slight difference between them. Contraction is a more general term referring
to the combination of two words to form a shorter word. For instance, can’t is a contraction of
“can” + “not,” which is a combination of two words. On the other hand, elision is a specific term.
It is the omission of sounds, syllables, or phrases, and replacing them with an apostrophe. For
instance, ne’er is an elided form of “never.” Similarly, gonna is an elision of the phrase “going
to.”
In this excerpt, Pope has elided several words, such as amorous, which is elided into “am’rous,”
even into “ev’n,” unexplored into “unexplor’d,” and similarly, through and opened are shortened
to maintain regular pentameter.
Elision is employed perfectly in Dr.Faustus. In this excerpt, the author has eliminated
unstressed syllables in order to give a smooth flow to the speech. The elided words are marked
in bold.
In this excerpt, the elided words include “o’er” and “glow’ring“. The vowel “e” is eliminated and
replaced with an apostrophe. Through elision the rhythm and meter of the poem is maintained.
Here the word disturbed is elided into “disturb’d.” In a similar way, stretched, attained, and filled
are elided.
Function of Elision
Usually used deliberately, elisions are often found in prose and poetry with the objective to
continue a regular meter, or to create flow in iambic pentameter. Since a specific meter is
required, elision is employed to achieve the set number of syllables necessary to create flow in
a piece. Several other languages use elision to cut down the number of words or to improve the
flow of speech.
Ellipsis
Ellipsis Definition
Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event,
which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written
between the sentences as a series of three dots, like this: “…”
Apart from being convenient, ellipses also help in advancing the story. Leaving out part of a
sentence or an event by substituting it with ellipses is often done to either save time, or as a
stylistic element. The ellipsis can be dated back to Ernest Hemingway, who presented the
Iceberg theory, which is also called the theory of omission.
Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia Woolf’s novel To
the Lighthouse. This book involves two parts, one before the World War I was fought and won,
and the latter accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the events that occurred in
between have not been mentioned in the book. Rather, it has left to the readers to deduce the
events from the notable changes that have occurred in the characters’ lives.
Example #2: Crash Blossoms, The New York Times, Jan. 27, 2010 (By Ben Zimmer)
“The potential for unintended humor in ‘compressed’ English isn’t restricted to headline writing; it
goes back to the days of the telegraph. One clever (though possibly apocryphal) example once
appeared in the pages of Time magazine: Cary Grant received a telegram from an editor
inquiring, ‘HOW OLD CARY GRANT? – to which he responded: ‘OLD CARY GRANT FINE.
HOW YOU?’ The omitted verb may have saved the sender a nickel, but the snappy comeback
was worth far more.”
Function of Ellipsis
Ellipsis is also very commonly used in filmmaking. The parts and scenes that are of no
significance to the film are usually omitted by editing. For instance, there would be no point in
showing a scene that involves a character walking to the door to answer it unless there is
something absolutely important in that scene that you would like to highlight. Normally, such a
scene would be cut short by editing out the unnecessary parts. In such cases, the narrative logic
allows the audience to ignore the ellipsis.
A very good example of the use of ellipsis in filmmaking would be Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A
Space Odyssey. The movie directly proceeds to the modern technology (space station) from the
most primitive tool of mankind (a bone). In film language, this kind of ellipsis is often called a
match cut. It is bridged by the symbolic comparison between the two things.
What is its significance in the actual composition? This question has been deemed very
important, and many writers have answered it by underlining the importance of avoiding
superfluity. Each and every part of a narrative has to fulfill a purpose or it’s all for naught. As
Aristotle writes about the action of tragedy:
“The structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed,
the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence makes no
visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole” (Poetics 8).
Sir Philip Sidney’s concern is slightly different from what has been stated above, but he still
emphasizes that every component bears significance, as he said, “one word cannot be lost but
the whole work fails” (An Apology for Poetry, 122). This idea is not just limited to classical
narratives and poems. The idea of functionality, referring to the notion that every part is
important, and what is not important is not necessary, assembles economic and organic
principles. It is founded on the concept that there is no waste in nature. The relevance of
economy does not become any less important if we move from looking at the inherent structure,
to studying the meaning of the narrative as a representation of the ideas and perspective of the
author.
End Rhyme
Definition of End Rhyme
If you have ever sung a song or read a poem aloud, you must have encountered end rhymes,
because these are a common type of rhyming pattern used in a poetic structure. End rhyme
occurs when the last syllables or words in two or more lines rhyme with each other. It is also
known as “tail rhyme,” and occurs at the ends of the lines. The lines ending in similar sounds
are pleasant to hear, and give musical effect to the poem or song. This is called the end rhyme.
Types of Rhyme
There are several types of rhyme besides end rhyme, of which end rhyme is one of the most
commonly used types of poetic rhymes. Other types of rhyme include:
Internal rhyme uses two rhyming words within a single line of poetry, such as:
However, end rhyme comprises of the final words or syllables of the lines such as:
Mostly, Aesop’s fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all
literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children
are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for
the future. Maxims like “Be friends with whom you don’t like,” “Don’t judge people by the way
they look,” and “Slow and steady wins the race” are normally the lessons found behind many
stories.
“A word is dead
When it is said,
Some say.
I say it just
Begins to live
That day.”
As can be seen, the first and the second lines use end rhyme with the words “dead” and “said.”
The other example of this rhyming pattern is in the third line with the sixth line on the words
“say” and “day.” Thus, it is the choice of the poet whether to use end rhyme throughout the
entire poem for creating strong rhythm, or use some other rhyming pattern.
In these lines, the words “blow” and “row” rhyme in the first and second lines, and word “below”
in final line also rhyme with them. Similarly, words “sky” and “fly” rhyme in the third and fourth
lines. The poet uses end rhyme to create rhythmic flow, as he describes his sorrow for fallen
soldiers died in the World War I.
In this example, Frost has used end rhyme at the end of the first, second, and fourth lines with
the words “know” “though,” and “snow.” These rhyming lines add flow to the piece, and a
pleasant effect to the poem.
See end rhyme occurring on the final syllables “stair” and “prayer” of the first and third lines; and
“doubt” and “out” in the second and fifth lines.
The poets often use end rhyme to create rhythm in their works. If they use it throughout the
entire poem, then it creates a beautiful rhyming pattern, giving musical quality to the poem,
because it adds flow in a perfect rhythmic way. It serves as a strong mnemonic device that
facilitates memorization. In addition, its regular use marks off the ending of the lines, thus
elucidating metrical structure for the audience. Songwriters also make use of it frequently to
make their lyrics sound appealing, and often it becomes easier for the audience to remember.
End-Stopped Line
Definition of End-Stopped Line
An end-stopped line is a poetic device in which a pause comes at the end of a syntactic unit
(sentence, clause, or phrase). This pause can be expressed in writing as a punctuation mark,
such as a colon, semi-colon, period, or full stop.
According to A. C. Bradley, a line would be an end-stopped line, when the meter and sense
both make a natural pause at its end such as in this line:
Opposite of Enjambment
Enjambment is the opposite of end-stopped line. Thus, examples of end-stopped line should
never be confused with enjambment examples. When a break or pause comes at the end of a
line or sentence, it is called an end-stopped line. However, when a break comes in the middle of
a phrase or line and the idea moves on to the next line, it is called “enjambment.” Like in these
lines:
These lines are very good example of end-stopped line. Each line ends with a punctuation
mark, followed by a pause, which gives a sense of a separate unit. These pauses give rhythm
and tempo to the poem.
These lines all end with grammatical breaks. Also, these end-stopped lines contain complete
phrases and make sense. Here, each sentence corresponds to the length of a line, and that
pause slows down the pace of poem.
End-stopped line is used in this entire poem where each line ends with a pause marked by a
punctuation sign. This gives rhythmic and poetic effect. Apart from that, it provides greater
flexibility to the poet.
In the above lines, the ends of the lines correspond to the ending of the clause. Also, there are
strong breaks at the closing of each line, which helps making the meaning explicit.
The purpose of using end-stopped lines is to give poetic and rhythmic effect to the literary text.
They tend to slow down the speed and give a clear idea of each line by creating a break at the
end. Besides, it provides regularity to the meter of a poetic text. End-stopped lines make poetry
more coherent and accessible, and helps the readers ponder on the sentences. Hence, the
reader is able to explore deeper meanings and sense in lines where end-stop is given.
Enjambment
Definition of Enjambment
Enjambment, derived from the French word enjambment, means to step over, or put legs
across. In poetry it means moving over from one line to another without a terminating
punctuation mark. It can be defined as a thought or sense, phrase or clause, in a line of poetry
that does not come to an end at the line break, but moves over to the next line. In simple words,
it is the running on of a sense from one couplet or line to the next without a major pause or
syntactical break.
Features of an Enjambment
This poem is a perfect example of enjambment. In this poem, every line is running over to the
next, while the sense is not finished at the end of lines, without pause or break. None of the
lines make sense – or stand on their own – without the next line.
Endymion is a famous example of enjambment. The first and last lines in the given poem have
end marks, while the middle lines are enjambed. There is a flow of thought from one line to the
next.
Shakespeare frequently used enjambment in his plays. This extract is filled with the heavy use
of enjambment. In each line, the linguistic unit finishes mid-line with a caesura. The meaning
flows from one line to next, and readers are forced to read the subsequent lines.
In this extract, only two lines (4 and 7) are end-stopped. The rest of the lines are enjambed.
Each line is expanded unexpectedly by enjambment. The thought and sense flow into the next
lines.
“After dark, stars glisten like ice, and the distance they span
Hides something elemental. Not God, exactly. More like
Some thin-hipped glittering Bowie-being—a Starman
Or cosmic ace hovering, swaying, aching to make us see.”
In the above example, Smith has used enjambment at the end of each line, which continues
until the last line, where an end-stop is used.
Does it dry up
Like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore —
And then run? …
Or does it explode?“
This is a good example of enjambment. The poet uses a simile to compare a missed dream to a
raisin getting dried in the sunlight, starting in the second line and ending in the third line. Then
enjambment occurs in the ninth and the last lines. The fourth and seventh lines also use
because the meaning continues to move on to the next lines.
Example #7: Endymion (By John Keats)
Here the first four lines are enjambed, the meaning and thought not ending. It rather moves on
to the next lines, which maintain rhythm and pull the readers along from line to line.
a red wheel
barrow
Williams has used enjambment in the entire poem. There are four couplets, all of which have
meaning continuing into the next lines, giving a flow to the poem.
Functions of Enjambment
Enjambment can be used to surprise readers by delaying the meaning of a line until the
following line is read. Some writers use this technique to bring humorous effects to their work. It
is good to use in verse in order to create a sense of natural motion.
In poetry, the role of enjambment is normally to let an idea carry on beyond the restrictions of a
single line. Another purpose of enjambment is to continue a rhythm that is stronger than a
permanent end-stop, wherein complicated ideas are expressed in multiple lines.
Enthymeme
Definition of Enthymeme
An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor
premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied, is called an
“enthymeme.” However, the omitted premise in an enthymeme remains understandable even if
is not clearly expressed. For instance, in the sentence, “Where there is smoke, there is fire,” the
hidden premise is: fire causes smoke.
Enthymeme is a rhetorical device like syllogism, and is known as truncated or rhetoric syllogism.
Its purpose is to influence the audience, and allow them to make inferences. Such inferences
can be easily recognized, as these statements comes after “because.”
Enthymeme is like syllogism, and yet different. The difference is that a syllogism is a deductive
logic that contains three parts, and in which both premises have valid conclusion such as:
Whereas in enthymeme, writers keep one premise implied, which means both premises do not
have valid conclusions. It is an incomplete argument such as:
The hidden premise: He is innocent by nature and, therefore, could never be a criminal.
• “Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend
of mine. Senator, you’re no Jack Kennedy.” – Lloyd Bentsen to Dan Quayle in U.S. Vice-
Presidential debate in 1988. (The hidden premise: Jack Kennedy was a great man, but
you are not.)
• He is a U.S. citizen, so he is entitled to due process. (The hidden premise: All citizens of
the U.S. are entitled to due process.)
• With a name like Bonanza, it has to be good. (The hidden premise: Bonanza is a
prestigious company, therefore it is good.)
Plebian: “Mark’d ye his words? He would not take the crown. Therefore ’tis certain he was not
ambitious.”
From the above line from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, it is clear that Brutus is an ambitious
and honorable man. Thus, a major hidden premise is that all honorable and respectable men
are ambitious.
Example #2: New York Times Interview, May 2, 2003 (By George Bush)
“The battle of Iraq is one victory in a war on terror that began on September the 11th, 2001, and
still goes on … With those attacks, the terrorists and their supporters declared war on the United
States. And war is what they got.”
This is an example of classic enthymematic argumentative speech by U.S. President Bush. He
stated that the reason the U.S. declared war against Iraq was because the U.S. was attacked
on Sept 11, 2001. However, the missing piece in this argument is — Saddam Hussein was the
culprit, and involved in the 9/11 attacks.
Example #3: Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self (By Alice Walker)
“[M]y parents decide to buy my brothers guns. These are not ‘real’ guns. They shoot ‘BBs,’
copper pellets my brothers say will kill birds. Because I am a girl, I do not get a gun.“
In this example, the speaker omits the major premise that her parents have not given her a gun.
However, she directly lets the readers know the reason why she does not have the gun.
Example #4: Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (By Edward P. J. Corbett and Robert J.
Connors)
“The gun has the defendant’s fingerprints on the trigger. He is clearly guilty!”
In this example, the hidden premise is that fingerprints on an object show who has used it,
therefore the defendant’s fingerprints on the gun proves he is guilty.
Function of Enthymeme
The usage of enthymeme is very common in advertisements, political speeches, and literature.
It makes the audience work out their own conclusions, and nudges them to read further to get a
clearer picture of the premise or an idea. By forcing the audience to take a final step, it
strengthens the argument of the writer. Often enthymemes help to hide the underlying idea
upon which a major argument relies. In addition, the purpose of using an enthymeme is to
persuade the audience by using implied arguments.
Enumeration
Definition of Enumeration
Enumeration is a rhetorical device used for listing details, or a process of mentioning words or
phrases step by step. In fact, it is a type of amplification or division in which a subject is further
distributed into components or parts. Writers use enumeration to elucidate a topic, to make it
understandable for the readers. It also helps avoid ambiguity in the minds of the readers.
“[W]hen we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from
every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black
men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands
and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, ‘Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty,
we are free at last!’ “
In this example, if we remove commas, apostrophes, and quotation marks, it would be difficult to
understand the text.
“[A]mong such as deal in multitudes of words, none are comparable to the sober deliberate
talker, who proceedeth with much thought and caution, maketh his preface, brancheth out into
several digressions, findeth a hint that putteth him in mind of another story, which he promiseth
to tell you when this is done; cometh back regularly to his subject, cannot readily call to mind
some person’s name, holding his head, complaineth of his memory; the whole company all this
while in suspense; at length says, it is no matter, and so goes on. And, to crown the business, it
perhaps proveth at last a story the company hath heard fifty times before; or, at best, some
insipid adventure of the relater.”
In this example, by using enumeration, Swift describes a sober, deliberate talker, and then adds
details of his qualities, making his message clear to understand.
In the above lines, the speaker recalls how Jane – a dead student – looked. He gives details by
remembering her smile, her hair, and her beautiful spirit.
“Cast down your bucket among these people who have, without strikes and labour wars, tilled
your fields, cleared your forests, builded your railroads and cities, and brought forth treasures
from the bowels of the earth, and helped make possible this magnificent representation of the
progress of the South. Casting down your bucket among my people, helping and encouraging
them as you are doing on these grounds, and to education of head, hand, and heart, you will
find that they will buy your surplus land, make blossom the waste places in your fields, and run
your factories.”
Booker describes people by adding their qualities one by one, which helps the audience to gain
a real understanding of the writer’s ideas.
Example #5: Address to the Jury during the Anti-Conscription Trial in New York City, July 1917
(by Emma Goldman)
“We say that if America has entered the war to make the world safe for democracy, she must
first make democracy safe in America. How else is the world to take America seriously, when
democracy at home is daily being outraged, free speech suppressed, peaceable assemblies
broken up by overbearing and brutal gangsters in uniform; when free press is curtailed and
every independent opinion gagged.”
Emma Goldman discusses how America can save democracy while waging war. She lists
details about what might happen if America does not make it safe at home.
Function
By using enumeration, writers lay emphasis on certain ideas to elaborate them further. In fact,
enumeration easily creates an impression on the minds of the readers. The details and listing
make it easy for them to convey the real message they want to impart. However, if there is no
use of enumeration in a text, it might become difficult for the reader to get the true meanings of
ideas.
Epic
Definition of Epic
The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic
story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a
person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and
courage, the epic uses grandiose style.
The hero is usually the representative of the values of a certain culture, race, nation or a
religious group on whose victor of failure the destiny of the whole nation or group depends.
Therefore, certain supernatural forces, deus ex machina, help the hero, who comes out victor at
the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to muse, but then picks up the threads of the
story from the middle and moves on to the end.
A ballad and an epic both are poems, which narrate stories. However, a ballad is shorter in
length than an epic, while it is composed to be sung on some occasions, and not narrated. They
are also known as folk ballads as well as popular ballads. Most of the ballads have unknown
origin and source and usually pass on orally from generations to generations. On the other
hand, an epic poem tells a story, but about the heroic ideals of a specific society. The actual
difference between the two is the length and the fact that one is usually meant to be sung, while
the other is to be narrated. Both differ in style where a ballad is composed in a simple language,
while an epic demonstrates mastery in style such as Paradise Lost.
Examples of Epic from Literature
The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE)
Perhaps, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the first example of an epic. It tells the story of the life of an
Assyrian king, Gilgamesh. Like all other epics, the narrative of this epic revolves around the
themes related to gods, human beings, mortality, legacy and seduction. Like other epics, it is
also composed in a grand style. Gilgamesh is a young arrogant king due to his being half-god
and half-human. His strength and masculine beauty becomes a constant source of trouble for
others. Therefore, gods grow sick of Gilgamesh’s arrogant and troublesome attitude and decide
to teach him a lesson. He is made to fight his antagonist, Enkidu, and then go on a long journey
to bring the plant of life — a journey on which he learns the lessons of life. Although the epic is
written nearly 4,000 years ago, critics are unanimous that it is a human work.
Iliad is another example of an epic. It was written by the popular Greek poet, Homer. It relates
the story of the Trojan wars, involving themes of courage, boldness, love for one’s country and
nostalgia of family. However, it describes many legends related to the siege of Troy, the events
took place before the siege, the gathering of the warriors prior to the siege and the causes of
the war. Later, the epic foretold the looming death of Achilles and the destruction of Troy. The
style of narration is grand, and suits an epic poem — the reason that it is still one the most
celebrated work of antiquity.
Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet
another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant
Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan’s fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve’s fall
from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining “the ways of
God to men.” He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God.
Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as
invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style.
Function of Epic
As the epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well.
Epics were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The
main function of epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to
inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the
exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors. That is why these
exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books. It is through epics,
models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also
were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books — the reason that
they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past.
Epigram
Definition of Epigram
Epigram is a rhetorical device that is a memorable, brief, interesting, and surprising satirical
statement. It originated from the Greek word epigramma, which means “inscription,” or “to
inscribe.” Often ingenious or witty statements are considered as epigrams, such as this quote by
Eleanor Roosevelt:
“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.”
“As long as war is regarded as wicked, it will always have its fascination. When it is looked upon
as vulgar, it will cease to be popular.”
Both of these epigrams are not only interesting and brief, but also satirical. The first one is about
the sense of inferiority, while the second one is about war.
This literary device is commonly used in poetry, where it appears as a short satirical poem with
a single subject, ending in an ingenious or witty thought. Poets like Alexander Pope, John
Donne, William Shakespeare, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge popularized epigram as a literary
device during the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. Jane Wilde, an Irish poet, believed
that epigrams were much better than an argumentative speech.
• “Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put and end to mankind.” – John F.
Kennedy
• “If we don’t end war, war will end us.” – G. Wells
• “It is better to light a candle than curse the darkness.” – Eleanor Roosevelt
• “A word to the wise ain’t necessary; it’s the stupid ones who need all the advice.” – Bill
Cosby
• “Live simply, so that others may simply live.” – Mother Teresa
• “I’m starting with the man in the mirror.” – Michael Jackson
• “This is the moment when we must come together to save this planet. Let us resolve that
we will not leave our children a world where the oceans rise and famine spreads and
terrible storms devastate our lands.” – Barack Obama
• “Blessed are the peacemakers.” – Jesus Christ
Blake wrote poetry about his existential and religious concepts during his times. The above
quotation, from Auguries of Innocence, became very popular. The poem is packed with punch
lines, and the poet has laid great emphasis on the concept.
Example #2: Sonnet 76 (By William Shakespeare)
These four lines of a sonnet by Shakespeare are a good example of an epigram. The poet
refers to ideas and items simultaneously as both new and old. He tries to say that he has spent
something, which he already has done. He is doing this to express perplexity with a lover, and
also shows his feelings of desire for sexuality.
“There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being
talked about.”
• “Women are a decorative sex. They never have anything to say, but they say it
charmingly.”
• “There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written, or badly
written. That is all.”
Oscar Wilde was one of the most popular and skilled writers for using epigrams. This novel is
filled with a number of epigrams, and here we have three prominent examples.
This is a good example of epigram. While we cannot see any apparent humor, the contradiction
is clearly visible in how two people could die with water and fire both. Therefore, the poem has
some satirical purposes wrapped up in just two witty lines.
Function of Epigram
Epigram is a clever and witty statement expressed in just a few lines, pointing out foibles and
truths of mankind. This is very common in poetry, but we also find it in prose, film, fiction writing,
politics, and everyday speech. Epigrams serve the same purpose as do maxims and proverbs.
However, the main purpose of using such statements is to leave a positive impression on the
audience, as they demonstrate pure humor coupled with wisdom. Besides, writers use this
literary device to cause listeners and readers to think deeply about their statements.
Epigraph
Definition of Epigraph
An epigraph is a literary device in the form of a poem, quotation, or sentence – usually placed at
the beginning of a document or a simple piece – having a few sentences, but which belongs to
another writer. An epigraph can serve different purposes, such as it can be used as a summary,
introduction, example, or an association with some famous literary work, so as to draw a
comparison, or to generate a specific context for the piece.
Epigraph is a very sophisticated form of literary device that can really brush up a story very well.
Nevertheless, a question that usually comes to mind about this device is why an epigraph is
always used in the beginning. Sometimes, when you are done reading a book, you are so
swamped by the story that it makes you want to hold the book close to your chest and transfer
everything in it to your soul directly. It is because the book is so amazing that it makes us want
to remember everything in it. Now, imagine how moving it would be to turn the very last page
thinking you have finished the book, and right there you find an epigraph that reflects on
everything you just read.
Many famous poems provide good examples of epigraph. For instance, “Mistah Kurtz, he dead,”
is a line from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, which was used in the famous poem The
Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot to describe how modern people have dead souls, like the character
Kurtz of Heart of Darkness. It is because they have taken materialism as their demigod, and
accepted its domination, submitting their spirits to it like Kurtz did.
The epigraphs used in the preface of Georges Perec’s Life: A User’s Manual (La Vie mode
d’emploi) notify the reader in advance that everything is not what it seems, and that tricks are
going to be played.
Epigraph examples are also found in philosophical novels. The epigraph used by Dostoevsky in
The Brothers Karamazov is from the Holy Bible, specifically John 12:24. It says:
“Verily, verily, I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth
alone: but if it dies, it bringeth forth much fruit.”
Ernest Hemingway used Gertrude Stein’s famous quotation, “You are all a lost generation,” in
the beginning of his book The Sun Also Rises. Through this epigraph, Hemingway shows us the
entire period in which they were forced to live. The lost generation phrase as coined by
Steinbeck was truly reflected by Hemingway in his other pieces as well, but this novel proved to
be a mouthpiece for the lost generation.
Function of Epigraph
The use of epigraph in an original work can create something very intriguing. It can be used as
a thematic gatekeeper, by taking excerpts from influential authors to introduce people to your
own ideas. It can be used in the form of quotations, proverbs, lyrics, lines, or verses, or even
parts of a conversation. It can also be used to set the mood of the readers in the very beginning,
for the prose they are to read next.
A writer can also give readers a preview of his notions and inspirations through an epigraph.
Although the role of an epigraph in a work may seem very insignificant, it can be very
instructive, if used cleverly. An epigraph deepens the readers’ interest in the narrative just like
an appetizer increases your appetite for a meal. It can also be used in places where the writer
wants to highlight a particular point with the help of an already existing concept.
Epilogue
Epilogue Definition
An epilogue, or “epilog,” is a chapter at the end of a work of literature, which concludes the
work.
Epilogue is the opposite of prologue, which is a piece of writing at the beginning of a literary
work. An epilogue is different from an afterword, in that it is part of the main story, occurring
after the climax, and revealing the fates of the characters. An afterword is typically written by
someone other than the author, and describes how the book came into being.
Usually, an epilogue is set a few hours after the main body of the story, or far into the future,
where the writer speaks to the readers indirectly, through the point of view of a different
character. In an afterword, on the other hand, an author speaks to the readers directly. In it, a
writer may provide a reason for writing the book, and detail the research that has gone into
writing the book.
Sometimes, a writer may employ an epilogue to cover loose ends of his story, resolving those
issues that were brought up by the writer in the story, but were not resolved in the climax.
Epilogue examples are abundant in Greek and Elizabethan stage plays, since including
epilogues at the end of the plays was a common practice among their playwrights. After the end
of the play, an actor would step forward, speaking directly to the audience, offering his gratitude
to them for watching the play patiently.
In comedies, epilogues uttered by those actors were often used to show the main characters of
the plays enjoying a happy and contented life after experiencing the disorder during the play.
Similarly, in tragedies the actors narrating the epilogue told the audience about the tragic hero’s
final suffering, caused by his poor moral choices. Moreover, the speaker of an epilogue would
directly describe the lesson or moral the audience should have learned from the story.
In modern horror and suspense novels and stories, the epilogue is purposefully used to hint at a
threat that still looms large on the horizon. The monster or villain is believed to have been done
with, but the epilogue suggests that the danger is not over and still looms over them. Therefore,
it adds to the horror and mystery of the work of literature, as the readers get the idea that the
characters are not safe, though they might believe so. In some cases, epilogue can also be
used to confirm that a narrative is not over, and there is still more to the story. It gives the
readers an idea that there will be a sequel.
Consider the following epilogue that is spoken in William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet:
A post-play description of the play is given in a most poignant fashion, describing the gloomy
atmosphere after the tragedy befell the two ardent lovers, Romeo and Juliet.
Notice a carefree sort of epilogue that marks the end of yet another of Shakespeare’s plays, As
You Like It, spoken by Rosalind:
“… and I charge you, O men, for the love you bear to women — as I perceive by your
simpering, none of you hates them — that between you and the women the play may please. If I
were a woman, I would kiss as many of you as had beards that pleased me, complexions that
liked me, and breaths that I defied not. And I am sure as many as have good beards, or good
faces, or sweet breaths will, for my kind offer, when I make curtsy, bid me farewell.”
“YEARS passed. The seasons came and went, the short animal lives fled by. A time came when
there was no one who remembered the old days before the Rebellion, except Clover, Benjamin,
Moses the raven, and a number of the pigs.”
Similarly, Orwell tells us about the evolution that has taken place in the dominating pigs that are
still at the helms of power. He says:
“Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike. No question, now, what had
happened to the faces of the pigs. The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man
to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which.”
Function of Epilogue
Writers of great examples of epilogue show how useful this device is to achieve the following
ends:
• To satisfy the readers’ curiosity, by telling them about the fate of the characters after the
climax
• To cover loose ends of the story
• To hint at a sequel or next installment of the story
• Epiphany
• Epiphany Definition
• Derived from the Greek word epiphaneia, epiphany means “appearance,” or
“manifestation.” In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a
character achieves realization, awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events
are seen through the prism of this new light in the story.
• James Joyce, the great Irish writer, used this term in his writings to indicate a sudden
eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is the moment in
which “the soul of the commonest object … seems to us radiant, and may be manifested
through any chance, word, or gesture.” He means to say that even insignificant things in
our lives can suddenly inspire in us an awareness that can change our lives for good.
• A Common Example of Epiphany
• Let us consider an epiphany of a smoker:
• I used to smoke a lot. Everyone let me know that it was bad for my health however, I
didn’t pay any notice. One day I saw my two-year-old baby trying to grab a stubbed-out
cigarette from the ashtray. Seeing this, it suddenly dawned on me how terrible smoking
was, and I stopped smoking.
• So, this sudden feeling of knowledge that brings to light what was so far hidden, and
changes one’s life, is called epiphany.
• Examples of Epiphany in Literature
• Let us analyze some epiphany examples from different genres of literature.
• Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
• Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an epiphany that uses animals on a farm to
describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist
Revolution of Russia before WWI. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to
expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people
can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this:
• All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.
• The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the
revolution.
• For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; “Mr.
Jones,” the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while “Boxer”
the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of Epiphany in the novel allows Orwell
to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.
• Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)
• William Shakespeare also makes use of an epiphany in his play Hamlet. It is when
Hamlet, the hero, is on a ship sailing to England. Till then, he was over-burdened with
thinking and planning a flawless revenge on his father’s murderer, Claudius. Suddenly
there is a flash of realization and he says:
• [T]here is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will.
• He realizes that there is no wisdom for him in trying to inflict the perfect revenge on
Claudius – he must take hold of the moment and go with the current.
• Example #3: Miss Brill (By Katherine Manfield)
• We find another example of epiphany in the short story Miss Brill, written by Katherine
Manfield. Miss Brill, being delighted to be part of the season in the Jardins Publique,
particularly on Sundays, prepares herself for the occasion on a chilly day. She wears her
fur coat, and walks towards a band playing music in the park. She sees life everywhere
around her. It pleases her to imagine that she is part of all that takes place. In a flash of
epiphany, she recognizes that she and everyone else in the park are mere actors, acting
out their roles. There was nothing important about that gathering of actors and she was
alone despite being with a crowd.
• Function of Epiphany
• The purpose of epiphany in a novel or a short story is to point out a turning point for a
character, or in the plot, in the near future. It may also be used to change the opinion of
one character about other characters, events, and places after a sudden awareness of
the situation. It may also be a sign of a conclusion in the story.
Epiphora
Definition of Epiphora
“Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you … Scarcity and want shall shun
you, Ceres’ blessing so is on you.”
Here, Shakespeare wants to convey the importance of “you” through the use of epiphora.
“Fie, fie, thou shamest thy shape, thy love, thy wit,
Which, like a userer, abound’st in all,
And uses none in that true sense indeed
Which should bedeck thy shape, thy love, thy wit.”
Again, Shakespeare is at his best in using epiphora, as the phrase “thy shape, thy love, thy wit”
comes twice within four lines. It puts much emphasis on three of Romeo’s attributes. Friar
Laurence is at his best when he speaks this dialogue.
BASSANIO:
“Sweet Portia,
If you did know to whom I gave the ring,
If you did know for whom I gave the ring
And would conceive for what I gave the ring
And how unwillingly I left the ring,
When nought would be accepted but the ring,
You would abate the strength of your displeasure.”
PORTIA:
“If you had known the virtue of the ring,
Or half her worthiness that gave the ring,
Or your own honor to contain the ring,
You would not then have parted with the ring.”
Shakespeare played with the phrase “the ring” in his famous play The Merchant of Venice. He
makes both of his characters use the same phrase again and again in their dialogues.
Shakespeare plays with the word “crown,” to emphasize his point here that it is important for the
speaker.
“I’m a Pepper, he’s a Pepper, she’s a Pepper, we’re a Pepper. Wouldn’t you like to be a
Pepper, too? Dr. Pepper.”
This is an advertising jingle for the Dr. Pepper soft drink. The phrase “a Pepper” has been
repeated in all the phrases, to emphasize the point for consumers that they must join the Dr.
Pepper bandwagon.
Function of Epiphora
Epiphora, or epistrophe, is a literary device that serves the function of furnishing an artistic
effect to passages, in both poetry and prose. It lays emphasis on a particular idea, as well as
giving a unique rhythm to the text, which consequently becomes a pleasurable experience for
the readers. That is the reason that it is easily understood and memorized, and easier to
comprehend. As a rhetorical or stylistic device, epiphora is brought into action to appeal to the
emotions of the audience in order to persuade them.
Epistolary
Definition of Epistolary
Epistolary comes from a Greek word, epistolē, which means “letter.” Epistolary is a literary
genre pertaining to letters, in which writers use letters, journals, and diary entries in their works,
or they tell their stories or deliver messages through a series of letters. Though the usual format
of epistolary is letters, writers sometimes use other forms of document such as newspaper
clippings and diary entries. Recently, writers also use electronic documents like emails, blogs,
radio broadcast, and recordings.
Alice Walker’s novel The Color Purpl, is a good example of an epistolary novel in which an
impoverished black teenage girl, Celie, tells her story through writing letters to both her sister
and God. Here, readers can learn about the difficult life of Celie through her words and the
direct experiences she has faced. Alice Walker has chosen to let the readers encounter this
story by using Celie’s voice, providing Celie a power that she could not have in everyday life.
However, in the film adaptation of this novel, these letters echoed through the monologues of
characters.
Example #2: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley)
Mary Shelley started her first novel, Frankenstein, in the form of letters. She uses three
narratives or perspectives that allow readers to form opinions about the narrative. The first
narrator is Robert Walton, who gives his point of view about Victor. Robert records the
confessions and narrative of Victor when he is dying. The second narrator is Victor himself, who
gives his point of view about Walton. Finally, the creature disrupts Victor and readers get its
viewpoint. It is Walton who starts and ends this novel by relating a series of events through
letters to his sister, creating suspense by using the word “demon.” The letters of Victor and the
monster’s perspective on the other hand, give frames to the main body of the narrative.
Bram Stoker has employed epistolary format in his successful and widely recognized novel
nineteenth century, Dracula. The author has compiled the entire novel in the form of letters,
newspaper clippings, diary entries, doctor’s notes, telegrams, and ship’s logs. The narrators of
this novel are protagonists, who supplement it with newspaper clippings to relate different
events. Although this novel draws on letters form, it reduces the end of the narrative.
Samuel Richardson’ novel Pamela is another notable example of such novels in which you
would find the device of epistolary. In this novel, Pamela attempts to run away from her
lecherous master, Mr. B. Whenever her master tries to seduce her, she expresses her
insecurities to impoverished parents by writing them letters. Mr. B., however, intercepts her
letters, and gives her parents the wrong information by shifting her to another estate, and there
she begins writing a journal, hoping that one day she would send it to her parents. By the end,
Mrs. Jewkes finds letters written by Pamela, and gives them to Mr. B., who realizes Pamela’s
pious character, changes his mind, and decides to marry her.
A teenage girl, Anne Frank, wrote Diary of a Young Girl, recording her experiences during World
War II. She recounts her feelings and thoughts, including some important and some trivial
details. After a month while writing this diary, Anne along with her family members was forced
into hiding in some building in Amsterdam to avoid religious persecution at the hands of the
Nazis. However, all of them died in 1944, except her father Otto Frank, who had her diary
published in1947. Anne Frank’s diary format provides the readers an intimate insight into Anne’s
feelings and thoughts during tough times. It is also remarkable in that Anne describes her
dreams and hopes through historical context.
Function of Epistolary
Epistolary form can add realism to a narrative, as it imitates real life workings. It is therefore able
to describe different points of view. The primary function of this form of writing is to give readers
an intimate view of characters’ feelings and thoughts, and develop a direct connection with the
events through letters without interference of the author. This technique thus makes the literary
piece a real experience for the readers. Also, a presentation of events from different viewpoint
gives the story verisimilitude and dimension.
Epistrophe
Definition of Epistrophe
Epistrophe is derived from a Greek word that means “turning upon,” which indicates the same
word returns at the end of each sentence. Epistrophe is a stylistic device that can be defined as
the repetition of phrases or words at the ends of the clauses or sentences. It is also called
“epiphora.” Epistrophe examples are frequently found in literary pieces, in persuasive writing,
and in speeches.
Anaphora is the opposite of epistrophe, and means the repetition of the same phrase or word at
the beginning of successive sentences, such as in this example:
However, in epistrophe, the repetition of phrases or words is at the end of successive sentences
such as in this example:
“Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you …
Scarcity and want shall shun you,
Ceres’ blessing so is on you.”
Poets have written a number of poems in regular meters, and epistropheic meter is widely used
in several of them.
Here the phrases are repeated in consecutive lines throughout the poem.
Examples of epistrophe abound in Beckett’s works. In this excerpt, the word “now” is repeated
three times to place emphasis, as well as making the line memorable. It also creates cadence
and rhythm.
BRUTUS:
“Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who
is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is
here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I offended …”
Again, Shakespeare is at his best in using this stylistic device. The repeated phrase at the ends
of sentences is “for him have I offended.” It appears three time in this excerpt. This shows the
importance of the phrase.
“Then I’ll be all aroun’ in the dark. I’ll be ever’where – wherever you look. Wherever they’s a
fight so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever they’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be
there … An’ when our folk eat the stuff they raise an’ live in the houses they build – why, I’ll be
there …”
In the following excerpt, Steinbeck has employed the phrase “I’ll be there” again and again as
epistrophe. The phrase is creating a sense of connection and familiarity, and focuses the
attention of readers on these words.
Example #5: Flood: A Romance of Our Time (By Robert Penn Warren)
“The big sycamore by the creek was gone. The willow tangle was gone. The little enclave of
untrodden bluegrass was gone. The clump of dogwood on the little rise across the creek —
now that, too, was gone …”
In this novel, the phrase “was gone” is used as an epistrophe. These words act as common
threads throughout the paragraph. It is also giving a regular rhyme and rhythm to the text.
Function of Epistrophe
The rhetorical function of this stylistic device is to give a striking emphasis to an idea, a thought,
or a passage. The repetition helps in making the words memorable and pleasurable, due to the
regular rhyme scheme. Also, it furnishes artistic effect, both in prose and in poetry. In addition, it
lends rhythm to the text, and appeals to the emotions of readers.
Epitaph
Definition of Epitaph
When somebody from our family, or a friend dies, we want to commemorate his or her memory.
For this, we use an epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying inscribed on a grave. Generally, it
is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute
to a deceased person, or to remember a past event.
Strictly speaking, an epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person.
It is derived from the Greek word epitaphios, which means “funeral oration.” Many poets and
authors, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath, Oscar Wilde, and John Keats have written
their own epitaphs prior to their deaths.
An epitaph and a eulogy have a similar function, which is to pay tribute to the dead. However,
they are also different, as an epitaph is a brief and concise commemorative inscription engraved
on the tombstone of a dead person; while a eulogy is a spoken or piece written in praise of a
dead person, usually given at the funeral. A eulogy may also be used for a living person, as it
incorporates stories, anecdotes, and memories of the individual. An epitaph, on the other hand,
is just an honoring poem or an inscription written on the tombstone.
The use of epitaph flourished during the seventeenth century when writers struggled over the
cultural significance of their dead ones. However, later in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, many ways were adopted to validate its importance and, therefore, renowned writers
wrote their epitaphs before their death. Here we have a list of some good epitaphs:
This epitaph is from his popular poem The Ballad of Reading Gaol. The poem describes that
death is also like a prison sentence. Further, he adds a witty statement that in the grave “the
food in here is awful.”
Robert Frost wrote his epitaph a few years prior to his death. He took the last lines from the
poem The Lesson for Today, which read as:
Unfortunately, most of lovers cannot make up their love. However, Frost was nearly close to
being done with his love, when he passed away at the age of 88. This quote gives an apt
presentation by the poet.
It seems that he is giving advice to his readers to not hang back over his corpse for a very long
time, nevertheless the words have rather deep meaning. He had taken these lines from the
poem Under Ben Bulben. This is one of the most popular modern epitaphs.
Shakespeare had given a prediction that somebody might dig up his grave and, due to this fear,
he composed his epitaph in verse form before his death. This poem is chiseled on his
gravestone.
Function of Epitaph
The major function of writing an epitaph is to praise and pay tribute to a deceased person. It is
used to provide an example of virtue and goodness, how a tomb of the good people could serve
to provide a sense of their presence. In addition, a veneration of a dead person’s memories
could produce similar effects, as we would see in his or her presence. Another function is to let
the audience know and warn them that their lives are also mortal like their predecessors.
Finally, it preserves history, as it shows ancestral relationships, dates of birth and death, and
accomplishments of the deceased persons.
Epithet
Epithet Definition
Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing, or a person in such a way
that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent than they actually are. Also, it is known
as a “by-name,” or “descriptive title.”
One can find many examples of epithet, may of which were Shakespeare’s own coinages, in
Shakespeare’s works. For example:
Types of Epithet
1. Kenning as Epithet
Kenning examples may also be considered as epithet examples. Kenning is a type of an
epithet, which is a two-word phrase that describes an object by employing metaphors.
2. The Fixed Epithet
Fixed epithets are found in epic poetry that involves the repetitive use of a phrase or
word for the same object. Such as in Homer’s Odyssey, the wife is described as
“prudent,” Odysseus himself as “many-minded,” and their son Telemachus as “sound-
minded.”
3. Argumentative Epithet
Expert orators use argumentative epithets. Short arguments use this type of epithet to
give hints.
4. Epithet used as Smear Word
An epithet used as a smear word means a derogatory word or name for someone or
something.
Misuse of Epithets
Contemporary writers and speakers take extra care when they use epithets. They do not want
to misuse this device and be accused of using racial or abusive epithets.
Here, “coloured” is an epithet used to describe the pleasant and beautiful spring season in those
countries where the poet wishes to enjoy his beloved’s company.
In this excerpt, the description of the air and earth is enhanced by the usage of epithets: “crying-
sweet,” “scattering-bright,” and “soft and drunken laughter.” These epithets help in developing
imagery in the minds of readers.
“God! he said quietly. Isn’t the sea what Algy calls it: a great sweet mother? The snot-green
sea. The scrotum-tightening sea! I must teach you. You must read them in the original.
Thalatta! Thalatta! She is our great sweet mother…”
In this passage, Joyce uses several epithets to describe the sea. These epithets include “a
great sweet mother,” “snot-green sea,” and “scrotum-tightening sea.”
Brooke makes use of epithets (“a-quiver,” and “April twilight on the river”) to describe the
anguish and agitation he feels deep inside him.
“I’ve come,
As you surmise, with comrades on a ship,
Sailing across the wine-dark sea to men
Whose style of speech is very different…”
In these lines, the phrase “wine-dark’ is used as an epithet in order to explain the color of the
sea. This epithet enhances the description of the color of the sea.
Milton employs epithets (“gray-fly,” and “blind mouths”) in this excerpt, describing first insects,
and later referring to the desire of feeding the mouths.
Function of Epithet
With the use of epithets, writers are able to describe their characters and settings more vividly,
in order to give richer meanings to the text. Since they are used as a literary tool, epithets help
in making the description of someone or something broader and hence easier to understand.
With the help of epithets, writers and poets develop suitable images in fewer words. Besides,
the metaphorical use of epithets helps in making poetry and prose vibrant and strong.
Epizeuxis
Definition of Epizeuxis
Epizeuxis is derived from the Greek word epizeugnumi, which means “fastening together.” It is
defined as a rhetorical device in which the words or phrases are repeated in quick succession,
one after another, for emphasis. It is also called “diacope.”
These three literary devices have a major difference, in that epistrophe is the repetition of the
words at the end of successive sentences, such as “Where now? Who now? When now…” (The
Unnamable, by Samuel Beckett). Whereas, anaphora is the reverse of epistrophe; it is a
repetition of the words and phrases at the beginning of successive sentences. The following is
an example of anaphora:
This is considered a perfect example of epizeuxis. Shakespeare has used words, like “hark” and
“arise,” intentionally in order to emphasize his point.
Shakespeare has beautifully used this device in this paragraph. In the first line, he has
emphasized “no,” repeating it three times. Similarly, he has repeated “never” four times in quick
succession without using any other word.
Example #3: The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby (By Tom Wolfe)
“Phil Spector tamps his frontal lobes and closes his eyes and holds his breath. As long as he
holds his breath, it will not rain, there will be no raindrops, no schizoid water wobbling,
sideways, straight back, it will be an even, even, even, even, even, even, even world…”
In the above extract, the word “even” is repeated at the end. This repetition makes this text
notable for the readers. Also, it brings an emotional effect within the text.
“Waitress: Shut up! Shut up! Shut up! Bloody Vikings. You can’t have egg, bacon, Spam and
sausage without the Spam.
Mr. Bun: Shh dear, don’t cause a fuss. I’ll have your Spam. I love it. I’m having Spam, Spam,
Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, baked beans, Spam, Spam, Spam and Spam …”
The author has repeatedly used the words “shut up” and “Spam.” Although, the repeated words
are used here to emphasize a point, they are giving a comic effect too.
In this excerpt, the poet uses “this living” repeatedly for emphasis. These words provide melody
and emphasis on a specific way of living. Also, it creates an artistic effect in the poem.
Example #6: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge)
Here, the repetition of words “alone,” “all,” and “wide” is creating a rhythmic effect. These words
draw the attention of the readers toward the supernatural incident, which has killed crew
members of the ship, and has left the mariner all alone.
Function of Epizeuxis
The major function of epizeuxis is to create an appeal to the emotions of readers — to hit them
with a bang. It is employed to inspire, encourage, and motivate the audience. Epizeuxis
examples are found in literary writings as well as political speeches. As a literary device, it
furnishes freshness to the texts, and gives artistic effect to a piece. Apart from adding rhythm to
the texts, epizeuxis makes the reading of the literary text pleasurable and memorable. Also, it
helps in drawing the focus to a particular thought, idea, or emotion through repetition.
Eponym
Definition of Eponym
Eponym is a name of a legend or real person that writers associate with some other person,
object, institution, or thing. Simply, we can define it as a famous person whose name is given to
someone else, such as Homer has derived the name of his ancient epic The Odyssey from a
major character, Odysseus. Many TV shows, books, and films have used eponymous
characters like Emma, Harry Potter, and The Legend of Zelda. Besides, we commonly see the
use of this literary device in literature, industry, places, and in several other fields.
• The sandwich was given the name of a British politician, John Montagu, who was fourth
Earl of Sandwich.
• The cardigan sweater was named after the British military officer, James Thomas
Brudenell, who was Seventh Earl of Cardigan.
• The saxophone was given the name of Sax, a surname of a family from Belgium, which
was skilled at making musical instruments.
James Thurber in his novel, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, introduces the main character
Walter Mitty, who is a rather timid and unadventurous fellow, whose wife has the dominating
role in their relationship. Beneath his humble and timid exterior, Walter Mitty hides dreams and
a great fantasy in his life in which he imagines himself as a successful surgeon, a daredevil
pilot, and a heroic naval commander. After his dreams, the phrase “Walter Mitty Dreams” is
used to refer to a sort of wild fantasy that an average person can dream up to satisfy his/her
daily grind.
Jonathan Swift, in his satirical novel Gulliver’s Travels, uses the name “Lilliputian,” which
originates from the miniature and fictional name of an island nation situated in the South Pacific,
where Gulliver was lashed to the ground. This term generally means anything small or
miniature, or it may have a derogatory meaning, referring to pettiness or narrow-mindedness.
Swift also used the term “Yahoos,” which are an uncouth or degraded race of people whom
Gulliver encounters on the Houyhnhnm island in book IV. Initially, Gulliver felt some difficulty
recognizing them as human beings, because they were so backward, and an intelligent race of
horses known as the Houyhnhnm would treat Yahoos as beasts. Today, Yahoo means an
ignorant, uncouth, or brutish person. Besides, Americans use it also as an exclamation of
happiness or excitement. More recently, a very well-known internet service has named its
search engine and service providing company as Yahoo.
A Victorian writer Pierce Egan in his 1821 book, Life in London, featured two popular
characters, Tom and Jerry. This book became very popular and finally their adventurous story
gained entry into in William T. Moncrieff’s play. More recently, William Hannah and Joseph
Barbara have created a cartoon cat and mouse duo, dubbed Tom & Jerry. Their popularity in
different comic books and on television continues today.
In Pickwick Papers, Charles Dickens has created his most endearing and enduring character,
Mr. Samuel Pickwick, who is head of the Pickwick Club in London. He and his associates make
a travelling society to visit different areas in England, to study the phenomena and peculiarities
of life. The purpose is to do something good for others. Along the way, they encounter some
shady and evil characters, like Mr. Jingle.
However, the novel ends happily, as Mr. Pickwick successfully understands the crisis in a family
and reunites a married young couple with their relatives. Hence, the term “Pickwickian” is used
commonly now, meaning generosity and simplicity, like Mr. Pickwick demonstrated.
There is another popular term from this book, which has made it into dictionaries: “Pickwickian
sense. Merriam Webster defines it as something “intended or taken in a sense other than the
obvious or literal one.” This term derives from an incident that occurred between Mr. Blotton and
Mr. Pickwick, who apparently abuse each other but, in fact, pay high regards.
Function of Eponym
Eponym is like an allusion that refers to a famous person. Therefore, it develops a link between
a reference and the thing being referred to, and through this connection, readers are able to
understand the idea easily. The scope of eponym is wide. It is everywhere, as we can easily find
its frequent use in literature, politics, advertising, sciences, discoveries, music, films, medicines,
and legal studies. Besides, eponyms give further meanings to the terms and increase readers’
information by providing them reference of the names of famous persons from history.
Eristic
Definition of Eristic
Eristic is a derivative of the Greek word eris, which means “to create strife,” or “to wrangle.” It is
defined as a literary device in which the writers and speakers engage in a heated argumentation
without reaching a conclusion or solving a particular issue. Also, this device has been used as a
manner of argumentation in classical texts, which are usually based on specious reasoning and
poor conclusions. It is also known as “discordia.”
According to Plato, there is a slight difference between eristic and dialectic. Dialecticians apply
proper divisions and distinctions to the subject being argued, while eristics do not apply such
distinctions, since they follow verbal oppositions.
Lady Macbeth:
“How now, my lord, why do you keep alone,
Of sorriest fancies your companions making,
Using those thoughts which should indeed have died
With them they think on? Things without all remedy
Should be without regard: what’s done, is done …
Lady Macbeth uses eristic arguments in these lines. In her arguments with her husband, she
states that what has been done is done and cannot be undone.
Russell explains why he does not believe in God, and his doubt over Jesus’ existence. He
argues ad absurdum, and aims at winning the argument.
“… men’s minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, false valuations … and the like … it would
leave the minds, of a number of men … full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to
themselves …”
In the above passage, Bacon tries to give possible reasons why men prefer to tell lies than tell
the truth. There are so many causes, and not a single or a particular cause can resolve this
issue.
POZZO:
“No no, he does well to ask. Do I need the bones? (He turns them over with the end of his
whip.) No, personally I do not need them any more. (Estragon takes a step towards the bones.)
But … but in theory the bones go to the carrier …”
ESTRAGON:
“Mister … excuse me, Mister …”
POZZO:
“You’re being spoken to, pig! Reply! (To Estragon.) Try him again.”
ESTRAGON:
“Excuse me, Mister, the bones, you won’t be wanting the bones?”
POZZO:
Mister! (Lucky bows his head.) Reply! Do you want them or don’t you? They’re yours … I don’t
like it. I’ve never known him to refuse a bone before … Nice business it’d be if he fell sick on
me!” (He puffs at his pipe.)
This is one of the great examples of eristic argument. The characters are discussing bones and
their functions for human survival. All of them make different arguments, but find no solution in
this discussion.
Function of Eristic
A close look at the above eristic examples would lead one to correctly to assume that the main
purpose of eristic argumentation is to prolong a conflict, rather than resolve it. Though it was
started by Sophists, it is now used in modern literary texts, speeches, and contentious topics of
political debate. The purpose is to confuse the opponent. Hence, it is employed for the sake of
conflict, and might involve comic effect and conspiracy theory. Besides, by searching eristic
argumentation, critiques discover literary weaknesses. As a result, critics have a tendency to
distort the writers’ intentions. The aim is to win arguments, and a clear answer is often not
provided.
Essay
Definition of Essay
Essay is derived from the French word essayer, which means “to attempt,” or “to try.” An essay
is a short form of literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives the
personal opinion of the author. A famous English essayist, Aldous Huxley defines essays as, “a
literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything.” The Oxford Dictionary
describes it as “a short piece of writing on a particular subject.” In simple words, we can define it
as a scholarly work in writing that provides the author’s personal argument.
Types of Essay
There are two forms of essay: literary and non-literary. Literary essays are of four types:
Non-literary essays could also be of the same types but they could be written in any format.
“As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came
out from behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his
mouth, digging into the crevices between algae’d stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a
blue batik shirt known as a buba, baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked
him if he would show me around the shrine. Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of
his stick work and set off down the trail.”
This is an example of a descriptive essay, as the author has used descriptive language to paint
a dramatic picture for his readers of an encounter with a stranger.
“It is impossible to love, and be wise … Love is a child of folly. … Love is ever rewarded either
with the reciprocal, or with an inward and secret contempt. You may observe that amongst all
the great and worthy persons…there is not one that hath been transported to the mad degree of
love: which shows that great spirits and great business do keep out this weak passion…That he
had preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much
of amorous affection quitted both riches and wisdom.”
In this excerpt, Bacon attempts to persuade readers that people who want to be successful in
this world must never fall in love. By giving an example of famous people like Paris, who chose
Helen as his beloved but lost his wealth and wisdom, the author attempts to convince the
audience that they can lose their mental balance by falling in love.
“I am afraid I do not attract attention, and yet there is not a single home in which I could done
without. I am only a small, black kettle but I have much to interest me, for something new
happens to me every day. The kitchen is not always a cheerful place in which to live, but still I
find plenty of excitement there, and I am quite happy and contented with my lot …”
In this example, the author is telling an autobiography of a kettle, and describes the whole story
in chronological order. The author has described the kettle as a human being, and allows
readers to feel, as he has felt.
Function of Essay
The function of an essay depends upon the subject matter, whether the writer wants to inform,
persuade, explain, or entertain. In fact, the essay increases the analytical and intellectual
abilities of the writer as well as readers. It evaluates and tests the writing skills of a writer, and
organizes his or her thinking to respond personally or critically to an issue. Through an essay, a
writer presents his argument in a more sophisticated manner. In addition, it encourages
students to develop concepts and skills, such as analysis, comparison and contrast, clarity,
exposition, conciseness, and persuasion
Ethos
Ethos Definition
In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility, or an ethical appeal, which involves persuasion by the
character involved.
Origin of Ethos
The term has its roots in Aristotle’s “ingredients of persuasion,” or “appeals.” He divides means
of persuasion into three distinct categories: ethos, pathos, and logos. He says in his treatise On
Rhetoric:
“Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. […]
Persuasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when the speech is so spoken as to
make us think him credible.”
It is a means of convincing others of the character or credibility of the persuader. It is natural for
us to accept the credibility of people whom we hold in reverence.
In an argument, it is of utmost value for a speaker or a writer to impress upon listeners and
readers the idea that is worth listening to. In other words, the credibility of a speaker or a writer
relies on his or her authority on the subject matter, as well as on how much he or she is liked
and deemed worthy of respect.
In an attempt to confirm his credibility, a writer or speaker will make use of a typical type of
argument called an “ad hominem argument.” It is an argument “against the man,” which
undermines the ethos of a speaker or a writer in opposition. It is a strategy in which a speaker
or a writer attacks the character or personality of an opponent speaker or writer, rather than
criticizing the matter of his or her point of view. Such an argument, however, is generally
thought to be a logical fallacy. Nevertheless, it can prove to be exceptionally successful and is
fairly common in politics.
Classification of ethos may be based on its position, such as the following examples of ethos.
Example #1:
“Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced, not only by our 100 years in the business and
our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to
expect nothing but the best.
The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by repeatedly mentioning the
experience they have in the field, and the technical expertise of their staff.
Example #2:
People tend to believe the opinions of doctors in the matter of medical treatments.
Example #3:
“John is a forensics and ballistics expert, working for the federal government for many years. If
anyone’s qualified to determine the murder weapon, it’s him.”
Here, John is put forth as the most qualified person to determine the murder weapon – based
on his ethos in working for the federal government as a forensic and ballistics expert.
Example #4:
“If his years as a soldier taught him anything, it’s that caution is the best policy in this sort of
situation.”
A soldier’s opinion is more credible than an ordinary man’s opinion in violent situations.
Example #5:
“My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this
community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition,
make me the ideal candidate for your mayor.”
The public can easily be persuaded by giving them some knowledge about a candidate’s past
experience, past actions, and preferred policies.
Example #6:
Ethos examples in TV ads are not only expressed in words. For instance, in a commercial for
toothpaste, an actor puts on a white lab coat and talks about how that particular toothpaste is
good for teeth. By putting on a white lab coat, an actor looks like a doctor, and thus gains
credibility as people consider a doctor’s remarks to be more credible than an actor’s.
Function of Ethos
The above explanations and examples of ethos reveal the following facts about this device:
• Ethos confirms the credibility of a writer or a speaker, and thus they become trustworthy
in the eyes of listeners and readers who, as a result are persuaded by the arguments.
• Ethos of a speaker or a writer is created largely by the choice of words he or she
chooses to convince listeners or readers.
• Being an expert on the subject matter determines his or her ethos.
Eulogy
Definition of Eulogy
Known as homily, the term eulogy originates from the Greek word eulogia, which means “to
praise” somebody or something. A eulogy is a literary device that is a laudatory expression in a
speech, or a written tribute to a person recently deceased. We can say, it is a commendation or
high praise intended to give honor, generally to a dead family member or loved one, or it is a
tribute given to a dead person at his or her funeral.
Eulogies are also paid as tributes to living persons; for instance, one can dedicate it to his
retired colleagues, bosses, or employees for winning respectable position and noble deeds.
Hence, in general, it is a gesture of honoring somebody.
These three terms are often confused due in their meanings. A eulogy and an elegy are similar
because both are written for the dead. An elegy is a song or a poem with a lamenting tone that
expresses loss of a family member or a loved one. A eulogy, by contrast, is a speech or written
tribute to the deceased, or perhaps to a living person, and it is not necessarily in the form of a
poem. However, an obituary is a completely different term than eulogy and elegy, as it is a
published biography intended to recount the life of someone who recently died.
Basse has dedicated this eulogy to William Shakespeare 25 years after his death. He suggests
that his grave should have been next to Spenser, Chaucer, and Beaumont in Westminster
Abbey.
Wordsworth has written this eulogy in honor of his close friend. The speaker is recalling his
deceased friend’s memories in that, though he is physically no more with him, his noble deeds
will never die.
In this poem, Whitman pays tribute to American president Abraham Lincoln, whom many
Americans recognize as a hero. The speaker calls him a captain, and then calls “dear father!”
He pays high regards to his captain for making the mission successful, and for the services he
has done for his country:
“From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won.”
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem A Farewell is also a eulogy in which the poet himself says
goodbye to nature. He describes this fact beautifully, that death is inevitable and nobody can
escape it. He says goodbye to trees, seas, and rivers and to other elements of nature because
he will die and will be forgotten, except his good deeds. But nature will remain the same forever.
Function of Eulogy
Eulogies are written or spoken memorials that help recall happy and good memories of dead
loved ones. In literary works, eulogies can make the deceased appear more real and good to all
those people who have not seen or known them. Many writers and poets have written eulogies
in the honor of famous literary figures. Another function of eulogy is to keep the memories of
dead ones alive. As we have learned from the above-mentioned examples, the nature of a
eulogy is optimistic, it is intended to boost the morale of the depressed family.
Euphemism
Euphemism Definition
The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases
considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an
idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to
hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the
death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing
act of “firing” its employees.
Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers, where they feel
the need to replace certain words that may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or
readers in a particular situation.
• It may be in the form of abbreviations, such as O. (body odor), and W.C. (toilet).
• Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression, such as faux (fake), or
faux pas (foolish error).
• Sometimes, they are abstractions, such as before I go (before I die).
• They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones that may sound offensive,
such as rear-end (one’s back side or buttocks), unmentionables (underwear or lingerie).
• Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words, such as flatulence
(farting), perspiration (sweat), or mentally challenged (stupid).
• Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by certain words, such as
gluteus maximus (backside, butt, or buttocks).
• Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity, such as darn
(damn), and shoot (shit).
Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism
examples:
Examples of euphemism referring to sex are found in William Shakespeare’s Othello. In Act 1,
Scene 1, Iago tells Brabantio:
“I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with
two backs.”
Here, the expression “making the beast with two backs” refers to the act of having sex.
Similarly, we notice Shakespeare using euphemism for sexual intercourse in his play Antony
and Cleopatra.” In Act 2, Scene 2, Agrippa says about Cleopatra:
“Royal wench!
She made great Caesar lay his sword to bed.
He plowed her, and she cropped.”
The word “plowed” refers to the act of sexual intercourse, and the word “cropped” is a
euphemism for becoming pregnant.
Example #3: The Flea (By John Donne)
In order to persuade his beloved to sleep with him, the speaker in the poem tells her how a flea
bit both of them and their blood got mixed in it. This is a euphemism.
The Squealer, a character in George Orwell’s Animal Farm, uses euphemisms to help the pigs
achieve their political ends. To announce the reduction of food to the animals of the farm, he
says:
“For the time being,” he explains, “it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of
rations.”
Substituting the word “reduction” for “readjustment” was an attempt to suppress the complaints
of other animals about hunger. It works because reduction means “cutting” the food supply,
while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food.
Function of Euphemism
Euphemism helps writers convey those ideas that have become a social taboo, and are too
embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and
discuss a subject indirectly that otherwise might not published due to strict social censorship,
such as for reasons of religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, and death. Thus,
euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the difficult issues.
Euphony
Definition of Euphony
The literary device euphony is derived from the Greek word euphonos, which means “sweet-
voiced.” It can be defined as the use of words and phrases that are distinguished as having a
wide range of noteworthy melody or loveliness in the sounds they create. It gives pleasing and
soothing effects to the ear due to repeated vowels and smooth consonants. It can be used with
other literary devices like alliteration, assonance and rhyme to create more melodic effects.
Examples of euphony are commonly found in poetry and literary prose.
Features of Euphony
• Euphony involves the use of long vowel sounds, which are more melodious than
consonants.
• Euphony involves the use of harmonious consonants, such as l, m, n, r, and soft f and v
sounds.
• Euphony uses soft consonants or semi-vowels, including w, s, y, and th or wh,
extensively to create more pleasant sounds.
There are many different words and phrases that can create euphony. However, in the given
piece, Keats has used euphony in the whole poem, which gives soothing and pleasing effects.
Long vowel sounds like mellow, maturing, load, ripeness, and semi-vowel sounds, like s and w,
are exquisitely used.
In this poem, Emily Dickinson has used soft and harmonious consonants to create euphony. For
example, s, v, and f sounds run throughout the poem. Such words are melodic in nature, hence
they produce pleasing sounds.
Tennyson is famous for using euphony in most of his poems. He uses long vowels and semi-
vowels of soft consonants. The long vowels, such as mounting, soon, languid and slender
whereas soft vowels include l, s, f and w sounds that are giving sense of pleasantness.
Function of Euphony
The purpose of using euphony is to bring about peaceful and pleasant feelings in a piece of
literary work. The readers enjoy reading such pieces of literature or poems. The long vowels
create more melodious effect than short vowels and consonants, making the sounds
harmonious and soothing. In addition, pronunciation and enunciation become agreeable and
easy. Furthermore, euphony is used in poetry and speeches to convey messages effectively to
the audience and the readers.
Evidence
Definition of Evidence
Evidence is a type of literary device that appears in different categories of essays and theses, in
the form of paraphrase and quotations. It is presented to persuade readers, and used with
powerful arguments in the texts or essays.
It is factual information that helps the reader reach a conclusion and form an opinion about
something. Evidence is given in research work, or is quoted in essays and thesis statements,
but is paraphrased by the writer. If it is given as it is, then it is quoted properly within quotation
marks.
“I talk about how I did not plant the seeds too deeply, how it was the fault of the earth, our land,
our town. I even think now that the land of the entire country was hostile to marigolds that year.
This soil is bad for certain kinds of flowers. Certain seeds it will not nurture, certain fruit it will not
bear, and when the land kills of its own volition, we acquiesce and say the victim had no right to
live.”
Morrison evidently analyzes the environment, as it has powerful effects on people. She provides
strong evidence that that the Earth itself is not fertile for the marigold seeds. Likewise, people
also cannot survive in an unfriendly environment.
” ‘…while she weebled and wobbled and leaned, she did not fall. She responded with speed and
motion. She would not stop moving.’ As she biked, walked, rode the bus all over the city, ‘she
kept moving as if her life depended on it, which in some ways it did. She ran, as she had done
most of her life, but this time she was running for her own sanity.’ “
McBride supports his arguments and understanding of a mother as an individual who keeps
moving in her life and does not stop to think about what is happening and why something is
happening. Since the movement offers a solution, which though temporary, preserves her
sanity.
“Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don’t matter as much anymore as
they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that
most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing
to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are time to share and connect with others;
however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities
over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.”
This is a best example of evidence, since the evidence is effectively incorporated into the text,
as the author makes the link between her claim (question) and the evidence (logic), which is
powerful.
Function of Evidence
When writing something about literature, or writing about a particular text, a writer needs to
strengthen his discussion by providing powerful answers from the text as evidence of the
questions he raises. It is not enough to just simply drop in quotations around the text and expect
their relevance and importance of his arguments to be self-evident.
The fact is that simply making a claim and making an argument does nothing to convince the
audience. The audience will only believe what the writer or the speaker has to say if he proffers
strong evidence to back up his arguments. Therefore, evidence not only helps the writer
convince his readers, but also persuades them to feel sympathy, or to support his argument.
Mostly political speakers, research writers, and editorial writers use evidence extensively to turn
public opinion for or against some issue.
Exaggeration
Definition of Exaggeration
We all exaggerate. Sometimes by spicing up stories to make them more fun, or simply to
highlight our points. Exaggeration is a statement that makes something worse, or better, than it
really is. In literature and oral communication, writers and speakers use exaggeration as a
literary technique, to give extra stress and drama in a work or speech.
Types of Exaggeration
Overstatement
It is a statement that slightly exaggerates something to convey the meaning. Cole Porter’s poem
You’re the Top provides a good example:
Here, the poet overstates the actual truth and calls his beloved the river Nile, and the tower of
Pisa. He also says that her smile like that of the Mona Lisa.
Hyperbole
Jonathan Swift has been notorious for employing exaggeration in his writings, to provide social
and political commentary. Through his peculiar story, A Modest Proposal, Swift elevates the
politics of society to an extent of barefaced absurdity. In this essay, Swift exaggerates by
suggesting that the only way to save Ireland from poverty and overpopulation is to kill the
children of the poor families. He further suggests that their meat would serve as a delicacy for
the nobles of Ireland. He continues to exaggerate, considering ways and recipes to make their
skin into handbags and gloves by saying:
“Those who are more thrifty may flay the carcass, the skin of which, artificially dressed, will
make admirable gloves for ladies and summer boots for fine gentleman.”
In fact, Swift exaggerates tenaciously this idea because the people of Ireland have failed to find
a logical solution to reduce poverty and overpopulation.
“I have wanted to kill myself a hundred times, but somehow I am still in love with life. This
ridiculous weakness is perhaps one of our more stupid melancholy propensities, for is there
anything more stupid than to be eager to go on carrying a burden which one would gladly throw
away, to loathe one’s very being and yet to hold it fast, to fondle the snake that devours us until
it has eaten our hearts away?”
In this example, an old woman tells her story – how she faced hard times, exaggerating that she
wanted to kill herself a hundred times, calling herself a burden.
John Donne uses exaggerated expressions in this poem. The first line of this poem, “Go and
catch a falling star,” employs an impossible undertaking. In the remaining stanzas, the poet
urges readers to undertake more unachievable tasks, by using extreme exaggeration. These
include finding a mandrake root – a mythical root in medieval lore, and hearing mermaids’
songs.
In the second stanza, Donne suggests taking a journey of “ten thousand days and nights,” to
find a faithful woman. In fact, the entire poem is rich with exaggeratedly doubtful tasks.
Andrew Marvell has employed exceptional exaggeration in this excerpt to praise his beloved.
His purpose of using this literary device is to lay emphasis on his point, rather than deception.
Function of Exaggeration
Exemplum
Definition of Exemplum
Exemplum is a rhetorical device that is defined as a short tale, narrative, or anecdote used in
literary pieces and speeches to explain a doctrine, or emphasize a moral point. They are
generally in the forms of legends, folktales, and fables.
An exemplum clarifies and proves a point. The best examples of exemplum are found in stories
of medieval times, such as The Two City Dwellers and the Country Man, The King and His Wife,
and The Cursed Dancers of Colbeck.
Characteristics of Exemplum
The plural form of exemplum, also called “exemplification,” is “exempla.” Its subject matters are
usually based on folktales, legends, fables, and real life history; in which a moral point is raised
by emphasizing the good or bad characteristics of a character. The moral teaching in exemplum
comes at the beginning, while a parable will have it at the end.
Types of Exemplum
This story is a direct attack on the corruption in the Catholic Church during the 14th century in
Europe. Two of the characters, “The Summoner” and “The Friar,” are criticized severely
because of their evil acts and their greed. The exemplum is those who engage themselves in
greed and extortion will be thrown into hell.
This is the Pardoners Tale from Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales. It is among the exemplum
examples that talk about how greed can destroy everything, and that it is the cause of all evil. In
this story, nobody got to claim the most coveted treasure, since the characters involved ended
up killing each other.
“It being my purpose to write the lives of Alexander the king, and of Cesar, by whom Pompey
was destroyed, the multitude of their great actions affords so large a field that I were to blame …
When once Alexander had given way to fears of super natural influence, his mind grew so
disturbed and so easily alarmed … But a diseased habit of body, caused by drugs which
Olympias gave him, had ruined not only his health, but his understanding.”
The excerpt is about an exemplum of the legendary Alexander the Great. The moral point of this
narrative is that an individual can change a person’s, as well as a whole nation’s, destiny.
Plutarch shows how, in history, characters like Alexander the Great have shaped the destinies
of states and individuals.
This story is about Cleopatra, and how many wicked men betrayed her.
Function of Exemplum
Exemplum is one of the most widely used rhetorical devices in written works and oratory.
Initially, it was employed by preachers in Christian homiletic writings, and stories in their
sermons to guide audiences. Preachers used historical figures as good and bad examples in
order to encourage listeners to do good deeds and avoid committing sin. Moreover, it is used as
a basic method of argument and employed in everyday life.
Expletive
Definition of Expletive
Expletive is a grammatical construction that starts with words like it, here, and there. This
rhetorical device usually interrupts normal speech and lays emphasis on certain words. It
originates from the Latin word explore, which means “to fill.” It plays a syntactic role, but does
not contribute to the meaning of a sentence or line. It is also known as empty words, such as in
this sentence, “There are some guests waiting for you,” in which there are is an expletive
phrase.
“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must
be in want of a wife.”
See, the use of it is was not necessary at the beginning of the sentence, however, it
emphasizes the overall impact of this sentence. You can see the expletive words in italics.
Example #2: The Nightingale and the Rose (By Oscar Wilde)
“‘Here indeed is the true lover,’ said the Nightingale. ‘What I sing of, he suffers – what is joy to
me, to him is pain. Surely Love is a wonderful thing. It is more precious than emeralds, and
dearer than fine opals. Pearls and pomegranates cannot buy it, nor is it set forth in the
marketplace. It may not be purchased of the merchants, nor can it be weighed out in the
balance for gold.'”
Look in this excerpt where Oscar Wilde has used the expletive word here, and the phrase it is at
the beginning of their respective sentences.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness … There were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a plain
face, on the throne of England … It was the year of Our Lord one thousand seven hundred and
seventy-five. Spiritual revelations were conceded to England at that favoured period, as at this.”
Dickens recurrently used expletive phrases, it was, and there were, in the introduction of his
famous novel A Tale of Two Cities. Though these phrases have no semantic purpose to serve,
they allow him to express the importance of the ideas, with emphasis on each one.
‘… It is well I drew the curtain,’ thought I; and I wished fervently he might not discover my
hiding-place.”
Again, in this example, look carefully at the italicized phrase, there was, at the opening of this
extract. The use of this phrase draws the readers’ attention, to the emphasis and absence of it
on other words.
Here, the use of the expletive phrase there are, makes readers notice an object—the spring
season.
Function of Expletive
An expletive word acts as an operator that allows writers to manipulate their sentences in many
ways. We see its usage in novels, poetry, prose, journalism, advertisement, and many other
forms of communication. Expletives also serve as filler words through which writers shift other
words to different places for emphasis. Hence, they serve a purpose. However, if you use
expletives recurrently in a text, they will weaken the quality of the writing. Another purpose in
using this construction is to help writers express something in a different way than a straight and
simple recitation would do.
Explication
Definition of Explication
Explication is a literary technique in criticism and research, used for a close analysis of an
excerpt or text taken from a lengthy piece of work. It originates from the French word,
“explication de texte,” meaning explanation of a text. It is neither a summary, nor a rewording,
nor a paraphrase, but a commentary that reveals the meanings of a literary work. It usually tells
about figures of speech, tone, setting, connotations, points of view, themes, contrasts, and
anything else that could add to the meaning of a text.
Nathaniel Hawthorne opens his novel, The Scarlet Letter, with a paragraph that depicts a crowd
assembled in front of a prison door. The people are waiting for Hester Prynne to show up with
her scarlet letter “A.” The author describes the crowd as a “throng,” suggesting a mob-like and
densely packed group. The mood is not pleasant, but somber – displayed by their “sad-colored”
garments, hoods, and gray hats.
Another interesting description about the men’s hats is that they were “steeple-crowned,” which
suggests that the people of the town are associated with the church that had punished Hester.
The author’s description of women as “intermixed” with men, alludes to the people in town
lacking individuality. The use of passive voice “was assembled” further implies lack of
individuality.
In the first and the second lines, the speaker describes how he comes across a dead deer at
night while driving. In the third and fourth lines, the speaker describes setting by telling about
the narrow road along with a running river nearby. He suggests how to get rid of its dead body
from narrow road by pushing it into the canyon. The poet introduces the metaphor of the journey
by comparing the road with life and journey. We also get a lot about the speaker who is not
going for the first time on the dark country road.
In his very first paragraph of A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens demonstrates both similarity
and contrast existed between the two countries, England and France during the French
Revolution. This passage presents an image of chaos and turmoil, which ensue due to a clash
between extreme ideas between the two different countries and their people.
The tone of this story is both chaotic and melancholic, presenting a theme of duality. In fact,
Dickens has used paradoxes to establish the plot and theme of this novel. The rich were
enjoying lives of abundance, while, on the other hand, the poor were suffering from deprivation.
In England, there was a lack of security, and in France, the clergymen practiced inhuman
activities against the masses. In other words, this passage emphasizes the issue of
juxtaposition of these two countries, and sets up the basis for upcoming events in the novel.
In the final stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, Frost talks about his dilemma of coming
upon two diverging paths, and not knowing which one to choose. The third line is very
important, as it delivers an idea of choosing between the two divergent paths.
The tone in this stanza shifts from regretful to optimistic. The two roads symbolically represent
individual choices. The mood is neither depressed nor unhappy, but the poet sighs because he
knows what the complexities our life may have for him. Whether he has chosen a right or a
wrong path, it has a compelling impact on his life. The phrase “less traveled” suggests the
theme of individualism.
Function
Explication not only illuminates a piece of literature, but also serves to remind the readers about
its historical setting and formal properties of style and language. It does not give deeper level
meanings, but explores an explicit view of a piece of writing. In fact, it brings clarity to certain
meanings of a work. It is also very helpful for the students to evaluate the books and articles
they read during their academic career.
Explicatory Essay
Definition of Explicatory Essay
A critical essay is also a literary type of essay. It discusses only the piece’s literary merits and
demerits, by comparing it with other literary pieces. An explicatory essay, on the other hand,
discusses the full structure of the literary piece.
“Language, of course, is constantly being redefined, not just by demagogues, but by people who
employ it. Language is we realized. Each word has passed mouth by mouth over the centuries,
changed by intonation and accent, changed by wit and utility. Those before us decided that a
certain thing—an amaranth, a colander—needs naming. Naming, as Emerson argues, is a
poet’s undertaking. It is not happenstance that the poet’s job is the job of language itself—to
reach beyond the impossible chasm of two minds, of multiple times, and make known the inner
things. And language, like the other democratic things—freedom of assembly, habeas corpus—
is among first casualties of war. The maiming and obliteration of language preempts and
attempts to excuse the maiming and obliteration of bodies. Poets, as the caretakers of
language, if by no other contested purpose of poetry—to humanize, to emote, to demand a ‘total
reaction’ as Muriel Rukeyser puts it—are called upon to respond, to defend their medium.”
This is the best example of an explication of poetry. Solmaz Sharif has given a review of the
what is proximity in poetry and how proximity of poetry helps poets to humanize feelings.
“T. S. Eliot, for example, says that ‘this line [“Beauty is truth,” etc.] strikes me as a serious
blemish on a beautiful poem; and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it
is a statement which is untrue.’ But even for persons who feel that they do understand it, the line
may still constitute a blemish. Middleton Murry, who, after a discussion of Keats’s other poems
and his letters, feels that he knows what Keats meant by ‘beauty’ and what he meant by ‘truth,’
and that Keats used them in senses which allowed them to be properly bracketed together, still,
is forced to conclude: ‘My own opinion concerning the value of these two lines in the context of
the poem itself is not very different from Mr. T. S. Eliot’s.’ The troubling assertion is apparently
an intrusion upon the poem-does not grow out of it-is not dramatically accommodated to it.”
This is another example of explication of Ode to Urn by John Keats. Cleanth Brooks has
reviewed the poem and the role of Urn it along with Eliot’s thought about Keats’ poetry.
“Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy,
unaffected manners. … he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above
being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a
most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his
friend.”
Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described in this
excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his pleasant
countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy.
Through monk’s portrait, his physical and social life, readers see a satire of the religious figures
that should live a proper monastic life of hard work and deprivation. This is the achievement of
the description of Chaucer that he has described a character through direct characterization.
An explicatory essay does not directly point out merits and demerits of a poem or a short story.
Rather, it discusses the text and its structure. The merits of the work emerge out of its
explicatory analysis. Readers fully understand the deficiencies or demerits if there are any, but a
critic only discusses the structure and what is presents within the text in a critical essay.
Exposition
Definition of Exposition
Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings,
characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers. The word comes from the
Latin language, and its literal meaning is “a showing forth.” Exposition is crucial to any story, for
without it nothing makes sense.
There are many ways to present an exposition, including monologues, dialogues, in-universe
media (newspapers, letters, reports, journals, etc.), a protagonist’s thoughts, or a narrator’s
explanation of past events. It is one of the four rhetorical modes of communication – the other
three being narration, description, and argumentation.
There are countless examples of exposition in many great movies and one of them, which
comes across particularly well, is from Star Wars. The exposition in this movie is the opening
title sequence, which gives information about the past events to the audience. The crawling text
on the screen at the beginning of each movie in the series gives the audience every piece of
information they need to understand the upcoming events in the film. The opening lines usually
begin like this:
Exposition in Literature
Example #2: The Three Little Bears (By Robert Southey)
An exposition is typically positioned at the beginning of a novel, movie, or other literary work,
because the author wants the audience to be fully aware of the characters in the story. The
famous children’s story entitled The Three Little Bears applies this technique of exposition.
“Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a
Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived
together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One
morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, ‘Let’s go for walk in the woods until it
cools.’ Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little
girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge…”
With the help of a single passage, the author of the story has given us an overview of the bear
family, their residence, and information that sets the story in motion.
All of Shakespeare’s writings contain excellent exposition examples. Take Othello, Romeo and
Juliet, Henry V, and Richard III, and you will see how exceptionally well he used the art of
expository writing. Here, two examples from Othello have been taken to elaborate the point.
The opening scene in Act I of Othello shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago,
which helps build the interest of the audience. The audience realizes that Iago is persistently
trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this
scene plays the following roles:
At the end of Act 1, the play gives the audience a few facts about Othello, including:
As is evident from the examples given above, exposition always gives us an insight into the
characters’ personalities, and adds flavor to the tragedy and drama we see towards the end of
the play.
Function of Exposition
The importance of exposition in literature, as well as in our practical lives, cannot be ignored.
Examining the types of writing we come across in our daily lives shows us that almost all of
them are incomplete without exposition.
The fiction books, articles, and magazines that people read in their everyday lives essentially
rely on exposition to connect the readers to the main story by giving them the background
information. In most cases, a narrative or script loses its essence if not accompanied by an
exposition. Not only is it important for bringing clarity to a script, but it is also vital to enhance its
literary value. The true essence of a book usually lies in how the reader is introduced to the
characters in it and, if done correctly, the reader automatically starts relating to them.
Moreover, exposition is widely used for academic purposes in schools, colleges, and
universities. Generally, students are asked to submit research reports and pass exams to
establish their progress. The exposition here is keeping the academia updated on what you
have learned so far. Also, employees are asked very often to put together business reports and
memorandums to update their employers about their progress.
Expository Essay
Definition of Expository Essay
Expose means to uncover or lay something bare, or to discover something in a way that others
know what it is. Expository is derived from exposition, which is a noun of ‘expose.’ An expository
essay is a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate, clarify, or explicate something in a
way that it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it could be an investigation, evaluation, or
even argumentation about an idea for clarification.
“I’m using the term ‘Chinese mother’ loosely. I know some Korean, Indian, Jamaican, Irish and
Ghanaian parents who qualify too. Conversely, I know some mothers of Chinese heritage,
almost always born in the West, who are not Chinese mothers, by choice or otherwise. I’m also
using the term ‘Western parents’ loosely. Western parents come in all varieties. All the same,
even when Western parents think they’re being strict, they usually don’t come close to being
Chinese mothers. For example, my Western friends who consider themselves strict make their
children practice their instruments 30 minutes every day. An hour at most. For a Chinese
mother, the first hour is the easy part. It’s hours two and three that get tough.”
This is an excerpt from a comparison/contrast essay by Amy Chua, which explains how mothers
are different in different cultures. This paragraph compares mothers from Chinese, Iranian,
Jamaican, and Irish contexts.
“It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some kind of a
homemade education.
I became increasingly frustrated at not being able to express what I wanted to convey in letters
that I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had been the most
articulate hustler out there. I had commanded attention when I said something. But now, trying
to write simple English, I not only wasn’t articulate, I wasn’t even functional. How would I sound
writing in slang, the way I would say it, something such as, ‘Look, daddy, let me pull your coat
about a cat, Elijah Muhammad — ‘
Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read something
I’ve said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This impression is due entirely
to my prison studies.”
This passage has been taken from a process essay. In this essay, Malcolm X tells the process
of his learning. In this paragraph, he gives full detail how he learns letters.
“About seven o’clock you could hear the chairs scraping from the tables, someone
experimenting with a yellow-toothed piano, if you stood outside the dining-room window and
listened. Matches being struck, the first dishes bubbling in the suds and tinkling on the wall
racks, somewhere, faintly, a phonograph playing. And then as the evening changed the hour, at
house after house on the twilight streets, under the immense oaks and elms, on shady porches,
people would begin to appear, like those figures who tell good or bad weather in rain-or-shine
clocks.
Uncle Bert, perhaps Grandfather, then Father, and some of the cousins; the men all coming out
first into the syrupy evening, blowing smoke, leaving the wSWomen’s voices behind in the
cooling-warm kitchen to set their universe aright. Then the first male voices under the porch
brim, the feet up, the boys fringed on the worn steps or wooden rails where sometime during the
evening something, a boy or a geranium pot, would fall off.”
This is an example of a passage from a descriptive essay. It has full description which tells us
about sounds and colors; a type of sensory information.
The function of an expository essay is to clarify and expose things, ideas, persons, and places
through description, process, comparison/contrast, or through problem solution. The objective of
this type of essay is to make readers aware of things given in the essay. It proves full and
detailed information in a way that readers become knowledgeable about the topic.
Extended Metaphor
Extended Metaphor Definition
The term “extended metaphor” refers to a comparison between two unlike things that continues
throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of
more than one sentence, and sometimes consists of a full paragraph.
Here, it can be seen that the “circus” has been compared to the author’s “imagination.”
“It never takes longer than a few minutes, when they get together, for everyone to revert to the
state of nature, like a party marooned by a shipwreck. That’s what a family is. Also the storm at
sea, the ship, and the unknown shore. And the hats and the whiskey stills that you make out of
bamboo and coconuts. And the fire that you light to keep away the beasts.”
In the excerpt quoted above, the writer has compared “family” with a “shipwreck.”
“I had learned long ago that he only carried just so many rounds of ammunition, and was sure to
subside into a very placable and even remorseful old smooth-bore as soon as they were all
gone.”
Here, it can be seen that the writer makes use of metaphors like “gun powdery,” “firing,” and
“ammunition” to describe the “anger” of Mr. Bixby.
“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts.”
Shakespeare has remarkably compared “earth” to a “stage” in the excerpt mentioned above.
Here again, Shakespeare has made use of extended metaphor by comparing “Juliet” with the
“sun.”
In the poem given above, Emily Dickinson has remarkably made use of the tool of extended
metaphor by comparing “hope” with the “little bird.”
In the extract quoted above, Iron Solomon makes a comparison between “LeBron James” and
“Dwyane Wade.”
In this poem, Frost compares life experiences and journeys to roads that a person travels. By
using extended metaphor, he explicates that a harder path gives greater rewards in life.
“Marriage is not
a house or even a tent
“this far
we are learning to make fire.”
Atwood has used extended metaphor of a habitation to explain marriage. She believes marriage
is not a stable shelter, like a “house or even a tent.” She rather describes it as an unstable
“edge” of the forest or desert. The poem is a description of a couple “learning to make fire,”
while trying to survive “painfully.” This extended metaphor implies that, though marriage is
tough, it makes a person learn new things.
Extended metaphor provides the writer with an opportunity to make a larger comparison
between two things or notions. The device of extended metaphor is usually employed in prose
and poetry to project a specific impression regarding things or notions in the reader’s mind.
Further, the tool serves to project the comparison intensely in the reader’s mind, than is the
case when simple metaphors or similes are used.
External Conflict
Definition of External Conflict
External conflict is a struggle that takes place between the main character and some outside
force. Therefore, it is outside the body of the protagonist. Usually, it occurs when the protagonist
struggles against the antagonist, a character that opposes the protagonist in the main body of
the story. Other types of external conflict could also arise due to some other factors such as the
forces of nature, and society in which the protagonist lives.
There are different types of external conflict found in stories. The most common are:
This type of conflict occurs when a character struggles against other characters in the story, for
instance in the Harry Potter series. Harry engages in a battle against Lord Voldemort.
Character vs. Society
This external conflict occurs when the main character stands up to support his beliefs and
struggles against the social forces, for instance Sophocles’ “Antigone.”
In this type of external conflict, the protagonist struggles against the forces of nature, or an
external environment. For instance, in the short story To Build a Fire, Jack London tells a story
of an anonymous narrator and his dog, traveling through the wilderness of Yukon Trail.
One classic example of character vs. society external conflict occurs in Shakespeare’s play
Romeo and Juliet. The two major characters fall in love, despite their belonging to the feuding
families, which do not want them to be together. They constantly struggle and strive to get
together throughout the play, as they are under the pressure of society, which wants them to
hate each other. Thus, it is a struggle between individuals and society that eventually causes
their tragic deaths.
Example #2: The Old Man and The Sea (by Earnest Hemingway)
A major external conflict is between the old man, Santiago, and the fish, a marlin. There is
fighting back and forth, and a tug of war between them, that lasts for several days, with neither
giving up. Santiago’s struggle is also against nature – to catch a giant fish, and the sharks –
which attack his precious marlin.
The old man tries to catch the marlin, though it fights back pretty hard. The old man struggles
against the views of his villagers too, as they think he has run out of his luck and wasted eighty
four days without catching a fish. Nevertheless, he is still determined to not give up. We can
clearly see his dilemma of catching the marlin, and his conflict with the fish, when he says,
“Fish, I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends.”
Marlowe takes an adventure to the Congo Bay in Africa, and feels surrounded by imperialistic
forces there. Conflicts of both character vs. nature, and character vs. society, exist here. In fact,
Marlowe comes to a place where people are mentally crazy, and kill each other just to follow
their nonsense rituals. In this place, even average people become savages.
Marlowe also sees a civilized man, Kurtz, who due to his prolonged stay over there, starts
behaving like the local savages. Though Marlowe could not stand a lie, and does not forgive
others for this fault when he meets Kurtz’s fiancée, he tells her a lie about her fiancé’s last
words. Being a protagonist, Marlowe faces numerous external conflicts.
Stories told in novels, plays, short stories, and other similar formats, revolve around the conflict.
External conflict gives a sense of excitement and immediacy to the story, making it worth
reading. It defines uniqueness of a character and reveals his intentions, giving the audience an
understanding of his motivation behind the dialogue and action. In addition, it tells the reason of
a character’s motivation in life that otherwise may appear foolish on the surface. It also makes
possible for the readers to build up sympathy and profound connection with the character to
eventually learn something and transform their lives through this learning.
Fable
Definition of Fable
The word fable is derived from the Latin word fibula, which means “a story,” and a derivative of
the word fari, which means “to speak.” Fable is a literary device that can be defined as a
concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end.
In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In
prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces, of nature, and inanimate
objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end.
Features of a Fable
“A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox
observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. Coming and
standing under the tree he looked up and said, ‘What a noble bird I see above me! Her beauty is
without equal…’ Down came the cheese, of course, and the Fox, snatching it up, said, ‘You
have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits.'”
Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put
emphasis on the social communications of human beings, and hence the morals he draws deal
with realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers must not be
trusted.
Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable,
laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our
bodies … and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end … No animal in England
knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free.
The life of an animal is misery and slavery …”
Here, old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development and
emergence of Soviet communism, through an animal fable. He advises the animals to struggle
against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out of their miserable
situation.
Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S.T. Coleridge)
First Voice
“But tell me, tell me! speak again,
Thy soft response renewing —
What makes that ship drive on so fast?
What is the ocean doing?”
Second Voice
“Still as a slave before his lord,
The ocean hath no blast…
Up to the moon is cast —…
See! see! (I cried) she tacks no more…
The voices in this poem explain the moving ship without waves and wind. There is a
supernatural force at work. This literary piece is one of the well-written fable examples that
teach about penance, redemption, and sin. The killing of a bird symbolizes the original sin.
“I attempted to rise, but was not able to stir: for, as I happened to lie on my back, I found my
arms and legs were strongly fastened on each side to the ground; and my hair, which was long
and thick, tied down in the same manner … In a little time I felt something alive moving on my
left leg, which advancing gently forward over my breast, came almost up to my chin…”
Gulliver’s Travels is a mixture of political allegory, moral fable, mock utopia, and social anatomy.
In this excerpt, Captain Gulliver reaches an unknown place among strange creatures who speak
a strange language. This is a type of modern fable intended to satirize political vices.
Function of Fable
The purpose of writing fables is to convey a moral lesson and message. Fables also give
readers a chance to laugh at the follies of human beings, and they can be employed for the
objective of satire and criticism. They are very helpful in teaching children good lessons based
on examples. However, in literature, fables are used for didactic purposes at a much broader
level.
Fallacy
Fallacy Definition
Types of Fallacy
Here are a few well-known types of fallacy you might experience when making an argument:
1. Appeal to Ignorance
Appeal to ignorance happens when one individual utilizes another individual’s lack of
information on a specific subject as proof that his or her own particular argument is right.
2. Appeal to Authority
This sort of error is also known as “Argumentum Verecundia” (argument from modesty). Instead
of concentrating on the benefits of an argument, the arguer will attempt to append their
argument to an individual of power or authority, in an effort to give trustworthiness to their
argument.
This sort of appeal is when somebody asserts that a thought or conviction is correct, since it is
the thing that the general population accepts.
4. Association Fallacy
Sometimes called “guilt by affiliation,” this happens when somebody connects a particular
thought or issue to something or somebody negative, so as to infer blame on another individual.
Also regarded as “argumentum ad hominem” (argument against the man), this is a common
fallacy used during debates, where an individual substitutes a rebuttal with a personal insult.
7. Circular Argument
This fallacy is also known as “circulus in probando.” This error is committed when an argument
takes its evidence from an element inside the argument itself, instead of from an outside source.
Also called “cum hoc ergo propter hoc,” this fallacy is a deception in which the individual making
the contention joins two occasions that happen consecutively, and accepts that one created or
caused the other.
9. False Dilemma/Dichotomy
Sometimes called “bifurcation,” this sort of error happens when somebody presents their
argument in such a way that there are just two conceivable alternatives left.
This is a fallacy wherein somebody attests a conclusion that does not follow from the
suggestions or facts.
This error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will unavoidably
prompt great and frequently ludicrous conclusions.
This fallacy may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. Syllogism fallacy is a
false argument, as it implies an incorrect conclusion.
To understand the different types of fallacy better, let’s review the following examples of fallacy:
“You can’t demonstrate that there aren’t Martians living in caves on the surface of Mars, so it is
sensible for me to accept there are.”
“Well, Isaac Newton trusted in Alchemy, do you suppose you know more than Isaac Newton?”
“If the neighbor didn’t take my daily paper, who did?” (This accepts that the daily paper was
really stolen).
“I accept that Frosted Flakes are incredible, since it says so on the box.”
“I saw a jaybird, and ten minutes later I crashed my car. Jaybirds are really bad luck.”
“If you don’t vote for this applicant, you must be a Communist.”
“All Dubliners are from Ireland. Ronan is not a Dubliner, so clearly he is not Irish.”
“If we permit gay individuals to get married, what’s next? Permitting people to marry their dogs?”
“All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow.”
Function of Fallacy
Literary critics find the weaknesses of literary pieces by searching for fallacies within them.
Because of this, there is a tendency for critics to distort the intentions of the writer.
Falling Action
Definition of Falling Action
Falling action occurs right after the climax, when the main problem of the story resolves. It is
one of the elements of the plot of the story, the other elements being exposition, rising action,
climax, and resolution. Falling action wraps up the narrative, resolves its loose ends, and leads
toward the closure.
Examples of Falling Action in Literature
Example #1: Star Wars (by George Lucas)
Falling action in Star Wars occurs after the rebels and Luke Skywalker discover a vulnerable
section in the Death Star. It is up to Luke Skywalker to destroy the space ship following several
failed attempts. Darth Vader virtually hits Luke’s ship; however, Han Solo saves his ship by
shooting at Vader. Then, Luke uses The Force and destroys the Death Star against all odds,
saving the rebels. Yet the story does not end here. The audience then sees the return of Han
and Luke to the rebels, who receive congratulations for their heroic efforts. Then the falling
action takes place, when these two characters win rewards and medals from Princess Leia for
saving the day.
In Maupassant’s story, The Necklace, the rising action happens when Mathilda Loisel and her
husband get invited to a fancy ball. She then borrows a beautiful necklace from Madame
Forestier, her friend. The story reaches its climax when Mathilda sees herself in full glory and
realizes that she is not having it anymore. The falling action takes place when this couple is
forced to live a poor life to pay the debt of the fake necklace they borrowed earlier.
Another good example is in the famous story of Poe, The Cask of Amontillado. Following his
wicked plan, Montresor invites Fortunato to his vault to taste the rare flavor of Amontillado, a
type of wine. He makes a plan to keep Fortunato inebriated, ensuring that his glass remains full.
When Fortunato starts coughing, Montresor asks him if he wants to go back, but intoxicated
Fortunato insists on tasting more.
The climax of the story occurs when Montresor chains him and buries him alive in a brick wall.
Then the falling action follows this climax, where Fortunato regains consciousness and
struggles to get free of chains to call for help. Before sealing the wall, Montresor throws a torch
to see if Fortunato is alive to end the story.
Another example of falling action is from The Fault in Our Stars, a novel by John Green. The
story revolves around two teenage lovers, Hazel Grace Lancaster and Augustus Waters, who
are cancer patients. The rising action takes place, when they start liking each other, and the
climax occurs with their tour to Amsterdam, where they express their feelings and consequently
their love blossoms.
Nevertheless, their whirling romance comes to a halt, because Augustus’ health worsens, and
he sees very few chances of his survival. The falling action follows with their return to
Indianapolis, where Hazel decides to be with him to take good care of him. But, deep down she
is aware of this reality that he has not much time to live. Augustus, on the other hand,
remembers that he had planned to would write Hazel’s eulogy, but the situation reverses
instead.
Audiences expect a low ebb after every great tide in order to give themselves a feeling of relief.
This happens with falling action of the story or the play. In fact, it is the desire of the audiences
to see the fruits of the labor of a hero or protagonist that satisfies them. If this does not happen,
the audience stays unsatisfied, and the story seems incomplete. Thus, falling action serves as a
rewarding element in a story or movie. In addition, it is like a road from climax to resolution, and
if the road is vacant, the story may end abruptly.
Fantasy
Definition of Fantasy
Fantasy is a form of literary genre in which a plot cannot occur in the real world. Its plot usually
involves witchcraft or magic, taking place on an undiscovered planet of an unknown world. Its
overall theme and setting involve a combination of technology, architecture, and language,
which sometimes resemble European medieval ages. The most interesting thing about fantasies
is that their plot involves witches, sorcerers, mythical and animal creatures talking like humans,
and other things that never happen in real life.
Types of Fantasy
Modern Folktales
Modern folktales are types of fantasy that narrators tell in a traditional tale accompanying some
typical elements, such as strong conflict, little description of characters, fast-moving plot with a
quick resolution, and sometimes magical elements and vague settings. However, these tales
are popular, as authors throughout history have written them. Hans Christian Andersen has
written several fairy tales of this category including:
• The Nightingale
• The Emperor’s New Clothes
• Thumbelina
• The Ugly Duckling
Animal Fantasy
Animal fantasy tells tales about animals, behaving like human beings, speaking, experiencing
emotions, and having the ability to reason. Nevertheless, animals in animal fantasies retain their
various animal characteristics too. Often, such fantasies have simple plots, and constitute
literary symbolism by presenting symbolic expression of human counterparts. Popular examples
of animal fantasy include:
In toy fantasy stories, narrators bring their beloved toys to life, and transform them into animated
beings that can live, talk, think, breathe, love, and behave like human beings. You would see
modern toy fantasies in picture book format. Examples include:
Magical Fantasy
In a magical fantasy, you see a character having magical powers, or a strange magical object
becomes the subject of the narrative. Such fantasies include
In these fantasies, you see leading character undertaking a journey to an alternative world, or a
fantasy world. Though realistic tales also employ journeys, you would only see magical things
happen in fantasy journeys. Examples include:
These fantasies involve adventures with a search, quest, and motif. While this quest could be a
pursuit for a higher purpose, like justice and love, or for getting a reward like hidden treasure, or
a magical power; the conflict of heroic fantasies focuses on struggle between evil and good. The
protagonist struggles with internal weakness and temptations, such as you may observe in
these stories:
One of the most common forms of supernatural fantasy is known as a “ghost story.” Ghosts
could be either helpful protectors, or fearsome adversaries. However, in a mystery, the solution
is always a supernatural one, or through supernatural assistance such as witchcraft. Its best
example is:
Science Fiction
Science fiction is a type of imaginative literature. It provides a mental picture of something that
may happen on realistic scientific principles and facts. This fiction might portray, for instance, a
world where young people are living on Mars. Hence, it is known as “futuristic fiction.” It
dramatizes the wonders of technology, and resembles heroic fantasy where magic is substituted
with technology. You can find this type of imaginative fiction in these stories:
Function of Fantasy
We all like fantasy stories, and grow up reading and listening to fantasies. These tales serve to
fuel our imaginations, and satisfy our longings for adventure. Thus, fantasy directly relates to
our deepest desires and dreams. That is why they are important for increasing power of
imagination in growing minds, especially in children. In addition, exposing our minds to lots of
romance and magic, the seeking for ideal heroes and beauty queens, adventure, and even
deception, captures the attention and imagination of every age group. Also, fantasy has a
distinguished writing style, with freedom of expression – the reason that authors can experiment
and employ elements of narrative to strengthen their tales.
Farce
Definition of Farce
A farce is a literary genre and type of comedy that makes use of highly exaggerated and funny
situations aimed at entertaining the audience. Farce is also a subcategory of dramatic comedy,
which is different from other forms of comedy as it only aims at making the audience laugh. It
uses elements like physical humor, deliberate absurdity, bawdy jokes, and drunkenness just to
make people laugh. We often see one-dimensional characters in ludicrous situations in farces.
Oscar Wilde’s novel, The Importance of Being Earnest, is one of the best verbal farces. Just like
a typical farce that contains basic elements, such as mockery of the upper class, disgraceful
physical humor, absurdity, and mistaken identities, this novel also demonstrates these features
of a farce. The most absurd thing in tale is the fact that Miss Prism commits a blunder by leaving
her manuscript in the pram, and puts her child into her handbag.
In Shakespeare’s play, The Taming of the Shrew, the farcical elements are manifested in terms
of characters, plot, and particularly the writing style. The play contains stereotype characters
that are typically farcical in nature, such as Katherine is an excellent instance of the farcical
character. Although Katherina (Kate) is a stereotype and a boisterous shrew, Shakespeare
portrays her as an individual needing sympathy, because Bianca is the favorite child of her
father, Baptista.
As far as the plot is concerned, Shakespeare develops the plot to look like a situational comedy.
Though the subplot is romantic, both the main plot and the subplot move around an idea of the
favoring father, whom his daughter and her lover outwit. In terms of the writing style,
Shakespeare has used three basic comical techniques to produce humorous effects, such as
Kate’s statements, and her husband’s replies, which demonstrate verbal humor. All these three
elements demonstrate this play as a farce.
Oliver Goldsmith’s play, She Stoops to Conquer, is another good example of farce or comedy of
errors, as it contains multiple misunderstandings. It uses comedy of manners, in which the
author ridicules the manners of a particular society – specifically the upper class.
She Stoops to Conquer includes several farcical elements, including themes, human manners,
and even the plot itself. In the play, two Londoners search for Mr. Hardcastle’s home. When
they find, they are deceived to believe that they have reached in an inn, not home; thus they
conduct themselves according to the situation.
One of the gentlemen, Marlow, pursues Kate Hardcastle. However, she pretends to be a maid
until he reveals his passionate feelings for her, and that he plans to elope with Kate. She, on the
other hand, looks bawdy in her manners. As the gentlemen do not know the reality of the
situation, they behave rudely with other household members. All such misunderstandings create
humor and give farcical touches to this play.
We find several farcical situations in Samuel Beckett’s play Waiting for Godot. However, most of
these situations have deeper meanings than just their apparent meanings. For instance, we
have a funny situation in which Vladimir and Estragon put on and take off their hats. Though it is
a farcical situation, the aim is to tell the audience that the world of tramps has no significant
actions and place, except to do trivial things.
Perhaps the most hilarious farcical situation occurs when the tramps test the strength of a string
in order to hang themselves. The Estragon’s trousers fall down to his ankles while pulling the
cord, and due to strain, the cord breaks.
Function of Farce
The basic purpose of a farcical comedy is to evoke laughter. We usually find farces in theater
and films, and sometimes in other literary works too. In fact, all of these forms combine
stereotyped characters and exaggeration to create humor. Although a farce may appear only to
be funny, they often contain deeper implications on account of the use of satirical elements. In
terms of plots, farces are often incomprehensible; hence, the audiences are not encouraged to
follow the plot in order to avoid becoming overwhelmed and confused. Moreover, farces also
contain improbable coincidences, and generally mock weaknesses of humans and human
society.
Fiction
Definition of Fiction
Etymologically, the word fiction has been derived from Latin word “fictus,” which means “to
form.” However, in literature, Merriam Webster defines it as, “literature in the form of prose,
especially novels, that describes imaginary events and people.”
In fact, it is one of the two branches of literature, the other being non-fiction. This particular
branch of literature consists of stories, novels, and dramas based on made-up and fabricated
stories and characters. Fiction contains certain symbolic and thematic features known as
“literary merits.” In other words, fiction narrates a story, which aims at something bigger than
merely a story. In this attempt, it comments on something significant related to social, political,
or human related issues.
Fiction may be based on stories of actual historical events. Although fictitious characters are
presented in a fictitious setting in stories and novels, they may have some resemblance to real
life events and characters. Writers alter their characters very skillfully when they take them from
actual life.
Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is a good example of fiction. The story narrates various
adventures of the main character, Alice, in a fictitious land full of incredible creatures and
events. Alice has to go through certain magical experiences in the wonderland. According to the
story, one day, while reading book, Alice grows bored, and notices a white rabbit. She follows
the rabbit when it goes into a hole in the ground.
When peeping through the hole, Alice loses her balance and falls in. She floats down slowly into
the hole, and observes everything around her. Then Alice enters Wonderland, where she
witnesses a number of weird things. This entire magical tale is fabricated and imaginary, which
makes it a good fiction to enjoy.
Another ample example to portray fiction is, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. It is one of the
most famous English novels. Unlike the previous example, this story is set in a real-life-like
setting. All characters are humans, and no magical or strange events take place in this novel. All
of the characters, and the entire story is a made-up narrative, each element the product of Jane
Austen’s imagination. She not only presents the issues of the contemporary life faced by middle
class families, but also daily preoccupations of the common people. The novel presents a good
fiction of actual life of nineteenth century.
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is another apt example of fiction. The story of the play moves
around the main character, Prince Hamlet. He is informed by the Ghost of his father that his
uncle murdered his father, King Hamlet, and married his wife and Hamlet’s mother, Queen
Gertrude. The Ghost elicits a promise from Hamlet that he will avenge his murder by killing the
murderer. This becomes Hamlet’s dilemma. He vows to kill his uncle, but delays it on one
pretext or another. Overall, the story is all about the intrigues and plots of the royal castle of
Elsinore in Denmark. The story may have some connection with the real life events and
characters, yet it is completely a fabricated story created by Shakespeare to entertain the
Elizabeth audience of that time.
Function of Fiction
The function of fiction is to entertain, educate, and inspire the readers and the audience.
Literature in general, and fiction in particular, is capable enough to sweep our emotions.
Therefore, fiction gives the audience an experience beyond their daily lives. It provides them an
insight into the life of the characters, their manners, vicissitudes, and events related to them. It
also is used to point out the flaws and drawbacks of a society, race, and nation in a manner that
it does not touch the boundary of stricture or criticism. Rather, fiction points out drawbacks, and
then suggests solutions for the individuals and the nations alike. To sum up, fiction can also
provide a vent to our pent-up emotions such as hatred, anger and dislike but in a very light
manner without pointing out specific individuals or groups.
Figurative Language
Definition of Figurative Language
Figurative language uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful.
Figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, and allusions go beyond the literal meanings of
the words to give readers new insights. On the other hand, alliterations, imageries, or
onomatopoeias are figurative devices that appeal to the senses of the readers.
Figurative language can appear in multiple forms with the use of different literary and rhetorical
devices. According to Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia, figurative language has five different
forms:
1. Understatement or Emphasis
2. Relationship or Resemblance
3. Figures of Sound
4. Errors and
5. Verbal Games
• Simile
• Metaphor
• Personification
• Onomatopoeia
• Oxymoron
• Hyperbole
• Allusion
• Idiom
• Imagery
• Symbolism
• Alliteration
• Assonance
• Consonance
• Metonymy
• Synecdoche
• Irony
• Sarcasm
• Litotes
• Pun
• Anaphora
• Tautology
• Understatement
Metaphor
Images
• The light on the site did not let him see the sight.
• He heard the sound of the fire, like wire striking the air.
• This artificial stream is going to flow to the downtown of the town.
• Please set the kite right.
• Might of the fright seems greater than the actual fear.
Consonance
Paradox
Metonymy
Synecdoche
The similes and word choice of this poem makes it a masterpiece. The poet use similes
between the lines to depict his scattered thoughts before taking action, and makes comparison
as, “like a tight-rope,” “like a dropped ball,” and “hovers like an ecstatic bird.”
Example #2: I Know Why the Cage Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)
Metaphor
The entire poem is rich with metaphor as a bird in a cage represents a group of people who are
oppressed and cannot get freedom. The cage represents physical barriers, fear, addiction, or
society; while the song of the bird represents true self yearning for something greater in life.
Example #3: She Sweeps with Many-Colored Brooms (By Emily Dickinson)
Personification
Dickinson uses personification of a housewife to describe the sunset in the very first line of this
poem. She is using a sweeping housewife who does her daily work, likewise the rays of the
setting sun sweep away beneath the horizon.
Poe uses alliteration by repeating the /w/ sound to emphasize the weariness of the narrator, and
then /r/ and /s/ sounds in the second and third lines respectively. In the last two lines, the /d/
sound highlights the narrator’s hopelessness.
Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
Symbolism
Ah ! well a-day ! what evil looks
Had I from old and young !
Instead of the cross, the Albatross
About my neck was hung.
In these lines, the albatross symbolizes a big mistake, or a burden of sin, just like the cross on
which Christ was crucified. Therefore, all people on the ship agreed to slay that bird.
She ran down the street, the green knee socks making her legs look like wild dandelion of
stems that had somehow lost their heads. The weight of her remark stunned us.
This excerpt uses different devices that make language figurative. There is a good use of simile,
“legs look like wild dandelion;” and personification, “lost their heads;” and use of consonance in
“stunned us,” where the /s/ is a consonant sound.
“The dark lantern of world sadness has cast its shadow upon the land.
We stumble into our misery on leaden feet.”
In just these two lines, Maya Angelou has used a metaphor of the dark lantern, consonance of
the /s/ sounds, and personification of misery.
This prince of the Harlem Renaissance has beautifully used a different type of consonance with
the /l/ sound and a simile of “my soul.”
W. H. Auden has used a personification of the “dreadful martyrdom,” and consonances of “some
untidy spot,” with the /s/ sound, and “dogs go on with their doggy life,” with the /d/ and /g/
sounds.
Function of Figurative Language
The primary function of figurative language is to force readers to imagine what a writer wants to
express. Figurative language is not meant to convey literal meanings, and often it compares one
concept with another in order to make the first concept easier to understand. However, it links
the two ideas or concepts with the goal of influencing the audience to understand the link, even
if it does not exist.
Poets and prose writers use this technique to bring out emotions and help their readers form
images in their minds. Thus, figurative language is a useful way of conveying an idea that
readers cannot understand otherwise, due to its complex and abstract nature. In addition, it
helps in analyzing a literary text.
Figure of Speech
Definition of Figure of Speech
A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It
conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or
meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect.
There are many types of figures of speech. Here are a few of them with detailed descriptions:
Personification
It occurs when a writer gives human traits to non-human or inanimate objects. It is similar to
metaphors and similes that also use comparison between two objects. For instance,
“Hadn’t she felt it in every touch of the sunshine, as its golden finger-tips pressed her lids open
and wound their way through her hair?”
In the above lines, the speaker is personifying sunshine as it has finger tips that wound their
way into her hair. This is trait of using finger-tips in hair is a human one.
These two figures of speech are opposite to each other. Hyperbole uses extreme exaggeration.
It exaggerates to lay emphasis on a certain quality or feature. It stirs up emotions among the
readers, these emotions could be about happiness, romance, inspiration, laughter or sadness.
In this poem, Auden has used hyperbole to stress on how long his love his beloved would last.
Just imagine when China and Africa would meet and can river jump up over the mountains?
How salmon can be intelligent enough so that it could sing and evolve enough and walk the
streets?
In this line, the speaker is using an understatement because someone has killed his family and
he is just taking it very normal like nothing serious has happened.
Simile
It is a type of comparison between things or objects by using “as” or “like.” See the following
example:
Rossetti has used simile thrice in this part of the poem, comparing her heart to a “singing bird”,
“an apple-tree”, and a rainbow shell.” The poet makes comparison of heart to a happy bird in a
nest, an apple tree full with fruits and a beautiful shell in the sea, full of peace and joy.
Metaphor
Metaphor is comparing two unlike objects or things, which may have some common qualities.
Pun
Pun is the manipulation of words that have more than one meanings. It brings humor in an
expression.
See the use of odd grammar rule, which is the capitalization of word “Will.” Usually in the middle
of a line or sentence, writers capitalize a name. Here it is the first name of Shakespeare. It
means he has created pun of his own name.
Figure of speech is not only used to embellish the language, but also cause a moment of
excitement when reading. It is used equally in writing as well as in speech. It, in fact, provides
emphasis, clarity or freshness to expression. Clarity, however, may sometimes suffer because a
figure of speech introduces double meanings such as connotative and denotative meanings. It
also strengthens the creative expression and description along with making the language more
graphic, pointed and vivid.
Flash-Forward
Flash-Forward Definition
Flash-forward, or “prolepsis,” is a literary device in which the plot goes ahead of time; meaning a
scene that interrupts and takes the narrative forward in time from the current time in the story.
Generally, a flash-forward represents expected or imagined events in the future, interjected into
the main plot, revealing important information to the story that has yet to be brought to light. It is
the opposite of a flashback, or “analepsis,” which reveals past events.
Flash-forward, on the other hand, is an interjected scene in a narrative, which takes the
narrative forward in time. The events presented in a flash-forward are bound to happen in the
story. Foreshadowing predicts the future events, but the events do not necessarily take place in
the future.
Flash-forward is essentially a postmodern narrative device, but there are a few flash-forward
examples in early literature. Let us look at some famous examples of flash-forward in literature
below:
Example #1: A Christmas Carol (By Charles Dickens)
Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol depicts the character Scrooge in a flash-forward scene.
The tightfisted and ill-tempered Scrooge is visited by the “Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come,”
who shows him his future. Scrooge sees himself dead, and people finding comfort and
happiness in his death. No one mourns his death, and the people he ruined in his life steal his
wealth. Scrooge sees Mrs. Dilber, his housekeeper, selling his property to junkmen and friends.
The only ones touched by his death are a young, poor couple. His only legacy is a cheap
tombstone in a graveyard. He weeps on his own grave, and asks the third ghost of Christmas to
give him a chance to change himself. He wakes up and finds that he is back on Christmas
morning of the present. Scrooge repents, and becomes kind and generous.
These lines show a future event as if it has already happened. Lorenzo, who is called their
murdered man, takes the character to a time in the future when the two brothers of his beloved
Isabella will assassinate him.
In Stephen King’s novel The Dead Zone, the hero receives a special power of predicting the
future after a car crash. Through physical contact, he sees the future of a person. After some
time, he feels cursed with the gift. Like when he shakes hands with a politician and flash-
forwards to the future, seeing a nuclear war. He says:
“If you knew Hitler was going to do what he did to the Jews, would you kill him before he had the
chance?”
At this moment, the hero suffers from a moral conflict between what he knows about the future,
and what he might do to save people.
Example #4: The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (By Muriel Spark)
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, by Muriel Spark, makes extensive use of the narrative
technique of flash-forward. The story takes place at Marcia Blaine School, where six girls are
handed over to Miss Brodie.
In the very beginning of the novel, Spark tells us that Miss Brodie is betrayed. He then gradually
reveals the betrayer and, finally, reveals all the details related to the event. Similarly, he
introduces Joyce Emily, as the rejected girl from the “Brodie set,” and later tells readers the
reasons.
Function of Flash-Forward
Flash-forward enables a writer to give logical explanations to the actions of the characters in a
narrative. The character’s actions make more sense to the readers after having developed a
greater understanding of the character and the his or her personality.
Moreover, flash-forward grabs the readers’ interest in the current events of the narrative, to see
how the story develops towards the future that has already been shown to them.
Flashback
Flashback Definition
Merriam Webster defines the word flashback as “an interruption of the chronological sequence
(as of a film or literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence.”
Flashbacks are interruptions that writers do to insert past events, in order to provide background
or context to the current events of a narrative. By using flashbacks, writers allow their readers to
gain insight into a character’s motivations, and provide a background to a current conflict.
Dream sequences and memories are methods used to present flashbacks.
When I went out of the drawing room, the first thing that came into view in the open corridor was
the picture of my brother. [I just got the point why my mother used to see that portrait hours after
he was killed in WWII, and she left only when she saw any one of us coming to her.] I just
heard steps, and when I looked back, there was nothing that I could see. It was just a feeling of
the past.
The sentence enclosed in brackets is a flashback. It has interrupted the current event in the
form of a sudden thought, giving us an insight into the past of the narrator.
The Bible is a good source of flashback examples. In the Book of Matthew, we see a flashback
has been used when Joseph, governor of Egypt, sees his brothers after several years. Joseph
“remembered his dreams” about his brothers, and how they sold him into slavery in the past.
Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman uses flashback to narrate Willy Loman’s memories of the
past. At one moment, Willy talks with his dead brother while playing cards with Charley. He
relives a past conversation in the present. This demonstrates a character that is physically living
in the present, but mentally living in the memories and events of the past.
Another example of flashback is the ballad of The Cruel Mother, in which a mother remembers
her murdered child. While going to church, she remembers her child’s birth, growing up, and
death. Later, she thinks back further to a distant time in her past to remember how her own
mother was ruthless to her.
Example #4: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)
Emily Bronte’s famous novel Wuthering Heights starts off with Cathy, one of the main
characters, dead. Mr. Lockwood sees Cathy’s name written all over the windowsill, and then has
a vexing dream about her. When he talks about the dream to Heathcliff, Heathcliff becomes
distressed, and Mr. Lockwood wants to know why the mention of Cathy upsets him.
The flashbacks are means to bring Cathy back to life, so Mr. Lockwood has a better perception
of why Heathcliff was so upset. The flashbacks show the development of the love that Heathcliff
and Cathy had for each other, and how their poor decisions separated them. It would not have
the same effect, if Ellen had only told Mr. Lockwood that Cathy was a person that Heathcliff
loved and that she died.
Robert Frost, in his poem Birches, employs flashback. In this poem, a character sees swaying
birch trees and says:
“So was I once myself a swinger of birches. And so I dream of going back to be.”
He goes back to the days of his childhood, and then returns to the present and says:
“I’d like to get away from earth awhile, and then come back to it and begin over.”
The narrator remembers and desires for the freedom and joy he experienced as a child,
swinging on birch trees, and wishes to return to that moment of his childhood.
Function of Flashback
The use of a flashback is to convey to the readers information regarding the character’s
background, and give them an idea of the character’s motives for doing certain things later in
the story. Therefore, a flashback in the story deepens inner conflict. It provides stimulus for the
conflict, deepens the touching effects, and allows the reader to sympathize even with the villain.
Often, the function of flashback in poetry is to convey an idea of the happiness that the poet
enjoyed in the past, but presently does not enjoy those pleasures. Poets use flashback to
contrast a character’s unhappy circumstances in the present to the happy days of his past.
Flat Character
Definition of Flat Character
A flat character is a type of character in fiction that does not change too much from the start of
the narrative to its end. Flat characters are often said not to have any emotional depth.
E. M. Foster has discussed some features of flat characters in his book, Aspects of the Novel.
According to Foster, a flat character is a simple character, shown by the author as having just
one or two qualities, which generally remain the same throughout the story, not undergoing
significant growth or changes. The audience does not know much about these characters,
because the writer does not provide detailed information about them.
Outwardly, Queen Gertrude seems to be a caring mother of Hamlet, but inwardly she is a weak-
willed lady, who walks blindly through her life, is not aware that Claudius has trapped her by
murdering her husband, or that he has seized her husband’s throne. Gertrude has no idea why
Hamlet is upset about her marriage. She behaves like a tool of fate in the whole tragedy, even
when she stops Hamlet from going back to Wittenberg for studies.
Gertrude is a weak character, whom Claudius and Polonius have used for their own interests.
She arranges a meeting with Hamlet, so that Claudius could spy on him, and also lets Polonius
remain behind the curtains to hear the conversation between them. Thus, throughout the
narrative, she proves her flat character and does not transform. She remains passive, never
acts on her own until she becomes a victim herself.
Example #2: Miss Maudie from To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee)
Miss Maudie is a flat character because she maintains the same characteristics and outlook
throughout the narrative. She begins and ends the novel by acting as a voice of reason for kids,
and supporting and explaining Atticus’ motivations and actions. She is the one who does not
openly give a warning to Atticus for taking the case of Tom Robinson. Her positive and
optimistic attitude remains steady, even after losing her house to a fire. Also, she represents
more open-minded woman in the novel, as she sees error in social structure of Maycomb.
Example #3: Elizabeth Proctor from The Crucible (By Arthur Miller)
Another example of flat character is The Crucible‘s Elizabeth Proctor, who is a self-righteous
woman, who always believes in doing something right. Whatever happens in the story, she
stays faithful to her husband, John Proctor. Though she feels dejected due to John’s cheating,
she does not turn against him despite his wrongdoing.
Elizabeth Proctor is basically an honest person who, when John asks for her recommendation
as to whether he should confess his sin, she leaves the decision to him. She does not judge her
husband, and assures him that she would support him for any decision he makes. Thus, she
does not transform throughout this play, proving her as a flat character from beginning to the
end.
Example #4: Benvolio from Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)
Benvolio is another flat character, who remains unchanged throughout the play. He is
temperate, solid, and loyal, who always tries to maintain peace and harmony between the two
families. Benvolio’s purpose is to support Romeo to get married to Juliet. However, the irony is
that others accuse him for his hot temperament and wild attitude.
The role of a flat character is to help the main character in pursuing his ambitions and goals.
Flat characters often play a supporting role in the story, play, or novel. Though they are not very
prominent characters, nor are they unimportant, because they bring harmony, peace, and
comedy to the story. Writers use these characters to create a specific atmosphere in the
complex narrative structure.
Foil
Foil Definition
In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of
another character. The objective is to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil,
though generally being applied to a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison
that is drawn to portray a difference between two things.
What we observe in literature very often is that a foil is a secondary character who contrasts
with the major character to enhance the importance of the major character. The etymology of
the term foil testifies the aforementioned assertion as the word is taken from the practice of
backing gems with foil (tool), so that they shine more brightly.
Milton’s Paradise Lost, Book I, is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God
and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and
the positive traits of God are frequently compared, which consequently brings to the surface not
only the contrast between the two characters, but also “justify the ways of God…” We reach a
conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise because of his refusal to
give in to the will of God.
In Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte depicts two contrasting settings that are foils to each other.
The entire action of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and
Thrushcross Grange. While describing Wuthering Heights in chapter 12, the narrator says:
“There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from
any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were
never visible…”
The description of Thrushcross Grange, in contrast to the Wuthering Heights, creates a calm
and peaceful atmosphere.
“Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley
came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer
foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf.”
The foils in these settings also help in the development of the foils in the characters, as the
people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, and are foils to those from Thrushcross
Grange, who have a refined disposition.
Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson)
In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of
doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but also
qualifies as his foil. Dr. Jekyll creates Hyde through a series of scientific experiments, in order to
prove his statement:
He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man’s foil
exists in himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in otherwise honorable Dr.
Jekyll. Being a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill his evil desires.
Therefore, he separates his “evil-self,” giving him a separate identity, and thus invents his own
foil.
Foil examples are also found in plays. We notice in William Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar a
twofold foil. Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and Brutus is a foil to Antony. Both Cassius and Brutus
conspire to kill Caesar, but Cassius is more prone to treachery than Brutus is, and thus easily
gives in to his evil ambition.
Brutus, on the other hand, hesitates to join the plot without careful analysis of the whole
scenario. Cassius even goes to the extent that he does not shy away from writing phony letters
to convince Brutus to join the plot. Brutus, in contrast, is bent on relying on his own reason, and
his awareness of his dignified obligations as a Roman, to do the inevitable. Moreover, Brutus is
a foil to Antony because Brutus’s honesty and simplicity are in clear contrast to Antony’s
qualities of deception and over-ambition.
Function of Foil
In fiction, a foil is important in the development of the story’s characters. The comparison of the
contrasting traits of the characters helps the readers to not only understand their personalities,
but also to comprehend the importance of their roles in a work of literature.
Folklore
Definition of Folklore
Folklore is a collection of fictional stories about animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes,
songs, tales, and even quotes. It is a description of culture, which has been passed down
verbally from generation to generation, though many are now in written form. Folklore is also
known as “folk literature,” or “oral traditions.”
Folklore depicts the way main characters manage their everyday life events, including conflicts
or crises. Simply, folk literature is about individual experiences from a particular society. The
study of folk tradition and knowledge is called folkloristics. Although some folklores depict
universal truths, unfounded beliefs and superstitions are also basic elements of folklore
tradition.
Types of Folklore
• Folk song
• Folk tales
• Fairy tales
• Tall tales
• Ballads
• Folk dramas
• Proverbs, charms, and riddles
• Use of Folklore by Children
Rudyard Kipling was keenly interested in folklore, as he has written many English works based
on folklore such as, Rewards and Fairies and Puck of Pook’s Hill. His experiences in Indian
environment have led him to create several works about Indian themes and tradition. Since
Kipling has lived a great deal of life in Indian regions, he was much familiar with the Indian
languages.
Kipling’s popular work, The Jungle Book, consists of plenty of stories about traditional folktales.
He also has Indian themes in his work, Just So Stories, in which he has given many characters
recognizable names related to Indian languages. Helen Bannerman has also penned an Indian
themed folktale, Little Black Sambo, during the same period.
Patrick Henry was a politician, attorney and planter, who gained popularity as an orator when
Americans were struggling for independence. He is well known for his speech in the House of
Burgesses in 1775 in the church of Saint Joseph. The House was undecided about whether
they need to mobilize and take military action against encroaching military forces of England.
Henry gave his arguments in favor of American forces’ mobilization. After forty-two years,
William Wirt, Henry’s first biographer, working from different oral histories and stories,
reconstructed the sayings of Henry, outlining the folk traditions he inherited and passed on.
Example #3: A. K. Ramanujan
A. K. Ramanujan has written a lot about context sensitivity as a theme in many cultural essays,
classical poetry, and Indian folklore. For example, in his works Three Hundred Ramayanas, and
Where Mirrors are Windows, he talks about intertextual quality of written and oral Indian
literature. His popular essay, Where Mirrors Are Windows: Toward an Anthology of Reflections,
and commentaries done on Indian folktales, including Oral Tales from Twenty Indian
Languages, and The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tamil Anthology,
present perfect examples of Indian folk literature studies.
Alan Garner is a renowned English novelist popular for writing fantasy tales and retellings of
traditional English folk tales. His works are mainly rooted in history, landscape, and folklore of
his native country Cheshire. One of such children’s novels is, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A
Tale of Alderley, which took a local legend from The Wizard of the Edge, and described
landscapes and folklore of neighboring Alderley Edge, where Alan had grown up. The novel is
set in Alderley Edge in Cheshire and Macclesfield. This is a very good example of the use of
folktales in literature.
Function of Folklore
The main purpose of folklore is to convey a moral lesson and present useful information and
everyday life lessons in an easy way for the common people to understand. Folk tales
sugarcoat the lessons of hard life in order to give the audience pointers about how they should
behave. It is one of the best mediums to pass on living culture or traditions to future
generations.
Currently, many forms of folk literature have been transformed into books and manuscripts,
which we see in the forms of novels, histories, dramas, stories, lyric poems, and sermons. Folk
literature is, however, not merely a carrier of cultural values; rather, it is also an expression of
self-reflection. It serves as a platform to hold high moral ground without any relevance to
present day reality. Instead, writers use it as a commentary or satire on current political and
social reality. In the modern academic world, folklores and folktales are studied to understand
ancient literature and civilizations.
Foot
Definition of Foot
The literary device “foot” is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and
unstressed syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line ( | ), whereas
the unstressed syllable is represented by a cross ( X ). The combination of feet creates meter in
poetry. Later, these meters are joined for the composition of a complete poem. Therefore, a foot
is the formative unit of the meter.
In poetry, there are various types of foot, each of which sounds differently. Some of the basic
types of foot are given below:
There are two types of meter, which are known as rising meter and falling meter. Each type of
meter uses a different type of foot. As the rising meters go from unstressed syllables to stressed
ones, they mainly use iamb and anapest feet. On the contrary, the falling meters go from
stressed syllables to unstressed ones, and mostly use trochee and dactyl feet.
This stanza is taken from William Shakespeare’s well known play, Twelfth Night. It has been
composed in iambic pentameter. To make it easy to understand the unstressed and stressed
combination of syllables, the stressed syllables are given in bold font.
This is yet another extract from Shakespeare’s another great play, King Lear. It is an
appropriate example of trochaic pentameter. This has the combination of a stressed and
unstressed syllable pattern – a pattern opposite to iambic.
This is a selection from Lord Byron’s poem, The Destruction of Sennacherib. It is one of the best
examples of anapestic pattern of foot. In particular, it follows a tetrameter pattern, which
consists of four anapests in a line. In this selection, anapests have been made bold. This entire
poem follows the similar pattern. In each foot, two syllables are unstressed, while the third
syllable is stressed.
Example #4: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred, Lord Tennyson)
These lines have been taken from Lord Alfred Tennyson’s well known poem, The Charge of the
Light Brigade. It is an excellent example of the of use dactyl pentameter. The dactyl follows a
pattern of stressed, unstressed, and again unstressed syllables. As it is an elegiac poem, it uses
dactyl pentameter, which suits elegies. The meter in this verse functions like a building block
and provides a regular rhythm.
Function of Foot
The function of foot is to provide the basic structure for the meter in a verse. As it is based on
the combination of either two or three syllables, this combination creates musical rhythm.
Therefore, it is the use of feet that brings rhythm to poetry – the reason that poetry is
differentiated from prose. Without the repetition of a particular foot in a verse, poetry would be
no different from prose, as the important elements of rhythm and musical quality will be missing
in the absence of feet.
Foreshadowing
Definition of Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come
later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and
helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story. There are various
ways to create foreshadowing.
A writer may use character dialogues to hint at what may occur in the future. In addition, any
event or action in the story may throw a hint to the readers about future events or actions. Even
a title of a work or a chapter title can act as a clue that suggests what is going to happen.
Foreshadowing in fiction creates an atmosphere of suspense in a story, so that the readers are
interested to know more.
1. The final graveyard flower is blooming, and its smell drifts through their house, speaking
gently the names of their dead.
(Foreshadows death)
2. The evening was still. Suddenly, a cool breeze started blowing and made a windy night.
(Foreshadows thunderstorm)
3. The most awful thing happened on a stormy evening,
The battle between good and evil started.
(Foreshadows danger)
4. Mary pulled back the curtains and saw some magpies sitting on the wall.
(Foreshadows gossip)
5. They thought there would not be more bodies; however, they could not believe the
thought.
(Foreshadows murder)
6. An old man opens his drawer to find a magnifying glass, and sees a revolver.
(Foreshadows warning)
7. In the middle of the night, the father hears the back door opening. He rushes to check on
his kids, but a masked intruder is blocking the way with a knife.
(Foreshadows threat)
8. Rainbow sparks,
With shining lights.
(Foreshadows optimism)
9. Inhale fresh air, exhale bad breath.
(Foreshadows new ideas)
10. From the window, the gusts look so furious, the roofs of high buildings are stripped off,
and the trees are torn up in the city.
(Foreshadows someone’s angst)
11. Michael sees his own face under Donavan’s mask.
(Foreshadows Donavan is his father)
12. They have made up their minds to remove an evil eye forever.
(Foreshadows harm to an evil character)
13. I observed devices,
The symbols in the books
To indicate the written future.
(Foreshadows writer)
14. As the twilight colors blush
The eyes of the night arouse.
(Foreshadows night)
15. The same old thinking and the same old results.
(Foreshadows change)
In the balcony scene, Juliet is concerned about Romeo’s safety as she fears her kinsmen may
catch him. Romeo says, in the above lines, that he would rather have her love and die sooner,
than not obtain her love and die later. Eventually, he gets her love and dies for her love, too.
“Stormy and wet, stormy and wet; and mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. Day after day, a
vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East
there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in
town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and
sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck
and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed
as I sat down to read had been the worst of all.”
The above lines are Pip’s observation on the weather before Magwitch’s arrival. It is a
foreshadowing as well as a representation of Pip’s inner chaos. Just as the angry winds leave a
trail of destruction in London, Magwitch’s disclosure opens a path of destruction in Pip’s life.
Examples of foreshadowing are also found in mystery and detective stories. The kind of
foreshadowing usually found in mystery or detective novels is referred to as “Red-Herring” – this
is a misleading clue that distracts readers by giving them wrong hints about future events.
For example, the character of Bishop Aringarosa in Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown, is shown to
act in such a suspicious way that the readers are bound to suspect him to be the mastermind of
the whole conspiracy in the church. His mysterious actions seemingly foreshadow the exposure
of his crime in a later part of the narrative, but it is later revealed that he was innocent and not
involved in any secret action. Characters like Bishop Aringarosa contribute to the mystery and
suspense of the novel.
In John Steinbeck’s novel Of Mice and Men, George killing Candy’s dog foreshadows George
killing Lennie, because Lennie is identical to the dog. Even the nature of the death of the dog
was the same as Lennie’s, as both were shot in the back of the head. He chooses to kill Lennie
himself in order to save him from being killed by a stranger.
This part is the climax of ship’s misfortune, depicted in a supernatural way. The arrival of a
ghostly ship with ghosts as “Life-in-Death” turns the mariners lose hope and make them scared
to death. This indirectly foreshadows the death of the entire crew and builds anticipation for the
readers what is about to happen next.
The above lines are entirely filled with melancholic tone and foreshadowing. The very first line
calls wind “a torrent of darkness,” where darkness is a foreshadowing danger. The depiction of
night and weather as ‘darkness’ foretells the coming of a dark tale.
Example #7: The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
The title of the poem foreshadows the entire poem, how nature and life start and end. It is about
the tides, their motions, and the circle of life. The darkness and ups and downs of tides foretell
that the travelers would never return.
This excerpt gives descriptions of “darkening firs,” “sudden whirring of water,” and “splashed
unseen,” foretelling a pending danger and some disaster about to happen.
Function of Foreshadowing
Generally, the function of foreshadowing is to build anticipation in the minds of readers about
what might happen next, thus adding dramatic tension to a story. It is deliberately employed to
create suspense in mystery novels, usually by giving false clues – or red herrings – to distract
readers. Moreover, foreshadowing can make extraordinary and bizarre events appear credible,
as the events are predicted beforehand so that readers are mentally prepared for them.
Frame Story
Definition of Frame Story
Frame story is a story set within a story, narrative, or movie, told by the main or the supporting
character. A character starts telling a story to other characters, or he sits down to write a story,
telling the details to the audience. This technique is also called a “frame narrative,” and is a very
popular form of literary technique employed in storytelling and narration.
Frame story usually is found in novels, plays, poems, television, films, musicals, and opera. It is
a unifying tale within which one or more related stories appear. For instance, in Homer’s
Odyssey, Odysseus tells about his wandering experience in the court of King Alcinous, or his
visit to the island of a sorcerer.
There are several examples of this technique used by Marry Shelley in her novel, Frankenstein.
She has given multiple framed stories in this novel. For example, Robert Walton describes a
story – told by Frankenstein, – in his letters that he writes to his sister. Frankenstein’s story
contains the tale of a creature, and the creature’s story briefly contains the story of the family
with which he has been living.
In the film, Inception, Leonardo DiCaprio enters into a dream of Cillian Murphy to embed an idea
into his subconscious. Leonardo puts him to sleep in a dream, following him to a second layer of
dream that soon gives way to another dream. In the innermost dream, Leonardo is blown out
and enters into an endless dream – “limbo” – which could last for eternity, but only a few
seconds pass in a real world. Leonardo, eventually wakes up through layers of dreams, feeling
as though years have passed away, returning to his waking life.
In the movie, Titanic, an elderly woman Rose begins the movie by telling a story of her voyage
in the Atlantic Ocean. When the reader gets into her narrative, he finds himself in the year 1912,
where the story begins. Only a few times do readers return to the elderly Rose to get in touch
with her experience; however, the movie ends as it begins. This is called framing technique in
which the writer tells a story within a story.
In Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer has used frame narrative, bringing different characters,
each of whom tells a story. This pilgrimage frame story brings together a number of storytellers,
who appear with vivid personality traits, and build up dramatic relationships with one another
and with the tales they tell. General Prologue is the section of this poem that deals with frame
narrative.
Wuthering Heights, like Frankenstein, also has frame stories. Emily Bronte introduces Mr.
Lockwood as the first narrator, who depicts his visit to the Wuthering Heights, and the narration
switches to the perspective of Mr. Dean, who describes the estate’s history. Readers are
introduced to all the major characters.
This switching in narration is very helpful, as it connects the present with the past. Mr.
Lockwood tries to find out what could have happened in the past that made the current dwellers
of the estate depressed and stubborn. Mrs. Dean, however, provides information about the past,
which caused the characters to transform in this way.
In Conrad’s novel, Heart of Darkness, there are two narrators: (1) the anonymous passenger
traveling on a pleasure ship, listening to the story of Marlowe; and (2) Marlowe himself. The first
narrator, on the behalf of four other passengers, uses the first person plural. Marlowe, on the
other hand, narrates his story in first person, describing whatever he has seen and experienced.
This provides a commentary on the entire story, acting as a frame story.
This literary technique uses embedded narratives, which provide readers with a context about
the main narrative. Frame story leads the readers from the first story to the other one. This is a
sort of guidance, which establishes the context for an embedded narrative, helping the writer to
create a context for interpreting a narrative. It also offers multiple perspectives to the readers
within a story, as well as about the story. These multiple perspectives give the readers more
information about the characters regarding their feelings, thoughts, and motivations.
Free Verse
Definition of Free Verse
Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from limitations of
regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such poems are without rhythm
and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme rules, yet still provide artistic
expression. In this way, the poet can give his own shape to a poem however he or she desires.
However, it still allows poets to use alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects
that they consider are suitable for the piece.
If you are looking for free verse examples, then Walt Whitman is your guy. He is known as the
father of free verse English poetry. In this poem, only a simple metaphor is used to mesmerize
readers without employing regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. We can see normal pauses in the
poem unlike the typical limitations of metrical feet.
This is one of the best examples of free verse poetry. In this poem, there is no regular rhyme
scheme or rhythm. It is without poetic constraints, but has a flow that gives it a natural touch.
Emily Dickinson is famous as the mother of American English free verse. This poem does not
have consistent metrical patterns, musical patterns, or rhyme. Rather, following the rhythm of
natural speech, it gives an artistic expression to the ideas it contains.
Ezra Pound is also renowned for writing free verse poetry. He has created this modern free
verse poem with musical quality. There are stressed and unstressed patterns, but they are
created in a very clever way. It is not following a regular rhyme scheme, but we can see
alliteration in words such as “like,” “loose,” “round rabble,” “exquisite,” and “excessive.”
Free verse is commonly used in contemporary poetry. Some poets have taken this technique as
a freedom from rhythm and rhyme, because it changes people’s minds whimsically. Therefore,
free verse is also called vers libre.
The best thing about free verse is that poets can imagine the forms of any sound through
intonations instead of meters. Free verse gives a greater freedom for choosing words, and
conveying their meanings to the audience. Since it depends upon patterned elements like
sounds, phrases, sentences, and words, it is free of artificiality of a typical poetic expression.
Genre
Definition of Genre
Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content, and
style. For example, literature has four main genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. All of
these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another.
Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading
in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to
the reading concerned.
Types of Genre
Poetry
Poetry is the first major literary genre. All types of poetry share specific characteristics. In fact,
poetry is a form of text that follows a meter and rhythm, with each line and syllable. It is further
subdivided into different genres, such an epic poem, narrative, romantic, dramatic, and lyric.
Dramatic poetry includes melodrama, tragedy, and comedy, while other poems includes ode,
sonnet, elegy, ballad, song, and epic.
Popular examples of epic poems include Paradise Lost, by John Milton, The Iliad and The
Odyssey, by Homer. Examples of romantic poems include Red Red Rose, by Robert Burns. All
these poetic forms share specific features, such as they do not follow paragraphs or sentences;
they use stanzas and lines instead. Some forms follow very strict rules of length, and number of
stanzas and lines, such as villanelle, sonnet, and haiku. Others may be free-form, like Feelings,
Now, by Katherine Foreman, which is devoid of any regular meter and rhyme scheme. Besides
that, often poetry uses figurative language, such as metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, hyperbole,
and alliteration to create heightened effect.
Drama
Drama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. Its
written text contains dialogues, and stage directions. This genre has further categories such as
comedy, tragedy, and tragicomedy. William Shakespeare is known as the father of English
drama. His well-known plays include Taming of the Shrew, Romeo & Juliet, and Hamlet. Greek
playwrights were the pioneers in this field, such as Sophocles’ masterpiece Oedipus Rex, and
Antigone, while modern dramas include Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller.
Prose
This type of written text is different from poetry in that it has complete sentences organized into
paragraphs. Unlike poetry, prose focuses on characters and plot, rather than focusing on
sounds. It includes short stories and novels, while fiction and non-fiction are its sub genres.
Prose is further categorized into essays, speeches, sermons, and interpretations.
Fiction
Fiction has three categories that are, realistic, non-realistic, and semi-fiction. Usually, fiction
work is not real and therefore, authors can use complex figurative language to touch readers’
imaginations. Unlike poetry, it is more structured, follows proper grammatical pattern, and
correct mechanics. A fictional work may incorporate fantastical and imaginary ideas from
everyday life. It comprises some important elements such as plot, exposition, foreshadowing,
rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Popular examples of literary fiction include,
James Joyce’s novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two
Cities, Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, and Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird.
Non-Fiction
Non-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-genres; it could be creative like a personal
essay, or factual, like a scientific paper. It may also use figurative language, however, not unlike
poetry, or fiction has. Sometimes, non-fiction may tell a story, like an autobiography, or
sometimes it may convey information to readers.
Function of Genre
Different genres have different roles. For example, fiction and dramatic genres help students
and writers learn and improve their communication skills. A poetic genre, on the other hand,
enhances imaginative and emotional power of the readers. Non-fictional texts and essays help
readers develop analytical and persuasive capabilities. However, the major function of genre is
to establish a code of behavior between the writers and audience, and keep the readers
informed about the topics discussed or the themes presented.
Haiku
Definition of Haiku
A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, and the middle line
has seven. The pattern in this Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name for a sound
unit, which is like a syllable, though there is a difference. As the moras cannot be translated into
English, they are modified, and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely
rhyme with each other.
Haiku became popular as tanka poems in Japan during the 9th and 12th centuries. Initially, it
was called “hokku” and Basho, Buson, and Issa were the first three masters of the haiku genre.
Haiku poetry is also full of metaphors and personifications. However, this has often been argued
against, since haikus are supposed to be written on objective experiences, rather than
subjective ones. In English, several experiments were made in this genre as given below.
“Autumn moonlight—
a worm digs silently
into the chestnut.”
Features of Haiku
Old pond
a frog jumps
the sound of water
In this example, we can clearly see two contrasting parts of the poem; one is about a frog that is
jumping, and second is about the sound of water. The syllable pattern is also following a 5-7-5
format.
This haiku is presenting an image in the first part of “snow in my shoe.” In addition, there are
two contrasting ideas that mingle with one another as the second part is about nature. The
pattern of syllables is 5-7-5. The poet has tried to present a little story in this haiku.
Calling home—
the color of mother’s voice
before her words
Twilight…
his voice
deep purple
In these haikus, figurative device such as metaphors have been used to present an insight of
the world. Through this technique, multiple senses are used to gather sensory information.
Song birds
at the train yard’s edge
two cars coupling
Personification is also a definite trait of haiku poetry. This is to assign a human quality or
qualities to nonhuman things, though this is less prevalent in haiku as compared to metaphors.
In this poem, personification is very well done, hence allowing the poem to speak for itself.
To a leg of a heron
Adding a long shank
Of a pheasant.
The theme of this poem is to laugh at ones self. This is a perfect example of haiku poetry, as it
is perfectly following the pattern of syllable counts. It is also giving an amusing and ironic touch,
since reality is the major aspect of this form of poetry.
Bass
Picking bugs
off the moon
Nick Virgilio is an American poet who is a great supporter of Japanese haiku. He has written 5-
7-5 syllable-style poems when translated in Japanese. These examples of haiku poems are
natural, mystical, and refined.
Function of Haiku
Haikus are short poems written on topics and things that the readers can identify with easily. For
example, seasons and animals are readily recognizable topics to readers. Generally, haiku is
written for realistic and objective reasons; however, haikus are also written for children.
Sometimes it presents two juxtaposed ideas to express meanings through internal comparison.
Half Rhyme
Definition of Half Rhyme
Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an “imperfect rhyme,” “slant
rhyme,” “near rhyme,” or “oblique rhyme.” It can be defined as a rhyme in which the stressed
syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match.
For instance, in words such as “shape” and “keep” the consonance is very strong. The final
consonant sounds remain similar, but the ending vowel sounds are different in half rhyme.
Similar to these two words “moon” and “run,” and in the words “hold” and “bald,” the ending
consonant sounds are similar, whereas vowel sounds are different.
It is generally used to give an inharmonious feeling in a rhyme scheme. Poets can bring
variations in their choice of words by using half rhymes. It is also known as an imperfect, near,
off, or sprung rhyme. Half rhyme is exclusively used as a poetic device.
Half rhyme is not a perfect rhyme. And it must not be confused with para-rhyme or assonance.
Although these two literary devices are, to some extent, similar to half rhyme, there is a slight
difference between them. In para-rhyme, the ending and beginning consonant sounds are
similar, such as in the words “rod” and “red.” In assonance, the vowel sounds are similar also,
such as in “shot” and “lot.”
Henry Vaughan was the first English poet who used half rhyme in his poetry. However, half
rhyme was not commonly used in literary works before Gerard Manley Hopkins and W. B.
Yeats, who introduced this device in their works. Slant/half rhyme became very popular among
the literary writers and English poets since then. They started using this poetic device
extensively in their works specifically in the 20th century.
The poet here throws a subtle curve ball in the first two lines of this stanza, in which the closing
consonant sounds of “bridge” and “grudge” are similar. These two do not rhyme completely,
however, making them perfect examples of half rhyme.
Here, in the first and third lines, the half rhyme is used in words on and moon.
The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABABABCC, there is an altered irregular rhyme following a
couplet. If Yeats had not used the altered half rhyme style in this poem, it would have become
the Italian form, which is used specifically for heroic epics.
Example #4: Emily Dickinson (By Not any Higher Stands the Grave)
“Not any higher stands the Grave
For Heroes than for men—
Not any nearer for the Child
Than numb Three Score and Ten—”
The words “men” and “ten” rhyme and show us an example of a perfect rhyme in this first
stanza. But, we can compare this stanza to the next, in order to understand imperfect or half
rhyme then, as the poet goes on:
Half rhymes help a poet create an unusual range of words to give a variety of rhyming effects,
particularly when they are used with other poetic devices and rhyming schemes. They help
poets avoid using the typical sing-song chiming effects of full rhymes, and give them creative
freedom. Furthermore, half rhymes have provided a subtle discordant note, which does not give
absolute harmony, but which offers variation in tone, and creates a good impact on the readers.
When half rhymes are used with other poetic devices, they give shocking effects to the reader
about the actual rhyme scheme.
Hamartia
Hamartia Definition
Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist’s personality, which brings about his tragic downfall
in a tragedy. This defect in a hero’s personality is also known as a “tragic flaw.”
Aristotle used the word in his Poetics, where it is taken as a mistake or error in judgment. The
term envelops wrongdoings, which may be accidental or deliberate. One of the classic hamartia
examples is where a hero wants to achieve something but, while doing so, he commits an
intentional or accidental error, and he ends up achieving exactly the opposite with disastrous
results. Such a downfall is often marked by a reversal of fortune.
A typical example of hamartia in tragedies is hubris, which is excessive pride and ego in a
hero’s character. This often ultimately brings about his tragic downfall. In Greek tragedies, the
hubristic actions of a hero in a powerful position causes his shame and humiliation.
In the story, the Oracle of Delphi told Oedipus that he would kill his father and marry his mother.
To avoid this, he leaves the city of Corinth, and heads towards Thebes. On his way, he killed an
old man in a feud. Later, he married the queen of Thebes when he was made king of the city,
after he saved the city from a deadly Sphinx. He committed all these sins in complete
ignorance, but he deserved punishment because of his attempting to rebel against his fate. His
reversal of fortune is caused by his actions, which are in a sense blasphemous.
Prince Hamlet’s tragic flaw, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, determines his tragic downfall.
Hamlet’s hamartia is his indecisiveness. He cannot make up his mind about the dilemmas he
confronts. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:
Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but instead ruins his life by delaying action,
as he looks for proof to justify the act. In the process, he spoils his relationship with his mother,
and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. This indecision got
almost everyone killed at the end of the play. He killed Claudius by assuming fake madness
because of his indecisiveness in action so that he will not be asked for any justification.
Among the hamartia examples in literature, one of the best can be found in Christopher
Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus. The tragic flaw of Faustus was his ambitious nature. Despite being a
respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract, with his blood, for achieving
ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world.
He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. We see a tragic conflict where Faustus
thinks about repenting, but it is all too late. Finally, the devils takes his soul away to Hell and he
suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition.
Victor, in Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein, is another character whose downfall is caused by
a tragic error. His hubris, or extreme pride and arrogance, decides his fate in the narrative. He
strives to become an unparalleled scientist, and creates a monster that ultimately becomes the
cause of his disaster.
Function of Hamartia
Hamartia imparts a sense of pity and fear in the audience, or the readers. The audience
identifies with the tragic hero as, like them, his character is a mixture of good and bad qualities.
They feel pity for the reversal of fortune that he undergoes. Similarly, by witnessing a tragic hero
suffer due to his own flaw, the audience or the readers may fear the same fate could befall them
if they indulge in similar kinds of action.
Therefore, hamartia may be employed for a moral purpose, to encourage people to improve
their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives.
Hero
Definition of Hero
As a literary device, a hero can be defined as the principal character of a literary work. The term
hero has been applied, not only in the classical sense, but also in modern literature, as the
principal character of a story, play or novel.
This term is also employed in another sense, for the celebrated figures in certain ancient
legends, and heroic epics like Gilgamesh, the Iliad, Beowulf, or La Chanson de Roland.
However, it has traveled a long way from classical heroes in Oedipus and Odysseus, to Hamlet,
and then to modern heroes, such as Willy Loman. From confrontation of monsters, to mental
dilemmas, a hero has transformed from an attractive prince to a common man.
Odysseus is the principal character of Homer’s epic “Odyssey.” Odysseus is also known by his
Latin name, Ulysses. As the king of Ithaca, Odysseus has been presented as the dominant
character of the ten-year-long Trojan War, who became famous through his struggles in the
war. Odysseus is well-known for his brilliance, versatility, wit, and ingenuity – so much so that
the epithet “Odysseus the cunning” is used for his character. He is the best example of a larger-
than-life-figure type of a classical hero.
Beowulf is the hero of the epic poem of the same title from Old English. The epic consists of
3,182 alliterative lines, and is considered the oldest surviving epic in Old English literature. This
long poem is supposed to have been written between the 8th and 11th centuries. As an
adventurous hero from the race of Geats – who offers his help to the King of the Danes, against
a monster called Grendel – Beowulf displays legendary courage, and sacrifices his men to save
the king. He fought the monster until his own death; thus achieving greatness in the ancient
poem, and becoming a classical hero of English literature.
Hamlet is the hero of the play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. He is a sort of modern
hero, in that he faces physical as well as psychological dilemmas. However, he is also akin to
classical heroes, for he is a larger-than-life figure, and the would-be king of Denmark after his
uncle, Claudius. However, he is akin to a common man, a modern hero, in that he faces the
same universal dilemmas about life and death as a common man faces. That is why Hamlet has
achieved so much popularity, for he represents a common man facing common problems,
despite his being a prince.
A modern hero is reduced to a common man, who simultaneously suffers the “slings and
arrows” of the time, and of society. It is because an ordinary man has the same life as a king
has. Therefore, Arthur Miller has made Willy Loman the hero of his famous play, Death of a
Salesman. Willy Loman represents a common man who could not face the pressure of the
modern world, and commits suicide. The difference between Willy Loman and Hamlet is the
evolution a hero goes through from a prince facing common problems, to a common man facing
common problems.
Function of a Hero
A hero is the major character of a narrative. In classical sense, the hero is not only involved in
dangerous adventures or wars, but also in feats and exploits of unparalleled courage and
bravery. He possesses extraordinary mental faculties and physical abilities. He takes the
narrative long with him to the end that is usually his victory or, in some cases, his death.
However, a modern hero plays a complex role in facing mental dilemmas, as he is an ordinary
man intended to bring out complex modern psychological issues faced by modern man.
This long journey of a hero from prince to common salesman has brought several changes in a
narrative, turning tragedy into a tragi-comedy, and a complex modern tragedy, absurd writings,
and then modern pieces. Therefore, the character of a hero in a literary piece not only brings
unity in action, but also makes other characters prominent when they are compared and
contrasted with him. That is why a hero is considered the central figure of a narrative or a play,
and even if a hero is not present in a piece, efforts are made to create one.
Homily
Definition of Homily
Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people
to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction,
but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject.
Priests read it from the Bible, or other religious text, to give an insight into the exact meanings of
the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it to the lives of followers.
“He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can most easily do it. Sometimes an
earthly prince meets with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel that has found means to
fortify himself … So ’tis easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that anything hangs by; thus
easy is it for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell. What are we, that we
should think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the
rocks are thrown down.”
This is a popular American sermon in which Edwards has emphasized the idea of a Great
Awakening. The underlying idea is that God has given a chance to humanity to rectify their sins,
as the will of God has kept them away from the depths of hell.
“O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be
amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and TAKE THESE
WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY.
Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion…All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab
has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a
white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety
(taqwa) and good action …”
This is the most famous and last sermon or Khutba of the prophet (P.B.U.H), which he delivered
on Friday, ninth Dhul Hijjah (12th month of Islamic year), in mount Arafat’s Uranah Valley. He
directed this message to all of humanity, that they are accountable to God for their deeds.
Example #3: Message to California’s Proposition 41 in Los Angeles in 1984 (By Father Bill
Messenger)
“Perhaps many of you grew up during the depression. If so, you know what it means to be poor.
I did not grow up during the depression, but I grew up in a poor family. I can remember one
Christmas when both of my parents were out of work, and we had no money. Concerned
parishioners brought Christmas baskets to our house. It was a humbling and difficult experience
for my parents. The year before, my father had helped to distribute baskets to other poor
people. Now it was our turn.”
In this homily, the priest is sharing his personal experience, to allow the readers understand the
meanings of his homily and scripture.
Example #4: Holy Bible, Matthew 24:42-51 (By Deacon Winton DeRosia)
“There is a fable that tells of three apprentice devils who were coming to earth to finish their
apprenticeship. They were talking with Satan, the chief of the devils, about their plans to tempt
and to ruin humanity. The first said, “I will tell them there is no God.” But Satan said, “That will
not delude many, for they know there is a God … The most dangerous of all delusions is that
there is plenty of time.”
Deacon Winton DeRosia delivers this homily on a website “First Sunday in Advent.” This
sermon is about the temptations of Satan, and how he uses human beings for his purpose.
Function of Homily
Usually, religious figures deliver homilies in churches, mosques, temples, at mass gatherings, at
funerals, and at baptisms and wedding ceremonies. Its main purpose is to convey a moral
lesson to the people. Besides teaching moral education, it awakens people’s conscience, calls
them to repentance, and nourishes their faith. Another purpose is to interpret the lives of the
people in such a way that they could reconcile with God Almighty and with one another. Besides
this, priests use different persuasive techniques to appeal to the listening congregation.
Homograph
Definition of Homograph
The word homograph originated from the Greek word “homos,” which means “the same,” and
graph, which means “to write,” and it is used extensively in language. It can be defined as words
that are used in such a manner as to give two or more different meanings, where the words
have the same spelling, but different meanings, and sometimes different pronunciations as well.
For instance, the word “bear” (verb) means “to endure,” and “bear” (noun) is the name of an
animal. This can be considered one example of homograph. This literary device is one of the
types of pun (paronomasia).
Homonym is a bigger category of which homographs are a part. All homograph examples are
also identified as homonym examples, since a homograph is a specific term, but a homonym is
a generalized term. Homographs are words with different meanings but the same spelling, such
as tire (fatigue), and tire (wheel tire).
The basic difference between homophone and homograph is that homographs are words that
have the same spelling, such as “He is my close relative,” and “Please close the door.”
Homophones, on the other hand, are words that sound the same and are spelled differently,
such as “That speech was read,” and “That dress was red.”
“They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every
now and then, and stick the point into me”
Here, in this excerpt, both words in bold are identical in spelling, but they have different
meanings. The first “point” means direction, and second “point” means the idea.
Example #2: When Words Don’t Fit – A Multiple Meaning Words Poem (By Unknown)
This poem is probably the best piece to use if you are teaching Homographs 101, as the words
used are very familiar. Using context clues, the meanings (enclosed in parentheses) of the
homographs are easy to decipher.
Vladimir Nabokov has used multilingual and unique homographs in his novel Lolita. For
instance, a character’s name, “Humbert,” is used as a pun in different languages. In Spanish, its
meaning is “man,” and in French its meaning is “shadow.” Similarly, the name of the character
“Lolita” is changed to “Dolores.” In Latin its meaning is “pain,” and the meaning of her nickname
“Dolly” is a toy in English.
“When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more.
That at my death Thy Son
Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore
And having done that, Thou hast done;
I fear no more…”
Donne has played on both his and his wife’s last names, “Donne,” and “More,” with the words
“done” and “more.” These are homographs that have the same pronunciations. Donne has used
it for wry effect.
Beatrice:
“The count is neither sad, nor sick,
nor merry, nor well: but civil, count; civil as an
orange, and something of that jealous complexion…”
Here, Beatrice is mocking Claudio, saying he is “civil” like a bitter orange, which describes the
bitter feelings of Claudio. This is a pun on the name “Seville,” which is pronounced as “ci-VIL,”
and is the place from where these oranges had come.
Function of Homograph
Homographs are used as a word play to create humorous and comic effects in literary writings,
in theater, and in limerick form of poetry. Frequently, in literary works, these make readers think
and laugh, and increase the clarity of text by playing with specific words. Generally, it is done
voluntarily to create humor and wryness. It also increases the vocabulary of readers by
introducing secondary or multiple meanings of the terms.
Homophone
Definition of Homophone
A homophone can be defined as a word that, when pronounced, seems similar to another word,
but has a different spelling and meaning. For example, the words “bear” and “bare” are similar in
pronunciation, but are different in spelling as well as in meaning. Sometimes the words may
have the same spelling, such as “rose,” the past tense of rise, and “rose,” the flower. Mostly,
however, they are spelled differently, such as:
• carrot
• caret
• carat
In literature, homophones are used extensively in poetry and prose to make rhythmic effects,
and to put emphasis on something. They are also used to create a multiplicity of meanings in a
written piece.
Types of Homophone
This poem is filled with examples of homophone, which are marked in bold. They create a
humorous effect in the poem through their same pronunciations but altogether different
meanings.
John Done has used the name of his wife Anne and his own name Donne as homophones. In
addition, he makes use of the word “son” instead of “sun,” to refer to Christ. They are also
homophones.
“On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance
of Being Earnest …”
“I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn’t I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean
it naturally is Ernest. “
In these excerpts, Oscar Wilde used the word earnest as a homophone. Here, Jack Earnest is
talking to his Aunt Augusta and mocks his family. Jack finds out that his father’s name makes
him really earnest.
MERCUTIO:
“Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance.”
ROMEO:
“Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes. With nimble soles; I have a soul of lead. So
stakes me to the ground I cannot move …”
Some of Shakespeare’s famous literary pieces are rich with homophone examples. One of
which is the above excerpt where he uses the words “sole” and “soul” as homophones. Romeo
talks about soles of his shoes, and the soul of his heart, which is heavy with sorrow.
“Now is the winter of our discontent … made glorious summer by this Son of York.”
Here, Shakespeare uses two words similar in pronunciation, “sun” and “son,” which are
homophones. The Duke of York has a son named Edward, who is also taken as a sun whose
rising power would create trouble for Richard.
Function of Homophone
The purpose of homophones in literature is to create humorous effect by using words that have
two or more meanings. In everyday life, these words are employed intentionally in witty remarks.
In addition, these give meaning to a literary piece of work, and writers reveal the ingenuity of
their characters through the use of homophones.
Hook
Definition of Hook
Have you ever read a book that could not grab your attention after reading a couple of
sentences? On the contrary, you would have definitely read a book that has immediately
captured your attention, after which you were unable to put it down. Some books are magnetic,
while others are really boring. One of the reasons could be the narrative hook.
Knowing this, authors share an important literary technique to keep their readers engaged in
their stories, which is hook, or narrative hook, which keep readers’ interest alive in the book. It
appears at the beginning of the story, and may contain several pages of a novel, several
paragraphs of a short story, or it might be only an opening sentence, or a single line.
Types of Hook
• dramatic action,
• mysterious setting,
• engaging characters; and
• thematic statements.
We come to know, from the very first line of Avi’s novel Ragweed, that this story will be a
comical reading experience, as it reads:
A young countryside mouse named Ragweed leaves his big family behind and sets out to live
an adventurous life in the big city. There he encounters some cool dudes and dudettes from the
mouse family. Ragweed also faces extreme danger from cats, especially the founding member
of F.E.A.R., Willy Silversides.
Willy, along with the vice president, decides to go to any length in order to defeat their arch-
nemeses to the point of devastating the Cheese Squeeze Club. Now it is the time for Ragweed
to come up with a cunning strategy and muster the courage to defeat the Felines First Brigade.
However, this hook has played an important role in making the story attractive.
The first sentence of Jane Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous first
lines in literature, saying:
“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must
be in want of a wife.”
This line sets the plot’s mood, and captures the attention of readers due to its contrariness and
notoriety. It also tells about the marriage theme of this novel, and introduces ironic tone, which
Austen uses structurally and verbally throughout the novel. The Author presents a thematic
statement about the value of love and marriage in a society where women have difficulty finding
husbands amid class prejudice and financial snobbery.
One of the most famous and brilliant opening lines in all of literature occurs in Charles Dickens’
novel, A Tale of Two Cities:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness …”
This line hints at the central tension that occurs between family and love, and between
oppression and hatred. These opposing ideals show prominent structural figures, like Paris and
London, Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton, and Madame Defarge and Miss Pross. The tone
of the entire novel is set by this famous sentence.
Readers cannot resist an alarmingly satirical line of M. T. Anderson’s novel Feed, which reads:
“We went to the moon to have fun, but the moon turned out to completely suck.”
This line helps to set the stage for the novel’s plot about a futuristic world, which is overrun by
uncontrolled consumerism, and where humans implant computer chips in most of the infants at
birth. Children do not need to go to schools, since they can Google to get information that they
might need, and people need not converse with anyone, as they can IM instantly. Hence, the
first catchy line gives an indication about the theme of this narrative, and hooks the readers’
attention.
Function of Hook
Authors use hook as a critical component of their writing, as it allows them to demonstrate to
readers how their literary works are worth reading within the first minute. This literary technique
hooks the attention of readers and appeals to their minds. Readers also get a great sense of
entertainment through strong and meaningful opening lines that might stick in their heads
forever. We frequently find the use of narrative hook in mystery fiction and suspense thrillers.
Besides, authors use it in a number of ways, such as by employing thematic statements and
mysterious settings, or using characters.
Hubris
Hubris Definition
Hubris is extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character, which ultimately brings about his
downfall.
Hubris is a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a
result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with
reality. A character suffering from hubris tries to cross normal human limits, and violates moral
codes. Examples of hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays.
“Hubris consists in doing and saying things that cause shame to the victim … simply for the
pleasure of it. Retaliation is not hubris, but revenge. … Young men and the rich are hubristic
because they think they are better than other people.”
Aristotle believed that people indulge in crimes. like sexual misconduct and maltreating others.
only to fulfill their basic desire to make themselves feel superior to others.
Similarly, Greek mythology depicts hubris as a great crime that demands a severe punishment.
Generally, the Greek idea of hubris is that a character in an authoritative position becomes so
proud of his exceptional qualities that he forms a delusion that he is equal to gods, and
eventually he tries to defy the gods and his fate.
Hubris examples are also examples of “hamartia,” a tragic flaw in a character that brings about
his tragic downfall.
In the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the character of King Oedipus
provides a classic example of a character who suffers from hubris, or excessive pride. Due to
his hubris, he attempts to defy prophecies of gods, but ended up doing what he feared the most,
and what he was warned against. The Oracle of Delphi told him that he would kill his father and
marry his mother.
Overcome by hubris, Oedipus tries to avoid this by leaving Corinth, traveling toward Thebes. On
his way to the neighboring city, he kills an old man in a feud, and later marries the queen of
Thebes, as he was made king of the city after he saved the city from a deadly sphinx. One can
say that he commits all these sins in complete ignorance, but nevertheless he deserves
punishment because he became so proud that he does not shy from attempting to rebel against
his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his hubris.
In his famous epic Paradise Lost, John Milton portrays Satan as a character that suffers from
hubris. His loses his glorious position through giving in to his excessive pride. It was his hubris
that made him try to take control over Heaven. Although he failed miserably, his pride lasts:
The reason of his desire to rebel against his creator originates from his reluctance to accept the
authority of God and His Son because he believed that angels are “self-begot, self-raised” and
hence bringing his downfall in being thrown out of Paradise.
An instance of hubris can be spotted in Marlowe’s “Doctor Faustus”. Faustus’s arrogance and
extreme pride in his scholarship and his irresistible desire to become superior to all other men of
his age forces him to sell his soul to “Lucifer” by signing a contract with his blood. He learns the
art of black magic and defies Christianity. Finally, he has to pay for his arrogance and pride. The
devils take away his soul to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation.
Likewise, “Victor” the protagonist of Mary Shelley’s “Frankenstein” exhibits hubris in his
endeavor to become an unmatched scientist. He creates a “monster” named “Frankenstein”
which ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster.
Function of Hubris
Humor
Definition of Humor
Humor is a literary tool that makes audiences laugh, or that intends to induce amusement or
laughter. Its purpose is to break the monotony, boredom, and tedium, and make the audience’s
nerves relax. The writer uses different techniques, tools, words, and even full sentences in order
to bring to light new and funny sides of life. Humor is often found in literature, theater, movies,
and advertising, where the major purpose is to make the audience happy.
Types of Humor
There are several types of devices that create humor. Humor is, in fact, the end product and not
the device itself. These devices are:
• Hyperbole/Exaggeration
• Incongruity
• Slapstick
• Surprise
• Sarcasm
• Irony
• Pun
Jane Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice is one of her most popular works. Throughout the
entire novel, Jane Austen uses humor. She presents a very hilarious scene between Mr. and
Mrs. Bennet. Mrs. Bennet endlessly breaks down and makes complaints for her husband’s lack
of understanding her nerves, and then he responds by saying:
“You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I
have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least.”
He constantly pokes fun at her. Likewise, Austen bursts with humor in the case of Elizabeth and
Darcy as, upon their first meeting, both feel a sense of disgust for one another. However, later
they enjoy teasing each other.
“No, don’t you worry; these country jakes won’t ever think of that. Besides, you know, you’ll be
in costume, and that makes all the difference in the world; Juliet’s in a balcony, enjoying the
moonlight before she goes to bed, and she’s got on her night- gown and her ruffled nightcap.
Here are the costumes for the parts.”
In this example, the duke is unable to notice the silliness of his own actions, instead he makes
comments on the low level of understanding of the country jakes.
Harper Lee has inserted humor by creating funny situations with a serious tone in her novel, To
Kill a Mockingbird. Many descriptions about Dill are funny and humorous, as he is presented as
a larger-than-life person. When we first meet him, the kids take him a puppy. Then he says his
name is Charles Baker Harris, saying that he can read, in spite of his age.
We also see a lot of humor in Scout’s actions, coming from her efforts to comprehend adult
ideas, which are very complex for a child like her. Author is showing her to be a very smart kid.
A humorous event occurs during Scout’s first day at school. Miss Caroline, the teacher, is naive,
and “looked, and smelled like a peppermint drop.” We meet her when Scout tells her she had
already been punished before lunch on her very first day at school, making children mildly
suspicious.
Charles Dickens derives humor through characterization in his novel Great Expectations. The
tone is serious, but there are humorous touches that punctuate the main action. We see a
humorous scene in the dinner party when Joe Gargery tells his life story to Pip, and subtly
measures gravy on Pip’s plate, while Mrs. Gargery gets onto him. Another funny situation
happens when Magwitch wants to sleep and asks Pip:
“Where will you put me?” [Magwitch] asked, presently. “I must be put somewheres, dear boy.”
Function of Humor
Humor is one of the most effective literary weapons to please the audience, as it develops
characters and makes plots useful and memorable. Humor plays many functions in a literary
work. It arouses interest among readers, sustains their attention, helps them connect with the
characters, emphasizes and relates ideas, and helps the readers picture the situation. Through
this tool, writers can also improve the quality of their works by pleasing the audience. Apart from
that, the most dominant function of humor is to provide surprise, which not only improves
quality, but improves memorable style of a literary piece. The writers learn how to use words for
different objectives.
Hyperbaton
Definition of Hyperbaton
Hyperbaton has been derived from a Greek word that means “transposition,” and refers to an
inversion in the arrangement of common words. It can be defined as a rhetorical device in which
the writers play with the normal positions of words, phrases, and clauses in order to create
differently arranged sentences, which still suggest a similar meaning. Hyperbaton is also known
as a broader version of hypallage.
Hyperbaton is similar to anastrophe, which is the inversion of the natural word order, or reversal
of the word arrangement, in a sentence with the aim to create rhetorical effect. Anastrophe is
also regarded as a simile of hyperbaton.
Features of Hyperbaton
The preceding excerpt is one of those which are considered as perfect examples of hyperbaton.
Here, the natural order has been changed throughout the text. This inflected language interrupts
the flow of sentences.
This is only one of the many hyperbaton examples found in Shakespeare’s works. Here, he
uses the unexpected word order, which is “some by virtue fall,” instead of “some fall by virtue.”
This disordering of words helps in emphasizing the phrase “virtue fall.”
This is a very good example of hyperbaton. The words, phrases, and clauses are stressed in an
unexpected way. Also, it is creating complex structures of sentences, and aesthetics of
ambiguity.
“The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man’s hand is not able to taste,
his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report, what my dream was…”
Here, Shakespeare has employed an unusual and complex word structure. He has transposed
the normal word order, such as “his tongue to conceive,” and “what my dream was.”
Here, Shakespeare plays with the natural position of words, giving depth to the sentence
structure. The purpose is to emphasize the phrase, as it gives a sudden turn in the sentence.
Function of Hyperbaton
Hyperbaton is employed in literary writing, poetry, film, and all other mediums of visual or textual
form. It creates startling and sometimes confusing effects, despite being used as inflected
language.
In rhyming and metered poems, hyperbaton is employed to fit a sentence into the structure of a
poem properly. Besides, when hyperbaton is used properly in sentences, it can result in
emphasis at the desired place. Also, the unconventional placement of words and phrases
results in intriguing and complex sentence structures.
Hyperbole
Definition of Hyperbole
Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting,” is a figure of speech that
involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.
It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend
after a long time, you say, “It’s been ages since I last saw you.” You may not have met him for
three or four hours, or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add
emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real
situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below.
It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison,
like simile and metaphor. Rather, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an
overstatement. Let us see some examples from Classical English literature in which hyperbole
was used successfully.
1. A ton of worry was lifted from the beggar’s back when he received the alms.
2. He saw a man as tall a power poll.
3. He saw his childhood friend after ages.
4. The weather was so hot that literally everything was on fire.
5. The boy was dying to get a new school bag.
6. The teacher told his students not to repeat that mistake for the umpteenth time, but to no
avail.
7. He was in such a hurry that he drove his car at a bazillion miles per hour.
8. The minister told the guests that the couple’s friendship was deeper than the sea, and
sweeter than honey.
9. The blacksmith’s hand was harder than the rock.
10. Their headmaster was omnipresent, as he seemed to be all around the school all the
time.
11. The businessman was so busy that he was attending to a million calls simultaneously.
12. The old man was older than the Himalayas.
13. The mule is able to lift tons of weight uphill.
14. His classmates laughed at him, saying he had a pea-sized brain.
15. John was called the elephant of the class for his clumsiness.
In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan’s stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he
exaggerates winter by saying:
“Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved
south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze
solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were
talking about the night before.”
Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter, and then warming them up in the warmth of the
sun during the day are examples of hyperbole, which has been effectively used in this short
excerpt from an American folktale.
Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He
regrets his sin, and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the
blood of the king off his hands. We can see the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines.
The use of hyperbole can be seen in the above lines in the meeting of China and Africa, the
jumping of the river over the mountain, the singing of salmon in the street, and the ocean being
folded and hung up to dry are exaggerations, not possible in real life.
“He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry
sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway
hills …”
The crying of Pinocchio all night until his tears became dry is an example of Hyperbole.
The act of waiting ten days seemed to last forever and never end.
Example #6: Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room (By William Blake)
The poet Robert Burns gives many examples of hyperbole in this piece. The poet says that he
would love his beloved until the seas are dried up, and the rocks are melted.
Function of Hyperbole
The above arguments make clear the use of hyperbole. In our daily conversation, we use
hyperbole to create an amusing effect, or to emphasize our meaning. However, in literature it
has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human
feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature,
usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement,
and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is
employed to catch the reader’s attention.
Hypophora
Definition of Hypophora
Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a writer raises a question, and then immediately
provides an answer to that question. Commonly, a question is asked in the first paragraph, and
then the paragraph is used to answer the question. It is also known as “antipophora,” or
“anthypophora.” At first look, examples of hypophora may seem similar to rhetorical question
examples, but there is a slight difference as explained below.
The basic difference between hypophora and a rhetorical question is that, in a rhetorical
question, the answer is not provided by the writer, since it does not require an answer. Such as,
“… for if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?” (Marcus
Aurelius). However, in hypophora, the writer first poses a question, and then answers that
question immediately; such as in this example:
“What should young people do with their lives today? Many things, obviously. But the most
daring thing is to create stable communities in which the terrible disease of loneliness can be
cured.”
“Thirty-one cakes, dampened with whiskey, bask on window sills and shelves.
Who are they for?
Friends. Not necessarily neighbor friends: indeed, the larger share is intended for persons we’ve
met maybe once, perhaps not at all. People who’ve struck our fancy. Like President Roosevelt.”
In this example, the speaker raises a question in the beginning, and then answers it in the
course of the passage. The question is shown in bold, that is “Who are they for?” The author
wants to heighten the effect of important topics by asking a question.
“What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick explanation. Things got worse and
worse and worse and pretty soon they were too complicated.”
In this passage, the writer asks the question and immediately explains. This creates a rhetorical
effect, which lies in providing the answer that readers might expect to be given by a writer.
TROFIMOV:
“Who knows? And what does it mean–you’ll die? Perhaps a man has a hundred senses,
and when he dies only the five known to us are destroyed and the remaining ninety-five are left
alive …”
LUBOV:
“You want giants, do you? … They’re only good in stories, and even there they frighten
one …”
TROFIMOV:
“Isn’t it all the same whether the estate is sold to-day or isn’t? It’s been all up with it for a
long time; there’s no turning back, the path’s grown over. Be calm, dear …”
There are three hypophora examples in this excerpt, shown in bold. Initially, the characters pose
questions, and then answers in order to draw the attention of readers.
ESTRAGON:
“That would be too bad, really too bad. (Pause.) Wouldn’t it, Didi, be really too bad? (Pause.)
When you think of the beauty of the way. (Pause.) And the goodness of the wayfarers. (Pause.
Wheedling.) Wouldn’t it, Didi?”
Waiting for Godot is filled with this rhetorical device. Such as here, Estragon asks questions and
then provides explanations to answer his own questions. The questions create curiosity, and
also bring a new topic of discussion.
Function of Hypophora
The major purpose of using hypophora is to create curiosity among the readers, while a well-
timed silence produces heightened effect, and creates interest. It helps to capture the attention
of the audience. However, hypophora can also be employed to introduce new discussions or
topics of importance about which the readers might not have information. Also, it can be used
as a directional device to change the topic. It can raise the types of question readers might
already have on their minds and would like to get answers to. In addition, it is frequently used in
political speeches as well as literary works.
Hypotaxis
Definition of Hypotaxis
Hypotaxis is subordination of one clause to another, or when the clauses are coordinated or
subordinated to one another within sentences. Hypotaxis is defined as a grammatical
arrangement of constructs that work in the same way, but which play unequal roles in a
sentence. It helps in defining the exact meaning of a clause. The example is given in these
lines, where the second line modifies the phrase “clod of clay.”
Parataxis is opposite of hypotaxis. In parataxis, the sentences, clauses, and phrases are not
coordinated or subordinated. Such as, “Veni, vidi, vici” or, “I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Life of
Caesar, by Plutarch). However, in hypotaxis, the phrases, clauses, or sentences are
coordinated or subordinated.
The remaining clauses explain the first/main clause. These subordinated clauses help in
recounting the individual thought expressed in the beginning.
“Let the reader be introduced to Joan Didion, upon whose character and doings much will
depend of whatever interest these pages may have, as she sits at her writing table in her own
room in her own house on Welbeck Street.”
In the above excerpt, the main clause talks about a character named Joan Didion. The
remaining clauses subordinate the main description and amplify the central idea.
“When I was around nine or ten I wrote a play which was directed by a young, white
schoolteacher, a woman, who then took an interest in me, and gave me books to read, and, in
order to corroborate my theatrical bent, decided to take me to see what she somewhat tactlessly
referred to as ‘real’ plays…”
The writer puts emphasis on a specific play, which he wrote in his childhood, and he further
explains it in the coordinated clauses. All other descriptions highlight the main idea. Hypotaxis
also helps here in making clear what the readers should be focusing on.
“After the lions had returned to their cages, creeping angrily through the chutes, a little bunch of
us drifted away and into an open doorway nearby, where we stood for a while in semi-darkness
watching a big brown circus horse go harumphing around the practice ring…”
This excerpt is about animals, specifically lion and horse. Here, the entire passage is based on
the description and surrounding of the said animals. Hypotaxis helps in giving this piece of
writing special focus and an emotional touch.
Function of Hypotaxis
Writers use hypotaxis when they want to convey logical, causal, or temporal relationships within
the clauses in a sentence. Hypotactic writing is used effectively as a device for argument and
persuasion. Also, it is used to express individual and related thoughts by using subordinate
clauses. The subordinate clauses help in amplifying a central idea. This writing style helps in
providing a great deal of information and background about the topic at hand. Hypotactic writing
style heavily depends upon complex and complicated sentences to explain ideas and thoughts
in detail.
Hypothetical Question
Definition of Hypothetical Question
A hypothetical question is based on supposition, opinion, personal belief, or conjecture, and not
facts. It is not based on reality. It mostly deals with actions and scenarios that might happen, or
something that might not have happened as yet, but which could happen. This sort of a question
usually requires the questioner to arrange imaginary parameters for the things he supposes.
The difference between hypothetical and rhetorical questions is that a rhetorical question
presupposes a correct answer, of which readers are aware. However, a hypothetical question
poses an imagined and assumption-based question, not based in fact, and hence the answer
could be different from what readers expect.
“The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned one million and a half, of these I
calculate there may be about two hundred thousand couple whose wives are breeders; from
which number I subtract thirty thousand couple, who are able to maintain their own children…
There only remain an hundred and twenty thousand children of poor parents annually born: The
question therefore is, How this number shall be reared, and provided for, which, as I have
already said, under the present Situation of Affairs, is utterly impossible by all the methods
hitherto proposed …”
In this passage, Swift is estimating the number of people, and THE number of couples who can
manage their children. Then he asks a hypothetical question based on his own opinions and
assumption.
Here, Claudius asks Laertes what favor he wants from him. Claudius hypothetically asks
Laertes how he can waste time of his king by asking something he cannot give him.
In these lines, Faustus is posing hypothetical questions from two angles. First, he tries to
convince himself that he has not done any wrong, and second that various others have done the
same thing earlier. Therefore, he is not different.
ESTRAGON: (very insidious). But what Saturday? And is it Saturday? Is it not rather Sunday?
(Pause.) Or Monday? (Pause.) Or Friday?
VLADIMIR:
(looking wildly about him, as though the date was inscribed in the landscape). It’s not possible!
ESTRAGON:
Or Thursday?
VLADIMIR:
What’ll we do?
ESTRAGON:
If he came yesterday and we weren’t here you may be sure he won’t come again today.
VLADIMIR:
But you say we were here yesterday.
In this example, Estragon and Vladimir pose questions to one another, which are based merely
on assumptions. Both are asking and giving generalized answers without knowing the facts or
truths.
Iamb
Definition of Iamb
An iamb is a literary device that can be defined as a foot containing unaccented and short
syllables, followed by a long and accented syllable in a single line of a poem
(unstressed/stressed syllables). Two of Robert Frost’s poems, Dust of Snow, and The Road not
Taken are considered two of the most popular examples of iamb.
Poets have written a number of poems in regular meters, and iambic meter is widely used in
several of them.
This is an example of iambic dimeter, which has two metrical feet, shown in bold, in each line.
The rhyme scheme of each stanza is called interlocking rhyme. Also, there are some anapestic
feet, but most feet are in iambic dimeter.
This excerpt is an example of iambic trimeter, where lines have three metrical feet or three
iambs. Generally, there are six syllables in the lines with three iambs.
This is an example of iambic tetrameter, which consists of four iambic feet, or iambic beats, in
each line. These metrical feet give a regular rhythm to the poem due to consistent patterns of
accented and unaccented beats.
This excerpt is an example of iambic pentameter, which is the most commonly used meter in
poetry and verse. It consists of five iambic feet in a line, as shown in bold here. Shakespeare is
very famous for using this type of meter in his plays and poems.
Here, we have another perfect example of iambic pentameter. There are five iambic feet in each
line. It is giving the poem a sense of rhythm, and it also has a perfect rhyme scheme due to its
regular beats.
Function of Iamb
The basic function of iambic meter is to create a speech that should have a regular pattern. It
functions to make a normal speech fit into heightened formality and dramatic form. Since it gives
a rhythmic sense, it lends the text high drama and formality. Hence, the main purpose of iambic
meter is to give highly emotional experience, and makes a piece of work beautifully poetic.
Iambic Pentameter
Definition of Iambic Pentameter
Iambic Pentameter is made up of two words, where pentameter is a combination of ‘pent,’ which
means five, and ‘meter,’ which means to measure. Iambic, on the other hand, is a metrical foot
in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. It means iambic
pentameter is a beat or foot that uses 10 syllables in each line. Simply, it is a rhythmic pattern
comprising five iambs in each line, like five heartbeats.
Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used meters in English poetry. For instance, in
the excerpt, “When I see birches bend to left and right/Across the line of straighter darker
trees…” (Birches, by Robert Frost), each line contains five feet, and each foot uses one iamb.
Examples of Iambic Pentameter in Literature
Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)
Notice the pattern of underlined accented, and unaccented syllables, which are iambic
pentameter in these lines of “Macbeth,” a play by Shakespeare.
In this ode, the rhyme scheme is ABAB CDEDCCE. The meter is iambic pentameter, having five
iambs comprising a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable in each line as
underlined.
Donne has also used five groups of accented and unaccented syllables in each line. Though the
first line does not follow the rule, the purpose is to start the poem with a bang, with the
combination of iambic pentameter.
This is another great example of iambic pentameter. In this example, there are five iambs
stressed / unstressed) in each line giving a smooth flow in reading.
Browning has written this poem as a dramatic lyric in which lines rhymed in iambic pentameter.
These are heroic couplets that keep speaker’s speech into tidy packages, though his thoughts
are somewhat unruly.
Iambic pentameter is commonly used in poetry and verse forms. Many Elizabethan dramatists,
such as John Donne and William Shakespeare, used this form in their poems and poetic plays
to keep up decorum and grandeur of the language. Modern authors, too, use it for writing
serious poems. Its major function, therefore, is to give less rigid, but natural flow to the text.
Also, this form accommodates intonation and pace of language, allowing an underlying meter to
make impacts on readers.
Idiom
Definition of Idiom
The term idiom refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words. An
interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase
is understood to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would
imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further,
idioms vary in different cultures and countries.
“Every cloud has its silver lining but it is sometimes a little difficult to get it to the mint.”
(By Don Marquis)
The statement quoted above uses “silver lining” as an idiom which means some auspicious
moment is lurking behind the cloud or the difficult time.
Example #2:
“American idioms drive me up the hall!” (By character Ziva David, NCIS television series)
Example #3:
“I worked the graveyard shift with old people, which was really demoralizing, because the old
people didn’t have a chance in hell of ever getting out.” (By Kate Millett)
Example #4:
Kirk: “If we play our cards right, we may be able to find out when those whales are being
released.”
(Dialogue between characters Captain James T. Kirk and Spock in Star Trek IV: The Voyage
Home, 1986)
Here, “if we play our cards right” means “if we avail our opportunities rightly.”
Example #5:
“Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing
ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. ‘A fool’s
paradise,’ ‘at one fell swoop,’ ‘heart’s content,’ ‘in a pickle,’ ‘send him packing,’ ‘too much of a
good thing,’ ‘the game is up,’ ‘good riddance,’ ‘love is blind,’ and ‘a sorry sight,’ to name a few.
(Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English
Spelling, by David Wolman)
This passage highlights the collection of idioms used by Shakespeare in his works. They are still
used in everyday writing.
Example #6:
“Idioms vary in ‘transparency’: that is, whether their meaning can be derived from the literal
meanings of the individual words. For example, make up [one’s] mind is rather transparent in
suggesting the meaning ‘reach a decision,’ while kick the bucket is far from transparent in
representing the meaning ‘die.'”
(Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, by Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson,
Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan)
The extract quoted above explains that idioms vary in their degree of transparency, which is the
extent to which an idiom reveals its true meaning varies.
Example #7:
“Modal idioms are idiosyncratic verbal formations which consist of more than one word and
which have modal meanings that are not predictable from the constituent parts (compare the
non-modal idioms kick the bucket). Under this heading we include have got [to], had better/best,
would rather/sooner/as soon, and be [to].”
The extract quoted above highlights the use and significance of modal idioms.
Function of Idiom
Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose behind this vast use of idioms
is to elaborate their language, to make it richer and spicier, and to help them in conveying subtle
meanings to their intended audience.
Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also make things better or worse
through making the expression good or bad. For example, there are several idioms that convey
the death of a person in highly subtle meanings, and some do the same in very offensive terms.
They are also said to be exact and more correct than the literal words, and sometimes a few
words are enough to replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer than it
is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through minimum words and also keep the
multiplicity of the meanings in the text intact.
It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings, but also ideas not conveyed
through normal and everyday language, and they keep the balance in the communication.
Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so that the reader could be able to piece together
a text that he has gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.
Illusion
Definition of Illusion
One example of illusion appearing as reality in the novel, The Great Gatsby, involves the
protagonist, Jay Gatsby, and his meager family background. The reality is that he has lived a
poor life to such an extent that he decides to drop out of college after just a couple of weeks. He
hates the janitorial job he has taken to pay his tuition and fees for school. Then, in chapter four,
Gatsby describes to Nick,
“I’ll tell you God’s truth. … I am the son of some wealthy people in the middle-west [San
Francisco] – all dead now.”
Here Gatsby portrays a false reality of his family background, which is an illusion.
In these lines from his monologue, Puck alludes to a contrast between reality (the real world)
and illusion (theater). He offers commentary on the theater as a fantasy and dream, where
sometimes real life events become dreams and fantasy.
In the play A Streetcar Named Desire, by Tennessee Williams, Blanche dwells upon illusion for
her self-defense, against both outside threats and her own evil spirit. Her deceits, however, do
not carry any trace of wickedness; rather, they appear from her lack of ability, and her weakness
to face the truth. Blanche is an idealist figure, who does not see the world as it is, instead seeing
it as it should be. Dream and fantasy cast a liberating effect that protects Blanche from
upcoming tragedies.
Throughout this play, the writer contrasts Blanche’s illusion with Stanley’s unwavering realism.
By the end, Stanley wins due to his real worldview. Similarly, Stella, another character, must
bear a kind of illusion, pushing herself to believe that accusations leveled against Stanley are
untrue – which would allow her to continue living with Blanche’s husband.
In his poem, La Belle Dame Sans Merci, Keats focuses on the concept of illusion. A dying knight
meets a beautiful woman, and ultimately becomes victim to the illusion of her beauty and love.
Keats has used men like kings, warriors, and princes to show how powerful illusions affect
them, and how they become victims of their own misperceptions. He shows that, though they
are powerful in their careers, they are also weak, due to their inability to see truths, and judge
the fatal spells beautiful woman cast upon them.
Perception of illusion and reality plays a major role in Shakespeare’s play The Tempest. Magic
dominates an island, diminishing the ability of the new arrivals to differentiate between illusion
and reality. The outlook of each individual also tempers reality. For instance, Gonzalo is
positive, and sees the island as a beautiful one; while Antonio and Sebastian see it as an
unwelcoming place, due to their negative outlooks. Magic obscures reality, and illusion becomes
stronger, on account of individual perspectives.
Function
Illusion is a delusion of real sensation. Writers use it to present something they have perceived
in their minds differently from the reality. Its function is to surprise, and to provide something
interesting to entertain their audiences. It also helps the audience develop emotions within a
contextual framework, encouraging exploration of something different from reality. In addition, it
serves as a clue, and helps the audience figure out where the scene or plot is going. The use of
illusion is very common in literature, advertising, and architecture.
Imagery
Definition of Imagery
Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a
way that it appeals to our physical senses.
Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation
of ideas in our minds. The word “imagery” is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea
is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture.
Read the following examples of imagery carefully:
Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, and
onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze how famous poets and
writers use imagery in literature.
1. The old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers.
2. The starry night sky looked so beautiful that it begged him to linger, but he reluctantly left
for home.
3. The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful.
4. The sound of a drum in the distance attracted him.
5. The people traveled long distances to watch the sunset in the north.
6. The stone fell with a splash in the lake.
7. The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear.
8. The chirping of birds heralded spring.
9. There lay refuse heaps on their path that were so smelly that it maddened them.
10. The silence in the room was unnerving.
11. The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough.
12. When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman.
13. The beacons of moonlight bathed the room in ethereal light.
14. The wild gusts of cold wind pierced her body.
15. The burger, aromatic with spices, made his mouth water in anticipation of the first bite.
Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
Consider an example from Act I, Scene V:
Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the
hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an
African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet’s beauty.
The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We hear the
lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast robin and the
twitters of swallows in the skies. Keats call these sounds the song of autumn.
In prose, imagery aids writers to accomplish a vivid description of events. Below is an example
of an effective use of imagery from E. B. White’s Once More to the Lake:
“When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled his dripping
trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower and wrung them out. Languidly,
and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him
wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the
swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death.”
The images depicting the dampness of clothes, in the above lines, convey a sense of the chilly
sensation that we get from wet clothes.
In Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, Pip (the hero of the novel) uses many
images to describe a damp morning in a marsh:
“It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little
window… Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass, … On every rail and
gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post
directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came
there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it.”
The repeated use of the words “damp” and “wet” makes us feel how miserable it was for him
that damp and cold morning. The thick “marsh-mist” aids our imagination to visualize the scene
of morning in a marshland.
“Brookfield he had liked, almost from the beginning. He remembered that day of his preliminary
interview—sunny June, with the air full of flower scents and the plick-plock of cricket on
the pitch. Brookfield was playing Barnhurst, and one of the Barnhurst boys, a chubby little
fellow, made a brilliant century. Queer that a thing like that should stay in the memory so
clearly.”
This is an excellent example of the use of imagery in Goodbye Mr. Chips by James Hilton. First
the word sunny refers to the visual imagery. The flower scent refers to the sense of smell, and
then the plick-plock refers to the sense of hearing.
This is a very good example of imagery in Wordsworth’s Daffodils. The poet uses the sense of
sight to create a host of golden daffodils beside the lake. Their fluttering and dancing also refers
to the sight.
This poem by Robert Frost is yet another good example of imagery. In the second line, the poet
uses dark days, which is an instance of the use of visual imagery. In the fourth line, the bare,
withered tree uses the imagery of sight. In the fifth line, the sodden pasture is also an
instance of tactile imagery.
Function of Imagery
The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene
that appeals to as many of the reader’s senses as possible. It aids the reader’s imagination to
envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above-mentioned
function, images drawn by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, and
onomatopoeia, serve the function of beautifying a piece of literature.
Imperative Sentence
Definition of Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence is a type of sentence that gives instructions or advice, and expresses a
command, an order, a direction, or a request. It is also known as a jussive or a directive.
Depending upon its delivery, an imperative sentence may end with an exclamation mark or a
period. It is usually simple and short, but could be long and complex, depending upon its
context.
For instance, John F. Kennedy shares a wish with his people, when he stated, “And so, my
fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your
country.” (President John Kennedy in his Inaugural Address, 1961). Note that this imperative
sentence is not only long, but simply and ends with a period.
1. Share a Wish or Request – This type of imperative sentence shares polite wishes and
requests with someone, such as, “Have a good day!”
2. Offer an Invitation – This type of imperative sentence extends an invitation, such as,
“Please join me for dinner tonight.”
3. Share a Command/Request – This type of imperative sentence gives a command or
shares a request, such as, “Stop beating the dog!”
4. Give Instructions – This type of imperative sentence gives instructions, such as, “Let
him cool down, and then ask about the incident.”
Everyday Use of Imperative Sentence
“You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned
suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina,
go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern
cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed.”
All the sentences shown in italics are imperative sentences. The tone of the speaker is to
convey a sense of command, as well as advice.
“Wash the white clothes on Monday and put them on the stone heap; wash the color clothes on
Tuesday and put them on the clothesline to dry; don’t walk barehead in the hot sun … when
buying cotton to make yourself a nice blouse, be sure that it doesn’t have gum on it, because
that way it won’t hold up well after a wash; soak salt fish overnight before you cook it …”
This entire passage is in imperative sentences. All of them have commanding tones. The
speaker is giving instructions, requests, and commands to someone about what to do or what
not to do.
Example #3: Fergus and the Druid (by William Butler Yeats)
“Take, if you must, this little bag of dreams;
Unloose the cord, and they will wrap you round.”
In this example, Druid offers a bag to Fergus, which is filled with dreams. This bag helps him to
know all in the end. These imperative sentences have used the tone of advice.
“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and
philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as
well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Speak what you think now in hard words, and
tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though it contradict every thing you
said today.”
In this passage, the speaker is giving direction and advice to the audience regarding the
importance of speaking during hard times.
In the first line, the character “Westley” has requested but without using appeals. In the third
line, the character has given an order to break “Yellin’s” arms.
An imperative sentence plays an important role in writing as well as in speaking. It is not very
common in literary writing, but very important in everyday conversational language. Besides
this, it is commonly used in advertisements, manuals, instructions and road signs. It is more
intentional as compared to an exclamatory sentence, as it requires a specific audience to be
addressed. Writers mostly use imperatives to give clear and straightforward instructions,
commands, or to express displeasure, likeness, fondness, and love through their writings.
Inciting Incident
Definition of Inciting Incident
Inciting incident in a plot is an event or a point that arrives at the beginning of a play, story book,
or a film that disturbs the actions and life of a protagonist, and sets him to pursue the mission
vigorously. It originates from a Latin word, incitāre, which means to start up, to put something
into rapid motion, or to stimulate, or encourage something or some character.
Inciting incident starts the action of a story, and sets the main question readers want to know.
For instance, the inciting incident of William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet” happens when
the lovers meet and fall in love at first sight at a ball. You can easily recognize it because it
introduces the major conflict between protagonist and antagonist.
The inciting incident of Richard Connell’s “The Most Dangerous Game” occurs in the evening,
when Rainsford and General Zaroff dine and discuss hunting. It starts off as a friendly
conversation about their hunting adventure; however, it ends with a confession by General
Zaroff that he kills people as a “game,” and for fun while hunting. Soon after this confession,
Zaroff proclaims that he wishes to hunt Rainsford. This revelation takes a catastrophic turn that
leaves Rainsford in serious danger.
In “Star Wars,” the inciting incident occurs when Darth Vader attacks the ship of Princess Leia.
Prior to this event, civil war was going on there. It happens when the Empire exhibits its true
color by boarding a ship illegally, which is supposed to be on a “diplomatic mission.” This
creates a real problem in the story. The Empire becomes cruel in its every effort to restrict
rebellion; nevertheless this inciting incident shows us the beginning of deadly tensions, more of
which are to come.
The inciting incident in “The Sixth Sense” happens with the attack of Vincent on Malcom.
Without the gunshot, the story would have no strong plot, and Malcom would have had no
compulsion to meet Cole. The turning point in the first act comes with a revelation of Cole that
he might face the same vicious tendencies which Vincent did. Taking his steps back and
figuring out that Malcom would not help him, increases the problems and tensions caused by
the point that Cole is just a “disturbed” child.
This play begins with Willy coming home. The repetition is a good technique to let audience
notice how important a question is. The same happens in the following opening dialogue, which
begins the inciting incident of this play. It sets up the main question among the readers, which is
“What’s wrong?”
Since inciting incident means to stimulate, it catalyzes the protagonist to take action or go into
motion. It jolts the protagonist out of his daily routine as it is an event that sparks the fuse of a
plot. It is also necessary to happen for a narrative hook to kick in. In addition, it brings the major
question, suspense, as well as action in the story. Thus, the main focus is main character and
readers. You can find it in plays, movies, novels, and short stories.
Induction
Definition of Induction
It is not possible to exactly measure the strength of a statement, but it is possible to measure it
in degrees. For a statement to be strong, it should be more probable when compared to being
improbable, and should have a strong factual ground on which it is based. There are four
different categories of inductive reasoning, namely inductive generalization, statistical syllogism,
simple induction, and argument from analogy.
Induction Examples
Example #1:
“This marble from the bag is black. That marble from the bag is black. A third marble from the
bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.”
The statement above is an example of inductive reasoning. Since the first marble from the bag
was black, the second was black, and the third was black, the conclusion reached is that all the
marbles in the bag are black. Unless there were only those three marbles in the bag, this
conclusion may not be true.
Example #2:
“I counted five or six people with green eyes; therefore all of the people have green eyes.”
This statement is an example of inductive generalization which uses evidence about a limited
number of things to make an overall assumption of most things of that type. The authentication
of this type of a statement depends on the number of things used to make the assumption and
the total number of things.
Example #3:
“Sam is a bus driver. All drivers drive at 30 mph, therefore Sam drives at 30 mph.”
This statement is an example of statistical syllogism, which begins from a general statement
and ends with a conclusion about an individual.
Example #4:
“John and David are brothers. John likes to eat Pizza and Hamburgers. David likes to eat Pizza.
Therefore, one assumes that David also likes to eat Hamburgers.”
This statement is an example of an argument from analogy, which begins by the noting of two or
more properties and drawing the conclusion that they must share some additional properties.
Example #5:
“All the kids in the park can jump; therefore, Ilene’s kid can jump also.”
This statement is an example of simple induction. These types of statements begin with
evidence of a group and leads to a conclusion about an individual. This statement begins with
an assumption about all kids, then comes down to applying that assumption to “Ilene’s kid,”
which is one specific child.
Example #6:
“Around 80 percent of the girls wore heels, Jane is a girl. Therefore, Jane wore heels.”
Example #7:
Example #8:
“There are 15 clips in the bag; in a random draw 12 are pink. Therefore, all clips in the bag are
pink.”
This is a strong inductive statement, as it is logical and the probability of it being true is greater
than it being false.
Function of Induction
Induction is used to predict what may happen in the future, and establish a possibility of what
may happen next. Inductive statements allow you to establish probability and prepare
accordingly. At the same time, they also allow you to argue a point without having to actually
prove the fact. They can only prove to be right or wrong following further research and
observation. Inductive statements are used in everyday life as well. In fact, we all use inductive
statements in everyday life to prove our point when talking about the weather, about other
people, and even general situations.
Inference
Definition of Inference
Inference is a literary device used commonly in literature, and in daily life, where logical
deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference
suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that, through the observation of facts
presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and
perspectives.
Symbols and anomalies are very important during its use. Inferences are not so much used for
coming to conclusions, but to open up new ways of inquiry. When inference is studied from this
aspect, it is further divided into two types: inductive and deductive inference.
“It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that the gardener saw Wilson’s body a
little way off in the grass, and the holocaust was complete.”
The above excerpt is one of the examples of inference from literature. After reading this line
from The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a reader who is smart enough to make a quick
inference will simultaneously understand that Gatsby’s life has ended.
The most significant part of this sentence is that the protagonist in the novel, Mr. Gatsby, has
been murdered. Nevertheless, the circumstances surrounding his demise can be all the more
interesting if looked at closely. Among the factors that contributed to his death, the most
dominant one is his rebuttal to let go of the past.
Earlier the day Gatsby was killed, there was a part where he stopped his servant from emptying
the pool, even though the air was cold because he felt that summer was not over yet. Looking at
this particular part more profoundly incites us to make an association between Gatsby’s denial
of the end of summer, and his denial of the dissolution of his relation with Daisy. So, we could
say that if Gatsby had made peace with the current circumstances, and had moved on, he might
not have gotten himself killed.
Example #2: The Pirate Solution, Big Bang Theory (By Staff Writers)
Sheldon Cooper: “I took another look at the board, and I realized you were right.”
Function of Inference
The function of inference is important, not only in literature, but in daily life to make sense of
things people say and do. The skills inference teaches us are not only required to make out the
underlying meanings of phrases and arguments, but also to perceive the implicit concealed
meanings that enhance the overall quality of communication.
It is also used to draw one’s own conclusions from a script. Inference plays a central role in
understanding texts by translating in one’s mind the effects of the usage of particular words. It
also makes us see the literary value of a text by highlighting its strengths. Moreover, inference
has a great deal of significance in enhancing the learning abilities of students academically and
otherwise.
The ability to make inferences helps students develop an understanding of the author’s
perspective by grasping the subtle underlying meanings in a text. Without inference, people
usually end up translating a text word by word, missing out on the associations a writer is trying
to make. Such a lacking approach keeps us from comprehending the “whole picture” of a piece
of writing.
The delight a reader feels while going through a text is because of the inferences he makes
along the way. People who are better at inferring generally have much more fun while reading
than those who do not. The reason is that they understand the script better because they are
able to see things that are not too obvious, which is why they follow a story or text better and
enjoy it all the more. Besides, understanding the text better helps them draw information from
their existing knowledge, and relate to the characters more deeply.
In learning the processes of inference, people generally come to find that in places reading a
text independently makes it incomplete. There are certain concepts and feelings that we
understand better when we associate them with our own experiences. It also aids in learning
concepts like themes, characters, and figurative language. When this process is repeated
consciously and systematically, it becomes a skill that helps us fill the gaps in understanding a
script.
Innuendo
Definition of Innuendo
Types of Innuendo
Innuendo can be categorized into different forms, such as:
• Innuendo in nature
• Innuendo in everyday life
• Innocent innuendo
• Accidental innuendo
• Sexual innuendo
Several literary writers consider innuendo an unbelievably gratifying experience, and they feel
an urge to create pages laced with innuendo until at last their stream of innuendo saturates the
text with fun and naughtiness. Let us have a look at some examples:
Several characters in Dickens’ Hard Times were named by the author according to how he saw
their realities in life. For example, the school teacher is named “Mr. Choakumchild,” which
reflects his criticism of the educational system of that time. Similarly, he names a union leader
“Slackbridge,” which shows how he viewed dishonest workers of the time. The objective is to
provide a comment to the readers according to the situation in the story, and how the readers
should view the characters. This is a mild form of innuendo.
These are lines from The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, are spoken by a character who is
suffering from sexual frustration. The innuendo, quite visible here, is the reflection of the
speaker’s impotence.
Example #3: Now Look What You’ve Done (By Roderick Molasar)
Sexual innuendo has become very common in romantic poetry, and predominantly in dramas
written in a time when it was not possible to use such language openly.
“‘It’s the worst of having to do with women,’ said the Jew, replacing his club; ‘but they’re clever,
and we can’t get on, in our line, without ’em. Charley, show Oliver to bed.'”
“The noise of Charley’s laughter, and the voice of Miss Betsy, who opportunely arrived to throw
water over her friend … perform other feminine offices for the promotion of her recovery…”
In Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist, the author offered interesting surprises to readers. He used a lot
of innuendos that appear whenever he brings in his character named “Master Bates.”
Function of Innuendo
Literature abounds with innuendo – especially romantic poetry, novels, and dramas. Some
authors believe that innuendos are used to fill a void in literature, and that their readers consider
them as uplifting and entertaining. However, they come across as passive and aggressive
categories of communication, since they are indirect and generally used to attack or insult
somebody or some section of society.
Innuendos serve as oblique allusions and vague references to reputation and character. Hence,
they could be the best tool for those who do not want to be direct. Innuendo can be an effective
way of undermining somebody’s character in society.
Internal Rhyme
Definition of Internal Rhyme
Internal rhyme is a poetic device that can be defined as metrical lines in which its middle words
and its end words rhyme with one another. It is also called “middle rhyme,” since it comes in the
middle of lines.
• Same Line: Rhyme in the same line comes when the words rhyme in a single line.
For example, “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,
• Separate Line: Rhyme in separate lines comes when two or more words rhyme in the
middle of the separate lines. For example,
“While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.”
• End of, and Middle of Line: Rhyme of the words at the end of lines and words in the
middle of the lines come when the words at the end of lines rhyme with the words in the
middle of the next lines. For example:
This is the most popular poem of Edgar Allen Poe, where he uses internal rhyme. Here we can
see examples of internal rhymes where the words rhyme in the same lines, in separate lines,
and in the proceeding lines.
ALL:
“Double, double toil and trouble,
Fire burn and cauldron bubble…”
This is an excerpt from Macbeth, where all witches speak. This is an example of the first type of
internal rhyme in which words rhyme in the same line.
In the given lines of Kipling’s Pink Dominoes, the poet has used the first type of internal rhyme.
Example #4: The Rime of Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
In this excerpt, the rhyming words create a musical effect and give emphasis to the meanings.
In the above example, the first type of internal rhyme is employed. The words which create
internal rhyme are shown in bold. These words give rhythm and a regular rhyme scheme to the
poem.
The sound repetition due to internal rhyme makes a poem or story unified. It is employed to
heighten the poem’s effect,s and this internal rhyme can take place in the same line or two
separate alternating lines. Also, it adds to the meanings of words, and enhances musical the
effect of a poem.
Intertextuality
Definition of Intertextuality
Intertextuality is a sophisticated literary device making use of a textual reference within some
body of text, which reflects again the text used as a reference. Instead of employing referential
phrases from different literary works, intertextuality draws upon the concept, rhetoric, or
ideology from other writings to be merged in the new text. It may be the retelling of an old story,
or the rewriting of popular stories in modern context for instance, James Joyce retells The
Odyssey in his very famous novel Ulysses.
In his novel, Wide Sargasso Sea, Jean Rhys gathers some events that occurred in Charlotte
Bronte’s Jane Eyre. The purpose is to tell readers an alternative tale. Rhys presents the wife of
Mr. Rochester, who played the role of a secondary character in Jane Eyre. Also, the setting of
this novel is Jamaica, not England, and the author develops the back-story for his major
character. While spinning the novel, Jane Eyre, Rhys gives her interpretation amid the narrative
by addressing issues such as the roles of women, colonization, and racism that Bronte did not
point out in her novel otherwise.
Aime Cesaire’s play A Tempest is an adaptation of The Tempest by William Shakespeare. The
author parodies Shakespeare’s play from a post-colonial point of view. Cesaire also changes
the occupations and races of his characters. For example, he transforms the occupation of
Prospero, who was a magician, into a slave-owner, and also changes Ariel into a Mulatto,
though he was a spirit. Cesaire, like Rhys, makes use of a famous work of literature, and put a
spin on it in order to express the themes of power, slavery, and colonialism.
William Golding, in his novel Lord of the Flies, takes the story implicitly from Treasure Island,
written by Robert Louis Stevenson. However, Golding has utilized the concept of adventures,
which young boys love to do on the isolated island they were stranded on. He, however,
changes the narrative into a cautionary tale, rejecting the glorified stories of Stevenson
concerning exploration and swash buckling. Instead, Golding grounds this novel in bitter realism
by demonstrating negative implications of savagery and fighting that could take control of
human hearts, because characters have lost the idea of civilization.
Example #4: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (By C. S. Lewis)
In this case, C. S. Lewis adapts the idea of Christ’s crucifixion in his fantasy novel, The Lion, the
Witch and the Wardrobe. He, very shrewdly, weaves together the religious and entertainment
themes for a children’s book. Lewis uses an important event from The New Testament,
transforming it into a story about redemption. In doing so, he uses Edmund, a character that
betrays his savior, Aslan. Generally, the motive of this theme is to introduce other themes, such
as evil actions, losing innocence, and redemption.
Example #5: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Earnest Hemingway)
In the following example, Hemingway uses intertextuality for the title of his novel. He takes the
title of a poem, Meditation XVII, written by John Donne. The excerpt of this poem reads:
“No man is an island … and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for
thee.”
Hemingway not only uses this excerpt for the title of his novel, he also makes use of the idea in
the novel, as he clarifies and elaborates the abstract philosophy of Donne by using the concept
of the Spanish Civil War. By the end, the novel expands other themes, such as loyalty, love, and
camaraderie.
Function of Intertextuality
A majority of writers borrow ideas from previous works to give a layer of meaning to their own
works. In fact, when readers read the new text with reflection on another literary work, all related
assumptions, effects, and ideas of the other text provide them a different meaning, and changes
the technique of interpretation of the original piece. Since readers take influence from other
texts, and while reading new texts they sift through archives, this device gives them relevance
and clarifies their understanding of the new texts. For writers, intertextuality allows them to open
new perspectives and possibilities to construct their stories. Thus, writers may explore a
particular ideology in their narrative by discussing recent rhetoric in the original text.
Invective
Definition of Invective
The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic,
or institution. It involves the use of abusive and negative language. The tool of invective is
generally employed in both poetry and prose, to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt
emotions of the writer.
“A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited,
hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave … and art nothing but the composition of a
knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch …”
Just mark the use of words against a person in quick succession. This is called invective. It is a
bit different from abuse, as you can see it yourself.
“I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious
vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth.”
Swift’s quote above highlights the use of some fascinating and impressive invective.
Invective in Poetry
The use of invective in poetry has its origins in Greece. However, it was popularly employed as
a tool in poetry in Rome. Historically, poets have made use of the tool of invective so as to
denounce or abuse political and public figures in a sardonic or satirical tone. In early times,
writers found it convenient to anonymously publish their invectives.
However, some Grecians, such as Cicero and Juvenal, owned the use of invectives they wrote.
The invectives written by them, especially by Catullus, are quite explicit. Back then, invectives
had a rhetorical context, however modern use of the tool of invective emphasizes to create a
harsh impression.
Some of the well-known invective poems include Invective Against Swans, by Wallace Stevens,
An Invective Against Gold, by Anne Kelligrew, and The Moralistic, which was written during the
1600s.
One of the most famous invective poems ever written is Invective Against the Bumblebee, by
New Jersey poet Diane Lockward.
The stanzas written below are taken from Diane Lockward’s poem Invective Against the
Bumblebee, and serve to illustrate the manner in which the tool of invective is employed in the
narration of poems.
Function of Invective
Invective is one of the most commonly used devices in the modern poetic framework. The tool
of invective can be used in a variety of ways, to highlight the depth of the writer’s emotions for
the cause at hand. For instance, the use of high invective involves formal language and creative
expression, which creates an entirely different impact than that of low invective, which concerns
the use of stock words and images.
The tool of invective also acts as an opportunity for the speaker to convey his heartfelt bitter
emotions toward people in power, or other such annoyances. Invective is not, however, a
powerful tool of persuasion as sometimes is thought, but is a device employed to get a sort of
reaction from the interlocutor.
Inversion
Inversion Definition
Inversion, also known as “anastrophe,” is a literary technique in which the normal order of words
is reversed, in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter.
Inversion Techniques
In the English language, there are inversions that are part of its grammar structure, and are
quite common in their use. For instance, inversion always occurs in interrogative statements
where verbs, or auxiliaries, or helping verbs are placed before their subjects. Similarly, inversion
happens in typical exclamatory sentences where objects are placed before their verbs and
subjects, and preceded by a wh- word, such as the following examples of inversion:
Apart from the above-mentioned common inversions, some unusual inversions are employed in
literature by writers, in order to achieve some special artistic effects.
It was a common practice in the days of William Shakespeare to use inversions. Look at an
example of inversion from Romeo and Juliet, Act 1, Scene 5:
The inversions in the above lines serve to highlight the conflict in Macbeth’s mind after he had
killed Duncan. The conflict was leading him to insanity gradually.
Inversion examples are more common in poetry than in prose. Inversion creates meter and
rhyme in the lines. Coleridge uses inversion artistically in his renowned poem Kubla Khan:
Read the following lines from William Wordsworth’s poem Ode: Intimations of Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood:
The inverted syntax in the above lines aids the poet to lay an emphasis, and highlight the
distinctive qualities of John Milton even more.
Similarly, in the poem Love in Jeopardy, by Humbert Wolfe, there is an inversion of an unusual
kind. He wrote:
Here, the poet attempts to produce an ancient effect, as he is describing an old statue in the
poem.
Function of Inversion
Like all literary devices, the main function of inversion in prose or poetry is to help writers
achieve stylistic effect, like laying an emphasis on a particular point, or changing the focus of the
readers from a particular point. In poetry, inversions are regularly used to create rhythm, meter,
or rhyming scheme in the lines.
Irony
Definition of Irony
Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is
different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a
different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between
appearance and reality.
Types of Irony
On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic types of irony: (1) verbal irony,
and (2) situational irony. Verbal irony involves what one does not mean. For example, when in
response to a foolish idea, we say, “What a great idea!” This is verbal irony. Situational irony
occurs when, for instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of another, even when the same
misfortune is, unbeknownst to him, befalling him.
• I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is.
• The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny.”
• You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel, and the next thing you
know, you’ve slipped too.
• The butter is as soft as a slab of marble.
• “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”
We come across the following lines in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene V:
Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was, and says if he were married, then her
wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is
going to die on her wedding bed.
Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him “this god”.
“Upon the murderer I invoke this curse – whether he is one man and all unknown,
Or one of many – may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!”
The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man
guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother brought A curse on the city and its
people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of the curse.
He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man, and thus he is cursing himself. The
audience, on the other hand, knows the situation.
Example #4: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge)
Irony examples are not only found in stage plays, but in poems too. In his poem The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner, Coleridge wrote:
In the above-stated lines, the ship – blown by the south wind – is stranded in the uncharted sea.
Ironically, there is water everywhere, but they do not have a single drop of drinkable water.
This is an example of situational irony, in which the wife sells her most prized possession – her
hair – to get her husband a Christmas present; and the husband sells his most dear possession
– the gold watch – to get his wife a Christmas present. By the end, it is revealed that neither has
the utility of the present bought by the other, as both sell their best things to give the other one a
gift. Combs, the gift for the wife, is useless because she has sold her hair. The gold watch
chain, the gift for the husband, is useless because he has sold the watch to get the combs. The
situation becomes ironic for such an incident.
There are many examples of verbal irony, in which the speaker means the opposite of what he
says, in Othello by Shakespeare, as given below:
OTHELLO: “O, thou art wise! ‘Tis certain” (IV.I.87), “Honest Iago . . . ” (V.II.88), (II.III.179) &
(I.III.319), “I know, Iago, Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter” (II.III.251-52).
These few lines tell us how Othello uses irony to talk about Iago.
This shows that Iago only uses this phrase superficially, with quite the opposite meaning.
In the short story The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe, there are many instances of irony as
given below:
1. The murderer poses that he is a wise and intelligent person, who takes each step very
carefully to kill the victim. However, the way the old’s man eye prompts him to murder
the victim is very ironic. He behaves absolutely insanely throughout the story.
2. Another instance of irony in the same story is that the killer himself confesses his crime
without being asked by the police. The police are there just to investigate the shriek
some neighbor has reported. However, their delayed stay makes the killer very nervous,
and he confesses his crime of murder in their presence. He even tells where he has
buried the dead body.
Function of Irony
Like all other figures of speech, irony brings about some added meanings to a situation. Ironical
statements and situations in literature develop readers’ interest. It makes a work of literature
more intriguing, and forces the readers to use their imaginations to comprehend the underlying
meanings of the texts. Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and situations. Therefore,
the use of irony brings a work of literature to the life.
Isocolon
Definition of Isocolon
Isocolon is a rhetorical device that involves a succession of sentences, phrases, and clauses of
grammatically equal length. In this figure of speech, a sentence has a parallel structure that is
made up of words, clauses, or phrases of equal length, sound, meter, and rhythm. Isocolon is
the repetition of similar grammatical forms.
Types of Isocolon
• Bicolon – Bicolon has two grammatically equal structures. An example for this is Harley
Davidson’s slogan “American by Birth. Rebel by Choice.”
• Tricolon – If there are three grammatically equal structures, it is called a tricolon. Such
as: “That government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish
from the earth.” (Abraham Lincoln)
• Tetracolon – “I’ll give my jewels for a set of beads, /My gorgeous palace for a
hermitage, /My gay apparel for an almsman’s gown, /My figured goblets for a dish of
wood…” (Richard II, by William Shakespeare). This is an example of tetra colon, where
four parallel grammatical structures are written in succession. Tetracolon is also known
as quatrains.
Donne has used contrasting ideas of love and hate, good and ill, which are placed in a parallel
format of equal lengths. He wants to lay emphasis on the main point that humans love good
because it is good, whereas they hate bad because it is actually bad.
Blake makes effective use of isocolon in this poem. Here, the parallel structures start with a
question that creates a regular rhythm inside the text.
Example #3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
“Pity is the feeling which arrests the mind in the presence of whatsoever is grave and constant
in human sufferings and unites it with the sufferer. Terror is the feeling which arrests the mind in
the presence of whatsoever is grave and constant in human sufferings and unites it with the
secret cause…”
This is also one of the famous isocolon examples, where the successive clauses are written in
the same length, and with parallel structure. This device is useful in creating a beautiful rhythm.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair…”
Due to the repeated phrase “it was…” in the passage, readers are provoked to focus on the
characteristics of “age.”
Function of Isocolon
The use of isocolon in speech and in writing helps in maintaining consistency and creating
balanced ideas. Because parallel phrases and clauses are recurring in isocolons, this can be a
very effective persuasive device. Isocolon brings rhythm and balance to sentences, hence, it
gives a smooth flow to the ideas expressed in a piece. For this reason, famous lawyers and
politicians extensively employ this technique of persuasion. Isocolons are found in literary
works, as well as in political, social, and ordinary conversation.
Jargon
Definition of Jargon
Jargon is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular
situation, profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings
accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary
pieces of writing.
The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing,
when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these terms.
Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language, or as a language of a specific
profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that particular
profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the group of people
working within the same field or occupation.
Jargon is sometimes wrongly confused with slang, and people often take it in the same sense
but a difference is always there.
Slang is a type of informal category of language developed within a certain community, and
consists of words or phrases whose literal meanings are different than the actual meanings.
Hence, it is not understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang is more
common in spoken language than written.
Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business that
makes use of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations, such as
LOC (loss of consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order). However, unlike slang, its
terms are developed and composed deliberately for the convenience of a specific profession, or
section of society. We can see the difference in the two sentences given below.
HAMLET to HORATIO:
“Why, may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillities, his
cases, his tenures, and his tricks? Why does he suffer this mad knave now to knock him about
the sconce with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? Hum! This fellow
might be in’s time a great buyer of land, with his statutes, his recognizances, his fines, his
double vouchers, his recoveries: is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery of his recoveries,
to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers vouch him no more of his purchases and
double ones too, than the length and breadth of a pair of indentures? The very conveyances of
his lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself have no more, ha?”
Here, you can see the use of words specifically related to the field of law, marked in bold. These
are legal words used at the time of Shakespeare.
Example #2: Patient Education: Nonallergic Rhinitis (By Robert H Fletcher and Phillip L
Lieberman)
Medical Jargon
“Certain medications can cause or worsen nasal symptoms (especially congestion). These
include the following: birth control pills, some drugs for high blood pressure (e.g., alpha
blockers and beta blockers), antidepressants, medications for erectile dysfunction, and
some medications for prostatic enlargement. If rhinitis symptoms are bothersome and one of
these medications is used, ask the prescriber if the medication could be aggravating the
condition.”
This passage is full of medical jargon, such as those shown in bold. Perhaps only those in the
medical community would fully understand all of these terms.
“In August 2008, 19 individuals brought a putative class action lawsuit in the U. S. District
Court for the Northern District of California against Facebook and the companies that had
participated in Beacon, alleging violations of various federal and state privacy laws. The
putative class comprised only those individuals whose personal information had been obtained
and disclosed by Beacon during the approximately one-month period in which the program’s
default setting was opt out rather than opt in. The complaint sought damages and various forms
of equitable relief, including an injunction barring the defendants from continuing the
program.”
This ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court is full of modern legal jargon. The terms shown in bold
are a good example of jargon that is not likely to be understood by the typical person.
Function of Jargon
The use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems unintelligible to the people who do
not know the meanings of the specialized terms. Jargon in literature is used to emphasize a
situation, or to refer to something exotic. In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the
dexterity of the writer, of having knowledge of other spheres. Writers use jargon to make a
certain character seem real in fiction, as well as in plays and poetry.
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition Definition
Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters, and their
actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem, for the purpose of developing
comparisons and contrasts.
In literature, juxtaposition is a useful device for writers to portray their characters in great detail,
to create suspense, and to achieve a rhetorical effect. It is a human quality to comprehend one
thing easily by comparing it to another. Therefore, a writer can make readers sense “goodness”
in a particular character by placing him or her side-by-side with a character that is predominantly
“evil.” Consequently, goodness in one character is highlighted by evil in the other character.
Juxtaposition in this case is useful in the development of characters.
John Milton’s Paradise Lost is one of the narrative poems that can be used as an example of
juxtaposition. This well-crafted literary piece is clearly based on the juxtaposition of two
characters: God and Satan. Frequently in the poem, the bad qualities of Satan and the good
qualities of God are placed side-by-side, and the comparison made brings to the surface the
contrast between the two characters. The juxtaposition in this poem helps us to reach the
conclusion that Satan deserved his expulsion from the paradise because of his unwillingness to
submit to God’s will.
Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel A Tale of
Two Cities:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had
everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all
going direct the other way …”
In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses
juxtaposition throughout the novel. Here, the haves and have-nots are put side-by-side to
highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then-French society, which
ultimately paved the way for the revolution. By examining the given juxtaposition, readers can
vividly imagine the calamitous atmosphere before the revolution, and understand its need at that
time.
Example #3: Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night (By Dylan Thomas)
In Dylan Thomas’ poem Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night, the speaker is asking his father
not to give up, like ordinary dying men, but to fight against it to survive. The juxtaposition is in
the action of struggle for life, to put off death by not merely lying down to wait for death.
Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most commonly in his play
Romeo and Juliet. We notice the juxtaposition of light and darkness repeatedly. Consider an
example from Act I, Scene V:
Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African’s dark skin. Romeo admires
Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that, at
night, her face glows like a bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African.
Function of Juxtaposition
Writers employ the literary technique of juxtaposition in order to surprise their readers and
evoke their interest, by means of developing a comparison between two dissimilar things by
placing them side by side. The comparison drawn adds vividness to a given image, controls the
pacing of the poem or a narrative, and provides a logical connection between two vague
concepts.
Kenning
Definition of Kenning
A kenning, which is derived from Norse and Anglo-Saxon poetry, is a stylistic device defined as
a two-word phrase that describes an object through metaphors. A Kenning poem is also defined
a riddle that consists of a few lines of kennings, which describe someone or something in
confusing detail. It is also described as a “compressed metaphor,” which means meanings
illustrated in a few words. For example, a two-word phrase “whale-road” represents the sea.
Characteristics of Kenning
A literary piece may be considered as a kenning example if it possesses the following defining
characteristics:
The Seafarer is one of the best examples of kenning poems. Here, “whale-path,” “whale-road,”
and “whale’s acre” refer to the ocean. “Breast-hoard” refers to the heart.
This poem is also a very good example of kenning. Here, the words which are used as
metaphors are “ship-burial,” “flint-find,” and “bone-house.” The two-word phrases give
descriptions of objects in an alternative way. Though complex, kennings can make a poem
more enjoyable.
In the given example, Frost has also employed kenning. For instance, “mid-wood” refers to a
bird. And the second obvious kenning is “petal-fall,” which represents autumn or the fall season.
Example #5: The Dream of the Rodd (By Caedmon and Cynewulf)
This is an example of kenning from an old Anglo-Saxon poem. Here, the phrases “voice-
bearer,” “cross-beam,” and “victory-tree” serve as metaphors. These help in describing an
object’s detail by employing compound words.
Function of Kenning
Kenning is used as a poetic device, and its function in poetry is to describe something in
alternative ways, in order to provide a richer and different meaning. Kenning is related to
dialects as well, wherein it works as a showcase example of regional or local dialect. Also,
metaphorical usage of kenning makes the poetic language more vibrant, and increases thought-
provoking vocabulary. Hence, it tends to keep readers engaged.
Kinesthesia
Definition of Kinesthesia
Kinesthesia is a type of imagery that is used as a poetic device. It is a poetic device that gives a
feeling of natural, or physical bodily movement or action (like a heartbeat, a pulse, and
breathing). It also refers to tension along with the movement.
Since the word kinetic means motion or movement, kinesthetic imagery is the representation of
the actions and movements of an object or a character. Famous authors William Shakespeare
and William Wordsworth, respectively, wrote the following examples of kinesthesia:
Classification of Kinesthesia
“With a wild rattle and clatter, and an inhuman abandonment of consideration not easy to be
understood in these days, the carriage dashed through streets and swept round corners, with
women screaming before it, and men clutching each other and clutching children out of its way.
At last, swooping at a street corner by a fountain, one of its wheels came to a sickening little
jolt, and there was a loud city from a number of voices, and the horses reared and
plunged …”
In this example, kinesthesia is used as the movements of a carriage that is constantly moving
along the streets, and the physical actions of women and children. These movements are
shown in bold words.
The speaker’s descriptions of the physical features of the landscape are good Kinesthesia
examples. Kinesthesia is employed in the lines in bold. The speaker is sailing in a boat, which is
described as a “pushing prow.” There are other words suggesting physical actions, like “speed,”
“cross,” and finally, “two hearts beating.”
Example #3: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By W. Wordsworth)
Wordsworth describes the beautiful daffodils and their movement as dancing. He explains how
they grow, and their physical movement. Kinesthesia is used as in words, such as “stretched,”
“tossing” their heads, and “dance.”
Here, kinesthetic imagery is used as an awareness of the movement and muscle tension. This
excerpt is a perfect example of kinesthesia. Keats beautifully describes muscular agony, and
feelings of exhaustion.
Function of Kinesthesia
Kinesthesia is used in poetry and prose to describe the vivid physical actions or movements of
characters and objects. It is used as a graphic and vibrant technique of scenes that appeal to
the senses of the readers. Besides, it helps the imagination of a reader to envision the scenes
and characters in literary works. Kinesthesia could be used in two forms: descriptive and
figurative. In addition, writers not only employ kinesthesia for physical movements, they also
create images based on the intensity of feelings and depth of meaning.
Lampoon
Definition of Lampoon
Lampoon is a form of virulent satire in verse or prose, which is sometimes a malicious or unjust
attack on a person, an institute, or an activity. Simply, when a writer or an artist makes fun of
someone or something, by imitating the same thing in a funny way, it is called “lampooning.”
It is a more subtle and broad form of satire, which intends to ridicule in clear terms, while satire
uses comedy to ridicule vices, follies, fashions, or pretentions. In fact, both terms are same.
However, the first one – lampoon – is specific, while the second one – satire – is general.
Pink Floyd has elaborated lampoon satirical musical album “The Dark Side of the Moon” with
political and social commentary. In this song, the satire of greed for money is emphasized.
Money is sardonic and biting, there reason that there is no way to think about other things.
In A Modest Proposal, Swift satirizes the idea of eating infants, selling them to wealthy people
so that the poor could live easily without getting involved in prostitution. Swift makes fun of the
fact that, despite such grave problems, society has not done anything practically to solve it.
Therefore, his pompous, modest proposal about producing a market for babies, makes the
whole scenario ridiculous.
In fact, Swift shows his concern for the bad state of affairs happening in Ireland. In simple
words, selling babies to wealthy people for consumption is completely bizarre, and lays
emphasis on the satirical device lampoon, which is here directed against an insensitive society.
John Dryden wrote a famous lampoon “Mac Flecknoe,” which triggered a devastating attack on
Thomas Shadwell, a Whig playwright. Dryden ridiculed Shadwell’s abilities as a critic and
literary artist in a way that his literary reputation suffered a lot ever since. The basis of his satire
represented Shadwell as a dunce, which is a difference of opinion between Dryden and
Shadwell over the quality and value of Ben Johnson’s wit. Shadwell does not see Elizabethan
playwright critically, while Dryden sees Johnson lacking this quality.
Example #3: A Collection of Miscellany Poems, Letters, &c (by Mr. Brown)
Satirical writings of Brown are notable for crudeness rather than for wit. He was pertinacious in
worrying his adversaries. He would never stop his quarrel and launch attacks again and again.
He had published the above mentioned lines in his satirical and humorous verses in “A
Collection of Miscellany Poems, Letters, & c,” in which he made a bitter attack against his arch
foe, Tom Durfey.
“Pretty soon I wanted to smoke, and asked the widow to let me. But she wouldn’t … Here she
was a-bothering about Moses, which was no kin to her, and no use to anybody, being gone, you
see, yet finding a power of fault with me for doing a thing that had some good in it. And she took
snuff, too; of course that was all right, because she done it herself.”
Twain lampoons on the idea of civilized society that Huck finds himself thrust into. In this
example, the characters of Miss Watson and Widow Douglas prove themselves moral and
religious hypocrites, as Widow would not allow Huck to smoke, however she consumes tobacco
herself.
Function
The purpose of using lampoon is to emphasize absurdities and follies of a person or situation in
a humorous way. Satire, as a parody, plays the role of pointing out the object or person as
ludicrous and serves to change the opinion of the people about it. It may take various forms
from written words to jokes, drawings, television sketches, or entire productions and shows. In
literature, it can be a short poem, letter, or full novel.
Lampoon is used extensively in the two most recognizable and famous satirical mediums, film
and television. From advertising and news, to discussion programs; and from politics to dramas,
it is everywhere. Also, it is common in music, video games, and internet using satirical cartoons,
etc.
Legend
Definition of Legend
Originated from Latin legendus, legend means “something which ought to be read.” According
to J. A. Cuddon, a legend is “a story or narrative that lies somewhere between myth and
historical fact and which, as a rule, is about a particular figure or person.” Traditionally, a legend
is a narrative that focuses on a historically or geographically specific figure, and describes his
exploits. Similar to a myth, a legend can provide an etymological narrative, often filling in
historical gaps.
There are marked differences between a legend and a myth. While legends are made up
stories, myths are stories that answer questions about the working of natural phenomenon.
Myths are set in olden times, even in pre-historic times. However, legends are stories about
people and their actions, or deeds they perform to save their people or nations.
The people mentioned in legends might have lived in recent times, or sometime in known
history. Legends are told to serve a specific purpose, and can be based on facts – but they are
not completely true. People mentioned in a legend might not have really done what the story of
the legend relates. In some cases, legends change the historical events.
King Arthur, Beowulf, and Queen Boadicea are some popular English legends. However, it is
also important to understand that some of the stories about the Knights of the Round Table, and
Merlin the Magician may not be true. The common point between a myth and a legend is that
they both have been passed down from generation to generation in oral form.
In fact, the legend of Faust presents an over-ambitious man, who surrenders his moral integrity
for the achievement of worldly powers and success for a limited period of time. This kind of
character teaches us the lessons of moral integrity, and the value of ethical uprightness.
The Flying Dutchman is the legend of a ghost ship. According to the legend, the Flying
Dutchman is cursed to never dock at a port, being doomed to sail in the oceans forever. It is
likely that the legend has originated from the nautical folklore of the 17th century. The oldest
surviving version of this legend dates back to the late 18th century. During the 19th and 20th
centuries, there were reports of sighting the ship as a hull glowing with ghostly light. When
another ship tried to make contact, the crew from the Flying Dutchman tried to send messages
to land, or to people dead long ago. According to the lore, seeing the Flying Dutchman is an
omen of doom.
According to medieval histories, King Arthur was the British leader who led the British army
against the invaders in the 5th and 6th centuries. It is mainly folklore that led to the composition
of the legendary King Arthur story. Some literary inventions have been made in the story, but
historical existence of King Arthur has always been questioned. There exist a few historical
sources, such as the Annales Cambrige, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas,
which may be attributed as sources of the legend of King Arthur.
Function of Legend
In literature, the function of a legend is to present the story of human actions in such a way that
they are perceived by the audience to be true. Actions are presented as if they have taken place
within human history. For its audiences, a legend has to include happenings that are not outside
the realm of possibility, but it may include miracles. Change has certainly occurred in legends
over time, giving them a freshness, vitality, and a realistic taste. On the contrary, a large number
of legends function in the realm of uncertainty; neither believed, nor doubted by the audiences.
Limerick
Definition of Limerick
Though both of these are types of poem having fixed structures, both are different in their forms.
Villanelle consists of 19 lines with refraining rhyming sounds appearing in the first and the third
lines, while the final quatrain has a closing couplet. A limerick has five lines, having anapestic
form with the first, second, and fifth lines rhyming together, but the third and fourth lines are
different and rhyme together.
We can find the use of limericks in eighteenth century verse. They are associated with Edward
Lear, who first published this verse form in his book A Book of Nonsense in the year 1846.
Later, this form became popular, and many poets, including Alfred Lord Tennyson,
Shakespeare, Rudyard Kipling, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ogden Nash, H. G. Wells, W. H. Auden,
T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Lewis Carroll, tried their hands in this form of poetry. Here we
have a few examples of limerick from literature:
This limerick contains five lines with a rhyme scheme of aabba. Here we can notice the first,
second, and fifth lines rhyme together, with three feet; whereas the third and fourth lines contain
two feet and rhyme together.
Example #2: There was an Old Man with a Beard (By Edward Lear)
Edward Lear was considered to be the father of limericks. This is one of the very good
examples of limerick poems, following its typical format with the first, second, and fifth lines
rhyming together, and longer in length; while the remaining two are shorter, and give a faster
read. Lear has referred to this form as nonsense.
Example #3: There was a small boy of Quebec (By Rudyard Kipling)
It is quite interesting that the earliest written limericks were linked with drinking. We can guess
that people would have drinks and sang bawdy, funny songs or poems. Similarly, William
Shakespeare has employed this form in a drinking song of Stephano to create nonsensical and
humorous effects.
Example #5: A Man Hired by John Smith & Co (By Mark Twain)
As we know, Mark Twain is also popular for writing limericks. Here, he has used a funny and
whimsical limerick poem, with a concluding punch line.
Function of Limerick
Poets use limericks as literary or poetic forms to convey and create funny and humorous
images. The purpose of using this form is to replace everyday expression with unusual
alternative to express emotion and a particular mood by adding eccentricity and weirdness. We
can find its usage in literature to describe humor or light subject matter, as the first four lines
create a joke, and it ends on a punch line. It also is used frequently in nursery rhymes to make
kids love reading.
Line Break
Definition of Line Break
A line break is a poetic device that is used at the end of a line, and the beginning of the next line
in a poem. It can be employed without traditional punctuation. Also, it can be described as a
point wherein a line is divided into two halves. Sometimes, a line break that occurs at mid-
clause creates enjambment.
There are two line break examples in the given passage. One line break cuts the line, “I have
ta’en his head from him” in the middle, placing the line break at the end of the second line.
Another line break is used in the fourth line, “I” being a person has an absolute meaning. These
line breaks are determining the visual shape of this text.
There are many line breaks within this excerpt. First, a line break cuts the phrase, “I mete and
dole unequal laws unto a savage race,” into two at the end of the first line. Similarly, a break
occurs in other lines like “I will drink life to lees,” “All times I have enjoyed greatly, have suffer’d
greatly,” and “I am become a name.”
In this excerpt, Keats has employed line breaks to create different types of artistic effect. The
line also forces readers to take a slight break, which in turn reinforces the disclosure of the
following lines.
This excerpt is also filled with several line breaks. These include “the center cannot hold,” “and
everywhere the ceremony of innocence is drowned…” The poet takes readers into surprising
and multiple ideas.
This excerpt is also a good example of line break. These line breaks give vitality to the poem,
also creating breaks in the flow of reading.
Line breaks can be a source of dynamism in poetry, as they provide a manner whereby poetic
forms inculcate contents with strength and consequential meanings – which might not be
possible in other types of text in the same level. Line breaks are used as important poetic
devices, because they often bring ambiguity and also affect the meaning. However, they lead
readers into surprising ideas and different understandings, as well as controlling the manner
wherein they come upon ideas.
Litotes
Definition of Litotes
Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple,” is a figure of speech that employs an
understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by
negating its opposite expressions.
For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement, as well
as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning
it’s good, by saying it’s not bad). Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means she is
ugly, or saying “I am not as young as I used to be,” in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes,
therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironic effect.
Common Litotes Examples
In everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations, though not many people
are aware of this term and its usage. Below are a few examples of litotes from daily
conversations:
Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above litotes examples adds emphasis to the
ideas, rather than decreasing their importance. This is due to the ironic effect produced by the
understatement.
In literature, writers and poets use this type of figure of speech in their texts in order to vividly
communicate novel ideas to readers.
“I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen
under many prejudices.”
Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally
aware of it. The irony is that he is aware, but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not.
Example #3: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: an American Slave (By Frederick
Douglass)
“Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves about the
relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of his own over
that of the others.”
Mr. Douglass was an African-American social reformer and a writer. He has effectively used
litotes to stress his point that even slaves used to seek dominance over other slaves by holding
out that their respective masters were much better than those of the other slaves.
Function of Litotes
Litotes uses ironic understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation, rather than
minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people’s attention to an
idea, and that is by ignoring it.
J.R. Bergmann, in his book Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings, talks about litotes
in the following words:
“I want to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those methods which are used to talk
about an object in a discreet way. It clearly locates an object for the recipient, but it avoids
naming it directly.”
This is the best that has ever been said about litotes – that to ignore an object and still talk
about it in a negative way is the best way to make it appear important and prominent.
Logos
Definition of Logos
Logos is a Greek word meaning “logic.” Logos is a literary device that can be defined as a
statement, sentence, or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by
employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides
logos. Logos mostly employs the utilization of inductive and deductive reasoning methods to be
effective. There are many examples of logos in literature and in debates.
Classification of Logos
In some cases, both of these methods are used to convince the audience.
“The wage system has made people believe that what a man needs is work.
This, of course, is absurd. What he needs is the goods produced by
work, and the less work involved in making a given amount of goods,
the better … But owing to our economic system …where a better system would
produce only an increase of wages or a diminution in the hours of work
without any corresponding diminution of wages.”
In this paragraph, Russell is presenting arguments for the unjust distribution of wealth and its
consequences. He gives the answer through logic, and states that a reason for this injustice is
due to evils in institutions. His deduction is that capitalism and the wage system should be
abolished to improve the economic system.
Aristotle is using syllogistic arguments here, where some of the arguments or assertions remain
unstated. Since Socrates is a man therefore, he is mortal; all men are mortal so eventually they
will die. This is the logic presented here.
“Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.”
This example is exact, precise, and compact with arguments, as well as a deduction or
conclusion. At first, Bacon points out what reading, conference (discussion), and writing are,
simultaneously giving the logic and reasoning to read, write, or conference.
“Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach
not their own use; but that is wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation.”
This is also a perfect example of logos. Here, Bacon discusses the matter of theories versus
skills. There comes a clash between reading and not reading. He argues that a reader is better
than those who cling to what they already know. He uses the logic that reading is necessary
because it improves skills.
Example #5: Othello (By William Shakespeare)
In this excerpt, Iago convinces Othello with logic and reasoning, and makes him doubtful that
there is a secret relationship between Desdemona and Cassio.
Function of Logos
Logos is used in citing facts, in addition to statistical, literal, and historical analogies. It is
something through which inner thoughts are presented in a logical way, in order to persuade the
audience. In society, rationality and logic are greatly valued, and this type of convincing
approach is generally honored more than appeals made by a speaker or character to the
audience. On the other hand, scientific reasoning and formal logic are perhaps not suitable for
general audiences, as they are more appropriate for scientific professionals only.
Lyric
Definition of Lyric
Lyric is a collection of verses and choruses, making up a complete song, or a short and non-
narrative poem. A lyric uses a single speaker, who expresses personal emotions or thoughts.
Lyrical poems, which are often popular for their musical quality and rhythm, are pleasing to the
ear, and are easily put to music.
The term lyric originates from the Greek word “lyre,” which is an instrument used by the
Grecians to play when reading a poem. Lyrical poets demonstrate specific moods and emotions
through words. Such moods express a range of emotions, from extreme to nebulous, about life,
love, death, or other experiences of life. Read on to learn more about lyric in literature.
Types of Lyric
There are several types of lyric used in poems such as given below:
• Elegy
An elegy is a mournful, sad, or melancholic poem or a song that expresses sorrow for someone
who has bee lost, or died. Originally, it followed a structure using a meter alternating six foot and
five foot lines. However, modern elegies do not follow such a pattern, though the mood of the
poem remains the same.
• Ode
An ode is a lyric poem that expresses intense feelings, such as love, respect, or praise for
someone or something. Like an elegy, an ode does not follow any strict format or structure,
though it uses refrains or repeated lines. It is usually longer than other lyrical forms, and focuses
on positive moods of life.
• Sonnet
A sonnet uses fourteen lines, and follows iambic pentameter with five pairs of accented and
unaccented syllables. The structure of a sonnet, with predetermined syllables and rhyme
scheme, makes it flow off the tongues of readers in way similar way to a on song on the radio.
• Dramatic Monologue
A dramatic monologue has theatrical quality, which means that the poem portrays a solitary
speaker communing with the audience, without any dialogue coming from other characters.
Usually, the speaker talks to a specific person in the poem.
• Occasional Poetry
Poets write occasional poetry for specific occasions such as weddings, anniversaries, birthdays,
victories, and dedications, such as John Dryden’s “Annus Mirabilis,” and Edmund Spencer’s
“Epithalamion.”
This is an example of a sonnet, using fourteen lines with a metrical pattern of iambic
pentameter. The poem is about feelings of love for a beloved. It tells how it is worth staying with
one another instead of leaving.
Example #2: Ode to the West Wind (by Percy Bysshe Shelley)
This poem is a dramatic monologue in which the Duke shows a portrait of his former wife to the
emissary through his point of view. In so doing, he reveals his position, his jealous
temperament, and excessive pride. This monologue also has a lyrical quality found in its rhyme
scheme.
This is the first stanza of Whitman’s famous elegy. Notice its mood, which is somber, and filled
with intense sadness. Still, the words are giving melodic flow due to lyrical quality.
Function
A lyrical poet addresses his audience directly by portraying their state of mind or emotions. That
is why a lyrical poem expresses personal emotions of the poet. The themes of lyrical poems are
also emotional and lofty, enabling the readers to look into the life of things deeply. That is why
such poems have universal appeal, because readers can relate their feelings with the poem.
Malapropism
Malapropism Definition
Malapropism finds its origins in the French phrase mal a propos, which means “inappropriate.” It
is the use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word, which results in a
nonsensical and humorous expression.
The word malapropism comes from “Mrs. Malaprop,” a character in Sheridan’s comedy The
Rivals, who has a habit of replacing words with incorrect and absurd utterances, producing a
humorous effect. A miss-speech is considered malapropism when it sounds similar to the word
it replaces, but has an entirely different meaning. For instance, replacing acute with obtuse is
not a malapropism because the words have contrasting meanings, but do not sound similar.
Using obtuse for abstruse, on the other hand, is a malapropism, as there is a difference in
meanings, and both words sound similar. These characteristics makes malapropism different
from other errors in speech, such as eggcorns and spoonerisms.
Malapropism is a common phenomenon in our daily life. We find some hilarious Malapropism
examples being quoted in the media.
Example #1
The magazine New Scientist reports one of its employees calling his colleague “a suppository
(i.e. repository) of knowledge.” The magazine further reports the worker apologized for his “Miss
Marple-ism (i.e. Malapropism).”
Example #2
Richard J. Daley, the former mayor of Chicago, is said to have called a “tandem bicycle” a
“tantrum bicycle,” and to also have incorrectly used the phrase “Alcoholics Unanimous,” rather
than “Alcoholics Anonymous.”
Example #3
Bertie Ahern, the former Irish Taoiseach, is said to have given a warning to his country against
“upsetting the apple tart (i.e., apple cart) of his country’s economic success”.
In his novel, The Rivals, Richard Sheridan introduces a character, Mrs. Malaprop, who
habitually uses words that mean quite the opposite to the words she intends to use, but which
have similar sounds to the words she replaces. It becomes a great source of humorous effect in
the play. For example, in Act III, Scene 3, she tells Captain Absolute:
“Sure, if I reprehend anything in this world it is the use of my oracular tongue, and a nice
derangement of epitaphs!”
In the above passage, she comically replaces apprehend with reprehend, vernacular with
oracular, arrangement with derangement, and epithets with epitaph.
Some other funny examples of malapropism in the same play include “… illiterate (obliterate)
him quite from your memory,” and “… she’s as headstrong as an allegory (alligator).”
William Shakespeare uses malapropism in his plays as well. Look at the following example of
malapropism uttered by Constable Dogberry in Act III, Scene 5 of Much Ado About Nothing:
Notice the use of comprehended for apprehended, and auspicious for suspicious.
Similarly, an instance of malapropism can be observed in Act I, Scene 3 of Twelfth Night. Sir
Toby Belch says:
The malapropism here is “subtractors,” which should have been “detractors.” Yet another
example comes from the same character in Act I, Scene 5 of the same play:
In Chapter 33 of Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn, Aunt Sally can be spotted using a
malapropism. She says:
Here, the use of the word putrified is a malapropism, as it seems she was thinking of petrified.
Function of Malapropism
A literary device, maxim is a simple and memorable line, quote, or rule for taking action and
leading a good life. Simply put, it is a thought with moralistic values that intends to motivate
individuals. Maxim is, in fact, a type of saying, or a brief statement of a great thought about life,
especially a sententious or aphoristic one such as, “He who hesitates is lost.” It helps in
characterizing characters.
Of Truth
“He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune … Unmarried men are best
friends, best masters, best servants but not always best subjects.”
Of Friendship
“For a crowd is not company and faces are but a gallery of pictures.”
Francis Bacon has been very famous for compact, aphoristic, and concise sayings as given
above. All of these sayings have deep thought and ideas.
These heroic couplets are rich with words of wisdom. Pope delineates very common faults of
poets, and suggests that, despite harmful effects of negative criticism, literature needs it.
Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy)
“All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”
These are the opening lines of Tolstoy’s novel, Anna Karenina. The idea behind this maxim is
that families fail in many ways; however, they can be happy by avoiding negative possibilities
and it’s their choice to do this.
“All Animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
These two phrases present a tool for propagating ideology in the novel, in how the elite class
uses language against the lower class. It also connotes a totalitarian mindset and points toward
the corruption on Animal Farm, because the pigs see themselves as privileged, under their
totalitarian command, and working animals only exist to serve their leadership.
Polonius gives a life lesson to Laertes by using maxim. He teaches how to be true to himself
and to others. The purpose of making this statement is for his own benefit, in order to sound
intelligent to his son.
The speaker suggests that it is wise to not be in hurry. Rather, one should look where he is
going, otherwise he might fall flat.
This statement carries a moral code that serves to characterize a relationship history of two
neighbors or two men, who are brought together every spring by re-building the wall.
“The world more often rewards the appearance of merit than merit itself.”
“It is a great ability to be able to conceal one’s ability.”
La Rochefoucauld has written many books on maxims and proverbs. These are some of the
more popular maxims from his book.
Function of Maxim
To qualify as a maxim, a statement must contain a truth that is revealed in a terse way. Writers,
politicians, philosophers, artists, sportsmen, and individuals use such sentences in their
respective fields. These maxims bring a pinch of wit, making statements more appealing to the
audience. It is also that these adages, proverbs, clichés, and maxims are different types of
aphoristic sayings that become relevant to many people and situations, turning into everyday
sayings with the passage of time.
Meiosis
Definition of Meiosis
The word meiosis originated from the Greek word meioo, which means “to diminish,” or “to
make smaller.” Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses
something or somebody; particularly by making use of terms that give an impression that
something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes used in
the sense of a synonym of litotes.
Features of Meiosis
• It is intentional understatement.
• It is used to belittle a person or an event.
• It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration.
• It often makes use of litotes as synonyms to give ironic effect.
There are several examples of meiosis in literature, where the persons and events are
understated, depending on the situations. Here are some of them:
Shakespeare has used meiosis in these lines to create humor. Although it is undoubtedly clear
that the king has gone mad, his reaction that “I fear I am not in my perfect mind” is an example
of an understatement.
In this speech, Hamlet uses understatement or meiosis to conclude his soliloquy, where he
states that all this cannot come to good. This is a gentle statement compared to the rest of his
speech, in which he has lashed out at his mother. The best and the most effective use of
meiosis can be seen in tragic plays like this one.
Is also great
And would suffice.”
The understatement of the entire poem is given in the last word which is suffice, which means
“adequate.” In this poem, ice symbolizes hatred, and fire passion that could consume relations
quickly. Therefore, both would be more than enough to destroy the world.
Example #4: Monty Python and the Holy Grail, 1975 (By Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric
Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin)
King Arthur: “The Lady of the Lake, her arm clad in the purest shimmering samite held aloft
Excalibur from the bosom of the water.”
Peasant: “Listen, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of
government. Power derives from the masses not from some farcical aquatic ceremony.”
Peasant: “You can’t expect to wield supreme power because some watery tart threw a sword at
you.”
Peasant: “If I went around saying I was an emperor because some moistened bint had lobbed a
scimitar at me…”
Just check the use of the words moistened bint the peasant says to King Arthur. This is the best
use of meiosis which belittles the king himself.
Function of Meiosis
Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism, such as quiet and brooding, where protagonists
are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives,
old and modern literature, and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humor,
in composed and calm characters, and in personalities, where it gives rhetorical effects to the
speech delivered by them.
Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional
occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something
in order to heighten something else simultaneously.
Melodrama
Definition of Melodrama
Noel Coward’s heartbreaking drama Still Life, Brief Encounter, tells the story of two people who
seemed destined to be unhappy. In the film, a leading role and married woman, Laura Jesson,
encounters a doctor, Alec Harvey, in a train station. They decide to meet once in a week at the
same station. Soon they begin to feel delighted in each other’s company and share everything.
Eventually they come to realize that they are in love with each other. Their realization, however,
leads to a tragic notion that they cannot leave their families, which finally ends up in unrequited
love, with their lives doomed into despondency.
Example #2: Mildred Pierce (By James M. Cain)
A blend of melodrama and film noir, Mildred Pierce, is based on James M. Cain’s novel of the
same title. The story is about a struggling waitress, Mildred, who wishes to provide a better life
to her daughters than she had, after separating from her husband. For this, she takes the help
of a real estate agent, after which she becomes the owner of a restaurant.
Mildred tries to make her older daughter tie the knot with a formerly wealthy man, Monte
Beragon, to improve her financial position and win back her alienated daughter Vera. Instead,
Vera starts enjoying the playboy lifestyle of Monte, and drains her mother’s finances. This leads
to Mildred’s financial ruin, and the murder of Monte. Consequently, Vera goes to jail. This shows
the type of melodrama created to impact the audience.
Christopher Morley’s novel, Kitty Foyle, has been adapted to film, in which the author narrates
the story in the form of a melodrama. The film stars Kitty as a saleswoman who desires to make
her living on her own. Nevertheless, she marries Wyn Strafford, then due to class differences,
the couple separates very soon. Kitty then engages in a relationship with a doctor, Mark Eisen,
but their relationship could not be successful. She again decides to marry Wyn when he comes
back. Though the class difference remains, he wishes to live with Kitty. Kitty suffers a lot and
returns to her sales job. Thus, the audience sees many ups and downs in Kitty’s life through this
classic melodrama.
Based on the novel Now Voyager, by Olive Higgins Prouty, this melodrama tells the story of a
woman, Charlotte Vale, who suffers a lifetime repression due to her domineering mother, who
finally breaks her free at the request of Charlotte’s psychiatrist. Thus, she takes a voyage where
she encounters Jerry Durrance, a loyal father and loveless husband, whose wife is manipulative
and jealous. Charlotte pulls back Jerry’s emotionally disturbed daughter from the brink. She
then enters into another relationship, but could not push Jerry out of her mind. By the end,
though Charlotte could not get her desired man, she becomes self-assured and more confident.
Film director William Wyler adapted Emily Bronte’s classic and popular novel Wuthering Heights
into a film. The novel is a sweeping romantic melodrama in which love and class division are
destined to become a tragedy. The film stars Heathcliff as an orphan, who is taken into a
wealthy family where he falls in love with Cathy, his foster sister.
Though Cathy also feels the same for him, she nevertheless marries a wealthy neighbor,
leaving Heathcliff with no choice. Returning as a wealthy man after some years, the sparks
begin to fly again for Cathy, and a vengeful Heathcliff marries Geraldine Fitzgerald, sister of
Cathy’s husband, in order to arouse her jealousy. By the end, Catherine dies, and Heathcliff
follows her as he could not brook this loss any more.
Function of Melodrama
Melodrama is an exaggerated form of drama, where authors enhance the storylines in order to
tug the heartstrings of the audience. Typically, these types of dramas focus on sensational plots
that revolve around tragedy, unrequited love, loss, or heightened emotion; featuring long-
suffering protagonists, especially females, attempting in vain to overcome impossible odds. Its
purpose is to play on the feelings and emotions of the audience. We see the use of
melodramatic plots more often in films, theater, television, radio, cartoons, and comics.
Memoir
Definition of Memoir
Memoir is a written factual account of somebody’s life. It comes from the French word mémoire,
which means “memory,” or “reminiscence.” This literary technique tells a story about the
experiences of someone’s life. A literary memoir is usually about a specific theme, or about a
part of someone’s life. It is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus, and subject matter,
involving reflection on some particular event or place.
Memoirs are often associated with popular personalities, such as celebrities, sportsmen,
soldiers, singers, and writers. It allows making a connection with what the audience finds
captivating, interesting, appealing, and engaging.
Memoir falls under the category of autobiography, but is used as its sub-genre. The major
difference between memoir and autobiography is that a memoir is a centralized and more
specific storytelling, while an autobiography spans the entire life of a person with intricate details
such as the childhood, family history, education, and profession. A memoir is specific and
focused, telling the story of somebody’s life, focusing on an important event that occurred at a
specific time and place.
Ernest Hemingway was an acclaimed celebrity during the times when the public treated
American writers like movie stars. His memoir A Moveable Feast was published after his death
in 1964. This memoir is a collection of stories about his time spent in Paris as a writer in 1920s,
before attaining popularity. During these days, he was acquainted with many other famous
writers, including Ezra Pound, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein.
This memoir is about the description of Nabokov’s childhood, and the years he spent before
moving to America in 1940; however, it is not the exact reason of writing this memoir. More
notably, this book is about a tale of his art, as it serves as a model of that art. In addition, it
includes themes, imagery, and symbols that build up a structure in the minds of readers besides
making up the book. Like always, Nabokov’s prose writing is flawless, brilliant, and
overwhelming, while his playful writing style makes his work seem fascinating.
Although we can find many deeply affecting memoirs to make this list, Maus is one of the most
well-liked memoirs, with its distressing story covered with perfect illustrations by Spiegelman.
We might think that imagining different characters appearing with animal faces would make the
story horrible and less intense and more irritating, it is rather the opposite. If we know the comic
style, we learn that blank iconic faces and the outlook of the mice in this memoir allows the
audience to put themselves in their shoes, to understand the story more easily.
Function of Memoir
Memoir has been around since ancient times. Perhaps Julius Caesar, who wrote and depicted
his personal experiences about epic battles, was the first memoirist. Later, it became a popular
and acclaimed literary genre. Memoir serves to preserve history through a person’ eyes.
Through memoir, celebrities also tell harsh sides of their careers. Rock stars tell their fans about
tough days spent in distress, drug addicts reveal their struggle in seeking normal life, soldiers
write war experiences, people who are mentally ill describe ups and downs to achieve clarity,
and authors tell particular events that happened before their eyes. Hence, the function of
memoir is to provide a window for the audience to have a look into the lives of other people.
Metalepsis
Definition of Metalepsis
Metalepsis is derived from the Greek word metōnymia, which means “substitution” or “sharing.”
It is a figure of speech like metonymy or metaphor. However, it is an advanced form of figurative
speech in which one thing refers to another thing that is only slightly related to it. There are two
ways to make this association. One is through showing causal relationship to seemingly
unrelated things. The other is through indirect intermediate replacement of terms.
Features of Metalepsis
Metalepsis is a reference in which a phrase or a word taken from figurative speech is employed
in a new context. Metalepsis is also known as transumption. According to Werner Wolf, “It is a
fictional representation that consists of different levels and worlds, among which unconventional
transgression takes place.”
Metalepsis often conveys metaphorical expression by using a word associated with a thing that
it is being referred to. In addition, this figure of speech could be a reference for a literary work,
such as if somebody says, “Something smells in Denmark,” it would be considered to be a
reference to Shakespeare’s famous play Hamlet.
There are many examples of metalepsis in Shakespeare’s works, since he multiplies metaphors
and duplicates figures of speech in various guises. He works on one figure, and then moves
onto the next and continues from where he started off. There is a concatenation of different
figures that quickly pile on one another as shown in bold.
In these lines, the poet makes reference to keeping the “life from spilling,” meaning the spilling
of blood. He makes a connection between blood and life, which means too much loss of blood
shows loss of human life.
In the passage above, Milton uses “oat” as a musical instrument that is made from an oat stalk.
Therefore, the word “oat” is employed as a reference to the song that the poet composes beside
the ocean.
“I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the
Christmas parties.”
Here, Georgia is used to develop a relationship between politicians, government, and citizens. It
is now common to use the name of a country to refer to its government and its whole nation.
Function of Metalepsis
Also, it is used in literary comedies because the words in allusion could cause a comical
exaggeration. However, in narratology, metalepsis plays with the structure of a fictional book,
since the narrator may seem separated from the action, but he interacts in the middle of the
story to create heightened effect and deeper meanings for the readers. A survey of metalepsis
examples will help us understand the functions of this device.
Metaphor
Definition of Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between
two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a
resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some
common characteristics.
In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something
else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. For
example, the phrase, “My brother is the black sheep of the family,” is a metaphor because he is
not a sheep, nor is he black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association
of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal, which typically stays
away from the herd, and the person being described shares similar characteristics.
Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison that is different from a simile, in that we do not
use “like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden
comparison and not an explicit one.
Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing
to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write, and think in
metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common
language, and they are called “conventional metaphors.”
For instance, calling a person a “night owl,” or an “early bird,” or saying “life is a journey,” are
common examples of metaphors heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more
conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily lives:
• My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
• The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
• It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat
and life is going to be without hardships)
• The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies
that the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
• Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)
• He saw the soul of dust when passing through the dust storm.
• Chaos is the breeding ground of order.
• War is the mother of all battles.
• Her dance is a great poem.
• A new road to freedom passes through this valley of death.
• My conscience is my barometer.
• His white face shows his concern.
• His kisses are like roses.
• He married her to have a trophy wife.
• Laughter is the best medicine.
• Words are daggers when spoken in anger.
• His words are pearls of wisdom.
Metaphors are used in all types of literature, but not often to the degree they are used in poetry.
This is because poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to readers, and
metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor
from famous poems.
John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors
throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work, The Sun Rising, the speaker scolds the
sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he
explains “She is all states, and all princes, I.” This line demonstrates the speaker’s belief that he
and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of
the love that they share.
Example #2: Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day (By William Shakespeare)
William Shakespeare was the best exponent of metaphors, having made wide-ranging use of
them throughout his works. Sonnet 18, also known as Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s
Day, is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer
season. He writes that “thy eternal summer,” here taken to mean the love of the subject, “shall
not fade.”
The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life — the death of his father in
an accident, and the deaths of his mother and brother through tuberculosis. When Keats himself
began displaying signs of tuberculosis at the age of 22, he wrote When I Have Fears, a poem
rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the lines above, he employs a double-
metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts
represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively.
Just spot different metaphors in these six lines by Van Jordan. This is the “sea” of time. This is
an extended metaphor that is further expanded to its feature of coldness, depth, and then edges
and voyage through it.
This is another example of a good metaphor where sun is being called a fool by John Done,
who is famous for his use of weird metaphors.
This is a good metaphor by Milton, from his epic Paradise Lost. Here, Milton has compared his
poetry to a dove.
“Her mouth was a fountain of delight. And when he possessed her, they seemed to swoon
together at the very borderland of life’s mystery.”
Just check the excellence of using a metaphor in just one sentence. The second one is its
extension.
“We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not
meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto
harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such
terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from
the revelation or flee from the light into the peace and safety of a new dark age.””
Lovecraft has beautifully used metaphors to describe the situation in this paragraph. Just read
the underlined phrases to see this metaphorical beauty.
Function of Metaphor
From the above arguments, explanations, and examples, we can easily infer the function of
metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors
appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to
comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our
conversations, and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of
thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the
world.
Meter
Definition of Meter
Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem. Stressed
syllables tend to be longer, and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic device that
serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious sound.
For instance, if you read a poem aloud, and it produces regular sound patterns, then this poem would be
a metered or measured poem. The study of different types of versification and meters is known as
“prosody.”
Types of Meter
Qualitative Meter
Qualitative meter contains stressed syllables with regular intervals, such as iambic pentameter
containing even numbered syllables.
Quantitative Meter
Quantitative meter, however, is based on syllabic weight, and not stressed pattern,s such as dactylic
hexameters of classical Greek and classical Latin. However, classical Arabic and Sanskrit also have used
this meter. Poets like Virgil used quantitative meter in Aeneid, and Homer used it in Iliad.
Those who can dream it, they really can achieve it.
(Dactylic/Spondaic)
The kids have gone, for they have left the nest.
(Iambic tetrameter)
This is an example of iambic pentameter, which contains an unstressed syllable first, and a stressed
syllable second. Shakespeare has played around with iambic pentameter a lot to create different effects.
Here you can see each line consists of accented and unaccented syllables underlined.
This extract contains trochaic meter in which stressed syllables are pronounced loudly. Larkin has
written frequently in trochaic (accented/unaccented) tetrameter with four trochees.
Example #3: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)
“Half a league, half a league,
Half a league onward,
All in the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
“Forward, the Light Brigade!
Charge for the guns!” he said:
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.”
This excerpt presents an example of dactylic meter that contains one accented syllable followed by two
unaccented syllables.
Here you can see Carroll has used different types of anapestic meter, dimeter, trimeter, and tetrameter.
This type of meter has two unaccented syllables and a third accented syllable.
Spondaic meter has two accented syllables. You can easily identify this type of meter because it contains
both stressed syllables: “Cry, cry! Troy burns.”
This stanza has used a combination of iambic and anapestic meter. In anapest, two unstressed syllables
are followed by one stressed syllable, which rhymes the lines and add music to them.
“Bent like a laboring oar, that toils in the surf of the ocean,
Bent, but not broken, by age was the form of the notary public;
Shocks of yellow hair, like the silken floss of the maize, hung
Over his shoulders; his forehead was high; and glasses with horn bows
Sat astride on his nose, with a look of wisdom supernal.”
This poem is written in dactylic hexameter, with six dactyls in each line. The poet has combined dactylic
hexameter with spondaic meter to give more rhythmic and uplifting reading experience to readers.
Each line in this example is following iambic tetrameterical pattern. Notice the very first line, in which
the stress is placed on the second syllable “think,” but not on “I.” In this poem, the poet emphasizes the
comparison between a tree and poem.
This is an example of iambic trimeter. There are three iambs and six syllables, alternating three groups
of unaccented and accented in each line.
This unique poem has used trochaic meter as its major metrical foot, which is clearly adding music to the
verses.
Function of Meter
Though meter is a poetic device, playwrights as well as prose writers often use it to heighten the
dramatic quality of the work, adding enchantment, mystery and emotion to their language. If you look
carefully, you will notice metrical feet are not only suitable in poetry, but also in plays to achieve
dramatic purposes. However, its basic function is to provide rhythm and uniformity, and to give a
rounded and well-formed structure to the poetic work. Meter makes the tone of a language more
lyrical. When a situation requires heightened language, the poets use meter for artistic effect. Besides, a
meter has importance and value to the readers, which could, however, be lost if paraphrased or
translated.
Metonymy
Metonymy Definition
Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something
else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from
literature and in everyday life.
Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called “synecdoche.” These devices
resemble one another, but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one
of its parts. For example, calling a car “a wheel” is a synecdoche, as a part of a car – the
“wheel” – stands for the whole car.
In a metonymy, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to
that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, the word “crown” is used to refer to
power or authority is a metonymy. It is not a part of the thing it represents.
Metonymy is also different from a metaphor, which draws resemblance between two different
things. For instance, in the sentence, “You are sunlight and I moon,” (Sun and Moon by Miss
Saigon), sunlight and the moon, and humans are quite different things without any association.
However, metaphor attempts to describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed
similarity.
Metonymy, however, develops a relation on the grounds of close association, as in “The White
House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in
it.
Mark Anthony uses “ears” to say that he wants the people present to listen to him attentively. It
is a metonymy because the word “ears” replaces the concept of paying attention.
This line is from Margaret Mitchell’s novel Gone with the Wind:
“I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the
Christmas parties.”
Scarlett uses the word “Georgia” to point out everything that makes up the state: its citizens,
politicians, and the government. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world,
where the name of a country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it
renders brevity to the ideas.
In these lines, the expression “The life from spilling” refers to the spilling of blood. It develops a
link between life and blood. The loss of too much blood means loss of life.
Here, Cullen uses “flesh” to represent humans, and questions God about why we have to die
when we are created in His likeness.
Function of Metonymy
Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism, meaning it gives more profound
meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. Texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings,
thus drawing readers’ attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness.
For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in
their hands were guarding the gate.”
Furthermore, like other literary devices, metonymy is employed to add a poetic color to words to
make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert this
“life” factor to literary works.
Monologue
Definition of Monologue
Monologue comes from the Greek words monos, which means “alone,” and logos, which means
“speech.” It is a literary device that is the speech or verbal presentation given by a single
character in order to express his or her collection of thoughts and ideas aloud. Often such a
character speaks directly to audience, or to another character. Monologues are found in
dramatic medium like films and plays, and also in non-dramatic medium like poetry.
Types of Monologue
Interior Monologue
In interior monologue, a character externalizes his thoughts, so that the audience can
experience his internal thoughts. Often found in plays, movies, and novels, this technique is also
called a “stream of consciousness.” Internal monologue can bebroken further into two
categories: direct and indirect. In a direct interior monologue, an author does not show his
presence, and directly reveals his character. In an indirect interior monologue, an author
appears as a commentator, guide, presenter, and selector.
Dramatic Monologue
In this type of monologue, a character speaks to the silent listener. This type has theatrical
qualities, hence, it is known as dramatic monologue, and is frequently used in poetry.
Monologue and soliloquy are similar, as both are speeches presented by a single person. But a
major difference between them is that, in monologue, the speaker reveals his thoughts to the
audience, or to any other character; whereas in a soliloquy, the speaker expresses his thoughts
to himself, and it does not involve any other characters.
This entire poem is written in the form of a dramatic monologue, in which the poet is trying to
explore the causes of pain and suffering of an insecure young man who is confused about
whether or not he should attend a party. Eliot reveals his thoughts to the audience about how
Prufrock feels that, if he goes to the party, it might disturb the entire universe.
This poem also presents an example of a dramatic monologue, as it has a theatrical quality in
which the poet expresses his viewpoint through the speech of his character. The single speaker
is addressing the servant of a count.
This is a famous balcony scene in which Romeo hides in the garden of the Capulet family, and
waits for a glimpse of his beloved Juliet. When she comes out on the balcony, Romeo uses
monologue, sharing his thoughts with the audience.
In her novel, Mrs. Dalloway, Virginia Woolf has presented her characters by using the technique
of stream of consciousness, or interior monologue. The consciousness of characters moves
backward and forward. Woolf has molded and shaped their personalities at critical moments
through interior monologue. Her particular deployment of this technique consists of authorial
interjections to provide guidance to the readers and give shape to the narrative.
Function of Monologue
The purpose of writing in monologue is to convey an idea or viewpoint through words. However,
sometimes we notice a tricky part of a writer’s expression, as the opinions of speaker and writer
do not match, because he tries to convince the audience, and may not tell the exact reality. It
allows readers to move from one character to another, and to have insight into their
imaginations. A monologue serves as a basic source through which writers express their
emotions and thoughts.
Mood
Mood Definition
In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through
words and descriptions.
Setting is the physical location in a piece of literature that provides background in which the
events of the narrative take place. A particular setting not only provides support to the contents
of the story, but also sets the mood of the readers. Let us analyze a few examples of mood
developed using a setting:
Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers:
“The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly
on.”
The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.
Emily Bronte, in Wuthering Heights, creates two contrasting moods through two contrasting
settings. The events of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights
and Thrushcross Grange. A depressing mood is created whenever Wuthering Heights is
described. For example, in chapter 12 the narrator says:
“There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from
any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were
never visible…”
On the contrary, the description of Thrushcross Grange creates a calm and peaceful mood:
“Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley
came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer
foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf.”
The contrast presented in the settings also helps in the development of the different characters.
The people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, while those from Thrushcross Grange
are refined.
The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is called the tone. The readers
always rely on the writer’s point of view of the events taking place in a story. They observe the
story through his eyes. They feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the
description provided. Therefore, the attitude of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the
readers.
For instance, see how Robert Frost, in his poem The Road Not Taken, creates a gloomy feeling
through his tone:
Frost informs us about his past with a “sigh” that gives the above lines an unhappy tone and
thus evokes an unhappy mood. An unhappy mood is created because the poet convinces us
that he regrets a choice he made in the past.
Diction is the choice of words a writer uses. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings,
and depicts the events, places, and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an
effect on the way the readers feel about them.
The following lines from Jonathon Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels is one of the great mood examples
created using diction:
“And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins,
muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks,
undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights…”
In order to create feelings of disgust in readers, for the destructive consequences of war, the
writer chooses words that are unmelodious, harsh, and jarring. The diction in the above
passage corresponds with the subject matter.
Function of Mood
Mood helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction, and
tone. It evokes various emotional responses in readers, and thus ensures their emotional
attachment to the literary piece they read. Once the readers are emotionally stirred, they fully
comprehend the message that the writer tries to convey to them.
Moral
Definition of Moral
Derived from the Latin term “morālis,” moral means a message conveyed by, or a lesson
learned from, a story, a poem, or an event. It is not necessary that the author or the poet has
clearly stated it. It can be left for the audiences or the learners to derive. However, at times,
moral is clearly stated in the shape of a proverb.
The moral to a story is a universal aspect of the majority of fictional literature that it not only
entertains, but also it serves the purpose of instruction, information, and improvement of the
audiences. The chorus in the classical drama, for example, commented upon the proceedings
and drew out a message for the audience. The novels of Charles Dickens, on the other hand,
address the drawbacks of the social and economic system of Victorian Britain, carrying morals
of their own type, which are implicit.
In children’s literature, morals are exclusively introduced by the phrase, “The moral of the story
is …” Modern story telling does not employ these explicit techniques, but uses irony and other
devices to convey it.
Mostly, Aesop’s fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all
literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children
are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for
the future. Maxims like “Be friends with whom you don’t like,” “Don’t judge people by the way
they look,” and “Slow and steady wins the race” are normally the lessons found behind many
stories.
“Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked
away with his nose in the air, saying: ‘I am sure they are sour.’ “
These are the closing lines taken from Aesop’s The Fox and the Grapes. It is through the last
statement that the fox expresses its dislike of grapes, which it had tried again and again to
grasp. This particular story by Aesop discusses a general habit of the people who cannot admit
their defeat. Instead, they pass on the blame to someone or something else. The same is the
case with the fox in this story, who fails after several attempts.
One can easily detect the horror and terror expressed by Dr. Faustus in his final soliloquy. His
fall indicates that, in spite of being an educated person, he made a great mistake by selling his
soul to the devil. His repentance from his misdeeds leads the reader to realize that the path of
the devil is doomed. The story of Dr. Faustus symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and
evil, and vice and virtue.
Example #3: The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (By Samuel Johnson)
“I have here the world before me; I will review it at leisure: surely happiness is somewhere to be
found … Happiness must be something solid and permanent, without fear and without
uncertainty.”
In his famous novel, Rasselas, Samuel Johnson narrates the story of a prince who escapes
from the valley of happiness in search of eternal happiness, which he ultimately finds nowhere.
And this is the moral lesson of this tale.
Function of Moral
During the period 1780 to 1830, morals were associated with the main purpose of literature,
especially literature written for children. In the 18th century, the works by John Locke and Jean-
Jacques Rousseau focused their attention on children as the audience of literature. However, as
it has been stated by E. M. Forster: every good story has a moral, and every bad story is a
moral, now it is necessary to deduce the moral. This is because ultimately the aim of literature is
to make the world a better place, which is impossible without teaching morals. Therefore, moral
is necessary for a piece of literature, which then functions as the main gist of any literary piece.
Motif
Motif Definition
Sometimes, examples of motif are mistakenly identified as examples of symbols. Symbols are
images, ideas, sounds, or words that represent something else, and help to understand an idea
or a thing. Motifs, on the other hand, are images, ideas, sounds, or words that help to explain
the central idea of a literary work – the theme. Moreover, a symbol may appear once or twice in
a literary work, whereas a motif is a recurring element.
Let us try to understand the difference between theme, motif, and symbol by analyzing a literary
work. In Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, the main plot revolves around two basic themes:
the ever-present possibility of resurrection, and the necessity of sacrifice to bring about a
revolution.
One of the motif examples in the novel that develops these themes is the presence of Doubles:
(1) the action takes place in two cities; (2) we find two opposed doubles in the form of the
female characters Lucie and Madame Defarge. We also see recurrent images of darkness in
the narrative, which add to the gloomy atmosphere.
Another motif is that of imprisonment, as each and every character struggles against some kind
of imprisonment. Finally, there are plenty of symbols in the narrative as well. The broken wine
cask is a symbol of people’s hunger; Madame Defarge knitting is a symbol of revenge, and
Marquis is a character that stands for social disorder.
There is also a motif of hatred for women that Hamlet experiences in his relationship with
Gertrude and Ophelia. Hamlet expresses his disgust for women in Scene 2 of Act I, as he says:
In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, we see several motifs that support the
central idea of the narrative. The motif of childhood gives the novel a lighter tone, and makes it
enjoyable to read despite its grave central ideas of slavery and racism. Both Huck and Tom are
young and flexible enough to undergo a moral education, and thus are more open-minded than
adults. Another obvious motif in the narrative is superstition. Jim appears silly to believe in all
sorts of signs and omens, but interestingly predicts the coming event.
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness has a motif of observation and eavesdropping. Marlow, the
protagonist, gets information about the world by either observing his surroundings or listening to
the conversations of others. Similarly, there is another evident motif of comparison between the
exterior and the interior. Initially, Marlow is a person who keenly observes things and people
from the surface, but as he continues his journey into the heart of darkness, he gains an insight
into his deeper nature, as well as that of others.
The central idea of the co-existence of good and evil in Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mocking Bird is
supported by several motifs. Lee strengthens the atmosphere by a motif of Gothic details, in
recurrent images of gloomy and haunted settings, supernatural events, and a full moon. Another
motif in the narrative is the small town life of Maycomb, which depicts goodness and
pleasantness in life.
Function of Motif
Along with presenting a prevailing theme, writers include several motifs in their literary works as
reinforcements. Motifs contribute in developing the major theme of a literary work, and help
readers to comprehend the underlying messages that writers intend to communicate to them.
Motivation
Definition of Motivation
There are two types of motivation: one is intrinsic, while the other one is extrinsic. Intrinsic
motivation is linked to personal pleasure, enjoyment and interest, while extrinsic motivation is
linked to numerous other possibilities. Extrinsic motivation comes from some physical reward
such as money, power, or lust. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is inspired by some
internal reward such as knowledge, pride, or spiritual or emotional peace or wellbeing, etc.
Characters have some motivation for every action, as do people in real life. Therefore, the
implicit or explicit reference to a motivation of a character makes the piece of literature seem
closer to life and reality.
This becomes a motivation for Hamlet to justify his actions and exact revenge for “murder most
foul,” in the words of the Ghost. This motivation is further escalated when he sees his mother
married to his uncle, the murderer. In fact, Hamlet finds an opportunity to kill his uncle, but he
does not, as King Claudius was praying at the time. Hamlet does not want to send the
murderer’s soul to heaven. This motivation stops him from taking action.
In his introductory soliloquy, Dr. Faustus reveals his motivation very clearly. The chorus already
confirms whatever he states in the soliloquy. The chorus informs the audiences of the play that
Faustus received his academic degree of doctorate in theology (religion). He earned a doctoral
degree only to become “overinflated and conceited” for his own satisfaction. His self-centered
thinking brings up his moral and spiritual downfall. He desires to know more and more even
something, which is beyond his capabilities. His motivation is pride in himself, which ultimately
destroys him.
According to many literary critics about Shakespeare’s characters, the most evil of all his female
characters is Lady Macbeth, who happens to have the worst motivation behind her actions. She
is highly cunning, skillfully manipulative, and much more ambitious than her husband, Macbeth.
When she receives a letter from her husband revealing the prophecy of the witches that foretells
that Macbeth will be the future king, she at once begins to plan the murder of Duncan.
Then, when Macbeth withdraws from taking action, she motivates and urges him to move
forward. Therefore, not only are greed and lust her motivations, but she transfers these
motivations to her husband, giving him reason to kill the king.
Function of Motivation
In literature, motivation is used to connect the behavior and actions of a character with the
events of the story. Motivation serves as the logical explanation for what a character does,
which is necessary for the readers and audiences to understand the causes of a character’s
actions. The core desires of characters lead the way to all actions in storytelling.
Sometimes motivations of characters change with the development of the story. With a change
in the motivation, the character changes too. For effective characterization, unified and
dominant motivation is inevitable. Great characters have great motivations. These characters
teach some good or bad moral lessons to the readers and the audiences. The readers and
audiences get more interested in motivated characters and understand those motivations, which
make or break societies.
Myth
Definition of Myth
Myth is a legendary or a traditional story that usually concerns an event or a hero, with or
without using factual or real explanations. These particularly concern demigods or deities, and
describes some rites, practices, and natural phenomenon. Typically, a myth involves historical
events and supernatural beings. There are many types of myths, such as classic myths,
religious myths, and modern myths.
Characteristics of Myth
Myth usually features ruling gods, goddesses, deities, and heroes having god-like-qualities, but
status lower than gods. Often, the daughter or son of a god (such as Percy Jackson) is fully
mortal, and these characters have supernatural abilities and powers that raise them above
average human beings.
Myths are mostly very old, and happen to have ruled the world when science, philosophy, and
technology were not very precise, as they are today. Therefore, people were unaware of certain
questions, like why the sky is blue, or why night is dark, or what are the causes of earthquakes.
Thus, it was myths that explained natural phenomena, and described rituals and ceremonies to
the people.
Roman and Greek myths, though originally not available in English, have deeply influenced
English works. During the times of the ancient Greeks, they had a belief that some invisible
gods, such as Zeus, had created this world. We read in such Greek stories that passions for
humans controlled the gods, and hence gods fought for them. Likewise, Romans had beliefs in
such deities.
Due to mythological influences, many literary authors refer to the Greek and Roman myths in
order to add meanings to their works. For instance, Shakespeare, in his play Romeo and Juliet,
uses Greek mythology when Juliet cries out saying that,
In Greek mythology, Phoebus was god of the sun, and here Juliet urges that god to bring him
home quickly, so that night could come, and she may meet her lover Romeo.
In another Greek myth, Greeks devastated the city of Troy in an outburst of the Trojan War,
when Helen – the wife of king Menelaus – ran away with the prince of Troy. Apparently, Helen
was a very beautiful woman from Greece, and was ultimately held responsible for the
devastation of Troy.
Yeats also tried to use this Greek mythology in his poem, No Second Troy, by creating a
similarity between Helen and Maud Gonne. He also brought a similarity between the Trojan War
and revolutionary and anti-British activities of the Irish. Just like Helen, Yeats blamed and held
Maud responsible for creating hatred in the hearts of Irishmen, and consequently they caused
destruction and bloodshed.
Biblical stories and myths have also played an important role in shaping English literary works.
John Milton, in his poem Paradise Lost, plays out the Genesis story about the Fall of Man, and
subsequent eviction, from the Garden of Eden.
Both John Steinbeck and William Golding, in their respective novels, East of Eden, and Lord of
the Flies, played on the same idea in which they have presented Eve as a seducer responsible
for bringing sin into this world. We can clearly see this allusion in medieval literature. We also
have seen that many feminist literary critics of the twentieth century have made use of this myth
in their research.
T. S. Eliot uses two underlying myths to develop the structure of his long poem The Waste
Land. These myths are of the Grail Quest and the Fisher King, both of which originate from
Gaelic traditions, and come to the Christian civilization. Though Eliot has not taken these myths
from the Bible, both were significant for Europeans, as they incorporated them into European
mythology, and these stories focused on the account of the death and resurrection of Christ.
Function of Myth
Myths exist in every society, as they are basic elements of human culture. The main function of
myths is to teach moral lessons and explain historical events. Authors of great literary works
have often taken their stories and themes from myths. Myths and their mythical symbols lead to
creativity in literary works. We can understand a culture more deeply, and in a much better way,
by knowing and appreciating its stories, dreams, and myths. Myths came before religions, and
all religious stories are, in fact, retellings of global mythical themes. Besides literature, myths
also play a great role in science, psychology, and philosophy.
Narrative
Narrative Definition
The basic theme of various forms of story-telling were fear of natural forces, deeds of heroes,
gods and goddesses, and to teach life lessons from others’ experiences. Biblical stories have
the primary purpose of teaching spirituality. Most biblical stories were performed in churches to
convey spiritual messages to the masses.
Modern narratives have a broader function. After a close study of famous examples of modern
narrative, we see that such narratives do not merely entertain, but serve as ways to
communicate writers’ moral, cultural, and political perspectives.
Moreover, narratives have contributed to achieving educational objectives in our everyday life.
Different forms of media enable people to express and record their real life stories, and to share
their knowledge and their cultural values across the world. In addition, many documentaries on
television adopt a narrative technique to communicate information in an interesting way.
Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is a modern narrative example known as a “political satire,”
which aims at expressing a writer’s political views. It uses animals on a farm to describe the
overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before
WWII. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of
the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society.
Poetry written in the style of a narrative is known as “narrative verse.” Faerie Queen, by
Edmund Spenser, is an example of such poetry. It narrates the adventures of the Red-Cross
Knight in helping Lady Una rescue her parents from the evil Dagon. On a symbolic level it
describes the mission of the Holiness as helping the Truth, fight Evil, and thus regain its rightful
place in human hearts.
Function of Narrative
Storytelling and listening to stories are part of human instinct. Therefore, writers employ
narrative techniques in their works to attract readership. The readers are not only entertained,
but also learn some underlying message from the narratives.
Moreover, a narrative is set in specific cultural contexts. Readers can get a deep insight of that
culture, and develop an understanding toward it. Thus, narratives can act as a binding force in
uniting humanity.
Naturalism
Definition of Naturalism
Naturalism is a literary genre that started as a movement in late nineteenth century in literature,
film, theater, and art. It is a type of extreme realism. This movement suggested the roles of
family, social conditions, and environment in shaping human character. Thus, naturalistic writers
write stories based on the idea that environment determines and governs human character.
We also see use of some of the scientific principles in naturalistic works, and humans struggling
for survival in hostile and alien society. In fact, naturalism took its cue from Darwin’s theory of
evolution, which holds that life is like a struggle and only the fittest survive.
Both naturalism and realism are literary genres and interlinked. However, there are some
differences between them:
John Steinbeck is one the most popular writers coming from the school of American naturalism.
Steinbeck, in his novel The Grapes of Wrath, portrays the Joad family and its changing
environment from the naturalistic point of view, during the t Great Depression in the United
States. He depicts the Joad family as insignificant, instinct-bound, and small creatures bound to
seek a paradise they might never find.
Initially, when the Joads leave home, they are very simple and animal-like people, who could
barely understand their plight. They face constant opposition from two powerful predators –
society and nature. However, as the narrative progresses, they begin to adapt to new
circumstances.
Stephen Crane, in his short story The Open Boat, portrays men on a boat, representing human
endurance against indifferent nature, where they feel themselves helpless. Thus, it contains a
theme of naturalism. Whenever a huge wave of water arrives, it shuts everything from the men’s
view, and they imagine this particular wave would be the final outbreak of the ocean, like in the
following lines:
“If I am going to be drowned–if I am going to be drowned, why, in the name of the seven gods,
who rule the seven seas,?”
This lays emphasis on their struggle for survival and lack of choice. Besides, The Open Boat
symbolically represents human place in the huge universe where man struggles against nature.
Then we see a definite determination, as men cannot play any part in their outcome, which
results in unexpected death of Oiler, despite being an expert sailor.
Kate Chopin’s novel, The Awakening, gives an example of a perfect naturalistic novel, as its
leading character, Edna Pontellier, lives in a world where no one understands her. Neither does
she fit in the Creole society. This often causes misunderstandings in her life, as she can’t
understand its people:
Then, she realizes that she has chosen the wrong man as her husband:
“…taking off her wedding ring, flung it upon the carpet. She stamped her heel upon it, striving to
crush it …”
In addition, we see the determination by individual traits and by societal forces inside the family.
Consequently, Edna becomes a victim of her sociological pressures.
The theme in Jack London’s novel, To Build A Fire, is man versus nature; thus it is another
good example of naturalism. Naturalism in this novel shows how human beings need to be
careful at every corner, as death could reach them anywhere, waiting for them to commit a
mistake and take their lives. We see the story is about a man with his dog trying to survive
harsh, cold weather by building a fire. In fact, the author uses the Darwinian Theory of “survival
of the fittest” in his work.
Function of Naturalism
The impact that naturalism has left on literary writers is colossal, leading to the evolution of the
modern movement. Generally, naturalistic works expose dark sides of life such as prejudice,
racism, poverty, prostitution, filth, and disease. Since these works are often pessimistic and
blunt, they receive heavy criticism. Despite the echoing pessimism in this literary output,
naturalists are generally concerned with improving the human condition around the world.
Nemesis
Nemesis Definition
Nemesis is a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice, where the good characters
are rewarded for their virtues, and the evil characters are punished for their vices.
The term nemesis comes from Nemesis – the goddess of revenge in Greek mythology – and
divine retribution sought against the people guilty of hubris. In a general sense, nemesis refers
to an indomitable rival, or an inescapable situation that causes misery and death. For instance,
you may have encountered your nemesis at school – a boy who is no more capable than you
are, but who somehow always finishes ahead of you in school examinations, making you feel
frustrated.
We find a number of examples of nemesis in both ancient and modern literature. Let us analyze
a few:
In a famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the nemesis of King Oedipus is his
hubris or excessive pride. He is so proud that he does not even shrink from defying prophecies
of the gods. We see that the king ends up doing what he fears and tries to avoid.
The Oracle of Delphi tells him that he will kill his father and marry his mother. In his attempt to
defy the gods’ prophecy, he leaves Corinth, and travels towards Thebes. On his way, he kills an
old man in a quarrel. He later marries the queen of Thebes as he ascends the throne, after
delivering the city from a deadly sphinx.
One can argue that Oedipus commits all of these sins in complete ignorance, yet he deserves
retribution because he becomes so swollen with pride that he does not even shy from
attempting to revolt against his fate. Thus, his nemesis is his arrogance.
In Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, Faustus’ nemesis was his pride in his scholarship,
and his overambitious nature. Overcome by his irresistible desire, he sells his soul to Lucifer, by
signing a contract with his blood. He defies Christianity by learning the art of black magic,
consequently paying for his arrogance and his pride. As the time mentioned in the contract with
the devil exhausts, the devil takes his soul to Hell, where he suffers eternal damnation.
We find two nemesis examples in Shakespeare’s Hamlet: Hamlet, and Hamlet’s indecisiveness.
Hamlet acts as a nemesis for Claudius, who kills Hamlet’s father and marries his mother.
Claudius’ devilishness calls for immediate retribution. The ghost of Hamlet’s dead father
appears to him, and convinces him to exact revenge. He finds Claudius as the real murderer,
and after much indecisive thinking kills him.
In the same play, Hamlet’s nemesis is his indecisiveness. He is unable to make up his mind
about the dilemma he confronts. He discloses his state of mind in the following lines in Act 3,
Scene 1 of the play:
He wants to take vengeance on his father’s murderer, Claudius. but destroys his own life by
postponing the act as he looks for evidence to validate his action. In the process, however, he
spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that
she commits suicide.
In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the protagonist Victor exhibits hubris in his venture to become
an unrivaled scientist. After years of experiments, he triumphs in creating a “monster,” which he
calls “Frankenstein.” Ironically, the thing which he considers his supreme invention proves his
nemesis. Frankenstein ultimately becomes the source of Victor’s disaster, punishing him justly
for his over-ambition.
Function of Nemesis
The main function of nemesis in a literary work is to establish grounds for poetic justice.
Nemesis acts as a source of punishment for hubristic and wicked characters on universal moral
grounds. Wicked and evil individuals should be penalized for their evilness.
Besides, it imparts a moral lesson to the readers to develop and refine the characters, in order
to ensure they remove certain flaws which can prove to be their nemesis in time to come.
Neologism
Definition of Neologism
A neologism is a newly-created word used in expressions, in both writing and speaking.
However, all neologisms are not entirely new. Some neologisms are built from new uses of old
words, while others are combinations of old and new words. For instance, in the excerpt
“Pardon, old father, my mistaking eyes that have been so bedazzled with the sun that
everything I look on seemeth green” (The Taming of the Shrew, by William Shakespeare),
Shakespeare has coined a word “bedazzled” to express the gleam of sunlight in describing
rhinestone-embellished clothing.
• Banana Republic
In Cabbages and Kings, a collection of short stories by O. Henry, the author introduced
the term “banana republic.” Later, politicians in the U.S. exploited this term in referring to
unstable countries that depend upon exported products.
• Freelancer
Sir Walter Scott, in his novel Ivanhoe, devised the term “Free Lancers” for people hired
as militants.
• Doormat
Charles Dickens first introduced the term “doormat” in his novel Great Expectations, as,
“His rookie flailing set back the peace process (such as it was) and made him look like a
doormat.” Doormat refers to a thick piece of cloth placed on floor in front of the door to
clean shoes.
• Twitter
The onomatopoeic word “twitter” was first used by Geoffrey Chaucer.
• Yahoo
Yahoo is one of the most popular terms in today’s internet world. The word first
appeared in Jonathan Swift’s novel Gulliver’s Travels.
Types of Neologism
There are a number of ways for coining new words, using a variety of neologism types. A few of
these include:
This type is a blend of two words that create a completely new word such as:
Transferred Words
These words are derived from other languages, adjusted in English such as, “herbs” has been
taken from French herbes.
Derived Words
These words use Latin and ancient Greek phrases that match with their English counterparts
such as, “village,” “villager,” and “villa” have all been derived from the Latin word villa.
In this excerpt, the underlined word “hinky” is a coined word that is also a police slang, which
means nervous or uneasy.
In this poem, Carroll has made up the words “calloh, callay” to express a laughing tone that
comes between a snort and a chuckle.
Here “Nerd” is a nickname for a creature with long mustaches, wild hair, red face, and yellow
skin. It refers to a person having high-intelligence, but lacking social skills.
Function of Neologism
Neologism shows us that new words can be added to any language. It is not something to stay
stagnant. Language constantly evolves and changes with new additions, deletions, and
emissions. The task of a good neologism is to create new meanings of some abstract or
material ideas that are evolving in new environments. It happens quite often that old words fail
to convey the meanings of new circumstances. New words are coined to reflect the changing
moods of the time. If a neologism does not convey a true meaning of the new situation, it soon
ceases to exist.
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Non Sequitur
Non sequitur is a literary device that includes statements, sayings, and conclusions that do not follow
the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to
create comedic effect.
In fact, non sequitur is a Latin phrase that means “it doesn’t follow.” Here, non means “not,” and
sequitur means “to follow.” It takes place when a difference is created between the principle idea and
the conclusion, which finally leads to a fallacy. In conversation, non sequitur is something that is said,
which seems quite absurd – to the point of confusion due to lack of proper meanings. It is sometimes
taken as postulation, which means the statement might not be true. For instance:
The sentences do not follow a proper sequence in non sequitur, and words do not give the same
meaning as readers suppose them to do.
Non sequitur in everyday speech: “Business is business, and a cup of tea is a cup of tea.”
Fallacy of the undistributed middle: “All humans have bones. Crocodiles have bones. Therefore,
crocodiles are humans.”
Affirming the consequent: “If Charles is right, then Diana is right. As Diana is right, therefore, Charles is
right.”
Denying the antecedent: “If I am Indian, then I am Asian. I am not Indian. Therefore, I am not Asian.”
Affirming a disjunct: “Adam is right or Eve is right. Adam is right, therefore Eve is not right.”
Denying a conjunct: “It is not that both Horse and Cow is true. Cow is not true. Therefore, Horse is true.”
The best examples of non sequitur can be observed in the Theatre of the Absurd.
Here we can clearly see the use of non sequiturs, where Estragon persistently asks a question, but
Vladimir does not bother to answer.
Mrs. Smith:
“There, it’s nine o’ clock; we have drunk the soup, and eaten the fish and chips and the English salad …
That’s because we live in the suburbs of London and because our name is smith.”
In this excerpt, we can notice the strong use of non sequitur, where Mrs. Smith is talking to Mr. Smith,
and he does not respond at all as it is quite absurd.
Non sequitur is produced inadvertently due to some confusion, and even sometimes deliberately to
confound the audience, in order to point out the confusion existing in the situation or society at large.
However, it is often used in order to change the subject of the conversation, and give a humorous touch
by jumping to a conclusion abruptly, without following the fundamental principles of conversation.
Similarly, as a literary device it is used in the Theater of the Absurd, and in surreal absurdist comedies. In
theater, there are characters that give one non sequitur after another and move away, to provide
comedic effect. Since the audience cannot foresee what the next statement will be, they merely laugh at
it.
Nostalgia
Definition of Nostalgia
The term nostalgia, or the feeling of homesickness, has been derived from a Homeric term,
“nostos,” which means homecoming. Homer used this term in his epic Odyssey, to show how
homesick Odysseus grew when he freed himself from the war. However, the modern derivative
of this term is medical research, as a student by the name of Johannes Hofer coined this term
during his study of homesickness of mercenaries, including the associated anxiety and mental
pain he observed among them.
However, in literature, nostalgia is employed to discuss a general interest in the past, or the
personalities of the past, and subsequent feelings of pleasure or pain. The online Merriam-
Webster dictionary defines nostalgia as, “pleasure and sadness that is caused by remembering
something from the past and wishing that you could experience it again.” Therefore, nostalgia is
not only sadness or sickness, but also the pleasure of remembering, or taking interest in, the
past. That is why the Romantic Movement in English literature has a special association with
nostalgia, focusing on the pleasure and pain of remembering the past.
“For I must now confess to you that I suffer from home-sickness — that I long so ardently and
earnestly for home, as sometimes, when no one sees me, to pine for it. … So dearly do I love
the scene of my poverty and your kindness. O so dearly, O so dearly!”
These lines are from Charles Dickens’ novel, Little Dorrit. This is Amy Dorrit’s dialogue, who
cannot forget her past. On the other hand, all her family members pretend to have forgotten
their past. Amy Dorrit has been so involved with her past that she feels pangs of those happy
times, and is compelled to think about them. This is a good example of nostalgia by Charles
Dickens.
This stanza is a good example of Romantic nostalgic poetry. This is the last stanza of The
Daffodils, by William Wordsworth. The poet, having seen beautiful daffodils somewhere, now
often sits alone on his couch, recalling the same scene, which brings him pleasure. This is an
apt example of pleasure in nostalgia, because the poet experienced tranquility and peace of
mind in the company of the flowers, and he still feels the same afterward, when he is alone at
home.
Function of Nostalgia
Despite changes in its meaning over time, nostalgia has not lost its significance in literature. It is
used in poems, novels, and plays to evoke feelings of sadness or pleasure a character
experiences when recalling his past. It could be the memory of a past event, a victory, a love, or
a relationship. It is usually employed to evoke the same feelings among the readers, so that
they also could feel the tinge of pain, or a bit of love for their near or dear ones. It could be used
to evoke the feelings of pleasure the readers might feel for some past happenings. Nostalgia
has more than one function to perform, such as turning a mood from sadness to pleasure,
increasing positive self-respect, and doing away with prejudice about the past events.
Novella
Definition of Novella
In literature, a novella is a type of prose fiction, which is shorter than full length novels and
longer than short stories. It originates from an Italian word “novella“, which means “new.” It is a
well-structured yet short narrative; often satiric or realistic in tone. It usually focuses on one
incident, or issue with one or two main characters and takes place at a single location.
Novellas have less pages and words than that of novels. The more obvious difference is that
novellas have fewer subplots and conflicts than full length novels. The main narrative of a
novella resembles with a straight line and does not use complicated and indirect plot lines, back
stories, and multiple points of views. Unlike novels, novellas usually do not have chapters. It is
mostly concerned with emotional and personal development of the character rather than dealing
with a larger social sphere and events that usually takes place in one place or location.
Heart of Darkness is a strictly controlled novella, with a classic status, describing a story of late
nineteenth century about imperialistic and colonialist process. This novella focuses on the
search of the central character, Kurtz, who goes too far for exploitation of the natives for the
sake of an ivory trade. Conrad’s readers plunge deeper into the horror of darkness to see what
happened after the invasion of the Europeans.
Example # 2
The Turn of the Screw is a good example of a classic novella. It is, in fact, a ghost story that
challenges an easy interpretation. The story is about a governess living in a remote house,
taking care of two kids, who are horrified by former dead employees. However, no one knows
the truth. The story is filled with complexities such as its central issue is the reliability of the
narrator, who tells this story. This story can be said a self-conscious and subtle exploration of a
traditional horrible domestic theme about Victorian culture, drenched in social and sexual
unease.
Example # 3
Billy Bud is a novella that tells the story of a tragic incident happens at sea. This is an
adaptation from a true occurrence. The story is a parable relating good and evil, nautical
recasting of Fall, a reflection on political governance and justice, and finding reality of three
persons trapped in a dangerous triangle. Billy is an innocent and handsome, Claggart a cruel
tormentor, and third one is Captain Vere, who needs to judge the conflict going on between
them. The author has interpreted this narrative in Biblical terms, used Christian allegory, and
represented male homosexual desires and what mechanisms are to be chosen to prohibit this
desire.
Example # 4
Death in Venice is a wonderful classic novella. It is an amazingly condensed story about the
relationship between life and art and life and death. Venice sets background of this story. It is
based on a renowned German writer, who is following unusual routines, falling for a young lad,
and getting trapped in a slight downward twist of indulgence. The construction of this novella
follows the framework of Greek tragedy in which author has used unity of form, motives and
themes superbly.
Example # 5
This narrative concentrates on one man, Tommy Wilhelm, and just one day of his life. He is a
fading charmer, separated from his family, who starts reckoning and feels scared. Although he
is in his forties, he retains boyish impetuousness, which brings him to the brink of havoc. During
the course of a climatic day, Tommy reviews all his past mistakes. Some people consider it a
short story. However, if looked in depth, it shows a strong sense of unity.
Function of Novella
Novellas are the richest and most rewarding forms of literary genres, because this genre allows
an extended development of characters and themes than a short story does, without making
detailed structural demands of a complete book. Thus, a novella provides a detailed and intense
exploration of the topic, providing both the complete focus of a short story and a broad scope of
a novel. Since novellas have ideal short length, they are considered a perfect source for silver
screen and film adaptations.
Octave
Definition of Octave
Octave has been derived from the Latin word octāva, which means “eighth part.” It is a verse
form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter. In simple words, it
can be any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter.
Types of Octave
1. Canzonetta
Each stanza of this verse form follows rhyme scheme of a, b, a, b, c, d, c, D. or a, b, a,
b, c, b, c, B. the last line may repeat any meter.
2. Cavatina
It appears in quatrains with uneven couplets and ends with a declamatory rhyming
couplet. It follows alternating iambic pentameter and iambic dimeter lines. The rhyme
scheme is: xaxa xbxb xcxc, where x is unrhymed.
3. Ottava Rima
This form of octave contains 8 lines, which usually appear in iambic pentameter pattern.
Each stanza contains three alternate rhyming lines with one double rhyme. It follows
rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c.
4. Sicilian Octave
This verse form contains eight lines with 11 syllables, called hendecasyllable in Italian. It
follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.
5. Italian or Petrarchan Octave
Initially, it did not follow any set rhyming patter; however, later on it followed iambic
pentameter with rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a.
6. Hymnal and Common Octave
It follows rhyming pattern a-b-c-b-a-b-c-b. The first one uses iambic tetrameter and the
second one uses iambic trimeter.
7. Octave
Sometimes it is in the form of free or blank verse or unusual pattern. However, the most
common rhyming pattern for this verse form is a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a.
8. Huitain
Huitain consists of 8 or 10 syllables with each line having rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-b-c-
b-c or a-b-a-b-a-c-a-c
9. Sicilian Octave
It does not have a set form, but commonly follows rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.
10. Strambotto Tuscano
It follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c. Each line contains 11 syllables.
11. Strambotto Siciliano
It uses a rhyming pattern a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. There are 11 syllables in each line.
12. Strambotto Romagnuolo
It uses rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-c-c-d-d with 11 syllables in each line.
13. Unwreathed Octave
It also uses double rhymes with external rhyme as b-a-b-d-c-d-c and Internal rhyme a-b-
a-c-d-c-x. There is no set meter.
14. Wreathed Octave
It also has double rhymes with external rhyme as a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d and internal rhyme
follows the pattern of x-a-b-a-d-c-d-c.
This is an example of Petrarchan Octave, which follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a. It
is the first part of Petrarchan or Italian sonnet.
This stanza presents an example of Canzonetta, a verse form that uses rhyming pattern of a, b,
a, b, c, d, c, D.
Boccaccio has used this 8-line verse Sicilian Octave in his earlier poem Filiocola. This form
follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.
This is an example of octave, which is the first part of Italian sonnet that ends with a contrasting
sestet. It commonly uses a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter, 5 iambs in each line, which is
shown as underlined in the second last line.
Function of Octave
An octave serves as a musical interval or plays the role of a short distance between two musical
notes. In fact, it is a distance between two notes with similar letter names. In poetry, it
represents eight lines of a poem, often the first part of a sonnet, where it poses questions, while
the second part, sestet, answers them. To put it in simple words, an octave provides a dilemma
or a problem in the first part, which, sestet, as the second part resolves.
Ode
Definition of Ode
An ode is a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in
nature, but not very lengthy. You have often read odes in which poets praise people, natural
scenes, and abstract ideas. Ode is derived from a Greek word aeidein, which means to chant or
sing. It is highly solemn and serious in its tone and subject matter, and usually is used with
elaborate patterns of stanzas. However, the tone is often formal. A salient feature of ode is its
uniform metrical feet, but poets generally do not strictly follow this rule though use highly
elevated theme.
Types of Ode
Odes are of three types, including (1) Pindar ode, (2) Horatian ode, and (3) irregular ode.
Pindar Ode
This ode was named after an ancient Greek poet, Pindar, who began writing choral poems that
were meant to be sung at public events. It contains three triads; strophe, antistrophe, and final
stanza as epode, with irregular rhyme patterns and lengths of lines.
Horatian Ode
The name of this ode was taken from the Latin poet, Horace. Unlike heroic odes of Pindar,
Horatian ode is informal, meditative and intimate. These odes dwelled upon interesting subject
matters that were simple and were pleasing to the senses. Since Horatian odes are informal in
tone, they are devoid of any strict rules.
Irregular Ode
This type of ode is without any formal rhyme scheme, and structure such as the Pindaric ode.
Hence, the poet has great freedom and flexibility to try any types of concepts and moods.
William Wordsworth and John Keats were such poets who extensively wrote irregular odes,
taking advantage of this form.
This is a perfect example of an English Pindaric ode. Just observe the use of different types of
meters in each stanza, which have made it easier to read, and made flexible with simple rhyme
scheme of ababac.
This is an example of Horatian ode, which presents a consistent rhyme scheme. It has no
division into triads like Pindar ode, but is less ceremonious, less formal, more tranquil, and
better suited for reading. The purpose of using this type of ode is to give vent to pent-up
feelings.
Example #3: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley)
This presents an example of irregular ode, which employs neither three parts, nor four line
stanzas like a Horatian ode. Nevertheless, each stanza of ode is distinct from the other stanzas
in rhyme scheme, pattern and length.
Example #4: The Progress of Poesy: A Pindaric Ode (By Thomas Gray)
In the above mentioned ode, the speaker is addressing to poetry that is coming out among from
different places to find its echoes in the nature. This is a good example of a true ode.
This ode has a regular and tight structure. Except the final stanza, the first four lines in each
stanza follow rhyme scheme of ABAB and the next lines follow CDE or CED. This is one of the
most celebrated odes in English literature.
This is another good example of an ode. The speaker is talking about the spring season, and
praises its beauty, expressing lofty and noble sentiments about it.
Function of Ode
Ode is a form of lyrical poetry, in which poets use a certain metrical pattern and rhyme scheme
to express their noble and lofty sentiments in serious and sometimes satirical tone. Since the
themes of odes are inspiring and lofty, they have universal appeal. Also, by using sublime and
exceptional style, poets endeavor to compose grand and elevated types of odes. Sometimes
odes may be humorous, but they are always thoughtful, intended to explore important themes
and observations related to human relations, emotions and senses.
Omniscient
Definition of Omniscient
Omniscient is a literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which the narrator
knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. Through omniscient narrative,
the author brings an entire world of his characters to life, and moves from character to
character, allowing different voices to interpret the events, and maintaining omniscient form —
that is keeping a distance. Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by
demonstrating that only the narrator possesses information.
Types of Omniscient
• Omniscient Point of View – When a narrator has knowledge about all the characters in
a narrative, it is an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view.
• Limited Omniscient Point of View – In limited omniscient point of view, a narrator has
limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or minor characters.
The narrator in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel, The Scarlet Letter, is an omniscient one, who
scrutinizes the characters, and narrates the story in a way that shows the readers that he has
more knowledge about the characters than they have about themselves. Though the narrator is
an omniscient one, he is also a subjective narrator, meaning the readers form their own
opinions about the things that take place.
Example #2: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown)
Dan Brown, in his novel Da Vinci Code, uses omniscient narrative, and employs several
characters to speak in front of the audience, demonstrating what each character thinks and
sees. Also the narrator provides information about background and related knowledge that
characters are unaware of.
“Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large
eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain.
Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt … Elizabeth, or
Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with a shy
manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful expression, which was seldom disturbed … “
Example #4: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (By J.K. Rowling)
“Harry had taken up his place at wizard school, where he and his scar were famous … but now
the school year was over, and he was back with the Dursleys for the summer, back to being
treated like a dog that had rolled in something smelly … The Dursleys hadn’t even remembered
that today happened to be Harry’s twelfth birthday. Of course, his hopes hadn’t been high?”
Rowling employs omniscient limited narrator voice, in which readers see what Harry observes,
and know what he feels and thinks. They are, however, unable to follow what the Dursleys feel
or think about Harry.
Example #5: The Jilting of Granny Weatherall (By Katherine Anne Porter)
Another perfect example of omniscient limited voice is Katherine Anne Porter’s short story The
Jilting of Granny Weatherall. In this narrative, readers follow the main character very closely.
They know the feelings and thoughts of Granny Weatherall. Porter begins this novel by showing
Granny lying sick on the bed. Readers proceed through her perspective.
Function of Omniscient
The purpose of using omniscient technique is to allow the audience to know everything about
the characters. This is how they can gain an insight into characters’ minds, and create a bond
with them. Readers also see and observe the responses of multiple characters, which helps
them understand the plot of the narrative.
It also allows authors to make use of multiple voices in a story. By experiencing a narrative
through multiple voices, readers can look into the depths of the story. In addition, readers can
have an objective interpretation of the characters and events, in contrast to more personal or
subjective interpretations. Finally, an omniscient narrator allows for a better storytelling, as it
involves multiple characters, and several plot lines with different interpretations of the same
event. Thus, a story could be more interesting when the plot moves from character to character.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia Definition
For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description
than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a
“gushing stream,” which makes the expression more effective.
In addition to the sounds they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings
of their own. For example, the word “whisper” not only represents the wispy or breathy sound of
people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly.
The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will
recognize the following sounds easily:
• Meow
• Moo
• Neigh
• Tweet
• Oink
• Baa
Onomatopoeic words come in combinations, as they reflect different sounds of a single object.
For example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are: plop, splash, gush,
sprinkle, drizzle, and drip.
Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, and chatter denote different kinds of
human voice sounds.
Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as swish,
swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, and whisper.
Examples of Onomatopoeia in Literature
“Hark, hark!
Bow-wow.
The watch-dogs bark!
Bow-wow.
Hark, hark! I hear
The strain of strutting chanticleer
Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!'”
Example #3: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Ernest Hemingway)
“He saw nothing and heard nothing but he could feel his heart pounding and then he heard the
clack on stone and the leaping, dropping clicks of a small rock falling.”
Example #5: Get Me to the Church on Time (By Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe)
Onomatopoeia, in its more complicated use, takes the form of phanopoeia. Phanopoeia is a
form of onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things, rather than their natural sounds. D. H.
Lawrence, in his poem Snake, illustrates the use of this form:
The rhythm and length of the above lines, along with the use of “hissing” sounds, create a
picture of a snake in the minds of the readers.
Function of Onomatopoeia
Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps
readers to hear the sounds of the words they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter
the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words
lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readers’ senses, whether that effect
is understood or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same emphatic
effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words helps
create emphasis.
Ordinal Number
Definition of Ordinal Number
An ordinal number refers to a number that indicates the position or order of things or objects,
such as first, second, third, fourth, and so on.
Ordinal numbers do not indicate quantity as cardinal numbers do. Ordinal numbers attribute to a
position or place of an object’s standing. They are written as first, second, third, or in numerals,
as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, etc. Normally, they are indicated by “th,” or sometimes by “nd” or “st.” For
instance, many writers title their books in ordinal numbers, such as Henry the Fourth, by Stuart
J. Murphy, and Second Watch, by J.A. Jance.
A critic, Leslie Hotson asserts that Twelfth Night was specifically performed in the honor of
Queen Elizabeth and some of her guests on January 6, 1601. However, many scholars
disagree and claim that Shakespeare wrote his play Twelfth Night later. Despite disagreement,
many agree with Hotson’s argument that the play celebrates Twelfth Night festivities. Twelfth
Night is, in fact, a religious holiday that marks the end of an event of major revelry and
celebration. During Twelfth Night season people drank, ate, and danced themselves.
This paragraph illustrates the use of ordinal numbers. It has been used in different shades of
meanings five times.
“Jamie was mesmerized by the men, women and children who thronged the streets. He saw a
kaffir clad in an old pair of 78th Highland trews and wearing as a coat a sack with slits cut for the
arms and head. The karfir walked behind two Chinese men, hand in hand, who were wearing
blue smock frocks, their pigtails carefully coiled up under their conical straw hats…”
In this passage, see the underlined ordinal number “78th.” This is number of a character’s
dressing, Highland trews, probably showing its size.
In this example, the speaker reports a morning when he sees three figures, mentioning them by
using ordinal numbers. Seeing them the third time, the first figure is a beautiful woman named
“love” and the second one named as “ambition.”
“1st, The man-mountain shall not depart from our dominions, without our license under our great
seal.
“2d, He shall not presume to come into our metropolis, without our express order; at which time,
the inhabitants shall have two hours warning to keep within doors.
“4th, As he walks the said roads, he shall take the utmost care not to trample upon the bodies of
any of our loving subjects, their horses, or carriages, nor take any of our subjects into his hands
without their own consent …
“8th, That the said man-mountain shall, in two moons’ time, deliver in an exact survey of the
circumference of our dominions, by a computation of his own paces round the coast.
This passage has used ordinal numbers in a very beautiful way. The author has used these
numbers in words starting from 1st up to the 8th number, showing the order and list of rules that
Gulliver agrees to follow with Lilliputians.
Overstatement
Definition of Overstatement
Overstatement is an act of stating something more profoundly than it actually is, in order to
make the point more serious or important or beautiful. In literature, writers use overstatement as
a literary technique for the sake of humor, and for laying emphasis on a certain point. For
instance, when in his poem I wandered lonely as a cloud, Wordsworth reports daffodils as,
“stretched in never-ending line.” In fact, he is not saying this statement literally; rather he is
merely using overstatement to add emphasis on the long line of daffodils.
In Mark Twain’s short story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, there are
several instances of overstatement. For instance, when Simon Wheeler narrates his stories
concerning Jim Smiley, Wheeler makes claim that Jim was a gambler and he probably would,
“… foller that straddle-bug to Mexico but what he would find out where he was bound for and
how long he was on the road.” It further talks about a bull pup of Jim Smiley and Andrew
Jackson:
“… his underjaw’d begin to stick out like the fo’castle of a steamboat, and his teeth would
uncover, and shine savage like the furnaces.”
“It is, indeed, amazing to contemplate so vast a vacuity. One thinks of the interstellar spaces, of
the colossal reaches of the now mythical ether. Nearly the whole of Europe could be lost in that
stupendous region of fat farms, shoddy cities and paralyzed cerebrums: one could throw in
France, Germany and Italy, and still have room for the British Isles. And yet, for all its size and
all its wealth and all the ‘progress’ it babbles of, it is almost as sterile, artistically, intellectually,
culturally, as the Sahara Desert.”
Mencken presents evidence to show his disdain against the southern region of U.S. He berates
it for its paucity of cultural, and artistic and intellectual attainment, and therefore calls it the
“Sahara Desert,” which is culturally dead.
“A man can have a belly you could house commercial aircraft in and a grand total of eight
greasy strands of hair, which he grows real long and combs across the top of his head so that
he looks, when viewed from above, like an egg in the grasp of a giant spider, plus this man can
have B.O. to the point where he interferes with radio transmissions, and he will still be
convinced that, in terms of attractiveness, he is borderline Don Johnsons.”
In this instance, the author is making an overstatement by a silly comparison between a man’s
belly and various other things.
Flannery O’Connor, in one of his short stories, Parker’s Back, uses overstatement by writing:
“And the skin on her face was thin and drawn tight like the skin on an onion and her eyes were
gray and sharp like the points of two ice picks.”
In this example, the poet exaggerates the beauty of his beloved, and says if he had enough
time, he would keep on complimenting all of her body parts, even for a bazillion years, which is
quite impossible.
Function of Overstatement
Writers use this literary technique intentionally to create certain effect. Mostly, it helps to lay
emphasis on some point. In prose, its purpose is to create humor and emphasis. When writers
want to emphasize a point, they overstate it or exaggerate it. While in poetry, its purpose is to
make comparisons and create images. Poets also use it for emphasizing a contrast between
two things, by stating one idea as normal and another with overstatement.
Oxymoron
Definition of Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The
common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with
contrasting meanings, such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”.
However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas
may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, “In order to lead, you must walk behind.”
1. Open secret
2. Tragic comedy
3. Seriously funny
4. Awfully pretty
5. Foolish wisdom
6. Original copies
7. Liquid gas
The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in
your everyday speech.
We notice a series of oxymora being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an
inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced, to highlight his mental conflict by
the use of contradictory pairs of words, such as “hating love,” “heavy lightness,” “bright smoke,”
“cold fire,” and “sick health”.
We clearly notice the use of oxymoron in the phrases “shackles… straiten’d,” “honour…
dishonor,” “faith unfaithful,” and “falsely true”.
The contradicting ideas of “war … peace,” “burn … freeze,” and “flee above … not rise” produce
a dramatic effect in the above-mentioned lines.
The above lines provide fine evidence of Pope’s witticism. The oxymora “bookful blockhead”
and “ignorantly read” describe a person who reads a lot, but does not understand what he
reads, and does not employ his reading to improve his character.
In the above lines taken from “Hamlet,” Shakespeare draws two contradictory ideas: “be
cruel … to be kind”. The contradiction is understood in the context of the play. Hamlet wants to
kill Claudius, the murderer of his father, who has married his mother. Hamlet does not want his
mother to be the beloved of his father’s murderer. Therefore, he is of the view that this murder
will purge her.
Example #6: Romeo and Juliet , Act I, Scene II (By William Shakespeare)
This extract makes use of some good oxymora, such as “damned saint,” and “honorable villain,”
etc.
Function of Oxymoron
Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose and poetry. For instance, when we read or
hear the famous oxymoron, “sweet sorrow,” crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It
provokes our thoughts, and makes us ponder the meaning of contradicting ideas. This
apparently confusing phrase expresses the complex nature of love, that can never be
expressed through simple words.
In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make deep statements like
the one above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.
Pacing
Definition of Pacing
Pacing is a stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds. It is because when readers
feel frustration in the length of the story, the writers use different techniques to control the pace
of the story. If he writes a short story, he does not have to tell his tale through many pages,
therefore, he cuts away extra words.
However, when it is a long story or a novel, the pace is controlled through mix up, which means
to use short sentences and active verbs in intense action scenes, and use descriptions with
details for slower-paced scenes. Writers use this pace by choosing the exact words. In simple
words, pacing is moving a story forward with a certain speed.
Elements of Pacing
• Action – An action scene dramatizes the significant events of the story and shows what
happens in a story.
• Cliffhanger – When the end of a chapter or scene is left hanging, naturally the pace
picks up, because readers would turn the pages to see what happens next.
• Dialogue – A rapid fire dialogue with lesser or irrelevant information is captivating, swift
and invigorates scenes.
• Word Choice – The language itself is a means of pacing, like using concrete words,
active voice, and sensory information.
The most exciting stories use sequences that move forward at different paces, which keep the
audience engaged. In his novel, The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown has accomplished this task by
juxtaposing various chapters, featuring dialogues, which convey information about relics, and
characters with very fast-paced action sequences. Though the book moves quickly, the
chapters move with a leisurely-paced sequence that helps keep the tension in the story high.
This all contributes to a well-paced story, without letting the readers feel bored.
In his short story, The Most Dangerous Game, Richard Connell creates exciting and tense
feelings of anticipation and uncertainty throughout the story. Suspense is the key that makes the
story powerful and keeps it fast paced, but the story does not feel rushed. We also do not find a
good stopping point anywhere. In fact, every event of the plot is marked by a great moment of
suspense. For instance, when Whitney starts the narrative by saying, “Off there to the right –
somewhere – is a large island. It’s rather a mystery.” This gives a hint to the readers that the
island is very important, and thereafter the story jumps into resolving the mystery.
There are various subplots in Jane Austen’s novel, Pride and Prejudice, which keep the story of
the novel moving. These subplots include the romance between Bingley and Jane, the marriage
of Collins and Charlotte, the seduction leading to marriage between Lydia and Wickham, and a
major conflict between Wickham and Darcy. Jane Austen also has used letters as a literary
device to change the pace of her story through emotional communication.
The most incredible thing about writing is his control over pacing and timing. To capture the
superior mentality of Mme. Loisel in his famous story The Necklace, he vividly immerses
readers into the reality. Maupassant uses his word choice and pacing to control readers’
experience. Then there is a ball invitation, and a necklace ball sequence, where she loses her
necklace – a sequence of looking for it, not finding it, and finally buying a brand new one. Then
there are ten years of hard living and poverty, which M. Loisel and Mme must confront. In fact,
there is a lot to cover in just five or six pages; despite that, the story does not feel rushed or
slow.
Function of Pacing
Pacing is not only the speed at which a story moves, but also a technique, which determines the
appeal of the story for the audience. It is because a slow-paced work appeals to older
audiences, while a fast-paced work appeals to younger audiences. It is not only fiction writers
who use this technique, but poets also employ punctuation and formatting to set pace of their
poems. Even they use meter and rhyme to affect the pace. Besides, nonfiction writers use it to
keep their work fast-paced to avoid dullness, and slow-paced to give more attention to details.
Palindrome
Definition of Palindrome
The term palindrome is derived from two Greek words, palin, which means “again,” and dromos,
which means “way,” or “direction.” It is defined as a number, a word, a sentence, a symbol, or
even signs that can be read forward as well as backward, or in reverse order with the same
effects and meanings.
In English, Ben Jonson was the first writer to introduce this term in the middle of the 17th
century. There are two types of palindrome: word-unit palindrome, and one-line palindrome.
Some words, such as civic, radar, level, rotor, and noon are word-unit palindromes, while the
sentence, “Was it a car or a cat I saw?” is an example of one-line palindrome.
Categories of Palindrome
Palindromes are of many Categories, depending upon the requirements of the subject. The
most commonly used Categories of palindrome are given here:
• Character by Character
• Name Palindrome
• Word Palindrome
• Number Palindrome
• Line-unit Palindrome
• Word-unit Palindrome
There are many examples of Palindrome in prose, poetry, and criticism. Let us take a look at
some examples:
“T. Eliot, top bard, notes putrid tang emanating, is sad. I’d assign it a name: gnat dirt upset on
drab pot-toilet.”
Palindrome can be seen in this sentence where the same names are given to T. Eliot in the
beginning, “putrid tang,” and also at the end of the sentence “gnat dirt upset on drab pot-toilet.”
Palindrome is used as the author says that Norma and he both are unselfish.
The above poem gives the perfect example of a palindrome, as it reads in the same manner
from the first to the last line, as it does from the last line to the first line.
“Open floodgates,
once restrained tightly,
suddenly form rippled waters,
expressive thoughts flowing freely,
by frightful heart attending faithfully
INSPIRATION
faithfully attending heart frightful by
freely flowing expressive thoughts,
waters rippled form suddenly,
tightly restrained once,
floodgates open.”
This type of poetry is also called “mirrored poetry,” where palindrome sentences are used, each
of which read backward as well as forward – not by the letter, but by the word.
Function of Palindrome
The purpose of using palindromes in writing, words, numbers, and sentences is to create light
entertainment and fun. However, some supporters have taken great initiatives in finding long
palindromes that cover many sentences and in poetry. In ancient times palindromes appeared
in magic spells, and many have taken this reversibility as a convention.
Palindromes can be traced in classical and modern music poetry for rhythmical effect, in
acoustics, and in dates as well. Even several religious texts are full of palindromes. It is not just
a chance that, biologically, our genes are also palindromes – that their order is the same,
forward and backward. A further interesting point is that numbers also fall in order to create
palindromes, such as 88, 99, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, and 171 which can be read
backward and forward in the same way.
Parable
Definition of Parable
Parable is a figure of speech, which presents a short story, typically with a moral lesson at the
end. You often have heard stories from your elders, such as The Boy Who Cried Wolf, and All is
Vanity. These are parables, because they teach you a certain moral lesson. Parable is, in fact, a
Greek word, parable, which means “comparison.” It is like a succinct narrative, or a universal
truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to
be taught. Like analogy, we find the use of parables in verse and prose, specifically in religious
texts, such as the Upanishad or the Bible.
This shows that God has control over all things and time. The traveler’s donkey, on the other
hand, was dead and had become a skeleton. Then, God joined the bones, muscles, flesh, and
blood of the donkey again before the man, and brought it back to life. Hence, this parable taught
us a moral lesson in three ways:
Jesus told a very popular parable of a Good Samaritan in the holy Bible. The Gospel of Luke
(10:29-37) describes that there was a traveler (who may have been a Jew), whom some people
had robbed and beaten alongside the road, then left him. A Levite and a priest passed through
that way, but both ignored the man.
Eventually, a Samaritan came by and helped the injured and miserable man, without thinking
about his race or religious belief (generally, Samaritans despised Jews). Later, the traveler
revealed himself to be the Christ. The moral of this parable is to help all those who are in need,
without having prejudice for anyone due to perceived differences.
Example #3: The Emperor’s New Clothes (By Hans Christian Anderson)
Hans Christian Anderson wrote a short parable, “The Emperor’s New Clothes. The author tells
about the life of a silly and vain emperor, whom two cheaters approached, pretending to be
artists. They suggested that he wear their clothes, which they said would make him invisible in
front of incompetent and stupid people. The emperor agreed, and paid them to make such
clothes, as he enjoyed wearing fancy dress.
In fact, they did not make any fancy suit; however, people started admiring them, so that they
might not be considered useless and stupid. Therefore, the emperor took off his clothes and
wore the invisible dress, which actually left him prancing around town naked. Nobody told him
the truth except a young boy who screamed to see him. Thus, the moral of this parable is that
people should have their own opinions, and they need not depend upon others’ opinions.
Example #4: The Prodigal Son (From The Holy Bible, Book of Luke)
In the book of Luke (15:11-32), Jesus teaches about the love of God for humanity. In this
parable, a rich father divides his estate – while he was still living – between his two sons. His
younger son does not want to wait until his father’s death for his inheritance, and asks for it
immediately. That son wastes the whole of his newfound wealth, and becomes miserable.
Realizing he will need his father’s help to survive, he returns home to beg to become one of his
father’s hired servants. Rather than being angry, the father welcomes his wayward son,
celebrating his return.
The elder son, who had remained with his father the entire time, not wasting his inheritance,
was perplexed by this, and refused to take part in the celebration. He said to his father:
“Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment:
and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends…”
“Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine.
It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive
again; and was lost, and is found.”
When father dies, he leaves his remaining inheritance for the elder son. The tale conveys the
symbolic message that God is like a fatherly figure, who loves humanity despite its rebellious
nature, and those who follow His path, are welcomed by Him, even if they have strayed.
Function of Parable
Parable is a great teaching tool, because it often uses symbolic imagery and metaphors that the
audience can easily recognize. Thus, the storyteller can convey complicated moral truths in
such a way that they become relatable and understandable to one’s own life. Sometimes
listeners have to discern the lesson that a parable conveys, and the audience also participates
in arriving at the conclusion in this way. Generally, parables help readers understand
philosophical issues or moral lessons in relatable terms, while tellers could lead them in a better
way to apply such principles in their daily lives.
Paradox
Paradox Definition
The term paradox is from the Greek word paradoxon, which means “contrary to expectations,
existing belief, or perceived opinion.”
It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent
truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A
paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
Examples of Paradox
In literature, paradox is not just a clever or comical statement or use of words. Paradox has
serious implications because it makes statements that often summarize the major themes of the
work they are used in. Let us analyze some paradox examples from some famous literary
works:
In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is this statement:
“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.”
This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it becomes
clear that Orwell points out a political truth. The government in the novel claims that everyone is
equal, but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality stated in this
paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality.
This announcement does not seem to make sense. How can an individual treat others kindly
even when he is cruel? However, Hamlet is talking about his mother, and how he intends to kill
Claudius to avenge his father’s death.
This act of Hamlet will be a tragedy for his mother, who is married to Claudius. Hamlet does not
want his mother to be the beloved of his father’s murderer any longer, and so he thinks that the
murder will be good for his mother.
The contradictory ideas of the earth being the birthplace and a graveyard make these lines
paradoxical.
In his short lyric My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold, William Wordsworth remembers the joys of
his past and says:
“The child is father of the man…”
This statement has a seemingly incorrect supposition, but when we look deep into its meaning,
we see the truth. The poet is saying that the childhood experiences become the basis for all
adult occurrences. The childhood of a person shapes his life, and consequently “fathers” or
creates the grown-up adult. So, “The child is father of the man.”
Function of Paradox
The above reading may bring out the question, “Why is paradox used when a message can be
conveyed in a straightforward and simple manner?” The answer lies in the nature and purpose
of literature. One function of literature is to make the readers enjoy reading. Readers enjoy more
when they extract the hidden meanings out of the writing rather than something presented to
them in an uncomplicated manner. Thus, the chief purpose of a paradox is to give pleasure.
In poetry, the use of paradox is not confined to mere wit and pleasure; rather, it becomes an
integral part of poetic diction. Poets usually make use of paradox to create a remarkable thought
or image out of words.
Some types of paradox in poetry are meant to communicate a tone of irony to its readers as well
as lead their thoughts to the immediate subject. Paradox in most poems normally strives to
create feelings of intrigue and interest in readers’ minds, to make them think deeper and harder
to enjoy the real message of the poem.
Paralipsis
Definition of Paralipsis
Paralipsis is from the Greek word paraleipein, which means “to omit,” or “to leave something on
one side.” It is defined as a rhetorical device in which an idea is deliberately suggested through
a brief treatment of a subject, while most of the significant points are omitted. It is explained
through the use of this device that some points are too obvious to mention. Also, paralipsis is a
way of emphasizing a subject by apparently passing over it.
“I’m not saying I’m responsible for this country’s longest run of uninterrupted peace in 35 years!
I’m not saying that from the ashes of captivity, never has a Phoenix metaphor been more
personified! I’m not saying Uncle Sam can kick back on a lawn chair, sipping on an iced tea,
because I haven’t come across any one man enough to go toe to toe with me on my best day!”
Features of Paralipsis
Paralipsis is a literary device in which a speaker pretends to hide what he exactly wants to say
and enforce. It is a type of irony in which an outline of a message is conveyed in a manner that
seems to suppress the exact message. Paraliptic strike-through is a form of paralipsis. It is a
standard rhetorical device in journalism and print media.
In the example above, paralipsis is used wonderfully. Though all the important points are
mentioned clearly, Chaucer seems to pretend in the final line that he has not given any
significance to these points.
“Therefore, let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees … of using
neither clothes, nor house hold furniture … of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity,
idleness, and gaming, of learning to love our country…”
This excerpt is a good example of paralipsis, as Swift briefly suggests the idea of expedients,
while trying to show that this idea is not of much significance and should be passed over.
Example #3: Blue Shoes and Happiness (By Alexander McCall Smith)
“Ssh,” said Grace Makutsi, putting a finger to her lips. “It’s not polite to talk about it. SO I won’t
mention the Double Comfort Furniture Shop, which is one of the businesses my fiance owns,
you know. I must not talk about that. But do you know the store, Mma? If you save up, you
should come in some day and buy a chair …”
Here, the orator emphasizes the point by passing over it, saying, “I must not talk about that.”
The nullifying statement is mentioning the furniture shop. The paraliptic line is in bold.
Function of Paralipsis
Parallel Structure
Definition of Parallel Structure
Parallel structure is a stylistic device, and a grammatical construction having two or more
clauses, phrases or words, with similar grammatical form and length. It is similar to
parallelism. In parallel structure, sentences have a series of phrases or clauses, which start and
end in almost a similar fashion, by keeping the rhythm of the lines. These structures are
repetitions that offer an enjoyable time for the readers to absorb and understand ideas, facts,
and concepts.
“I had been short, and now I was tall. I had been skinny and quiet and religious, and now I was
good-looking and muscular. It was Sally Baldwin who brought me along, told me what to wear
and do and think and say. She was never wrong; she never lost her patience. She created me,
and when she was done we broke up in a formal sense, but she kept calling me.”
You can see how perfectly the author has repeated and emphasized the first two lines in the
above paragraph. The author has combined several elements, but given them a balance by
parallel clauses.
“The wheels wheeled, the chairs spun, the cotton candy tinted the faces of children, the bright
leaves tinted the woods and hills. A cluster of amplifiers spread the theme of love over
everything and everybody; the mild breeze spread the dust over everything and everybody.
Next morning, in the Lafayette Hotel in Portland, I went down to breakfast and found May Craig
looking solemn at one of the tables and Mr. Murray, the auctioneer, looking cheerful at another.”
The above paragraph shows parallel structures. They not only give a balance, but also a grace
to the passage by enhancing its readability.
“Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and
discourse; but to weigh and consider.”
In these lines, the parallel structures use repetition to lay emphasis, and help the readers to
memorize the sentences easily.
“A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with
broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man who had been soaked in water,
and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by
briars… and glared and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the
chin.”
This excerpt presents a perfect example of parallel structure, describing a convict who becomes
Magwitch. Notice that the first three sentences, which start in a similar way, while the next
phrases follow another, similar structure.
“Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not because it has been sober, responsible,
and cautious, but because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature.”
This is another excellent example of parallel structure. These structures give rhythm to
sentences and leaving them grammatically balanced.
We real cool. We
Left school. We
Lurk late. We
Strike straight. We
Sing sin. We
Thin gin. We
Jazz June. We
Die soon.
The parallel structures in this short poem give it a little waltz and jingle feel. Each parallel
sentence follows a basic pattern, starting with pronouns and ending with nouns and adverbs,
except the first line, which ends with an adjective.
Parallel structure creates fluency in writing and enhances readability, as it uses patterns of
words in a way that readers can easily follow, and relate them to each other. It makes language
appear refined, especially in writing and advertising. It also lends consistency to professional
writing, as it provides rhythm and balance that lead the readers to the exact idea, without any
misguidance. In addition, parallel structures synchronize, repeat and emphasize the words and
thoughts of the writers.
Parallelism
Definition of Parallelism
Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar
in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works
as well as in ordinary conversations.
This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus
persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. For example, “Alice ran into the room, into
the garden, and into our hearts.” We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the
sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similarly
structured clauses, such as, “Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for
you.”
In literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers certain messages
or moral lessons. Let us analyze a few examples of parallelism in literature:
Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel
structures. Alexander Pope, in his An Essay on Criticism, uses antithetic parallel structure:
Imperfection is a human trait, and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel
structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring.
Contrasting ideas of “good” and “ill,” “love” and “hate,” are placed together in parallel structures
to emphasize the fact that we love good because it is always good, and we hate bad because it
is always bad.
We see the repetition of parallel structures in the following lines from A Tale of Two Cities by
Charles Dickens:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
By repeating “It was…” in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the
“age” they will read about in the succeeding passages.
Blake uses parallel structures, starting with “what” in each phrase, creating a beautiful rhythm in
the above lines.
Parallelism takes form of “Diazeugma,” in which a single subject is connected with multiple
verbs. Read the following lines from the speech of Norfolk in William Shakespeare’s Henry VIII,
Act 3, Scene 2:
The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk,
which makes his description vivid.
Example #6: I have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King Jr.)
“I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed:
‘We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.’
“I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
This is a speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. in which he repeats the phrase, “I have a dream”
several times. This phrase later became the title of the speech. This is a good example of
parallelism.
These two verses from the poem of Elizabeth Barrett Browning have been made parallel by the
repetition of “I love thee.”
In this speech, U.S. President Barack Obama uses structural parallelism in the bold phrases,
giving his speech beauty.
Function of Parallelism
The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a
consistency within their work, and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be
employed as a tool for persuasion.
Paraphrase
Definition of Paraphrase
Often when we hear news stories and watch television shows, we want to tell our families,
friends, and colleagues about what, how, and why something happened. In fact, we recount the
story, its main characters, and events in our own words. This technique is called paraphrasing,
which is to express an idea or somebody’s message in our own words, by maintaining the
meaning of the original material. Paraphrase is a Greek word, paraphrasis, which means “to tell
in other words.” Simply, it is to restate a statement in different words than the original text, while
keeping the meaning and sense of the original source the same.
Both summarizing and paraphrasing use similar actions by involving almost the same
processes. However, their objectives are different. Summary aims at condensing the original
source into a shorter form. Paraphrase has no concern with length, but is a rewording or
restating or the original source in different words, keeping the length or word count almost the
same.
Paraphrase: But please wait and see the light from that window. It is the east, and my love
Juliet is the sun. Come up beautiful sun, kill the jealous moon that is already sick and pale due
to grief, as Juliet is more beautiful than the moon … The brightness of Juliet’s cheeks would
surpass the brightness of stars, like the sun’s light outshines the light of a lamp. If her eyes were
in the sky, they would be so bright through the spaces that birds might start singing, considering
it was day light.
Paraphrase: You nosy old stupid busybody! The sun, you obey no normal rules – why are you
waking us up like this, interfering with our personal life by entering through the windows and
curtains? … Go ahead and shine on us – while doing so you will shine everywhere. This bed is
the center of the entire universe, around which you revolve, and the walls of our room are like a
sphere, which holds you in the heavens.
“It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must
be in want of a wife.”
Paraphrase: Everyone agrees on this point, that a prosperous man needs to have a wife.
Paraphrase: Where is this knocking coming from? Why does every noise frighten me? Whose
hands are these plucking out my eyes? Will the ocean’s water wash the blood from my hands?
No, instead these hands will change the color of the water from green to red.
Function of Paraphrase
The paraphrasing technique allows writers to change the original text, so that it does not look
the same, yet without changing its meaning. Effective paraphrasing could help avoid the risk of
plagiarism. There are many functions of this literary technique; first, it helps the readers to
understand what they have read, especially when the syntax and diction of a writer look foreign
and complex to the reader. Secondly, it could direct the attention of the reader toward the tone
of the text and its significant details. Finally, since it clears up the meaning of the text, it helps
readers to generate different questions from the paraphrasing text, such as when, what, and
why something occurred.
Paraprosdokian
Definition of Paraprosdokian
This unexpected ending to a phrase or sentence causes readers to reinterpret the opening
phrase or sentence of a text. Often, it is used to create comic effect. Some paraprosdokians
change the meaning of an initial phrase, and play on double meanings of the words; hence, it
creates syllepsis.
There are many one-liner paraprosdokian examples from famous people. Such as:
• Dorothy Parker: “If all the girls who attended the Yale prom were laid end to end, I
wouldn’t be a bit surprised.”
• Winston Churchill: “You can always count on the Americans to do the right thing—after
they have tried everything else“
• Albert Einstein: “The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its
limits.
• Mario Andretti: “If everything seems under control, you’re just not going fast enough.“
• Zsa zsa Gabore: “He taught me housekeeping; when I divorce I keep the house.”
“Contemporary man, of course, has no such peace of mind. He finds himself in the midst of a
crisis of faith. He is what we fashionably call ‘alienated.’ He has seen the ravages of war, he has
known natural catastrophes, he has been to singles bars.”
Here, Allen discusses the serious topic of the meaning of human life. The “singles bars” topic is
not as significant as the preceding topics, making it an unexpected ending.
Example #2: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (By Douglas Adams)
“Trin Tragula – for that was his name – was a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher or,
as his wife would have it, an idiot…”
In these lines, the author enumerates the great traits (“a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative
philosopher”) of a character named Trin Tragula. However, he ends his litany of the character’s
good traits by mentioning how Trin Tragula’s wife perceives him (“as his wife would have it, an
idiot”). This ending is a surprise to the readers, and creates comic effect.
In this excerpt, the poet is talking about religion throughout the first four lines. However, in the
last line there is a sudden shift of sense. “Will shine through the veil with sweet lustre” gives a
completely different meaning from the rest of text.
Shelter is one of the examples of paraprosdokian in poetry form. In the first two stanzas,
readers are led to believe that the subject is a beautiful woman (“A young fair thing, with a
shy, soft eye;…/ Whither now will retreat those fairy feet?”). However, with the revelation in the
last line – that the subject is a “water-rat” – the poet makes them stop and want to reread the
poem.
Function of Paraprosdokian
The unexpected ending is used to create humorous and comic effects. It causes the readers to
reinterpret or rethink the opening part of a phrase, sentence, stanza, or paragraph. Sometimes it
is used to provide dramatic effect, while at other times, it produces an anti-climax, which it is a
very popular use among satirists and comedians. Paraprosdokian is employed in poetry, prose,
and films, as well as in music.
Parataxis
Definition of Parataxis
Parataxis is derived from a Greek word that means “to place side by side.” It can be defined as
a rhetorical term in which phrases and clauses are placed one after another independently,
without coordinating or subordinating them through the use of conjunctions. It is also called
“additive style.” Parataxis is sometimes used as asyndeton, in which the phrases and clauses
are coordinated without conjunctions.
Hypotaxis is the opposite of parataxis. In hypotaxis, the sentences, clauses, and phrases are
subordinated and linked. However, in parataxis the phrases, clauses, and sentences are not
subordinated or coordinated.
This is among the most famous examples of parataxis. There are no conjunctions or joining
words used. The phrases are used equally, which means the phrases are placed with equal
status.
“Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better–splashed to their very blinkers. Foot
passengers, jostling one another’s umbrellas, in a general infection of ill-temper, and losing their
foothold at street corners…”
This is also among the famous parataxis examples in literature. Here, the clauses are
connected loosely, and create a lopping discourse. For example, at some places conjunctions
are used lightly, such as “to” and “and.”
“Twenty-two years old, weak, hot, frightened, not daring to acknowledge the fact that he didn’t
know who or what he was … with no past, no language, no tribe, no source, no address book,
no comb, no pencil, no clock, no pocket handkerchief, no rug, no bed, no can opener, no faded
postcard, no soap, no key, no tobacco pouch, no soiled underwear and nothing nothing nothing
to do … he was sure of one thing only: the unchecked monstrosity of his hands…”
In this extract, a grammatically-equal relationship is created between the phrases and clauses.
Also, there are no coordinating or subordinating conjunctions between the clauses and phrases.
“out … ‘into this world … ‘this world … ‘tiny little thing … ‘before its time … ‘in a god for– …
‘what? … ‘girl? … ‘yes … ‘tiny little girl … ‘into this … ‘out into this … ‘before her time …
‘godforsaken hole called … ‘called … ‘no matter … ‘parents unknown … ‘unheard of … ‘he
having vanished … ‘thin air … ‘no sooner buttoned up his breeches … ‘she similarly … ‘eight
months later … ‘almost to the tick … ‘so no love … ‘spared that … ‘no love such as normally
vented on the … ‘speechless infant … ‘in the home … ‘no … ‘nor indeed for that matter any of
any kind … ‘no love of any kind … ‘at any subsequent stage … “
Beckett has not used formal constraints (conjunctions). The clauses are juxtaposed without any
clear connection, explaining one another like a single idea, in spite of mixing longer and shorter
sentences.
Function of Parataxis
Paratactic sentences, clauses, and phrases are useful in explaining a rapid sequence of
thoughts in poetry and prose. They could evoke feelings in a similar way as though they
happened at once. It is a helpful device when describing a setting. In simple words, parataxis
helps the readers to focus on a particular idea, thought, setting, or emotion. Also, cultural
theorists use it in cultural texts where a series of events is shown side by side.
Parenthesis
Definition of Parenthesis
Parenthesis is a stylistic device that comes from the Greek word meaning “to place,” or
“alongside.” Parenthesis is a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause, or word that writers
insert into a paragraph or passage. However, if they leave it out, even then it does not
grammatically affect the text, which is correct without it.
Writers mark these explanatory clauses off by round or square brackets, or by commas, dashes,
or little lines. As far as its purpose is concerned, this verbal unit provides extra information,
interrupts the syntactic flow of words, and allows readers to pay attention to the explanation.
However, the overuse of parenthesis may make sentences look ambiguous and poorly
structured.
Example #2: The Elements of Style (By William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White)
“It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader must be pure: you must
sympathize with the reader’s plight (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never
seek to know the reader’s wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and satisfy yourself…”
The style guidebook provides parenthetical information several times. Here, you can see how
the authors have explained the reader’s plight by giving descriptive sentence in brackets,
showing how readers are in trouble.
“A little gravel alley, too small to be marked with a street sign but known in the neighborhood as
Shilling Alley, wound hazardously around our property and on down, past an untidy sequence of
back buildings (chicken houses, barns out of plumb, a gun shop, a small lumber mill, a shack
where a blind man lived, and the enchanted grotto of a garage whose cement floors had been
waxed to the luster of ebony by oil drippings … silver water so cold it made your front teeth
throb) on down to Lancaster Avenue, the main street, where the trolley cars ran.”
Look, the author has employed a detailed descriptive parenthesis in this passage. He explains
in detail a sequence of untidy back buildings, and why they give such a miserable look.
“[I]n Calormen, story-telling (whether the stories are true or made up) is a thing you’re taught,
just as English boys and girls are taught essay-writing. The difference is that people want to
hear the stories, whereas I never heard of anyone who wanted to read the essays.”
Here, Lewis uses round brackets to describe the story, specifying whether they are true or made
up. He means to say that people like to listen to a story, which are not taught as are essays.
Hence, essays seem boring.
Example #5: Lights Out for the Territory (By Iain Sinclair)
” ‘Black dog’ is the mood of bottomless, suicidal despair suffered, most notoriously, by Winston
Churchill (himself a kind of bulldog in nappies, a logo for Empire; growling and dribbling,
wheezing smoke, swollen veins fired with brandy).”
In this essay, Sinclair gives the readers a unique, enlightened, provocative, disturbing, and
utterly daring picture of modern city life in London, and of its people. In the process, he reveals
a dark underbelly of London, as you can see his provocative understatement and parenthetical
information about Winston Churchill.
Function of Parenthesis
Parenthesis makes the statements more convincing, as it puts the readers in a right form from
the very beginning where they read it as an explanation. However, its main function is to give
more explanation and add emphasis, while its repeated use can cause focus and thus makes
parenthetical insertions a dominant feature of a sentence.
Parenthesis also offers readers an insight into true feelings and opinions of characters and
narrators, while they might tend to evade parenthetical information as unimportant. Doing this,
parenthesis could leave them clueless to the actual purpose of a sentence. In addition, it often
creates humorous effect by using hyperbole and understatements.
Parody
Parody Definition
We, in our daily lives, can employ the above technique to spoof somebody for the sake of fun.
For example, there is an Indian student in your classroom, and one day, in a gathering of a few
friends, you say,
Parody examples are often confused as examples of satire. Although parody can be used to
develop satire, it differs from satire to a certain extent. Parody mimics a subject directly, to
produce a comical effect. Satire, on the other hand, makes fun of a subject without a direct
imitation. Moreover, satire aims at correcting shortcomings in society by criticizing them.
In our daily watching of television, we may see extremely hilarious examples of parody in shows
that blend parody and satire. Examples like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry
Sanders Show are renowned for mimicking famous political personalities, and this allows them
to target what they think are unintelligent political and social viewpoints.
Parody has entered our day-to-day life through hilarious parody movies that mimic famous
blockbusters. For instance, the movie Vampire Sucks parodies and pokes fun at the blockbuster
Twilight series, which was a film adaptation of Stephanie Meyer’s novel Twilight.
Unlike a love-poem goddess, his mistress does not have eyes like the sun, she does not have
red lips, nor does she have a white complexion. Her cheeks do not have a rosy color, and her
hair is not silky smooth. All the cliché qualities are missing in his mistress. Such a description
allows Shakespeare to poke fun at the love poets who looked for such impossible qualities in
their beloved.
Don Quixote, written by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romances written in his day. The
main character, Quixote, and his overweight sidekick Sancho, delude themselves to thinking
that they are knights of the medieval romances. They believe that they are entrusted with the
obligation to save the world. Therefore, the adventure starts as an imitation of the real romances
but of course, in a hilarious manner.
We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We
enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of
sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish
romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances.
Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to
describe Gulliver’s travels to the strange land of Lilliput, and other such places where he meets
“Lilliputians,” and the giant “Brobdingnagians.” He also meets other strange creatures like
“Laputians” and “Houyhnhnms,” and the “Yahoos”. The parody for Swift was intended as a
satire on English society.
Function of Parody
Parody is a kind of comedy that imitates and mocks individuals or a piece of work. However,
when it mingles with satire, it makes satire more pointed and effective. Most importantly, a
parody appeals to the reader’s sense of humor. He enjoys the writer poking fun at the set ideals
of society, and becomes aware of the lighter side of an otherwise serious state of affairs. Thus,
parody adds spice to a piece of literature that keeps the readers interested.
Paronomasia
Definition of Paronomasia
Paronomasia is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a phrase intentionally used to exploit
the confusion between words having similar sounds but different meanings. It is like a word
play, and is also known as a “pun.”
Types of Paronomasia
Typographic Paronomasia
1. Homophonic – The use of words that sound the same, but have different meanings,
such as “Pour out corruption’s slag from every pore.”
2. Homographic – Words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings, such as
“David doesn’t feel well today,” and “My uncle is digging a new well.”
3. Homonymic – These words include both homographs and homophones.
4. Compound – These contain two or more puns in a sentence.
5. Recursive – In these, the second part of a pun depends upon the meaning of the first.
Visual Paronomasia
These are actually puns and used in non-phonetic texts. Visual paronomasia includes the “4
Pics 1 Word” word game, where players are supposed to look at four pictures and guess the
word that they have in common.
Paronomasia underscores the expertise of writers and their characters. From Jesus Christ to
Shakespeare, examples of paronomasia have been crafted to create rhetorical effect.
Launce: “It is no matter if the tied were lost; for it is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied.”
Richard: “Now is the winter of our discontent … made glorious summer by this Son of York.”
William Shakespeare is probably the most renowned punster in literature. Here the word “tied” is
used three times as homophonic paronomasia, giving different meanings in three different
places. Similarly, the word “son” is King Edward IV, not the weather of York.
In the above excerpt, John Donne has rhymed his name with “done,” and his wife’s name Anne
More with “more.” The words are underlined. This is an example of homophonic paronomasia.
Romeo: “Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead …
So stakes me to the ground I cannot move…”
This extract is again an example of homophonic paronomasia. Shakespeare has exploited the
words “sole” and “soul.” Both sound the same, though they have different meanings, creating
comic effect.
“Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame.”
Here, Dickens plays on the word “tickle.” This word is maneuvered in such a way that it gives
two different meanings and comic effect.
Joyce has included this brief poem with paronomasia words in it. Here, the word “see” is used
with the same spelling but different meanings. It is creating humor when spelled out.
Here, Hamlet is distressed that his mother married his uncle, which is not allowed in Christianity.
The word “kind” is used as a short form of kindred. Shakespeare plays with the meaning of this
word “kind.”
Function of Paronomasia
Paronomasia gives thoughtful meanings to literary texts, aside from providing humorous and
witty comments. Through paronomasia, writers demonstrate the shrewdness of characters, and
their own ingenuity by playing with the words. Besides, in literary works, paronomasia functions
as a purposeful efforts to provide a source of comic relief, and to show their artistic ability. Being
a source of fun, paronomasia is used in comedy theaters, and jokes give humorous meanings to
perplexing stories. Also, it is found in limerick forms of poetry.
Parrhesia
Definition of Parrhesia
Parrhesia is borrowed from a Greek word that means “to speak boldly, freely, or with bombastic
bluntness.” It is saying something boldly and freely without leaving any doubt behind. It involves
not only the freedom of speech, but also implies the use of truth in speech or writing. In
Parrhesia, writers open their minds and hearts fully to the readers or audience through
discourse, and a speaker makes it clear what his opinion is. In simple words, it is a direct
expression shown through words.
Evolution of Parrhesia
Parrhesia first appeared in Euripides as a rhetorical device in Geek literature, and it evolved
through several centuries. Later on, parrhesia was introduced in Athenian democracy. Finally it
entered into the field of philosophy, where Socrates was known as a true parrhesiastic writer.
Examples of parrhesia are found in the works of Seneca, a famous Greek Epicurean, who is
famous for having used parrhesia.
Kent shows a respectful protest to King Lear on behalf of Cordelia, which is an example of
parrhesia. Though he wins sudden banishment and the enmity of the king, he persuades the
audience through his uprightness and honesty.
“The muddy streets were gay. He strode homeward, conscious of an invisible grace pervading
and making light his limbs. In spite of all he had done it. He had confessed and God had
pardoned him … It was beautiful to live in grace a life of peace and virtue and forbearance with
others…”
Here, the narrator boldly reports the dialogue and thoughts of the character. He speaks in such
a way as if the character himself is speaking directly and freely.
“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable,
laborious, and short.”
“No, comrades, a thousand times no! The soil of England is fertile, its climate is good.”
“Man is the only real enemy we have. Remove Man from the scene, and the root cause of
hunger and overwork is abolished for ever.”
In this passage, all the animals listen carefully to Old Major, who tells them the plain truth – that
their lives are miserable and laborious solely due to human oppressors. He instructs them
through free speech that human beings are the only reasons for their plight.
“These mothers instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all
their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants who, as they grow up, either
turn thieves for want of work, or leave …
I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in arms, or on backs, or
at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is, in the present deplorable state of
the kingdom, a very great additional grievance.”
The writer brings into play a sense of melancholy, and delivers a fearless speech for the
children and women begging on Ireland’s streets. He shows his grievance about their miserable
condition, and suggests that if anyone does something positive for them, it would be a great
service.
Function of Parrhesia
Since parrhesia is free speech, this straight, bold language is preferably used in an attempt to
gain the attention of readers, and then to change their beliefs instantly. Often, parrhesia is
employed for logical and moral purposes; however, sometimes writers use negative parrhesia in
order to unleash their ideas boldly and freely without forethought. Parrhesia examples are in
literary and philosophical works. Also, politicians, religious zealots, and the business community
use it frequently as a rhetorical device.
Passive Voice
Definition of Passive Voice
A passive voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which an action (through verb), or an object
of a sentence, is emphasized rather than its subject. Simply, the subject receives the action of
the verb. The emphasis or focus is on the action, while the subject is not known or is less
important.
For instance, in the sentence “[Fern] found an old milking stool that had been discarded, and
she placed the stool in the sheepfold next to Wilbur’s pen” (Charlotte’s Web, by E.B. White), the
underlined phrase is an example of a passive voice in which the author has not identified the
subject – the reader does not know who discarded the milking stool. Rather, the focus is on the
action of placing the abandoned stool.
1. Short Passive – In this type of construction, the subject or the performer is not known.
For instance, in the phrase “a mistake is made,” there is no subject, or the subject is
unknown.
2. Long Passive – In this type of construction, the object becomes the subject of the
sentence. For instance, in the sentence, “The house was cleaned by aunty,” the object
“the house” has become the subject.
“America was discovered accidentally by a great seaman who was looking for something else…
America was named after a man who discovered no part of the New World. History is like that,
very chancy.”
Here, author Samuel Eliot Morison has employed passive voice in the underlined phrases. The
first one is a short passive, while the second one is a long passive.
Example #2: The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (by Douglas Adams)
“In the beginning the Universe was created. This has made a lot of people very angry and has
been widely regarded as a bad move.”
Both of these sentences have used passive voice. They have identified neither the subject, nor
the performer. However, the action is clear; the readers able to understand the meanings.
Example #3: Psychological Foundations of Educational Technology (by W.C. Trow and E.E.
Haddan)
“Thus it is believed that in the elementary school a class of fifteen pupils for one teacher gives
better results than either a class of three or a class of thirty.”
In this long sentence, the subject is not identified, as the emphasis is on the action of
“believing.” This leaves the question of who believes.
Example #4: Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well (by Maya Angelou)
The underlined phrase is an example of a short passive voice construction in which the subject
(who found her bones) is not known, because the sentence emphasizes the action and not the
subject.
“The large ballroom was crowded with familiar ghosts come to help celebrate her birthday…
Earlier, dinner had been served outdoors. The large and formal garden had been festively
decorated with lanterns and ribbons and balloons. Their corpses had been perfectly preserved
by the ammonia in the air, and their hair had turned a bright red.”
Sidney Sheldon has not mentioned who crowded the ballroom, who served the dinner, or who
decorated garden. He has only mentioned the actions to draw the attention of the readers to the
preparations.
Style guides do not support the use of passive voice in technical writings, because it makes the
text lengthy, slow to read, and often ambiguous. However, it is very common in literature, lab
reports, and scientific writings, where the performer is given lesser importance than the action.
In these types of writings, a passive voice is very helpful to avoid taking responsibility of the
actions. It is also useful when a writer wants to shift focus from the subject to an action.
Pastiche
Pastiche Definition
Pastiche is a literary piece that imitates a famous literary work by another writer. Unlike parody,
its purpose is not to mock, but to honor the literary piece it imitates.
This literary device is generally employed to imitate a piece of literary work light-heartedly, but in
a respectful manner. The term pastiche also applies to a literary work that is a broad mixture of
things – such as themes, concepts, and characters – imitated from different literary works. For
instance, many of the pastiche examples are in the form of detective novels that are written in
the style of the original Sherlock Holmes stories. It features either Sherlock Holmes, or a
different main character that is like him.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead – a tragicomedy written by Tom Stoppard – is one of
the best examples of pastiche. It develops upon two minor characters: Rosencrantz, and
Guildenstern, who appear for a brief moment in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. The title is taken
from Hamlet‘s Act 5, Scene 3, when an ambassador from England announces, “Rosencrantz
and Guildenstern are dead.” The two characters, standing behind the curtains, express their
confusion on the events of the main play “Hamlet” enacted on the stage.
Example #2: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge)
David Lodge’s comic novel The British Museum Is Falling Down contains imitations of ten
different novelists. He gives reference to each particular writer in the text before he starts
imitating their style. For example, in Chapter 3, the character Adam Appleby, hero of the novel,
is riding his scooter, and gets stuck in traffic on his way to the British Museum Library. He tells
us about “Mrs. Dalloway’s booming out the half hour” ( a reference to Virginia Woolf’s novel
“Mrs. Dalloway”). Then, we get to read a passage that comically imitates Woolf’s style:
“It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble
life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of
closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to
having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal
property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the
limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The
policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring ‘Philip’, ‘Tony’, ‘Margaret’,
‘Prince Andrew’.”
We see the merging of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia
Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses “he thought,” and “he wondered,” in the
middle of the reported clauses.
Dave McClure’s poem The Traveler is a comical imitation written after Edgar Alan Poe’s poem
The Raven. Look at McClure’s opening stanza:
“Long ago upon a hilltop (let me finish then I will stop)
I espied a curious traveler where no traveler was before.
As I raised an arm in greeting all at once he took to beating
at the air like one entreating passing boats to come ashore
like a castaway repeating empty movements from the shore
or an over-eager whore.”
It keenly imitates the arrangement of words used by Poe in the original poem. Likewise, it
echoes the same rhyming scheme. Read the opening lines from Poe’s The Raven for a better
comparison:
The only remarkable difference between the two poems that we can recognize is the serious
tone of the original poem contrasts the humorous tone of the imitation.
Function of Pastiche
Pastiche may be comic in its content, but it does not mock the original works. In pastiche, the
writers imitate the style and content of a literary piece to highlight their work, as the original
piece is accepted by the vast majority of readers as landmarks of their age. So, imitation in such
works celebrates the works of the great writers of the past.
Pathetic Fallacy
Pathetic Fallacy Definition
Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate
objects of nature. The word pathetic in the term is not used in the derogatory sense of being
miserable; rather, it stands for “imparting emotions to something else.”
Generally, pathetic fallacy is confused with personification. The fact is that they differ in their
function. Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate
objects of nature; for example, referring to weather features reflecting a mood. Personification,
on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract ideas, animate
objects of nature, or inanimate non-natural objects.
For example, the sentence “The somber clouds darkened our mood” is a pathetic fallacy, as
human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood. But, the sentence
“The sparrow talked to us” is a personification because the animate object of nature – the
sparrow – is given the human quality of “talking.”
Examples of Pathetic Fallacy in Literature
Shakespeare uses pathetic fallacy in his play Macbeth to describe the dark murder of the
character Duncan. In Act 2, Scene 3, Lennox says:
The pathetic fallacy examples in the above lines describe the ominous atmosphere on the night
of Duncan’s murder. The unruly night, the screams of death in the air, and the feverous earth
depict the evil act of murder that happened a night before.
Emily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights is full of pathetic fallacies. The title itself shows the use
of this device, as the word wuthering means “blowing strongly with a roaring sound.” Therefore,
“Wuthering Heights” means uproarious and aggressive weather that represents the nature of its
residents. There are lots of instances in the novel in which the mood of nature portrays the
nature of events in the narrative.
For example, the character Lockwood is trapped in a snow storm before the nightmare scene,
the “wild and windy” night at the time of Mr. Earnshaw’s death, the “violent thunderstorm” on the
night Heathcliff leaves Wuthering Heights, and the stormy weather outside when Cathy makes a
choice between Heathcliff and Edgar indicates her inner turmoil.
The feeling of melancholy has been described by attributing the human emotion of weeping to
the clouds.
The poet describes clouds as lonely, in order to describe his own state.
Charles Dickens makes use of pathetic fallacy in his novel, Great Expectations. At the beginning
of Chapter 39, his protagonist, Pip, comments on the “wretched weather”:
“Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still,
as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that
high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had
been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the
coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and
the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all.”
The furious gusts, and the rages of wind indicate the confused inner world of Pip.
By employing pathetic fallacy, writers try to bring inanimate objects to life, so that the nature of
emotions they want to convey is understood in a better way. This is because it is easier for
readers to relate to abstract emotions when they observe it in their natural surroundings. In
addition, the use of pathetic fallacy encourages readers to develop a perspective that is new as
well as creative.
Pathos
Pathos Definition
Pathos is a quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of pity,
sympathy, and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with gestures
of the body.
For a better understanding of the subject, let us examine a few pathos examples from daily
conversations:
• “If we don’t leave this place soon, we’ll be yelling for help. There’s no one to help us
here, let’s get out of here and live.” – This statement evokes emotions of fear.
• The “Made in America” label on various products sold in America tries to enhance sales
by appealing to customers’ sense of patriotism.
• Ads encouraging charitable donations show small children living in pathetic conditions,
to evoke pity in people.
• Referring to a country as “the motherland” stirs up patriotic feelings in individuals living in
that country or state.
• A soft, instrumental symphony may arouse people emotionally.
Consider this excerpt from chapter 8 of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Tom Sawyer:
He had meant the best in the world, and been treated like a dog—like a very dog. She would be
sorry someday—maybe when it was too late. Ah, if he could only die TEMPORARILY!
Here, Tom arouses feelings of pity in readers’ minds by telling how the girl, whom he loved, had
treated him like an animal, despite his honest feelings for her. He wishes he had died and then
she would feel sorry for him.
Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” is well known for its pathos. Mr. Collins’ confession to
Elizabeth that he wants her to be his future partner evokes feelings of sympathy in readers, as
they feel an emotional intensity in his proposal.
Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty adds to your other perfections. But you
can hardly doubt the object of my discourse, however your feminine delicacy may lead you to
dissemble. For, as almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the companion of
my future life!
Consider this excerpt from Act V of William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet:
Romeo’s servant Balthasar invokes pity among the audience, when he informs Romeo – who
was waiting impatiently to hear about Juliet – that Juliet is dead and is buried in her family’s
vault. We feel sorry for the untimely death of Juliet and her heartbroken Romeo.
We feel overcome by pity for Black Americans [“Darkies”] who were enslaved to White
Americans [“white folks”]. The contrast of the words “work” and “play” shows the social disparity
between the two races.
Example #5: I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)
In Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, pathos is created by presenting a
contrast between “the free bird” and “a caged bird.”
In this excerpt, we see the words in bold above are associated with a bird in a cage, which
makes us feel pity toward that miserable bird.
Function of Pathos
We humans are emotional beings, and writers know it very well. They introduce pathos in their
works to touch upon our delicate senses of pity, sympathy, sorrow, trying to develop an
emotional connection with readers.
In addition, emotions are part of real life. Thus, by giving pathos expression in their works,
writers bring their narratives, characters, and themes closer to real life. Furthermore, the use of
pathos by a debater in an argument appeals to people emotionally, making it a tool to convince
people and change their opinions.
Pedantic
Definition of Pedantic
Pedantic comes from the French word pedant, which means “to teach or to act as pedagogue.”
A pedantic is someone who is concerned with precision, formalism, accuracy, and minute
details in order to make an arrogant and ostentatious show of learning. He could be a writer, a
character, feelings, tone, or words. Sigmund Freud defined pedantic in this manner:
“The pedant is he who finds it impossible to read criticism of himself without immediately
reaching for his pen and replying to the effect that the accusation is a gross insult to his person.”
A pedant often corrects small mistakes that are not very important in grand matters and,
therefore, may annoy others around him.
• But even they are too pedantic: with prejudiced views, they pursue one-sided aims.
(From Piano and Song, by Friedrich Wieck)
• The pedant still does the cause of education incalculable injury. (From Craftsmanship in
Teaching, by William Chandler Bagley)
• It is their instinct to flower in spring, of course, but they are not pedantic about it in the
least. (From About Orchids: A Chat, by Frederick Boyle)
Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov has used Charles Kinbote as a pedant in his novel Pale Fire.
Kinbote is a leading character, living in exile as a literature Professor in a New England college
town known as New Wye. In fact, he belongs to a country called Zembla.
Kinbote is a pedantic, a disturbed liar who cannot avoid telling lies, which makes this novel
interesting. Throughout the novel, Kinbote keeps giving clues that he is an exiled king from
Zembla. In this case, the readers believe that Kinbote is really a king from Zembla, despite that
it is equally important to remember that Zembla has no king. He did this through demonstration
of his knowledge of things others do not know about.
Example #2: The Big Bang Theory (By Bill Prady and Chuck Lorre)
Bill Prady and Chuck Lorre’s sitcom contains a pedantic character, Dr. Sheldon Lee Cooper,
who is a theoretical physicist. Dr. Sheldon Cooper is idiosyncratic and obsessed, being
possessed with extreme narcissism and extensive general knowledge. Other characteristics of
his personality include inflated ego, prodigy, social ineptitude, and his inability to express
emotions to people, which show him as a typical pedantic person.
“Civilization’s going to pieces … I’ve gotten to be a terrible pessimist about things. Have you
read ‘The Rise of the Colored Empires’ by this man Goddard? … Well, it’s a fine book, and
everybody ought to read it. The idea is if we don’t look out the white race will be — will be utterly
submerged. It’s all scientific stuff; it’s been proved … I know I’m not very popular. I don’t give
big parties. I suppose you’ve got to make your house into a pigsty in order to have any friends –
in the modern world.”
In this paragraph, Tom Buchanan is trying to look like a learned person but he winds up looking
foolish. The final line is a pedantic, as Tom is citing popularity and parties of Gatsby as a proof
of modern world disintegration.
Example #4: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov)
Trofimov is an intelligent person yet impassioned, and immature too. Therefore, Chekhov calls
him an “Eternal Student.” He is unforgiving and judgmental, as Lubov puts blame on his youth
saying:
“You boldly look forward, isn’t it because you cannot foresee or expect anything terrible,
because so far life has been hidden from your young eyes? You are bolder, more honest,
deeper than we are, but think only, be just a little magnanimous, and have mercy on me.”
Here he thinks that he is an intellectual and a revolutionary preoccupied with plans, however
being ostentatious, lacking real world experience and displaying characteristics of a pedantic
man.
Function of Pedantic
Writers use a pedantic character to teach something in a complicated manner, or to teach with
excessive demonstration of knowledge. Another purpose of writers in using pedantry is to
display their multilingual abilities by using excessive knowledge. Though the term pedantic
refers to displaying a sense of knowledge, which is its positive side, it also tells about the
narrow-mindedness of a character or a writer who tries to insist on adhering to arbitrary rules
and principles, because often such rules are pointless.
Pentameter
Definition of Pentameter
Pentameter is a literary device that can be defined as a line in verse or poetry that has five
strong metrical feet or beats. There are different forms of pentameter: iamb, trochaic, dactylic,
and anapestic. The most commonly used pentameter in English is iambic. It also can be
described as a line that consists of ten syllables, where the first syllable is stressed, the second
is unstressed, the third is stressed, and so on until it reaches the 10th line syllable. For instance:
Types of Pentameter
• Iamb pentameter
• Trochaic pentameter
• Anapestic pentameter
• Dactylic pentameter
This excerpt has an iambic pentameter style (unstressed/stressed pattern), the stressed
syllables shown in bold. Here we can see that each line has five beats, and stress is placed on
the second syllable.
This is another example of iambic pentameter. Here, each foot is called an “iamb,” and contains
two syllables, wherein the first syllable is unaccented and the second is accented. Through this
unstressed/stressed pattern, emphasis has been added to the words.
Iambic pentameter examples are rich in Donne’s poems. Here, in this extract, the second and
third lines follow this pattern perfectly. There are ten syllables, where the first syllables are
unstressed followed by stressed syllables.
Example #5: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred, Lord Tennyson)
“Half a league, half a league,
Half a league onward,
All in the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
‘Forward, the Light Brigade!
Charge for the guns!’ he said:
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.”
Function of Pentameter
Pentameter widely governs the individual lines in poems, couplets, and verses, and provides a
structural form to a poem. It also determines the speaking style and rhythm. Pentameters also
give arrangement to words through the regular use of accents on the syllables, and helps in
emphasizing the specific words which a poet wishes to. This is the major reason for variation in
the text through stressed/unstressed patterns.
Periphrasis
Definition of Periphrasis
Periphrasis originates from the Greek word periphrazein, which means “talking around.” It is a
stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a
meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words. It is an
indirect or roundabout way of writing about something. For example, using the phrase “I am
going to” instead of “I will” is periphrasis. This is also called “circumlocution,” but there is a slight
difference between circumlocution and periphrasis.
Types of Periphrasis
Periphrasis is one type of circumlocution. There are two types of circumlocution, namely
periphrasis and ambage. Periphrasis is a roundabout explanation of something, while ambage
is an indirect and ambiguous way of expressing things or ideas.
Para means “beside,” whereas peri means “around.” In paraphrasing, ambiguous statements
are restated in order to enhance the meanings, while periphrasis is a measured roundabout way
of expressing something.
“‘Under the impression,’ said Mr. Micawber, ‘that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not
as yet been extensive, and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the
Modern Babylon in the direction of the City Road—in short,’ said Mr. Micawber, in another burst
of confidence, ‘that you might lose yourself—I shall be happy to call this evening, and install you
in the knowledge of the nearest way …'”
In this excerpt, Dickens has used periphrasis to give comic effect to the text. It is used in the
speech of Wilkins Micawber, who speaks in an indirect way. Also, this technique gives poetic
flavor to this prose.
In this extract, Shakespeare is explaining death and its consequences. He has used an indirect
way of illustrating death as “when that fell.” Here it means, when death comes, no one would be
able to save him.
In this excerpt, Pope is employing periphrasis by criticizing the aristocratic class through the
description of Hampton Court Palace. He has used this device to disclose the negative side of
aristocracy.
“I was within a hair’s-breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with
humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say.”
In the above passage, periphrasis is employed to describe earnestness. This idea could be
understood in different ways. In the text, it is given as the opposite of pettiness, but elsewhere it
is explained as the reverse of seriousness.
Coleridge has used periphrasis to demonstrate hidden meanings and concepts. He illustrates
the natural world as wild, while things are safe and calm inside the palace walls.
Function of Periphrasis
From the above examples of periphrasis, one could surmise that this literary device is used to
embellish sentences by creating splendid effects to draw readers’ attention. These periphrasis
examples have also shown that the use of this literary device lends poetic flavor to prose.
Periphrasis is a feature of analytical language that tends to shun inflection.
Persona
Definition of Persona
The term persona has been derived from the Latin word persona, which means “the mask of an
actor,” and is therefore etymologically linked to the dramatis personae, which refers to the list of
characters and cast in a play or a drama. It is also known as a “theatrical mask.” It can be
defined in a literary work as a voice or an assumed role of a character, which represents the
thoughts of a writer, or a specific person the writer wants to present as his mouthpiece.
Most of the time, the dramatis personae are identified with the writer, though sometimes a
persona can be a character or an unknown narrator. Examples of persona are found, not only in
dramas, but in poems and novels too.
These are the initial fifteen lines of the poem Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The speaker is a
persona of T. S. Eliot that he wants to present to the world, though the poet himself is not
suffering from the same mental conflict.
This poem is a dramatic monologue (uses persona). The poet mainly communicates about the
shocking appearance of the “duke” character. In this stanza, the persona is discussing the
painting as the monologue opens. Through simple technique the poet describes the
superficiality of the duke’s character, though it seems to be the voice of the poet put into the
mouth of the duke.
Example #3: The Old Man and Sea (By Ernest Hemingway)
“He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone
eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But
after forty days without a fish the boy’s parents had told him that the old man was now definitely
and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky…
“The sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat.”
The first paragraph of this book sounds as if Hemingway himself is Santiago. Through the
characterization of Santiago, Hemingway is expressing his belief in the struggle against
unconquerable natural forces of the world. However, it is up to the persona (Santiago) to
determine whether he wants to change his luck or not.
“Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South
America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration … and when I
saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger
on it and say, ‘When I grow up I will go there … Well, I haven’t been there yet, and shall not try
now. The glamour’s off … well, we won’t talk about that…”
Marlow is probably one of the most famous persona examples in novels. In this novel, Marlow is
used as Conrad’s mouthpiece. In this extract, Conrad is telling us through Marlow about his own
visit to the Congo, his experiences of sailing to distant places, and his boyhood ambition of
sailing. Hence, Marlow is used as a persona in this novel.
Function of Persona
Personification
Definition of Personification
We see from the above examples of personification that this literary device helps us relate
actions of inanimate objects to our own emotions.
The lack of activity in the forest has been beautifully personified as the forest getting ready to
sleep, busy at bed-time chatting and wishing good-nights, all of which are human customs.
Example #2: Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene II (By William Shakespeare)
There are two personification examples here. April cannot put on a dress, and winter does not
limp, nor does it have a heel on which a month can walk. Shakespeare personifies the month of
April and the winter season by giving them two distinct human qualities.
He sees a cherry tree covered with beautiful white flowers in the forest, and says that the cherry
tree wears white clothes to celebrate Easter. He gives human attributes to a tree in order to
describe it in human terms.
Example #4: Have You Got A Brook In Your Little Heart (By Emily Elizabeth Dickinson)
The bashful flowers, blushing birds, and trembling shadows are examples of personification.
Example #5: How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped (By William Shakespeare)
“Pearl Button swung on the little gate in front of the House of Boxes. It was the early afternoon
of a sunshiny day with little winds playing hide-and-seek in it.”
Example #6: Two Sunflowers Move in a Yellow Room (By William Blake)
“Two Sunflowers
Move in the Yellow Room.
‘Ah, William, we’re weary of weather,’
said the sunflowers, shining with dew.
Our traveling habits have tired us.
Can you give us a room with a view?”
This poem by William Blake contains a lot of examples of personification. The poem starts in a
dialogue form, where a sunflower is directly addressing the poet by calling his name. Again, in
the third line the flower says, “our travelling habits have tired us”, which is a good
personification. The flowers are depicting a human characteristic of weariness caused by the
weather. In a human way, they make a request to the poet to put them in a room with a window
with plenty of sunshine.
This poem by William Wordsworth contains artistic examples of personification. The fourth line
says, “A host of golden daffodils,” and the fifth line has those flowers “Fluttering and dancing in
the breeze.”
These are the opening lines of The Waste Land, by T. S. Eliot. The very first line contains
personification in that it labels April as the cruelest month’.
Example #9: Because I could not stop for Death (By Emily Dickinson)
The whole poem is full of examples of personification. In fact, death has been personified by the
poet, saying “He kindly stopped for me.” Again in the second stanza, “He knew no haste,” and
so on.
Function of Personification
Personification is not merely a decorative device, but serves the purpose of giving deeper
meanings to literary texts. It adds vividness to expressions, as we always look at the world from
a human perspective. Writers and poets rely on personification to bring inanimate things to life,
so that their nature and actions are understood in a better way. Because it is easier for us to
relate to something that is human, or which possesses human traits, its use encourages us to
develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.
Perspective
Definition of Perspective
While reading a fiction or non-fiction book, readers see and experience the events and feelings
about the characters through a certain point of view, which is called a “perspective.” A
perspective is a literary tool, which serves as a lens through which readers observe characters,
events, and happenings. A writer may narrate the story from his perspective, or from a
character’s perspective. Its purpose is to make the voice of a writer distinctive from other
writers.
Types of Perspective
First Person Perspective
First person perspective means writing from the perspective of the author or main character.
Such types of perspectives are mostly found in narratives and autobiographical writings. In
these writings, the main character narrates his/her story, and uses first person pronouns, such
as “I” and “we.” The readers see everything through this person’s eyes.
“It was times like these when I thought my father, who hated guns and had never been to any
wars, was the bravest man who ever lived.”
“I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me.”
“I cannot but conclude that the Bulk of your Natives, to be the most pernicious Race of little
odious Vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the Surface of the Earth.”
In these examples, the authors have used first person personal pronouns to express
themselves. This perspective shows the inner feelings and thinking of the individuals.
“You are a sculptor. You climb a great ladder; you pour grease all over a growing longleaf pine.
Next, you build a hollow cylinder like a cofferdam around the entire pine, and grease its inside
walls. You climb your ladder and spend the next week pouring wet plaster into the cofferdam…
Now open the walls of the dam, split the plaster, saw down the tree, remove it, discard, and your
intricate sculpture is ready: this is the shape of part of the air.”
This expression is not very common in writing. However, here you can see how the “you”
perspective captures readers’ attention right from the beginning of the excerpt, giving an
impression of a dialogue between the speaker and readers.
The third person perspective uses he, she, it and they personal pronouns. It is a very common
method of narration.
“It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”
“He is just what a young man ought to be,” said she, “sensible, good humored, lively; and I
never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!
“It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents, except at occasional intervals, when it
was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets.”
In each of these examples, readers can only know what is happening but cannot know the
feelings and thoughts of the characters.
• Third Person Objective – An impersonal recorder or neutral observer narrates the facts
or details to the readers.
• Third Person Omniscient – In third person omniscient, a narrator reports the facts, as
well as interpreting and relating the thoughts of a character. It is a very popular
technique of storytelling, such as in George Eliot’s Middle March, and E. B. White’s
Charlotte’s Web.
• Third Person Limited – In this type of perspective, a narrator reports and interprets the
facts and events from a single character’s perspective. For instance, Katherine
Mansfield has used the same perspective in her short story Miss Brill.
Function of Perspective
Perspective is the most important literary tool for writers. Choosing an effective perspective
helps them create the right voice for their narratives. When readers can identify with their
narrators, they can get detailed information about everything. Perspective also adds dimension
to literary works. Furthermore, the writers often mix different viewpoints between alternating
characters, scenes and events.
Persuasion
Definition of Persuasion
Persuasion is a literary technique that writers use to present their ideas through reason and
logic, in order to influence the audience. Persuasion may simply use an argument to persuade
the readers, or sometimes may persuade readers to perform a certain action. Simply, it is an art
of effective speaking and writing in which writers make their opinions believable to the audience
through logic, by invoking emotions, and by proving their own credibility.
Types of Persuasion
1. Ethos
It is linked with morality and ethics. In this method of persuasion, writers or speakers convince
their audience of their goodwill and present themselves as trustworthy. In order to determine
whether a writer is credible or not, the audience needs to understand his intention and his
strong understanding of the subject.
2. Logos
Logos comes of logic, therefore writers use logic, reasoning, and rationality to convince
audiences of their perspectives.
3. Pathos
The third method is pathos, which invokes and appeals to the emotions of the audience. This is
contrary to logos, as it presents arguments without using logic or reasoning. Many writers
consider love, fear, empathy, and anger as strong factors to influence the emotions of their
audiences.
Examples of Persuasion in Literature
Example #1: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)
Ethos:
In, A Modest Proposal, Jonathan Swift uses ethos to prove that he is a credible source due to
his conclusive research concerning infantile consumption, as he writes:
“I am assured by our merchants that a boy or a girl before twelve years old is no saleable
commodity, and even when they come to this age, they will not yield above three pounds.”
Swift builds his credibility by assuring that, prior to creating this proposal, he had discussed the
issue with merchants. Swift attempts to make clear his point that selling infants as food would
be profitable, and would help financially impoverished parents.
Logos:
“STUDIES serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in
privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment, and
disposition of business.”
In the above excerpt, Bacon employs logic to describe how we can use studies for various
purposes. He gives logic that in aloofness and retirement, reading gives pleasure, and adorns a
person’s conversation as an ornament. Hence, we can know the ability of a learned man
through his judgment.
Pathos:
In Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte brings pathos when Jane leaves Mr. Rochester as they were
about to tie the knot. Jane, however, finds out that Mr. Rochester already has a wife, who is
actually alive, though mentally disturbed living with a nurse in the attic. These circumstances
arouse the emotions of readers, in that Jane had already faced a difficult and sad life with her
aunt and her children, and now when she was about to finally find happiness, she feels dejected
once again.
Barack Obama made a public speech a night before his election campaign in Virginia on
November 3, 2008, saying:
“This country is more decent than one where a woman in Ohio, on the brink of retirement, finds
herself one illness away from disaster after a lifetime of hard work…This country is more
generous than one where a man in Indiana has to pack up the equipment he’s worked on for
twenty years and watch it shipped off to China… We are more compassionate than a
government that lets veterans sleep on our streets and families slide into poverty; that sits on its
hands while a major American city drowns before our eyes…”
This emotional speech plays on people’s sense of guilt, making it a good example of pathos.
Although Obama employs snob appeal fallacy in his argument, it is a very influential and
emotional appeal.
Function of Persuasion
Persuasion is the most common literary technique. We not only find it in literature, but also in
political speeches, conferences, courtrooms, and advertisements. Through persuasive writing,
writers express their own feelings and opinions by appealing to the audience emotionally and
rationally. Hence, it is a very effective technique to win over the readers or audience. In addition,
it helps students to unearth certain reasons in favor of their points of view, and gives them a
chance to research facts linked to their views. While developing an understanding of how writing
can change and influence their thoughts and actions, students can understand the nature of
persuasive work.
Persuasive Essay
Definition of Persuasive Essay
The term “persuasive” is an adjective derived from verb “persuade,” which means “to convince
somebody.” A persuasive essay is full of all the convincing techniques a writer can employ. It
presents a situation, and takes a stand – either in its favor, or against it – to prove to readers
whether it is beneficial or harmful for them.
Why Persuasion?
The question arises why persuasion if the people are already aware of everything. Its answer is
that each person’s ability of seeing and understanding things depend on his vision. He believes
only what he sees or is told about. If another side of the coin is shown, the people do not believe
so easily. That is why they are presented with arguments supported with evidences, statistics
and facts. Persuasion is done for these reasons:
1. A Better World: To ask the people that if they accept your argument, it will be good for
them to take action and make the world a better place.
2. A Worse World: It means that if readers do not do what they are asked to do, the world
will become a worse place.
3. Call to Action: It means to persuade or tempt readers to do what the writer wants them
to do.
“Governments today do two things that I object to in particular. First they encourage
introspection, telling us that unless men examine their testicles, unless we keep a check on our
cholesterol level, then we are not being responsible citizens. You are letting down yourself, your
wife, your kids, everybody. We are encouraged continually to worry about our health. As a
consequence, public health initiatives have become, as far as I can tell, a threat to public health.
Secondly, governments promote the value of health seeking. We are meant always to be
seeking health for this or that condition. The primary effect of this, I believe, is to make us all
feel more ill.”
This is an excerpt from a persuasive essay of Frank Furedi. It encourages people to think about
how the government is helping public health. Both the arguments of persuasion start with “First”
in the first line and with “Secondly” in the second last line.
Example #2: We Are Training Our Kids to Kill (by Dave Grossman)
“Our society needs to be informed about these crimes, but when the images of the young killers
are broadcast on television, they become role models. The average preschooler in America
watches 27 hours of television a week. The average child gets more one-on-one communication
from TV than from all her parents and teachers combined. The ultimate achievement for our
children is to get their picture on TV. The solution is simple, and it comes straight out of the
sociology literature: The media have every right and responsibility to tell the story, but they must
be persuaded not to glorify the killers by presenting their images on TV.”
This is an excerpt from Grossman’s essay. He is clearly convincing the public about the violent
television programs and their impacts on the kids. See how strong his arguments are in favor of
his topic.
“And what do we the people say? Do we rise up and say, ‘I categorically refuse to buy any
article of clothing unless the person promoting it weighs more than she did when she wore knee
socks?’ Or at least, ‘Where do I send the check for the chicken nuggets?’ Actually, not so much.
Mostly, our responses range from ‘I wonder if that would look good on me?’ to ‘I don’t know who
that skinny-ass cow is, but I hate her already.’
Just check the strength of the argument of Belinda Luscombe about purchasing things. The
beauty of her writing is that she has made her readers think by asking rhetorical questions and
answering them.
The major function of a persuasive essay is to convince readers that, if they take a certain
action, the world will be a better place for them. It could be otherwise or it could be a call to an
action. The arguments given are either in the favor of the topic or against it. It cannot combine
both at once. That is why readers feel it easy to be convinced.
Pleonasm
Definition of Pleonasm
Pleonasm is derived from a Greek word that means “excess.” It is a rhetorical device that can
be defined as the use of two or more words (a phrase) to express an idea. These words are
redundant, such as in these examples of pleonasm” “burning fire,” and “black darkness.”
Sometimes, pleonasm is called “tautology,” which is the repetition of words.
Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory terms. It is the opposite of pleonasm. This can
appear in different types of texts due to an error, or used advertently to give paradoxical
meanings. For example, “I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief.”
However, pleonasm is a combination of two or more words which are more than those required
for clear expression. For example, “I saw it with my own eyes.”
Types of Pleonasm
1. Syntactic Pleonasm
This occurs when the grammatical language makes specific functional words optional such as:
In the given pleonasm examples, the conjunction “that” is optional while joining a verb phrase
with a sentence. Although both sentences are correct grammatically, the conjunction “that” is
pleonastic.
2. Semantic Pleonasm
Semantic pleonasm is related more to the style of the language than the grammar, such as
given below:
Here tuna is itself the name of a fish, and there is no need to add the word “fish.” Therefore, the
word fish is pleonastic in the sentence.
In this excerpt, Shakespeare has deliberately used the term “most unkindest” as pleonastic. He
could have used unkindest only; however, most is added in order to emphasize and give an
even clearer meaning.
“Let me tell you this, when social workers offer you, free, gratis and for nothing, something to
hinder you from swooning, which with them is an obsession, it is useless to recoil …”
In this example, the terms “free,” “gratis,” and “for nothing” have very similar meanings. The
words are repeated to create linguistic and literary effects. In this way, the words free and
nothing are highlighted. This is a semantic pleonasm.
“All this I saw with my own eyes, and it was the most fearsome sight I ever witnessed…”
The term “my own” is pleonastic, since the word “my” would have been enough to show
possession. However, “own” is added to emphasize and clarify the meaning of the phrase.
“These terrible things I have seen with my own eyes, and I have heard with my own ears, and
touched with my own hands…”
Here again, the sense of possession is expressed with the use of pleonasm. The word “own” is
redundant in each bold phrase. This is a syntactic pleonasm.
Milton is famous for using pleonastic language. Here, the word “hence” is employed in a
redundant manner. In this context, the meaning of hence could be “because of the previous
premise.” It also means “henceforth.” This is an example of semantic pleonasm.
“He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again…”
The dictum of Hamlet for his father, here the word “man,” adds semantic meanings to the male
personality. This is also a semantic pleonasm that is related to the style of language, enhancing
the meaning of the word “man.”
Function of Pleonasm
Pleonastic words are employed to achieve linguistic, poetic, and literary effects. Since they are
used as a rhetorical repetition, they are helpful for reinforcing a contention, an idea, or a
question rendering an expression easier and clearer to understand. Also, they serve as a part of
idiomatic language in professional and scholarly writing.
Plot
Definition of Plot
Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a
story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel
depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story.
Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story, around which the characters and settings
are built. It is meant to organize information and events in a logical manner. When writing the
plot of a piece of literature, the author has to be careful that it does not dominate the other parts
of the story.
1. Exposition or Introduction
This is the beginning of the story, where characters and setting are established. The conflict or
main problem is introduced as well.
2. Rising Action
Rising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters
are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs, and at the same time, events begin
to get complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is
encountered.
3. Climax
In the climax, or the main point of the plot, there is a turning point of the story. This is meant to
be the moment of highest interest and emotion, leaving the reader wondering what is going to
happen next.
4. Falling Action
Falling action, or the winding up of the story, occurs when events and complications begin to
resolve. The result of the actions of the main characters are put forward.
5. Resolution
Resolution, or the conclusion, is the end of a story, which may occur with either a happy or a
tragic ending.
Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone is
probably the most familiar to both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story begins when
Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer’s Stone. The Professor lets loose a troll,
who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds out that Hagrid let out the secret of
the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon, which means that Snape can now reach the
Sorcerer’s Stone.
A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane
Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie’s sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy’s friend
named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of
destroying him financially.
When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie rejects.
She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all
misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham, and Lizzie realizes that
Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be.
Function of Plot
A plot is one of the most important parts of a story, and has many different purposes. Firstly, the
plot focuses attention on the important characters and their roles in the story. It motivates the
characters to affect the story, and connects the events in an orderly manner. The plot creates a
desire for the reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the story, ensuring
they want to know what happens next.
The plot leads to the climax, but by gradually releasing the story in order to maintain readers’
interest. During the plot of a book, a reader gets emotionally involved, connecting with the book,
not allowing himself to put the book down. Eventually, the plot reveals the entire story, giving the
reader a sense of completion that he has finished the story and reached a conclusion.
The plot is what forms a memory in readers’ minds, allowing them to think about the book and
even making them want to read it again. By identifying and understanding the plot, the reader is
able to understand the message being conveyed by the author, and the explicit or implicit moral
of the story.
Poem
Definition of Poem
Types of Poem
• Haiku – A type of Japanese poem consisting of three unrhymed lines, with mostly five,
seven, and five syllables in each line.
• Free Verse – Consists of non–rhyming lines, without any metrical pattern, but which
follow a natural rhythm.
• Epic – A form of lengthy poem, often written in blank verse, in which poet shows a
protagonist in action of historical significance, or a great mythic.
• Ballad – A type of narrative poem in which a story often talks about folk or legendary
tales. It may take the form of a moral lesson or a song.
• Sonnet – It is a form of lyrical poem containing fourteen lines, with iambic pentameter
and tone or mood changes after the eighth line.
• Elegy – A melancholic poem in which the poet laments the death of a subject, though he
gives consolation towards the end.
• Epitaph – A small poem used as an inscription on a tombstone.
• Hymn – This type of a poem praises spirituality or God’s splendor.
• Limerick – This is a type of humorous poem with five anapestic lines in which the first,
second, and fifth lines have three feet, and the third and fourth lines have two feet, with a
strict rhyme scheme of aabba.
• Villanelle – A French styled poem with nineteen lines, composed of three–line stanza,
with five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses refrain at the first and third lines of each
stanza.
Haiku Poem
This poem contains three lines, which is the typical structure of a haiku poem. It does not follow
any formal rhyme scheme or proper rhythmical pattern.
Epic Poem
This poem neither has rhyming lines, nor does it adhere to a particular metrical plan. Hence, it is
free of artificial expression. It has rhythm and a variety of rhetorical devices used for sounds,
such as assonance and consonance.
Ballad
This poem presents a perfect example of a ballad—a folk-style poem that typically narrates a
love story. The language of this poem is simple. It contains twelve stanzas, with four quatrains
and a rhyme scheme of abcb.
Function of Poem
The main function of a poem is to convey an idea or emotion in beautiful language. It paints a
picture of what the poet feels about a thing, person, idea, concept, or even an object. Poets
grab the attention of the audience through the use of vivid imagery, emotional shades, figurative
language, and other rhetorical devices. However, the supreme function of a poem is to
transform imagery and words into verse form, to touch the hearts and minds of the readers.
They can easily arouse the sentiments of their readers through versification. In addition, poets
evoke imaginative awareness about things by using a specific diction, sound, and rhythm.
Poetic Justice
Poetic Justice Definition
In literature, poetic justice is an ideal form of justice, in which the good characters are rewarded
and the bad characters are punished, by an ironic twist of fate. It is a strong literary view that all
forms of literature must convey moral lessons. Therefore, writers employ poetic justice to
conform to moral principles.
For instance, if a character in a novel is malicious and without compassion in the novel, he is
seen to have gone beyond improvement. Then, the principles of morality demand his character
to experience a twist in his fate and be punished. Similarly, the characters who have suffered at
his hand must be rewarded at the same time.
In Shakespeare’s King Lear we see the evil characters – Goneril, Regan, Oswald, and Edmund
– thrive throughout the play. The good characters – Lear, Gloucester, Kent, Cordelia, and Edgar
– suffer long and hard. We see the good characters turn to gods, but they are rarely answered.
Lear, in Act 2, Scene 4 calls upon heaven in a most pitiful manner:
“… O heavens!
If you do love old men, if your sweet sway
Show obedience, if you yourselves are old,
Make it your cause. Send down, and take my part!”
Lear loses his kingdom by the conspiracies of his daughters Goneril and Regan, who are
supported by Edmund. At Dover, Edmund-led English troops defeat the Cordelia-led French
troops, and Cordelia and Lear are imprisoned.
Cordelia is executed in the prison, and Lear dies of grief at his daughter’s death. Despite all the
suffering that good undergoes, the evil is punished. Goneril poisons her sister Regan due to
jealousy over Edmund. Later, she kills herself when her disloyalty is exposed to Albany. In a
climactic scene, Edgar kills Edmund. In Act 5, Scene 3 he says:
Here, “The gods are just” because they punish the evil for their evil actions.
Bumble marries Mrs. Corney for money, and becomes master of her workhouse. Her,e his fate
takes a twist as he loses his post as a beadle, and his new wife does not allow him to become a
master of her workhouse. She beats him and humiliates him, as he himself had done to the poor
orphans. Right at the end of the novel, we come to know that both Mr. and Mrs. Bumble end up
being so poor that they live in the same workhouse that they once owned.
A classic example of poetic justice is found in the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles. In
the play, Oedipus has committed the crime of defying gods by trying to escape his fate.
Therefore, he left the kingdom he lived in, and went to the new kingdom of Thebes. He killed the
king of the city after a quarrel, and married the queen.
Later, we learn that the prophecy turned out true, as the man he killed turned out to be his
father, and the queen his own mother. The Greek believed their destinies were predetermined –
shaped by the gods and goddesses. Whosoever tried to defy them, committed a sin and
deserved punishment.
Generally, the purpose of poetic justice in literature is to adhere by the universal code of
morality, in that virtue triumphs vice. The idea of justice in literary texts manifests the moral
principle that virtue deserves a reward, and vices earn punishment.
In addition, readers often identify with the good characters. They feel emotionally attached to
them, and feel for them when they suffer at the hands of the wicked characters. Naturally,
readers want the good characters to triumph and be rewarded; but they equally wish the bad
characters to be penalized for their evilness. Thus, poetic justice offers contentment and
resolution.
Point of View
Definition of Point of View
Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the
individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an
author employs to let the readers “hear” and “see” what takes place in a story, poem, or essay.
Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has. Examples of
point of view belong to one of these three major kinds:
1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns “I” or “we.”
• “I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace.”
3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like “he,” “she,” “it,” “they,” or a name.
• “ Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him
easily.”
Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father’s
death:
“I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises;
and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me
a sterile promontory.”
This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person
point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The
writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet’s feelings in a detailed way.
Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first-person point of view to express his subjective
feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem. The use of the pronoun “I” gives a
special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has
employed first-person point of view to share with us his own personal emotions.
Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which is
peculiar to his style.
“I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went
out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard.”
The use of two first person pronouns, “I” and “we,” gives these lines the quality of having a first
person point of view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue directly from the
characters.
Here, the writer illustrates the use of second-person point of view with the use of the pronoun
“you.” This technique may be less common, but it has its own strength of hooking the reader
right from the start.
“When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr.
Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him.”
“He is just what a young man ought to be,” said she, “sensible, good humoured, lively; and I
never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!”
These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third-person point of view. The excerpt shows the
reader two different ways of using third person point of view. Jane Austen first presents two
leading characters –Jane and Elizabeth – from the third-person point of view, and then shows
us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own third-person point of view.
This can be a good example of the use of dual third person point of view – first by the author,
and then by the characters.
Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author’s hands to portray personal emotions
or characters’ feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express
effectively what they want to convey to their readers.
Polyptoton
Definition of Polyptoton
Polyptoton is a stylistic device that is a rhetorical repetition of the same root word. However,
each time the word is repeated in a different way, such as the words luppiter, lovi, lovis, and
lovem are derived from the root word “love.”
Features of Polyptoton
Polyptoton is the use of excessive words instead of shorter expressions. It involves an indirect
way of expressing things. These words can help embellish sentences to create striking effects.
In fact, it happens when the grammatical meaning can be expressed by using syntactical
construction instead of morphological marking. The words in polyptoton share the same
etymologies. It is sometimes used as superlative and comparative adjectives formed by adding
words like “more” or “most” instead of suffixes.
(Franklin D. Roosevelt)
There are three Polyptoton examples in the above excerpt. In the second line, the word “wither”
is used in two ways (verb and adjective). Also, in the fourth line the word “drift” (noun and
adjective), and the word “pray” have been used to give different senses (adjectives and nouns)
each time.
“The Greeks are strong, and skillful to their strength, fierce to their skill, and to their
fierceness valiant …”
In this excerpt, Shakespeare has repeated three words in different ways. Each use of these
words creates a different sense. The word, “strong” is repeated as “strength.” In the same way,
the root words “fierce” and “skill” are also used twice.
This is one of the perfect examples of polyptoton in which Tennyson has used the same word in
various forms. Here, it is creating poetic effect by contrasting different forms.
Here, Shakespeare provides an interesting contrast of different forms of the same root word,
“feed.” This repetition also draws attention towards the paradoxical meaning of the word.
“The signora at every grimace and at every bow smiled a little smile and bowed a little bow…”
This is another very good example of polyptoton. Here, the words bow and smile are used in
multiple forms. “Bow” is used as a noun and then as a verb. Similarly, “smile” is used twice in
two ways with different meanings.
Again Shakespeare has employed polyptoton as a stylistic device. The word “alter” is used as a
verb, and in the same line also as a noun. In the third line, “remove” is repeated in a different
sense but the root words are same.
Function of Polyptoton
Polyptoton enhances the meaning of a word persuasively and dramatically, in writing or speech,
by employing a cognate of the words. It is also used to create rhetorical effect by the articulation
of a speech or statement. Although it helps provide an exciting contrast of different words in a
text, it is also in didactic sense to create dramatic and poetic effects. Besides, it brings a
paradox or an irony in a text to the surface. It is widely used in popular dramas and poems,
while several political leaders have also used this device in their speeches to emphasize
specific points.
Polysyndeton
Definition of Polysyndeton
The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together.” It makes use of
coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or) which are used to join
successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used
where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence, “We have ships and men
and money and stores,” the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join
words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to
join the last two words of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by
a comma.
Polysyndeton uses conjunctions after every word or term, while asyndeton uses no conjunctions
but only commas. For example: “Jane’s days became a blur of meaningless events – wake up,
brush teeth, make the coffee, get the mail, fix dinner, watch TV. It was hard to keep
depression at bay.”
“And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the
garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses,
and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.”
This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how
the conjunction “and” has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this text.
“I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said ‘I don’t know who killed him, but he’s dead all right,’ and it
was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats
all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out
and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of
water.”
Hemingway has used “and” as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from “After the Storm.”
Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his
character is feeling.
Example #3: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)
Maya Angelou, a popular female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton, which can
seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story I Know Why the Caged Bird
Sings.
“Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses
and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly–mostly–let them have their
whiteness.”
The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable, and the rhythm is exhilarating.
Example #4: Dombey and Son (By Charles Dickens)
“There were frowzy fields, and cow-houses, and dunghills, and dustheaps, and ditches, and
gardens, and summer-houses, and carpet-beating grounds, at the very door of the Railway.
Little tumuli of oyster shells in the oyster season, and of lobster shells in the lobster season,
and of broken crockery and faded cabbage leaves in all seasons, encroached upon its high
places.”
Charles Dickens is also well-known for his use of polysyndeton, as well as commas – often
using both of these devices. You can see the effects in this passage taken from Dombey and
Son.
Function of Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases, and clauses,
bringing continuity to a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device that brings rhythm to the
text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay
emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.
Portmanteau
Portmanteau Definition
Portmanteau is a literary device in which two or more words are joined together to coin a new
word, which refers to a singe concept.
The coinage of portmanteau involves the linking and blending of two or more words, and the
new word formed in the process shares the same meanings as the original words. It is different
from a compound word, which could have a completely different meaning from the words that it
was coined from.
Portmanteau, on the other hand, shares the same semantic features. For example, the word
“brunch” is formed by splicing two words “breakfast” and “lunch.” The spliced parts “br-” and “-
unch” are blended to form a portmanteau word, “brunch,” which is the meal taken between
breakfast and lunch. Interestingly, the word portmanteau is formed by blending two French
words, porter (“to carry”) and Manteau (“cloak”).
In modern times, portmanteau words have entered the English language regularly. We see their
widespread coinage in different fields of life. No doubt, they are both useful and interesting.
Below is a list of examples of portmanteau words in modern language.
The world of art and entertainment is replete with portmanteau examples, such as:
In literature, Lewis Carroll introduces the term portmanteau in his novel “Through the Looking
Glass, and What Alice Found There.” In chapter 6, Humpty Dumpty explains the meaning of
“slithy” and “mimsy,” in the nonsense poem Jabberwocky. He says that “slithy” is a combination
of “slimy” and “lithe,” and “mimsy” is a combination of “flimsy,” and “miserable.” He tells Alice:
“You see it’s like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word.”
James Joyce extensively uses portmanteau words in his novel Finnegans Wake. For instance:
Charles Dickens is famous for giving his characters portmanteau names. Such names
correspond with the each character’s disposition as well. For instance, there is a character
named Mr. Tulkinghorn, a stout lawyer, in Bleakhouse. Tulking is a modification of bulking and
horn suggests an injurious nature.
Function of Portmanteau
One of the many factors that distinguish the English language from other languages of the world
is the scope it offers for creativity, through literary devices such as portmanteau. The existence
of portmanteau words rightly testifies to this creative factor in the English language, where
entirely new words with a unique meaning of their own are formed by blending parts of two or
more totally different words. Writers are interested in such coinages because they allow them to
add creativity to their works, which consequently adds the element of interest in their literary
texts. Moreover, it attracts readers’ attention, as they enjoy and appreciates this subtle
demonstration of word play.
Procatalepsis
Definition of Procatalepsis
It could also be that he responds to his own objection, in order to strengthen his argument, by
using counterarguments. Once the speakers bring attention to a possible rebuttal, they
immediately refute or discredit it, for the fear that people may get confused.
” ‘I know what you’re going to say’ … ‘That if they look at it properly they’ll see that it wasn’t our
fault. But will they look at it properly? Of course they won’t. You know what cats they are …’ “
This example is a perfect description of procatalepsis. First, the speaker says that, if the reader
looks at the matter carefully, he will realize and know the truth. Then he quickly objects to his
own argument and asks a question instead.
“Someone will say: ‘Yes, Socrates, but cannot you hold your tongue, and then you may go into
a foreign city, and no one will interfere with you?’ Now I have great difficulty in making you
understand my answer to this … and that the life which is unexamined is not worth living – that
you are still less likely to believe. And yet what I say is true, although a thing of which it is hard
for me to persuade you.”
In this example, the speaker is persuading the listeners. He knows that the other person would
not believe him, and that he is unable to convince him despite the fact that he is telling the truth.
Thus, the speaker is objecting to his own argument to strengthen it.
” ‘He knows every harbor, every cove and inlet throughout the chain; he has to.’
” ‘Please,’ interrupted Cooke. ‘I haven’t finished. To anticipate your objection, he’s a retired
officer of US Naval Intelligence. He’s relatively young, early to mid-forties, I’d say, and I’ve no
real knowledge of why he left the service, but I gather the circumstances weren’t very pleasant.
Still, he could be an asset on this assignment.’ “
In this excerpt, the speaker uses procatalepsis by describing the efforts and expertise of the
U.S. naval officer. First, he raises a question about why he left his job, then immediately objects
to his own argument, responding that, due to unpleasant circumstances, he had left the job.
“I can think of no one objection that will possibly be raised against this proposal, unless it should
be urged that the number of people will be thereby much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely
own, and it was indeed the principal design in offering it to the world.”
Here, Swift brings an argument that he can’t think of a single objection to his proposal; then he
gives a quick argument that an objection might be raised about the decrease in the kingdom’s
population.
“Accept (me), one who knows [how] to love you with spotless faith.
Nor is my field renewed by countless plows,
Act on my side, and Love, who gives me to you
And loyalty [which] will yield to no-one, morals without fault …
and that I die with you grieving (for me).
Offer yourself to me as worthy material for poems: …”
In this poem, Ovid is using procatalepsis to persuade Corinna that he loves her more than
anyone; and though he is not rich, and does not have too much money, social status, or
possessions, he knows that his poetry could make his beloved immortal.
Function
This rhetorical device, procatalepsis, allows a writer to remain in control of a discourse by using
counterargument. It is also helpful to writers or speakers, if they do not have a complete answer
to an objection, which they attain by remaining honest about reality that their arguments have
problems.
This is how they show their audience that they are grounded in the reality. Since it is a very
effective tactic in arguments, its benefits are twofold: the speaker replies successfully to the
objection of the audience or opposing arguments, and also builds trust with his audience. Its
usage is common in literary writings, advertisements, specifically in the political arena, where it
serves as a playground.
Process Essay
Definition of Process Essay
As the name suggests, this type of essay explains a process of making or breaking something.
These essays are often written in chronological order, or in numerical order to show step-by-
step processes. They are written in descriptive or prescriptive modes. Although it is not a
technical communication, it sounds like having all the qualities of a technical document. The
only difference is that it is often written in descriptive mode, while a technical document is
mostly in imperative mode.
As process essay provides step-by-step approach of doing something, they have typical
transition words. These transition words make readers understand what has been done and
what will follow next. Some of the specific transition words could be immediately, initially, in the
end, in the future, in the meanwhile, later, next, soon, eventually, finally or firstly, and secondly.
“In any community, there are several and varying ways in which residents fulfill a sense
of community: participating in intramural sports, attending farmers’ markets, walking with
neighbors, attending political meetings, helping the elderly, visiting the library, and volunteering
for youth groups. It’s knowing the people in these interchanges, not just being familiar with
faces, that build strong community. Unfortunately, when this basic engagement is overlooked,
communities can begin to disintegrate.”
This an excerpt from a process essay by Heidi Ramirez. It sets the tone of a process how
communities integrate with each other. It clearly shows the sequence of the integration process.
“I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary’s next page. And the same
experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and
places and events from history. Actually, the dictionary is like a miniature encyclopedia. Finally
the dictionary’s A section had filled a whole tablet—and I went on into the B’s. That was the way
I started copying what eventually became the entire dictionary. It went a lot faster after so much
practice helped me to pick up handwriting speed. Between what I wrote in my tablet, and writing
letters, during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million words.”
In this essay, Malcolm X has stated some of the ways through which he learned writing. He
states how he “went on” copying the dictionary from one page to the next page. Some of the
transition words such as “finally” and “actually” are quite obvious.
“Let’s go back to the Popol Vuh. We’re talking about borders now. There is a border that defines
the human being as a material and spiritual being. We have all learned that we’re Homo
sapiens, wise monkeys. The monkey is a symbol of intelligence in the Popol Vuh, and in the
classic Chinese novel Monkey. The wise monkey is a symbol for humanity. Now let me offer you
another symbol for our human being—the feathered serpent. You are a feathered serpent that is
evolving and crawling out of the seeds of your being. And once in awhile you get caught up in
the dead skins of your life. You know biologically we go through a complete cellular change
every seven to nine years. We’re totally renewed. So in one sense, biologically, you crawl out of
a dead skin. You evolve out of yourself. The feathers are necessary because they represent our
spiritual being.”
Although written in second person, this excerpt shows that the essay presents a process. It
follows the same structure and same pattern of using things or doing tasks in a sequence.
Specifically, the last lines show it clearly.
A process essay gives reader a sense of complete how-to-do process of making or creating
some objects or things. Readers, after going through the essay, are able to create and make
things. Although it is not like imperative instructions, it gives full details in a descriptive or
prescriptive mode. It is because its major objective is not to present trite and dry instructions,
but lively language to make readers read it with interest and do the act with enthusiasm.
Prologue
Prologue Definition
Prologue comes from the Greek term prologos, which means “before word,” is an opening of a
story that establishes the setting, and gives background details.
Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story, and connects it to
the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story, and sheds light
on their roles. In its modern sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity, and is not considered
part of the current story that a writer ventures to tell.
The prologos in Greek dramas incorporated the above-mentioned features, but it had a wider
importance than the modern interpretations of the prologue. Greek prologos was more like a
preface – an introduction to a literary work provided by a dramatist, to tell how the idea of the
story developed. Therefore, in Greek dramas, prologue was a complete episode, or the first act,
which was succeeded by the remaining acts of a play.
Plautus, a Latin playwright, has written examples of prologues in his plays that were more
elaborate than Greek prologues. His prologues were admired for their romantic quality, and
were usually performed by characters that did not make an appearance in the play.
A prologue to Plautus’ play Rudens is a perfect manifestation of his genius in writing prologue.
Later, French playwright Moliere revived prologue on the Latin stage by prefixing it to his play
Amphitryon. Furthermore, we notice French playwright John Racine introducing his choral
tragedy Esther, with a prologue with the character Piety as its speaker.
The early English dramatists were influenced by the traditions of prologues in Greek and Latin
plays. Even the early forms of drama, mystery, and morality plays always began with a homily,
which was a religious commentary on the biblical story that was to be performed in those plays.
Elizabethan dramatists took inspiration from the Greek and Latin tradition of prologue, holding it
as a compulsory ingredient of their plays.
In 1562, Thomas Norton, and Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset wrote Gorboduc, which is
believed to be the first English play. He prepared a pantomime that acted as a prologue for his
play. Later, he wrote Induction, which was a prologue to his Miscellany of short romantic epics.
A prologue to Elizabethan plays usually served to quieten and settle down an audience before
the commencement of a play. It then introduced the themes of the play and other particulars to
the audience, making them mentally prepared for the events they were to witness in the
performance. Also, it was considered necessary to beg their leniency for any error that might
occur in the writing of the play, or in the performances of actors on stage.
Usually, the character who uttered the prologue was dressed in black, in order to differentiate
him from the rest of the actors who wore colorful costumes during their performances. For
instance, read the following lines from the prologue in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet:
The Chorus in the extract not only introduces the theme, but also asks the audience to be
attentive “with patient ears attend.”
In English literature, a prologue was employed in non-dramatic fiction as well as fiction. One of
the earliest prologue examples is Geoffrey Chaucer’s A Prologue to Canterbury Tales, which
was built on the conventional pattern. He used it to introduce all of his characters, or “pilgrims,”
in dramatic details before each of them told their story on their way to Canterbury to visit the
shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett.
Function of Prologue
As previously mentioned, the primary function of a prologue is to let the readers or audience be
aware of the earlier part of the story, and enable them to relate it to the main story. This literary
device is also a means to present characters and establish their roles.
Propaganda
Definition of Propaganda
• The U.S. dropped leaflets in a propaganda campaign in Iraq, to let the people know that
Saddam Hussein was the real culprit they were looking for.
• People use name-calling as propaganda, such as “My enemy is a drug addict.”
• During the McCarthy era, mass media attempted to persuade the public, through
propaganda, that Communists had become very powerful, and that they would take over
the U.S.
• Slogans or catchphrases can work as propaganda, when they are repeated over and
over. Eventually, the public starts believing them.
• Selling happiness has become popular concept in ads, and serves as propaganda such
as famous celebrities explain to the public why they need to purchase the product
because it would solve their problems.
Examples of Propaganda in Literature
Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
Propaganda played a very important role in the Russian Revolution. George Orwell wrote his
novel Animal Farm after this revolution, and used anti-communist propaganda as its major
theme. The author manipulated the speech of the character Squealer, which is a pig portrayed
as Napoleon’s spokesperson.
One example of Squealer’s propaganda is to get the support of other animals. He uses
manipulated speech to disapprove of Snowball’s part in the uprising revolt after his banishment
from the farm. He uses the stupidity of animals for his benefit, and plays with their minds by
describing a different side of events in the Battle of the Cowshed.
We can see another example of propaganda in this novel, when pigs twist the rules and the
Seven Commandments for their own advantage. The original rule reads:
Adam Johnson’s novel The Orphan Master’s Son deals with the themes of identity, state power,
and propaganda in North Korea. The story is about two men from North Korea who revolted
against the tyrannical government of their country. Through their story, readers get the
impression that the North Korean leaders are selfish, as they kidnap their people, steal their
money, and cheat them.
Many critics consider some historical plays of Shakespeare as Tudor propagandas, as they
depict civil war dangers, and commemorate the Tudor dynasty’s founders. Similarly, in his play
Richard III, Shakespeare uses propaganda, when we see Richard shapes the readers’
perceptions. He gains the sympathies of other characters in the play when he declares his
deformity is the root cause of wickedness in his character. Hence, he makes use of deformity as
propaganda, and controls, injures, and manipulates other people for his personal gain.
In William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, the author introduces the concept of a beast, using
propaganda by his character Jack, who plans to take control of a totalitarian government. He
uses propaganda by manipulating the cognition of the young boys, frightening them about the
existence of the beast in that area. He accuses Ralph, who does not carry out his duty to
provide protection to the children, and consequently takes charge of a new tribe that would
follow his tyrannical rules.
Function of Propaganda
We can easily find the use of propaganda technique in mass media advertising, politics, and
literature. It is a very popular technique in academic commentary, and is taken as an
interchangeable form of communication. The primary function of propaganda is to persuade the
audience, and to mold their perceptions about a particular cause.
Often, propaganda assists in promoting policies. In addition, it aims at getting a response of the
audience taking a certain action. This is because merely securing a commitment or assent
would not be enough for making this technique successful, and securing its purpose. Besides,
propaganda serves as an effective weapon to rouse people by making them realize their
vulnerabilities and frailties, instead of comforting them with illusions.
Prose
Definition of Prose
Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of
speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case
of traditional poetry.
Normal everyday speech is spoken in prose, and most people think and write in prose form.
Prose comprises of full grammatical sentences, which consist of paragraphs, and forgoes
aesthetic appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to be the most
reflective of conversational speech. Some works of prose do have versification, and a blend of
the two formats that is called “prose poetry.”
Prose Form
“The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze into the mysterious depths of
the forest, I feel like lingering here longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep, and
much distance to cover before I settle in for the night, or else I will be late for all of them.”
The above paragraph is conveying a similar message, but it is conveyed in ordinary language,
without a formal metrical structure to bind it.
This is usually written in the form of a narrative, and may be entirely a figment of the author’s
imagination.
“It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”
“Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by
anybody else, these pages must show.”
“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”
These examples of prose have been taken from novels, where the writers have employed their
imaginations. They are examples of fictional prose.
Prose in Speeches
Prose used in speeches often expresses thoughts and ideas of the speaker.
“You can see that there is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to pass
through the valley of the shadow (of death) again and again before we reach the mountain tops
of our desires.”
Example #5: Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech (By Mother Teresa)
“The poor are very great people. They can teach us so many beautiful things.”
Example #6: Equal Rights for Women speech (By U.S. Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm)
“As for the marriage laws, they are due for a sweeping reform, and an excellent beginning would
be to wipe the existing ones off the books.”
These prose examples have been taken from speeches where the writing is often crisp and
persuasive, and suits the occasion to convey a specific message.
Prose in Plays
“You can be young without money, but you can’t be old without it.”
“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. “
Prose in plays is often in conversational mode and is delivered by a character. However, its
style stays the same throughout the play according to the personality of the character.
Function of Prose
While there have been many critical debates over the correct and valid construction of prose,
the reason for its adoption can be attributed to its loosely-defined structure, which most writers
feel comfortable using when expressing or conveying their ideas and thoughts. It is the standard
style of writing used for most spoken dialogues, fictional as well as topical and factual writing,
and discourses. It is also the common language used in newspapers, magazines, literature,
encyclopedias, broadcasting, philosophy, law, history, the sciences, and many other forms of
communication.
Prosody
Definition of Prosody
A literary technique, prosody is the study of meter, intonation, and rhythm of a poetic work. It is
a phonetic term that uses meter, rhythm, tempo, pitch, and loudness in a speech for conveying
information about the meanings and structure of an utterance. In addition, prosody is an
important element of language that contributes toward rhythmic and acoustic effects in a piece
of writing. It includes different elements, such as scansion, sound, pace, and meaning.
Types of Prosody
This extract is an example of syllabic verse, which contains constrained or a fixed number of
syllables. Here, in this poem each line consists of seven syllables, except the final line.
However, it does not follow a consistent stressed pattern.
This poem is presenting a good example of accentual verse, in which the number of stressed
syllables remains constant at four. They are underlined above, but the total number of syllables
in each line does not remain constant and changes from seven to ten.
This poem is a perfect example of accentual-syllabic verse, which focuses on both the number
of syllables, and the number of accents in each poetic line. This iambic pentameter poem is one
of the best examples of accented syllabic verse, as it contains five iambs in each line, and
follows a strictly measured syllabic pattern.
This opening line of Virgil’s Aeneid is a classic model of quantitative prosody. Look at the stress
pattern which is irregular. As this type of prosody does not have measured syllables, it
measures the meter according to duration of time to pronounce a line.
Function of Prosody
Prosody has multiple functions in literature. For example, poets incorporate it in matters like
syntactic phrasing, word segmentation, sentence, accentuation, stress, and phonological
distinctions. Generally, authors use it to produce rhythmic and acoustic effects in poetry as well
as prose. However, it has expressive and pragmatic functions, because a certain sentence in a
given perspective expresses more than just its linguistic meanings.
An expressive content could be an identity of a speaker, his mood, age, sex, and other extra-
linguistic features. Pragmatic function of prosody encompasses the attitude of speaker and
listener, and provides relationship between a speaker and his or her discourse. It also reflects
different features of a speaker and his utterance, emotional state, form of utterance, presence of
sarcasm or irony, and emphasis.
Prosthesis
Definition of Prosthesis
Prosthesis is a literary device that involves the addition of an extra sound or syllable to the
beginning of a word, which helps in making it easier to pronounce. Since the meaning of this
word is “to put before,” an additional syllable or sound is placed at the beginning of a word,
which helps in highlighting it. It can be understood from the following example:
“Old fond eyes, beweep this cause again….” (King Lear, by William Shakespeare).
Here, Shakespeare adds be- (an extra syllable) at the beginning of the word weep, making it
beweep.
On the other hand, prosthesis is adding an additional letter or syllable to the front of a word.
Like, “Touchstone: I remember, when I was in love I broke my sword upon a stone and bid him
take that for coming a-night to Jane Smile.” (As You Like It, by William Shakespeare). In these
lines, an extra letter “a” is added to word “night.”
This extract is an example of prosthesis. Here, a word “bedimm’d” gives a poetic touch to a
piece of prose by adding “be” at the front. This is among the prosthesis examples that turn an
ordinary word into something unique, and give rhythmic effect to a text.
This is one of the more popular examples of prosthesis in literature, in which Shakespeare could
have used the word “weep,” rather than “beweep.’ However, he uses prosthesis because this
expression matches the meter, and creates a great poetic effect.
In the excerpt, Poe adds a syllable at the beginning of the word “vow.” He added the letter “a” to
make the literary piece more rhythmic.
Shakespeare widely used prosthesis in his works, such as in this extract, the letter “a” is
included in the beginning of the word “twain” to put an emphasis on it.
This is another good example of prosthesis in which Poe adds a syllable “a” to the word “far.”
The purpose of this device is to give a perfect rhythmic effect to this extract, and highlight the
importance of this particular word in a given context.
Function of Prosthesis
The main function of this device is to create a poetic effect in a piece of writing, and to lay
emphasis on a particular word. It is a rhetorical strategy of highlighting a point or idea in a text or
speech. Since the altered word is employed with additional sound at its beginning, it draws
focus, and the attention of readers, by slowing the pace of the text a bit. Frequently, it is used in
prose for poetic and humorous effects, in poetry for rhythmic effect, and in everyday
conversations and political speeches for emphasis.
Protagonist
Protagonist Definition
A protagonist is the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other
story. A protagonist is sometimes a “hero” to the audience or readers. The word originally came
from the Greek language, and in Greek drama it refers to the person who led the chorus. Later
on, the word started being used as a term for the first actor in order of performance.
Iago in Shakespeare’s Othello could be identified as the protagonist of the novel because he
played a central role in all the controversies of the play. The question here would be that, even
though he was a central character, was he really the lead character too? This type of
indistinctness generally results in completely different interpretations of whether the said
character is a protagonist or not.
Protagonist examples in many stories are not shown to be flawless. They generally undergo
some change that causes a turn of events. This makes a story interesting and helps deliver a
message. Sometimes, a moral weakness shows that causes the fall of the protagonist. For
example, in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, the protagonist experiences terrible events
because of his indecisiveness, which troubles him while murdering his evil uncle. So, Hamlet’s
struggle in dealing with the antagonist is what precedes the story.
Example #2: Vanity Fair (By William Makepeace Thackeray)
A protagonist can sometimes be very controversial because of some evil traits. One of the good
examples of protagonist who is controversial would be Becky Sharp from William Makepeace
Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, who is occasionally be very manipulative in order to achieve her own
interests.
There are ensemble stories that do not particularly highlight either one of the characters more
than the rest. For instance, Addie Bundren’s demise in the novel As I Lay Dying by William
Faulkner, results in her family traveling a long way to bury her, and they all tell the story from
their own perspectives, which makes them all equally important to the story. Thus, it leaves us
with more than one protagonist in the same story.
George Lucas develops the character of Luke Skywalker in the movie Star Wars. He plays an
outwardly naïve farm boy. Luke desperately wants a life different from his monotonous
existence. After his uncle’s and aunt’s demise, he has no other choice but to join forces with
Obi-wan Kenobe. Luke later matures to understand the customs of The Force. His antagonist in
the movie is Darth Vader, who turns out to be Luke’s father. They both get into a major conflict
but eventually Luke succeeds.
Function of Protagonist
A protagonist is a very important tool to develop a story. There are different terms for a
protagonist, such as hero, focal character, central character, and main character. Regardless of
what title you give a protagonist, he or she remains the key ingredient in the development of the
story, which is why the story revolves around him or her. More often than not the protagonist is
fair and virtuous, and is always supporting the moral good. Further in the plot the protagonist
may undergo some change, which will probably be the climax of the story.
Being the central element puts grave responsibilities on the shoulders of a protagonist. Since,
the story revolves around the protagonist, he is the one who has to work as an emotional heart
of the story, helping the audience connect with it on a basic level. A well-constructed protagonist
attracts the audience emotionally. It helps them relate to the joys, fears, and hopes of the
character in the story.
The events occurring in a story are always viewed from the perspective of the protagonist. The
audience decides whether or not a particular event is favorable in a story. A wedding is an
important and positive event in The Sound of Music because it is a positive event for the
protagonist, Maria. However, the same kind of event in the movie While You Were Sleeping
would be unfortunate because in that case the protagonist Lucy was marrying the wrong
person.
Some stories weave many characters into an ensemble story, but even in such stories there is
often one character that is more important to the story than the rest. For instance, in The Lord of
the Rings trilogy there are many characters that have great significance to the story, but Frodo
Baggins is the one who stands out, because everyone else’s destiny rests in his hands.
Proverb
Definition of Proverb
A proverb is a brief, simple, and popular saying, or a phrase that gives advice and effectively
embodies a commonplace truth based on practical experience or common sense. A proverb
may have an allegorical message behind its odd appearance. The reason of popularity is due to
its usage in spoken language, as well as in folk literature.
Some authors twist and bend proverbs, and create anti-proverbs to add literary effect to their
works. However, in poetry, poets use proverbs strategically by employing some parts of them in
poems’ titles, such as Lord Kennet has done in his poem, A Bird in the Bush, which is a popular
proverb. Some poems contain multiple proverbs, like Paul Muldoon’s poem Symposium.
• Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
• Laugh and the world laughs with you, weep and you weep alone.
• Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
• All that glitters is not gold.
• An army of sheep led by a lion would defeat an army of lions led by a sheep.
• The old horse in the stable still yearns to run .
Meaning: If you remove the dirt of your ancestors, you can have a better future. Everyone can
build his or her own fame.
Meaning: Everything happens for a reason, and for something, not for nothingness.
“A child’s fingers are not scalded by a piece of hot yam which its mother puts into its palm.”
Meaning: You can burn new fire from lighting another fire, similarly a new pain could mitigate
your old pain.
“The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction.”
(Proverbs 1:7)
Meaning: Wise men always fear the Lord, while fools do not like wisdom and guidance.
“Every word of God is flawless; He is a shield to those who take refuge in him.” (Proverbs 30:5)
Meaning: The things God says are never flawed. He protects the people who ask for His help,
and who follow His path.
“Commit to the LORD whatever you do, and he will establish your plans.” (Proverbs 16:3)
Meaning: Do whatever you do for the Lord, putting faith in Him, and he will guide your plans and
actions.
Example #4: The Power and the Glory (By Graham Greene)
Meaning: When we do not repent of our sins, rather loving them, then we are damned.
“There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the future in …We
should be thankful we cannot see the horrors and degradations lying around our childhood, in
cupboards and bookshelves, everywhere.”
Meaning: Childhood is a blessing for us, as we do not face horrible experiences like humiliation
and degradation from people.
Fortune Teller:
“We should make sure that our own house is in order before we give advice to others.”
Meaning: We should act upon our own words, before advising others to do the same.
Function of Proverb
Proverbs play very important roles in different types of literary works. The most important
function of proverbs is to teach and educate the audience. They often contain expert advice,
with a role for educating the readers on what they may face if they do something. Hence,
proverbs play a didactic role, as they play a universal role in teaching wisdom and sagacity to
the common people. Since proverbs are usually metaphorical and indirect, they allow writers to
express their messages in a less harsh way.
Pun
Pun Definition
A pun is a play on words that produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests two or
more meanings, or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings.
Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities the words entail. These
ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in the sentence, “A
happy life depends on a liver,” the word liver can refer to the bodily organ, or simply a person
who lives. Similarly, in the saying “Atheism is a non-prophet institution,” the word “prophet” is
used instead of “profit” to produce a humorous effect.
In everyday life, pun examples are found intentionally or accidentally, used in jokes and witty
remarks.
In constructing puns, William Shakespeare was a master craftsman. We find many examples of
puns in his plays. Let us have a look at some of them:
• “It is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied.” (Richard III)
• “Now is the winter of our discontent … made glorious summer by this sun of York.”
(Richard III)
• “Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead”
(Romeo and Juliet)
• Claudius: “… But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son…” Hamlet: [aside] “A little more
than kin, and less than kind.” (Hamlet)
John Donne’s A Hymn to God the Father has several examples of pun.
“When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more.
That at my death Thy Son / Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore
And having done that, Thou hast done;
I fear no more.”
He is playing with his name Donne, and with the name of his wife Anne More. Besides, he uses
Son, referring to the Christ, instead of the sun.
Oscar Wilde employs puns in his play The Importance of being Earnest. Jack Earnest tells Aunt
Augusta, in Act III:
“On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I’ve now realised for the first time in my life the vital Importance
of Being Earnest.”
Similarly, in Act III we see Jack puns his family name again:
“I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn’t I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean
it naturally is Ernest.”
Here Jack discovers his father’s name, which makes him truly earnest.
Charles Dickens plays around with words in his novel Great Expectations. In his opening
chapter, Pip says:
“They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every
now and then, and stick the point into me”
Note the pun in the use of the word “point.” We see another interesting example in Chapter 2:
“Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame.”
Function of Pun
Apart from being witty and humorous, puns add profound meanings to texts, and shape the way
in which the text is interpreted by the readers. By playing with the words, the writers reveal their
cleverness and the cleverness of their characters. Besides, puns in a literary works act as a
source of comic relief, or an intentional effort on the part of the writer, to show his or her creative
ability in using language.
Quatrain
Definition of Quatrain
A quatrain is a verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an
independent and separate theme. Often one line consists of alternating rhyme, existing in a
variety of forms. We can trace back quatrains in poetic traditions of various ancient civilizations,
such as China, Ancient Rome, and Ancient Greece; and they continue to appear in the twenty-
first century.
During the Dark Ages in Europe, the Middle East, and Iran, polymath poets like Omar Khayyam
popularized this type of poetry. It gained popularity with the name of Rubai in Iran, and has a
possible rhyme scheme of aabb, aaaa and abab.
Types of Quatrain
In formal poetry, rhyme scheme and meter define different types of quatrain. There are many
types of quatrain, but the most common types include:
Example #2: Hope is the Thing with Feathers (By Emily Dickinson)
This entire poem is written in iambic trimeter pattern, and has three quatrains. However, it often
adds a fourth stress at the end of the lines, such as in the fourth line of this stanza. This stanza
loosely rhymes with rhythmical flow in abab pattern.
These lines embody an example of Hymnal Stanza, in which we see the poet having written in
alternating quatrain with iambics. The first and third lines follow iambic tetrameter, while the
second and fourth lines follow iambic trimeter, using the rhyme scheme of abcb. This alternating
meter makes the poem more voiced and pronounced.
This is an example of the envelope stanza, in which the quatrain follows the rhyme scheme of
abba, with iambic tetrameter. In this type of quatrain, the first and fourth lines enclose the
second and third lines.
This quatrain is presenting an example of elegiac stanza, written in iambic pentameter with
rhyme scheme abab. It is also referred as “heroic stanza,” as its rhyme is similar to a heroic
couplet.
Example #6: In Memoriam A. H. H (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)
This example of memoriam stanza with rhyme scheme of abba follows the iambic tetrameter
pattern (each line contains four iambs).
Function of Quatrain
Quatrain is a very popular stanza, and important poetic form in English literature. It determines a
specific style of expression, and shapes the structure of a poem. The rhyming lines of a quatrain
give it a regular rhythm. In addition, it gives language a fine arrangement by using accents on
syllables and adding variations of rhyme scheme. A quatrain uses speech in a regular pattern,
and converts a normal text into a dramatic form. Besides, it creates a rhythmic sense in literary
works.
Realism
Definition of Realism
Realism is a movement in art, which started in the mid nineteenth century in France, and later
spread to the entire world. Realism entered literature at almost at the same time. Its real
objective was to root out what is called fantastic and romantic in literature and art, to insert what
is real.
In literature, writers use realism as a literary technique to describe story elements, such as
setting, characters, themes, etc., without using elaborate imagery, or figurative language, such
as similes and metaphors. Through realism, writers explain things without decorative language
or sugar-coating the events. Realism is something opposite to romanticism and idealism. Read
on to learn more about realism in literature.
VARYA. There’s been an unpleasantness here while you were away. In the old servants’ part of
the house, as you know, only the old people live – little old Efim and Polya and Evstigney, and
Karp as well … Then I heard that they were saying that I had ordered them to be fed on peas
and nothing else; from meanness, you see. … So I call Evstigney. … [Yawns] He comes.
“What’s this,” I say, “Evstigney, you old fool.”… [Looks at ANYA] Anya dear! [Pause] … My
darling’s gone to sleep!”
This monologue looks like a rambling and an idle complaint. However, it reveals many things
about Anya, Varya, and their situation at home. It presents a perfect example of social realism,
as it exemplifies old feudal order slowly giving way to a rapidly growing mercantile and
capitalistic middle class.
Example #2: The Rape of the Lock (by Alexander Pope)
“The Rape of the Lock” reflects cultural and social realism of the aristocratic society during the
eighteenth century. The people of that aristocratic society were mainly urban, with flow of
money gained from commerce and trade. They spent a great deal of time in back biting, idle
gossip, love games, and playing card games.
Pope has presented details of daily routine of such gentle men and women in an amusing way.
Belinda and Lord Peter are representatives of that society. Pope describes Belinda’s
preparation in front of a dressing table in an amusing and ironic way. Many people consider her
dressing table a sacred place of worship. He gives minute details of how ladies are concerned
to enhance their beauty by artificial methods.
“Adam Bede” is one of the best examples of Victorian literature that aims to highlight social
realism. Victorian society was rigid and afflicted with prejudices and bigotry against women. This
realism includes the elements of realistic presentation – highlighting the poor people, and
reflecting on their problems by setting them in the rural background, and presenting their
religious and the moral sense.
Social gap was another issue in that society. As in the novel, the remnants of feudalism were
still alive in Hayslope society. Hetty belonged to the working class and was madly in love with
Arthur Donnithorne, who belonged to a feudal class. This held a certain charm for the people of
the working class. She wanted to marry him, to be the wife of an honorable feudal man.
However, her fantasy was destroyed, as it lead to a tragic end. This left a deep mark on the
psyche of Hayslope inhabitants. Hetty’s personal accident suggests the harsh reality of a
society that faces two unequal and different classes, as they try to unite due to emotions rather
than reason.
In his play, “The Crucible,” Arthur Miller presents realism, which is based on making his
character appearing lifelike figures. Miller has created a chain of events to demonstrate iconic
realism by using characterization, language, and dialogue. He has chosen a story of human
interaction to describe his own concern for the cultural future of the United States, and humanity
at large.
It is true that the witch trials in Salem actually happened, and people such as Rebecca and John
Proctor were killed. The murders of these innocent people have a powerful impact on readers,
not because of the author’s style, but because of the horrifying subject matter. Miller’s use of
language is also very powerful, especially where the judges and the accusers twisted ideas and
words to create contrasts and paradoxes from which the accused could not escape. This was
the reality of life at that time.
Function
Realism attempts to illustrate life without romantic subjectivity and idealization. It focuses on the
actualities of life, and truthfully treats the commonplace characters of everyday life. The purpose
of using realism is to emphasize the reality and morality that is usually relativistic and intrinsic
for the people as well as the society. This sort of realism makes the readers face reality as it
happens in the world, rather than in the make-believe world of fantasy.
Rebuttal
Definition of Rebuttal
Features of Rebuttal
There are many features of an effective rebuttal. First, rebuttal states the opposing side’s
position without any distortion. Secondly, the writers use quotations with accuracy and fidelity.
Thirdly, this technique makes use of professional tone with rationality and courtesy, as it does
not allow ridiculing to make points. Finally, rebuttal is often constructively critical, as readers
bristle if they encounter extreme negativity.
“A writer in your paper comforts himself, and the India Company, with the fancy that the
Americans, should they resolve to drink no more tea, can by no means keep that resolution,
their Indian corn not affording ‘an agreeable, or easy digestible breakfast.’ Pray let me, an
American, inform the gentleman, who seems quite ignorant of the matter, that Indian corn, take
it for all in all, is one of the most agreeable and wholesome grains in the world; that its green
ears roasted are a delicacy beyond expression; that samp, hominy, succatash, and nokehock,
made of it, are so many pleasing varieties; and that a johny, or hoe-cake, hot from the fire, is
better than a Yorkshire muffin.”
Benjamin Franklin has written this succinct rebuttal in response to Vindex Patriae, who was a
correspondent to Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser. This correspondent had ridiculed corn.
There are many instances of rebuttal in Ray Bradbury’s novel Fahrenheit 451. A very notable
example is the argument between Beatty and Montag. Beatty uses quotes from prominent
intellectuals and authors, including Alexander Pope and Sir Philip Sidney. Beatty, thereby,
makes an argument that books are just a source of debate and controversy, because we often
see whatever mentioned in one book is contradicted in another. This situation becomes ironic
as Beatty’s job is to burn the outlawed books, and he is skillful and well informed of literary
works. With it, he is also capable of debating and arguing based on literary knowledge.
Example #3: Editorial Rebuttal in The Washington Post (By Eugene Joseph Dionne)
Eugene Joseph Dionne, an editorial writer, provides a good instance of rebuttal in The
Washington Post. Before the 2003 Iraqi invasion, some people were of the opinion that those
who opposed this invasion were unpatriotic, because in this way they would oppose the
American president. Dionne had rejected this suggestion, arguing that, if this was the case,
“then Abraham Lincoln was an unpatriotic appeaser for opposing the Mexican War as a young
congressman in the 1840s.” Dionne’s counter-argument is a complete rebuttal intended to show
a flaw in the original argument.
Example #4: Speech on 50th Anniversary Commemoration of Bloody Sunday in Selma (By
President Barack Obama)
“For we were born of change. We broke the old aristocracies, declaring ourselves entitled not by
bloodline, but endowed by our Creator with certain unalienable rights. We secure our rights and
responsibilities through a system of self-government, of and by and for the people. That’s why
we argue and fight with so much passion and conviction, because we know our efforts matter.
We know America is what we make of it.”
Many critics interpret this speech of President Obama as a finely veiled rebuttal or an argument
for conservative critics such as Rudy Giuliani, ex New York City Mayor, who claimed President
Obama “doesn’t love America.” While some others believe that Obama’s verbal attack is on
Congress, because it was not renewing the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Function of Rebuttal
The purpose of using rebuttal is to prove another argument as erroneous and false. It is very
common in literature, public affairs, law, and politics, where opponents put forward statements
to negate or refute specific arguments against them. In law, rebuttal requires specific rules. The
party using rebuttal evidence must confine it solely to the main subject of evidence being
rebutted. Whereas, in literary works and politics, rebuttals help writers to defend their points of
view, as well as make positive criticisms through argumentation.
Red Herring
Red Herring Definition
Red herring is a kind of fallacy that is an irrelevant topic introduced in an argument to divert the
attention of listeners or readers from the original issue. In literature, this fallacy is often used in
detective or suspense novels to mislead readers or characters, or to induce them to make false
conclusions.
Let us consider a simple example of a red herring. A teacher catches a student cheating during
a test. The student in response says, “I know I’ve made a mistake. But think of my parents.
They’re going to be heartbroken.” The student uses a red herring in his response. He tries to
appeal to pity to distract his teacher from the real issue.
The term red herring literally refers to a kind of dried red fish, which has a pungent smell. In fox
hunting, hounds are prevented from catching the fox by distracting them with the strong scent of
red herring. Similarly, a person can be stopped from proving his point, or discovering something
important, in an argument by distracting him with an irrelevant issue.
Common Red Herring Examples
Some examples of red herring fallacy in casual conversations are given below:
Example 1:
This conversation shows how a child tries to distract her mother so that she [Jane] can stay
awake a little longer.
Example 2:
There is a lot of commotion regarding saving the environment. We cannot make this world an
Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there!
The idea of Adam and Eve getting bored in Eden throws the listeners off the real issue of
damaging the environment.
Mystery and suspense novels are rich with red herring examples, as writers frequently use them
to veil the facts from the readers in order to develop their interest.
The character of Bishop Aringarosa, in Dan Brown’s novel Da Vinci Code, serves as an
example of a red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that
the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church.
Later, it is revealed that he is innocent. This example of a red herring in the novel distracts the
readers from who the real bad guy is, and thus adds to the mystery of the story. Interestingly,
the Italian surname of the bishop “Aringarosa” translates in English as “red herring.”
Example #2: Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles (By Sir Arthur Conan Doyle)
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles presents a classic
example of red herring. The readers are thrown off the real murderer and start suspecting the
escaped convict and Barrymore. In the end, however, the mystery is resolved by the
unexpected confession of Beryl that her husband Stapleton was the real culprit, and was behind
the whole mystery of the killer Hound.
A red herring is a common device used in mystery and thriller stories to distract the reader from
identifying the real culprit. The red herring in a story can take the form of characters that the
reader suspect, but who turn out be innocent when the real murderer is identified. It aims at
keeping the readers guessing at the possibilities until the end, and therefore keeps them
interested in the story. Readers enjoy solving the mysteries created by red herrings in the story.
Undoubtedly, it would be difficult to keep the reader’s interest, if thrillers exposed the killer from
the start.
Moreover, for politicians, red herrings come in handy as they use them frequently to dodge
difficult questions in a discussion or an argument. They do it by referring to a different issue,
which of course is irrelevant, to sidetrack from the original issue under discussion.
Reductio ad Absurdum
Definition of Reductio ad Absurdum
Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin term that means “to reduce something to absurdity.” It is a
figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something for one’s own position by
showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an
argument to absurdity, by drawing conclusions with logical limits, or by showing ridiculous
consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity.
Reductio ad absurdum examples cannot be used as an appeal to ridicule. Though both devices
are extensively used in satire, an appeal to ridicule is the use of ridiculing a situation without
arguing or explanation; while, reductio ad absurdum pursues arguments and logical
consequences.
Swift uses reductio ad absurdum as a satirizing technique here. In this case, the purpose is to
ridicule the duality of individuals in their private and public spheres.
“I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the
backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present
deplorable state of the kingdom … cheap and easy method of making these children sound and
useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his
statue set up for a preserver of the nation.”
This is one of the more famous examples of reductio ad absurdum in English literature. Here,
Swift uses reductio ad absurdum by arguing about social conditions to ridiculous lengths. This
highlights a horrific situation of children.
Estragon and Vladimir indulge themselves in useless and aimless activities. They talk, joke,
rebuke, question, and argue about the reason of their existence. This excerpt is full of reductio
ad absurdum because characters push the conversation to extreme ridicule with
argumentations.
Adeimantus: “The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, he replied.”
Socrates: “Well, then, according to the proverb, ‘Let brother help brother'”
Adeimantus: “Nonsense, he replied…”
In this extract, Plato argues for justice – that men should be just. By using this technique, he
ridicules the questions of other speakers. Adeimantus disagrees to the extreme of absurdity
against Glaucon’s claims regarding people wanting to be unjust rather than just.
Today, it is used mostly in informal debates. The purpose of using this technique is to expose
the foolishness and ridiculous attitudes of certain assumptions and behaviors. However, there is
a great danger that readers might fail to recognize the objectives clearly.
Refrain
Definition of Refrain
Refrain is a verse, a line, a set, or a group of lines that appears at the end of stanza, or appears
where a poem divides into different sections. It originated in France, where it is popular as,
refraindre, which means “to repeat.” Refrain is a poetic device that repeats, at regular intervals,
in different stanzas. However, sometimes, this repetition may involve only minor changes in its
wording. It also contributes to the rhyme of a poem and emphasizes an idea through repetition.
Refrain is a type of repetition, but it is somewhat different from repetition. Refrain is repetition of
usually a line, a phrase, two or three lines, or even words in a poem. Repetition, on the other
hand, involves repetition of words, phrases, syllables, or even sounds in a full piece. Another
difference is that a refrain in a poem may appear at the end of a stanza; however, this
recurrence of words and phrases in repetition may occur in any line of stanza. Villanelle, on the
contrary, is a poetic form consisting of nineteen lines that uses refrain in its first and third lines.
In this example, the poet has repeatedly used the refraining line “The art of losing isn’t hard to
master” throughout the poem. This refraining line is creating rhythm as well as emphasizing the
idea. Notice that this line, though, varies slightly in the final stanza, yet is still considered to be a
refrain.
The poet is using refraining line “In a kingdom by the sea.” This appears in the second line of
each stanza, and recurs in the final line of the third stanza, drawing readers’ attention, and
contributing to its meter and rhythm.
Example #3: Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night (By Dylan Thomas)
This is very a famous poem using two refrains; one comes in the first line, as “Do not go gentle
into that good night”; while second comes in the third line of each stanza. These refrains make
the poem catchy and easy to remember.
Example #4: Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening (By Emily Dickinson)
Frost has used refrain in only the last stanza that he repeats twice as “And miles to go before I
sleep.” It gives rhythm to the poem and lay emphasis on this idea of doing many things before
dying.
The poet makes use of refrain with “Excelsior” throughout the entire poem, creating rhythm and
drawing the attention of readers.
In the above given poem, Crapsey uses refrain “properly scholarly attitude” to highlight the
theme of being a poet having proper scholarly attitude.
The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize elegiac theme. See the repetition of
the words “captain,” “rise up,” and “for you” in just these two lines. This theme continues
throughout.
Function of Refrain
Refrain is purely a poetic device, and the most important function that a refrain may serve in
poetry is to lay emphasis and create rhythm. When a line or phrase recurs in a poem, or a piece
of literature, it becomes noticeable to the readers. By using refrain, poets can make their ideas
memorable, and draw the attention of the readers toward a certain idea. This is done by using a
single line recurrently throughout a poetic work, allowing readers to take a pause each time they
come upon such repetition.
Refutation
Definition of Refutation
The literary term refutation refers to that part of an argument where a speaker or a writer
encounters contradicting points of view. Alternatively, refutation can be described as the
negation of an argument, opinion, testimony, doctrine, or theory, through contradicting evidence.
It normally constitutes a part of an essay that disproves the opposing arguments.
In a circumstance in which the writer happens to agree with certain aspects of the opposing
argument, he makes a concession. However, writers and speakers rarely employ concession,
as it can very easily undermine their own stance.
Types of Refutation
There are various ways through which the tool of refutation can be employed. The three most
common modes used for the purpose of incorporating the device of refutation in an argument
are: (1) refutation through evidence, (2) refutation through logic, and (3) refutation through
exposing the discrepancies of opposing argument.
For an argument to be counted as one of the valid examples of refutation through evidence, it
needs to be an argument backed up by some form of evidence. In the absence of clear bases or
justifications it cannot be declared valid. Therefore, a writer can refute a contradicting argument
if he can provide evidence that conclusively negates it, or by presenting more recent or credible
evidence.
Refutation examples through logic are quite tricky to construct. It involves deconstructing the
opposing argument, and presenting it in such a way as to highlight the discrepancies present
within the argument. Most skilled writers check the validity of their arguments before publishing
them. This makes refutation through logic all the more difficult. There is no denying the fact then
that refutation through logic constitutes a difficult task at hand. However, writers have employed
this tool in their respective writings.
Refutation through Exposing Discrepancies
The method involves showing that one of the contradicting arguments lacks the core ingredient
of centrality to the issue as the opposition had intended to project. Also, the writer can logically
present his argument as being superior to the one presented by the opposition, by showing that
the opposition’s argument lacks the crucial link to the topic. Further, the writer can highlight the
insignificance of the opposition’s argument by exposing the deficiencies found within the
opposing argument.
“If indeed very strong objections have obtained much currency, or have been just stated by an
opponent, so that what is asserted is likely to be regarded as paradoxical, it may be advisable to
begin with a Refutation.”
As can be seen from the excerpt quoted above, refutation of an objection should be placed in
the midst of an argument. However, the nearer it is to the beginning the more effective it is likely
to be.
Example #2: Remarks made to the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners,
Seattle, Washington (By William Kennard, Chairman of the FCC)
“So we may well hear from a whole chorus of naysayers. And to all of them I have only one
response: we cannot afford to wait. We cannot afford to let the homes and schools and
businesses throughout America wait. Not when we have seen the future. We have seen what
high capacity broadband can do for education and for our economy. We must act today to
create an environment where all competitors have a fair shot at bringing high capacity
bandwidth to consumers—especially residential consumers. And especially residential
consumers in rural and underserved areas.”
This excerpt serves to illustrate the effectiveness of early refutation. The early placement of
refutation within the extract has had an enhanced persuasive impact on the audience.
Function of Refutation
The tool of refutation has a crucial significance in writing. It is important in determining whether
the speaker or writer has successfully persuaded his readers or not. Mostly, the device of
refutation is employed when one is dealing with a controversial topic. It allows the reader to
prefer one argument over another. The use of the device is frequently witnessed in intricate
arguments.
Repetition
Definition of Repetition
Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an
idea clearer and more memorable. There are several types of repetition commonly used in both
prose and poetry.
Types of Repetition
The following examples of repetition are classified according to the different types of repetition
used, both in literature and in daily conversations.
In this example, the poet has repeatedly used the refraining line “The art of losing isn’t hard to
master” throughout the poem. This refraining line creates rhythm, and emphasizes the idea.
Notice that this line, however, varies slightly in the final stanza, yet is still considered to be a
refrain.
The poet is using the refraining line “In a kingdom by the sea.” This appears in the second line
of each stanza, and recurs in the final line of the third stanza, drawing readers’ attention, and
contributing to its meter and rhythm.
Example #3: Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night (By Dylan Thomas)
Frost has used a repeated refrain in only the last stanza, as he utters, “And miles to go before I
sleep.” It gives rhythm to the poem, and lays emphasis on this idea of doing many things before
dying.
The poet makes use of refrain “Excelsior!” throughout the entire poem, creating rhythm and
drawing the attention of readers.
In this poem, Crapsey uses the refrain, “properly scholarly attitude” to highlight the theme of
being a poet having proper scholarly attitude.
The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize the mournful theme. See the
repetition of the words “captain,” “rise up,” and “for you” in just these two lines. This theme
continues throughout.
Example #8: 1940 Speech to House of Commons (By Winston Churchill)
“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight
on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air,
we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall
fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the
hills. We shall never surrender.”
This is a beautiful example of repetition in prose, where the speaker has repeated “we shall,”
and “we shall fight” several times.
Example #9: I Have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King, Jr.)
“I have a dream that one day down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having
his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification – one day right there in Alabama
little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as
sisters and brothers.
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted and every hill and mountain shall be
made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight,
and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together.”
In this famous speech by American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., he repeats the
phrase “I have a dream” a number of times. This makes the speech very powerful and
memorable.
Function of Repetition
Refrain is purely a poetic device, and the most important function that a refrain may serve in
poetry is to lay emphasis and create rhythm. When a line or phrase recurs in a poem, or a piece
of literature, it becomes noticeable to the readers. By using refrain, poets can make their ideas
memorable, and draw the attention of readers toward a certain idea. This is done by using a
single line recurrently throughout a poetic work, allowing readers to take a pause each time they
come upon such repetition.
Resolution
Definition of Resolution
The literary device resolution means the unfolding or solution of a complicated issue in a story.
Technically, resolution is also known as a “denouement.” Most of the instances of resolution are
presented in the final parts or chapters of a story. It mostly follows the climax.
In certain mystery novels, climax and resolution may occur simultaneously. However, in other
forms of literature, resolution takes place at the end of the story. Considering that it ends a
story, resolution is an integral part of the conflict of the story.
This is the final dialogue that takes place between Lord Capulet and Lord Montague. Seeing
their beloved children, Romeo and Juliet, committing suicide for love, both the heads of the
family regret their long enmity. Now both of them agree to end the dispute between their tribes
to avoid future tragedy.
“They’re a rotten crowd,” I shouted across the lawn. “You’re worth the whole damn bunch put
together … “
Concluding the story “The Great Gatsby,” Nick makes his mind to return to Minnesota as an
escape from the rich people. He knows that the rich people are engaged in morally worthless
activities. That is why he is convinced that people in Gatsby’s circle are unfaithful.
” … That’s all I’m going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and
how I got sick and all, and what school I’m supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but
I don’t feel like it. I really don’t. That stuff doesn’t interest me too much right now … I mean how
do you know what you’re going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don’t. I think I am, but
how do I know? I swear it’s a stupid question … “
The resolution in this story takes place in the final part of the novel. Holden, the protagonist,
while living in a psychiatric facility, recounts the story. He provides readers with the details of his
future plans. He informs us that he will go back home and attend school, meet his parents but
only after enjoying the ride of a merry-go-round in Phoebe.
Example #4: The Winter’s Tale (by William Shakespeare)
Gentleman: One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/ Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she/
The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access…
Leontes: What with him? he comes not/ Like to his father’s greatness: his approach,…
Florizel: Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter
His tears proclaim’d his, parting with her: thence/ A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have
cross’d…
Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? … His tears proclaim’d his, parting with her:
thence…
In these extracted lines from “The Winter’s Tale,” the resolution occurs when Polixenes follows
Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After he finds out the true identity of Paulina, Polixenes and
Leontes reconcile and both the families become happy. Leontes is also reunited with his family
and discovers that Hermoin is alive.
Function
The resolution is the final solution in literature. Almost all the genres of storytelling make use of
resolution to end a story. Actually, resolution is required to wrap up a story, and it comes after
the climax. Following a heart-racing and anxiety-triggering climax, resolution gives audiences
the opportunity to relax. It brings all disturbing conflicts into order, and helps the central theme
of the movie or novel to resonate. Its function of resolving the problem has made it highly
significant. The story would be a disaster if the resolution is presented poorly.
Rhetoric
Rhetoric Definition
Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form.
It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence, or
please an audience.
For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and you say, “Why don’t
you leave me alone?” By posing such a question, you are not actually asking for a reason.
Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a particular way
for effective communication, making use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric
is called a “rhetorical situation.”
“I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful wish.”
The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter the
sense of it.
Below are a few examples on how rhetoric is employed by using various literary devices:
• How did this idiot get elected? – A rhetorical question to convince others that the “idiot”
does not deserve to be elected.
• Here comes the Helen of our school. – An allusion to “Helen of Troy,” to emphasize the
beauty of a girl.
• I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents. – A hyperbole to persuade
others not to use force to make you do something you don’t want to do.
• All blonds are dumb. – Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion about a group.
Nevertheless, the difference between rhetorical devices and figures of speech is so minute that
both share many features. A figure of speech becomes a device in rhetoric when it is aimed at
persuading the readers or listeners.
John Milton’s Paradise Lost has several examples of rhetoric. To quote an example from Book
V:
The repetition of the phrase “free will” emphasizes the theme of human creation, which is
making free choices, but the phrase “yet mutable” creates ambiguity that, despite being free,
Adam had to be careful, as a wrong act could make him lose his freedom.
John Donne addresses death in his Death, be not Proud (Holy Sonnet 10) by saying:
“Thou ‘art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,
And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,
And poppy ‘or charms can make us sleep as well
And better than thy stroke; why swell’st thou then?”
The rhetorical question “why swell’st thou then?” serves to play down the horrific nature of
death. He devalues death by calling it a “slave,” and that it keeps the despicable company of
“poison, war, sickness” and seeks their support.
We see Walt Whitman in his poem Crossing Brooklyn Ferry use anaphora to create a rhetorical
effect:
Anaphora is a device where the same word or phrase is repeated at regular intervals to achieve
a rhetorical effect.
Function of Rhetoric
Rhetoric, as explained above, is a tool for writers and orators which empowers them to convince
their readers and listeners about their point of view. Often, we find rhetoric examples in religious
sermons and political speeches. They aim to make comparisons, to evoke tender emotions, to
censure rivals, and all this is done to persuade listeners.
Advertisers give their ads a touch of rhetoric to boost their sales by convincing people that their
product is better than other products in the market. For instance, in an advertisement, a girl –
after shampooing her hair with a particular product – says, “I can’t stop touching my hair.” This
is an attempt to entice consumers, through visual rhetoric, to buy this product, in order to have
soft and shiny hair like her.
Rhetorical Question
Definition of Rhetorical Question
A rhetorical question is asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on some point being discussed,
when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer, but the
questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident,
and used for style as an impressive persuasive device.
Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer
already, or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the
audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience’s attention.
• “Who knows?”
• “Are you stupid?”
• “Did you hear me?”
• “Ok?”
• “Why not?”
Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs
immediately after a comment made, and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a
point more prominent. Some rhetorical question examples are as follows. Keep in mind that they
are also called “tag questions” if used in everyday conversation.
Rhetorical questions in literature are as important as they are in daily language, or perhaps
even more so. The reason is the significant change a rhetorical question can bring about. The
absence or presence of a rhetorical question in some of the most famous lines in literature
would change the impact altogether. Some examples of rhetorical questions in literature show
that writers sometimes ask questions, and then goes on to answer them to produce a desired
effect.
JULIET:
” ’Tis but thy name that is my enemy.
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.
What’s Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot,
Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part
Belonging to a man. O, be some other name!
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.”
A very good example of rhetorical question in literature is from Shakespeare’s Romeo and
Juliet. Here, Juliet makes a statement that a man’s name does not define him as a person. She
draws attention to this issue by asking two important rhetorical questions, as noted in bold.
Example #2: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley)
Percy Bysshe Shelley ends his masterpiece Ode to the West Wind with a rhetorical question:
“…O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?”
In this excerpt, Shelley achieves the desired effect by asking a rhetorical question, rather than
making a statement. The answer to this question is not sought; rather, an effect is successfully
created giving a fine finishing touch to the ode.
Mrs. Hladia Porter Stewart in her poem Creation employs rhetorical questions to create effect
and achieve the desired appeal of the poem.
Without rhetorical question, it might have been impossible for the poet to express herself as
impressively as she does here.
Notice, an answer is not expected to this question. The poet prefers a rhetorical question to a
plain statement to emphasize his feelings of pleasant surprise. Thus, the poem’s meaning is
enhanced by the use of a rhetorical question.
The character Shylock, in Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice, asks a series of
rhetorical questions in this excerpt. The questions don’t necessarily need answers. They are
neither questions nor plain statements, but rather something in between the two.
Writers employ rhetorical questions for rhetorical effects, and we cannot easily quantify the
impact rendered by a rhetorical question. The idea becomes all the more powerful, and our
interest is aroused to continue to read and enjoy the technical and aesthetic beauty that a
rhetorical question generates. Moreover, it is a requirement in persuasive speeches.
Rhyme
Rhyme Definition
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words, occurring at the end of lines in poems or
songs. A rhyme is a tool utilizing repeating patterns that bring rhythm or musicality to poems.
This differentiates them from prose, which is plain. A rhyme is employed for the specific purpose
of rendering a pleasing effect to a poem, which makes its recital an enjoyable experience.
Moreover, it offers itself as a mnemonic device, smoothing the progress of memorization.
For instance, all nursery rhymes contain rhyming words in order to facilitate learning for
children, as they enjoy reading them, and the presence of repetitive patterns enables them to
memorize them effortlessly. We do not seem to forget the nursery rhymes we learned as
children. Below are a few nursery rhyme examples with rhyming words in bold and italics:
Perfect Rhyme
A perfect rhyme is a case in which two words rhyme in such a way that their final stressed
vowel, and all subsequent sounds, are identical. For instance, sight and light, right and might,
and rose and dose.
General Rhyme
The term general rhyme refers to a variety of phonetic likenesses between words.
• Syllabic Rhyme– Bottle and fiddle, cleaver and silver, patter and pitter are examples of
syllabic rhyme: words having a similar sounding last syllable, but without a stressed
vowel.
• Imperfect Rhyme – Wing and caring, sit and perfect, and reflect and subject are
examples of imperfect rhyme. This is a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed
syllable.
• Assonance or Slant Rhyme exists in words having the same vowel sound. For
instance, kill and bill, wall and hall, and shake and ha
• Consonance exists in words having the same consonant sound, such as rabbit and
robber, ship and sheep
• Alliteration or Head Rhyme refers to matching initial consonant sounds, shuch as sea
and seal, and ship and sh
Eye Rhyme
Eye rhymes, also called “sight rhymes,” or “spelling rhymes,” refers to words having the same
spelling but different sounds. In such case, the final syllables have the same spellings, but are
pronounced differently, such as cough and bough, and love and move.
Classification of rhymes may be based on their positions, such as the following examples of
rhyme.
Example #2: Don’t Fence Me In (By Cole Porter and Robert Fletcher)
Example #3: A Scottish Lowlands Holiday Ends in Enjoyable Inactivity (By Miles Kington)
Classification: Holo-rhyme
This is a type of rhyme in which all the words of two entire lines rhyme.
Function of Rhyme
As discussed above, a rhyme serves two distinct functions in the art of writing poetry:
Rhyme Scheme
Definition of Rhyme Scheme
Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry. In
other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when
writing a poem. Many poems are written in free verse style. Some other poems follow non-
rhyming structures, paying attention only to the number of syllables. The Japanese genre of
Haiku is a case in point. Thus, it shows that the poets write poems in a specific type of rhyme
scheme or rhyming pattern. There are several types of rhyme schemes as given below.
There are a number of rhyme schemes used in poetry; some of the most popular of which
include:
• Alternate rhyme: It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes as “ABAB CDCD
EFEF GHGH.”
• Ballade: It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of “ABABBCBC” followed by
“BCBC.”
• Monorhyme: It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme scheme.
• Couplet: It contains two-line stanzas with the “AA” rhyme scheme, which often appears
as “AA BB CC and DD…”
• Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of “AAA.”
• Enclosed rhyme: It uses rhyme scheme of “ABBA”
• Terza rima rhyme scheme: It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its interlocking pattern
on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so on.
• Keats Odes rhyme scheme: In his famous odes, Keats has used a specific rhyme
scheme, which is “ABABCDECDE.”
• Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of “AABBA.”
• Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses a
rhyme scheme of “A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1, abA2, abA1A2.”
Let us take a few examples of most widely used rhyme schemes in literature:
Example #1: Neither Out Far nor in Deep (By Robert Frost)
This is an ABAB pattern of rhyme scheme, in which each stanza applies this format. For
instance, in the first stanza, “sand” rhymes with the word “land,” and “way” rhymes with the word
“day.”
The following example uses an AABB rhyme scheme. Here, the first line ends in the word “star,”
which rhymes with the final word of the second line, “are.” Since both words rhyme with each
other, they are signified with letter “A.”
Example #3: Divine Comedy (By Dante Alighieri)
Dante has used terza rima tercet rhyming patterns (ABA, BCB, CDC …) in this poem, giving an
impression of irresistible movement, as well as dynamism.
This poem presents a perfect example of monorhyme, in which you’ll notice that every line ends
in a similar rhyme, “AAAA” like these words, “hair, there, pair, and swear.”
This extract from a poem by Heidi Campbell has a beautiful rhyme scheme AA, BB, CC and DD.
This extract from William Blake’s poem has an excellent rhyme scheme as AA, BB, CC, and
DD.
Example #7: The One (By Crystal R. Adame)
Here, poet Crystal R. Adame makes dexterous use of rhyme scheme. The scheme runs like
this: ABAB and CDCD.
These lines from the poem To a Terrific Dad have yet another kind of rhyme scheme, which is
different from all of the preceding examples. The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABCBDEDE.
Rhyme scheme is an integral part of the constitution of a poem, which includes meter, length of
phrase, and rhythm. In fact, rhyme scheme, like other writing tools, is used to create balance
and relieve tension, manage flow, create rhythm, and highlight important ideas. Its basic
function is to form units of sound and suggest units of sense. It also communicates the idea in a
more effective way.
Rhythm
Definition of Rhythm
The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, “measured motion.” Rhythm is
a literary device that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed
syllables, particularly in verse form.
Types of Rhythm
English poetry makes use of five important rhythms. These rhythms are of different patterns of
stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. Each unit of these types is called foot. Here are the
five types of rhythm:
1. Iamb (x /)
This is the most commonly used rhythm. It consists of two syllables, the first of which is not
stressed, while the second syllable is stressed. Such as:
2. Trochee (/ x)
A trochee is a type of poetic foot commonly used in English poetry. It has two syllables, the first
of which is strongly stressed, while the second syllable is unstressed, as given below:
3. Spondee (/ /)
Spondee is a poetic foot that has two syllables, which are consecutively stressed. For example:
4. Dactyl (/ x x)
Dactyl is made up of three syllables. The first syllable is stressed, and the remaining two
syllables are not stressed, such as in the word “marvelous.” For example:
“This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,”
(Evangeline, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
5. Anapest (x x /)
Anapests are total opposites of dactyls. They have three syllables; where the first two syllables
are not stressed, and the last syllable is stressed. For example:
” ‘Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house,”
(‘Twas the Night Before Christmas, by Clement Clarke Moore)
There are ten syllables in iamb pentameter, where the second syllable is accented or stressed.
In the above lines the stressed syllables are expressed in bold.
Milton has used spondee in this entire epic poem. The spondaic meter is explicitly visible in the
words “wide was.” However, the remaining line is iambic pentameter.
These two lines are taken from Shakespeare’s Macbeth. The chorus of the witches’ spell shows
a perfect example of trochees. Stressed pattern is shown in capitals.
Trochees are perfectly used in this poem by William Blake. Here, the first syllables of the words
“tyger,” “burning,” and “forests” are stressed; however the second syllables are unstressed.
Example #6: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)
This single line is an example of dactylic pattern, as one stressed syllable is followed by two
unstressed syllables, the stressed syllables noted in bold above.
In this poem, the speaker is feeling dejected, wondering if there could be hope and morning
again. The poet has used trochees, giving a strong rhythm to the poem. Notice in this first
stanza, the accented syllables are emphasized. See that word “I” is unaccented or unstressed
with different feet as underlined.
The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABAB, which means the first and the third lines rhyme, as do
the second and the fourth lines. Roethke has used three iambs, or three beats per line, giving
the poem regular rhythmic flow.
This poet has used anapests (two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable) in this
example. It adds to the rhythm, yet it carries a subdued effect.
Example #10: The Courage That My Mother Had (By Edna St. Vincent Millay)
These lines follow a pattern of four iambs in each line. This rhythm is catchy because the poet
first sets the rhythm, and then breaks it in the last few syllables. It makes the reading smooth
and melodious.
Function of Rhythm
Rhythm in writing acts as beat does in music. The use of rhythm in poetry arises from the need
to express some words more strongly than others. They might be stressed for a longer period of
time. Hence, the repeated use of rhythmical patterns of such accent produces rhythmical effect,
which sounds pleasant to the mind as well as to the soul. In speech, rhythm is used
unconsciously to create identifiable patterns. Moreover, rhythm captivates the audience and
readers alike by giving musical effect to a speech or a literary piece.
Riddle
Definition of Riddle
Some riddles show the wit of protagonists in a narrative, allowing them to escape a terrible
situation by using their wit rather than their strength. Often times, puzzling riddles tell us that we
cannot answer some questions, leading to hours of perturbed head scratching. However, they
open our minds to a number of possibilities.
Types of Riddle
One of the most popular riddles in literature is the riddle of Sphinx, who asks questions of
Oedipus.
Riddle: “What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on three legs in the
evening?”
Answer: Oedipus solves this riddle, giving right answer: it is man, who can crawl on his four
legs as an infant, and as an adult he walks on two legs, while he walks with a stick when he
becomes old.
Bilbo and Gollum play a riddling game, as Bilbo’s life would be in danger if he cannot solve the
riddle. Luckily, he answers the riddle posed by Gollum, earning an award of safe passage out of
the tunnel.
The father of Portia plans a riddle for the men who wish to marry his daughter, and whoever
would solve it, would marry her. For doing this, he places three caskets of gold, silver, and lead,
and asks would-be suitors to pick the one.
Riddle: The golden casket was inscribed: “Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.”
The words engraved on the silver casket: “Who chooseth me shall get as much as he
deserves.” The leaden casket: “Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.”
Answer: The golden casket encloses a skull with a warning note that appearances are usually
deceiving, human wishes can be dangerous, the silver casket symbolizes chasing intangible
goals, and holds a portrait of an idiot. However, the leaden casket symbolizes modesty and
inner beauty, and contains a portrait of Portia with a note saying, “You that choose not by the
view, chance as fair and choose as true.”
Emma displays her wit while correctly answering Mr. Elton’s riddle.
Answer: Courtship
Example #5: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (By J. K. Rowling)
During his competition in the Tri-Wizard Tournament, Harry had to answer a riddle posed by a
Sphinx:
Answer: A spider.
Function of Riddle
In written literature, riddles deceive the audience with their meanings. As far as a riddle’s
purpose is concerned, it explores questions with enough thoroughness to provide readers a
clear view of major issues. Riddles can generally be conversation-starters, or brain busters to
get readers thinking, while in oral literature, riddles serve as the competition of wits and skills
and guessing games.
However, if the audience knows the answers they take pleasure in hearing them repeatedly.
Gaming riddles reveal the playful side of language in a manageable form. Besides, it is usually
possible to draw appropriate metaphors from good riddles.
Rising Action
Definition of Rising Action
Rising action in a plot is a series of relevant incidents that create suspense, interest, and
tension in a narrative. In literary works, a rising action includes all decisions, characters’ flaws,
and background circumstances that together create turns and twists leading to a climax. We find
it in novels, plays, and short stories. Rising action is one of the elements of plot, which begins
immediately after its exposition.
In her short story, Revelation, Flannery O’Connor has used a great deal of rising action. The
moment when Mrs. Turpin comes into the waiting room, she becomes offended by the
surroundings around her, considering herself higher than the homely and dirty-looking patients.
We see a girl, Mary Grace, in a waiting room, in intense action showing her dislike towards Mrs.
Turpin. She finally makes a physical attack on Mrs. Turpin by throwing a book at her. Mrs.
Turpin consequently responds negatively, crying and showing anger.
The conflict begins in J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, as Gandalf meets Bilbo and asks him to
play the role of a burglar in the dwarves’ expedition to recover the treasure of Thorin from
Smaug. Rising action occurs as he agrees to act as a burglar during this adventure. His heroism
begins merely by shouting to wake up Gandalf, who rescues the company from goblins, and
then the action slowly intensifies when he finds the magic ring. Gradually, Bilbo overcomes
difficulties by killing a big spider, and establishes his potential as a hero and leader.
Leo Tolstoy, in his novel Anna Karenina, draws two major stories. Rising action of the primary
storyline begins when Vronsky starts having passionate feelings for Anna instead Kitty. Vronsky
and Anna meet each other in the train station, and begin their secret relationship. The action
further rises while their obsession turns into a love affair, and Anna decides to leave her son
and husband, to live with Vronsky. The second storyline is about Kitty’s refusal of the marriage
proposal of Konstantin Levin. Further action rises as she moves back to the countryside in order
to think about life, and faces inner conflict while considering her decision.
Alyson Noel has written a number of novel series, Evermore being the first among them. This
novel follows the adventures of the leading character, Ever, as well as a man named Damen,
who helped her become an immortal. Throughout the novel, readers learn that Damen – the first
immortal – fell in love with Ever centuries ago. His ex-wife, however, continues trying to kill
Ever’s incarnations in order to keep Damen apart from Ever. Her attempts in doing this develop
the novel’s rising action, which in turn strengthens the love story of Damen and Ever, and
creates suspense towards their final combat with Drina.
In Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s novel, Snow White, the rising action occurs when the Queen’s
magic mirror warns her that she is no longer the fairest lady in the land; that, instead, it is now
Snow White. Envious, the Queen orders her huntsman to take her stepdaughter Snow White
away from the palace, into the forest, and secretly kill her. Fortunately, he cannot kill her, but
leaves her in the forest, where seven tiny dwarfs find her. They bring her into their home, then
another rising action occurs when the mirror tells the Queen that Snow White is still alive.
The events of a rising action are generally very important, because the entire plot of a narrative
depends upon these events for setting up the climax – a moment of ultimate excitement that
eventually leads to a satisfactory resolution. For instance, an author writes a love story in which
a moment comes when characters decide whether to stay together or break up – thus, rising
action sets a stage for this moment by building up dramatic situations or conflicts. It further adds
a layer of complexity to the plot for developing characters and climax.
Romance
Definition of Romance
Etymologically, romance comes from Anglo-Norman and Old French romanz, which means a
story of chivalry and love. The word “romance” also refers to romantic love. As far as literature
in concerned, the term has an entirely a different concept. It means romantic stories with
chivalrous feats of heroes and knights. Romance describes chivalry and courtly love, comprising
stories and legends of duty, courage, boldness, battles, and rescues of damsels in distress.
Romance, as pointed out, is a type of fiction, comprising idealized love, chivalry, obsessive
association with somebody or some idea, and mysterious adventures. However, Romanticism is
a specific movement and period in English literature during which poems, stories, and novels
related to Romantic ideas were created. William Wordsworth, P. B. Shelly, Lord Byron, and
John Keats are some of the most famous poets and writers of the Romantic period. However,
Romances have been written since classical English period.
This 14th century romance, whose writer is still unknown, revolves around the bravery of Sir
Gawain, a knight of King Arthur, who accepts the challenge from the Green Knight. Sir Gawain
beheads the knight, but the knight goes away reminding him that he would appear again. In this
struggle, Sir Gawain shows his true nature of bravery, chivalry, and courage when tested by a
lady, as he stays in the castle of that very knight.
One of Jane Austen’s most famous novels is Pride and Prejudice, which is a remarkable
example of romance in English literature. This novel narrates the story of the Bennet family.
Mrs. Bennett has five daughters, and she is desperate to get them married. She is seen trying to
achieve her ambition throughout the novel.
Elizabeth, the second of the five, possesses a sharp mind and independent nature, and she
feels embarrassed at her mother’s attempts to marry her off. Elizabeth meets Mr. Darcy, who is
a wealthy landowner. She dislikes him in their first meeting, due to his arrogant attitude.
However, as the story moves along, several other couples emerge on the scene. Although it is
not a perfect example of a medieval romance, it is considered a good example of a romantic
novel.
One more example of romance is The Count of Monte Cristo, written by French author
Alexander Dumas, in 1844. The story of the novel takes place in France, Italy, and on some
Mediterranean islands. The primary themes of the story comprise justice, bravery, courage,
mercy, hope, and forgiveness.
The narrative revolves round a man who is sent to prison wrongly. He manages to escape and
acquires a fortune just by a stroke of luck. He ultimately starts avenging those who were
responsible for his incarceration. His plans, however, have devastating effects on the innocent
and the guilty alike. Characters reveal their true natures and inner selves through betrayal, acts
of courage, selfishness, and timidity. The novel is a good example of a romance fiction.
This is an example of modern erotic romance, which has won accolades in literary circles. In the
story, the writer narrates the relationship between two college fellows – Anastasia Steel, and her
young business lover Christian Grey. The story then depicts scenes of their erotic love,
comprising elements of discipline, dominance, submission, masochism, and sadism. Despite
ups and downs in their relations, they finally part, reviewing incompatibility in their love, but
depicting several elements of modern love and modern chivalry.
Function of Romance
Romance serves the function of chivalry and adventure in literature. It is considered to be the
only genre of literature capable of representing complex and cumulative themes. It is through
romance, literature can highlight the cross-referenced as well as integrative nature of the written
words.
During the middle ages, romance was synonymous with aristocratic literature. It was because
romance used to teach morals through the combination of stories of adventure, courtly love, and
dedication. It was chivalric literature, which aimed at teaching the aristocracy the rules of
behavior, bravery, courage, gentlemanliness, and life in general. In addition, the principle
function of romance was to maintain order in society by presenting sources for entertainment.
Round Character
Definition of Round Character
A round character in a novel, play, or story is a complex personality. Like real people, they have
depth in feelings and passions. For instance, in the movie “Shrek,” the main character says
“‘Ogres are like onions,” which means that, what appears to them is not the only truth. Rather,
there is something more inside them. Similarly, a round character has many layers of
personality. Writers define a round character fully, both physically and mentally. It is the
character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate with, or relate to, as he seems a
character they might have seen in their real lives.
George Orwell named his novel’s hero Winston Smith, after a great English leader, Winston
Churchill. Smith is thirty-nine years old, serves his whole life for the Ministry of Truth, and
rewrites history. Then he goes against the rules of the Party and falls in love with Julia, which is
a rebellious act written in his diary. There is no past and no future for Smith. He is a round
character whose mind is inconstant, while he undergoes his character development during the
course of the story.
Smith is the main character who knows the danger he will encounter. For instance, he knows
from the very beginning that the members of Party will find his diary. They will use the things he
has written in it against him. He also knows that the Police will reveal his illegal affair with Julia.
Therefore, he does not stay consistent and is a round character.
Example #2: Elizabeth Bennet, Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)
Elizabeth Bennet is another good example of a round character. She is the main character of
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, who does not remain the same innocent girl whom readers
meet in the first part of the story. Elizabeth develops into a new woman, with different choices
and behaviors that have an impact on the people around her. In the beginning, Elizabeth is
prejudiced, which is her major flaw, though later she transforms and changes her opinions. In
fact, slowly and gradually Elizabeth evolves to understand her true feelings – showing a great
example of a round character.
Yet another great example of a round character is Hamlet. He is a complex, enigmatic, and
mysterious character that is knowledgeable, philosophical, intelligent, and thoughtful by nature.
Hamlet makes hasty decisions, yet he delays his revenge. His contemplative nature also
becomes his tragic flaw, and his lack of timely action becomes the cause of his tragedy.
Hamlet’s personality is contradictory, while he also encounters many contradictory situations.
In his novel, The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has introduced a complex and round
character in Gatsby. Gatsby is a tragic hero with a fatal flaw – that of obsession over his
beloved Daisy. He is a man of great mystery, because no one knows his whereabouts, or how
he becomes rich. Readers learn about his different sides and different traits. He appears to
them as scared, mysterious, friendly, angry, happy, disappointed, and frustrated man
throughout the novel. Through Nick’s narration, readers get an insight into his human mind, and
all his emotions and whims.
In play writing and fiction writing, authors develop round characters to make their stories more
believable and effective. These characters bring surprise to the readers’ expectations by
undergoing a significant metamorphosis at the end of a narrative – as compared to what they
were in the initial phases. Hence, due to this development, the audience can relate their own
lives to this transformed character. By the end, after developing new traits, a round character
also demonstrates new facets of human behavior.
Run-On Sentence
Definition of Run-On Sentence
Generally, this is considered grammatically incorrect, and called a stylistic error. There are
many examples of run-on sentences used as literary devices in literature. However, not all long
sentences are run-on sentences, for it is quite acceptable to combine different related ideas into
a compound sentence. Nevertheless, without using appropriate punctuation rules, a compound
sentence becomes a run-on sentence.
In this type, a comma splits two independent clauses. However, the position of this comma is a
bit weak to make a complete relationship between two complete sentences. Thus, it requires a
proper coordinating conjunction to make a relationship. For instance:
This would be much clearer if the conjunction “and” were added, for:
Fused Sentence
This occurs when a writer connects two clauses with no punctuation, where the main clause
makes perfect sense on its own. Independent clauses should not be smashed together into a
fused sentence. For instance:
“A wise man makes his own decisions an ignorant man follows public opinion.”
Punctuation between these two independent clauses would make this sentence more clear:
“A wise man makes his own decisions. An ignorant man follows public opinion.”
“But then they were married (she felt awful about being pregnant before but Harry had been
talking about marriage for a while and anyway laughed when she told him in early February
about missing her period and said Great she was terribly frightened and he said Great and lifted
her put his arms around under her bottom … she was still little clumsy dark-complected Janice
Springer and her husband was a conceited lunk who wasn’t good for anything in the world
Daddy said and the feeling of being alone would melt a little with a little drink.”
This passage presents an example of fused run-on sentences, where the author has not used
commas to separate the sentences. These sentences, however, can make a proper thought.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair… —in
short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted
on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.”
This excerpt is a good example of comma splices, where we can clearly see the use of commas
separating the clauses. Yet, there is no use of conjunction to form a complete sense or thought.
” … I hate people that have always their poor story to tell everybody has their own troubles that
poor Nancy Blake died a month ago of acute pneumonia well I didn’t know her so well as all that
she was Floeys friend more than mine … “
This novel is very popular for using run-on sentences. Notice in this example Joyce has used a
fused sentence with no commas. Though understandable, the meaning is not clear.
Example #4: The Sound and the Fury (By William Faulkner)
“My God the cigar what would your mother say if she found a blister on her mantel just in time
too look here Quentin we’re about to do something we’ll both regret I like you liked you as soon
as I saw you I says he must be …”
This excerpt is a perfect example of fused run-on sentences, where we find neither commas nor
use of conjunction that could separate the clauses and give clarity.
Though it is not a good idea to use run-on sentences in writing, poets and writers sometimes
use them for repeating something important, or for imitating the speaking style of characters.
Despite that, use of run-on sentences is usually incorrect, because it makes the writing too
difficult and intricate to understand. However, intentional use of run-on sentences creates
special effects in colloquial speech and informal contexts.
Sarcasm
Definition of Sarcasm
Sarcasm is derived from the French word sarcasmor, and also from the Greek word sarkazein,
which means “tear flesh,” or “grind the teeth.” Somehow, in simple words it means to speak
bitterly.
Generally, the literal meaning is different than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm.
Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock, often with satirical or ironic
remarks, with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone, or some section of society,
simultaneously. For instance:
“I didn’t attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it.” (Mark Twain)
Types of Sarcasm
Sarcasm often depends upon the voice tone. There are seven types:
1. Self-Deprecating Sarcasm – This category of sarcasm expresses an overstated sense
of inferiority and worthlessness.
2. Brooding Sarcasm – In this criticism, the speaker utters something polite. However, the
tone of his speech has a marked bitterness to it.
3. Deadpan Sarcasm – It is expressed without emotion or laughter, making it difficult for
the listener to judge whether the speaker is joking or mocking.
4. Polite Sarcasm – A speaker is said to have delivered a polite sarcasm when his
listeners only get to realize that his kind remark was a sarcastic one after they had given
it some thought.
5. Obnoxious Sarcasm – This kind of sarcasm makes people feel like punching the
speaker in the face. It is not very funny, and it gets under your skin.
6. Manic Sarcasm – This type of sarcasm is delivered in an unnatural happy mood, which
makes the speaker look like he has gone crazy.
7. Raging Sarcasm – This kind of sarcasm relies mainly on exaggeration and violent
threats.
Mark Antony repeatedly uses the phrase “honorable man” in this speech several, though Brutus’
actions in murdering Caesar were definitely not honorable. His repetition of this phrase
completely reverses the literal meaning of the phrase.
“Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak’d meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables.”
The most disturbing issue to Hamlet in this play is his mother’s marriage to his uncle. While
talking to Horatio in a sarcastic manner, Hamlet sums up the ridiculous affairs using this
statement.
This line points out, in a sarcastic way, two neighbors who have made a wall between them.
However, this wall falls apart every winter, therefore the neighbors meet and mend it, hence
spending more time together in this way.
The poet is talking about two roads, one is not traveled often by people, and the other one is
chosen by the majority of people. He had taken the less-traveled road. Frost uses a sarcastic
remark, that he feels regret for having chosen this path or road which made a difference.
Example #5: Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer)
Here, Chaucer describes the character of the friar in a sarcastic manner. He is a clergyman,
who accepts bribes from wealthy people of the town. He uses money that he takes from
confessions on merry-making and women; and doesn’t care about the people.
This is the central conflict in this play, when Juliet sarcastically asks Romeo that why his name
is Romeo, since they could never be together as their families were enemies.
Function of Sarcasm
Sarcasm can be used for many purposes. However, in most of the cases, it is utilized as a mask
or scathe. Others use it as a defensive mechanism. It is used when bitterness is hard to express
in a pleasant way, or the objective is to say something without hurting somebody directly. The
basic purpose of sarcasm in literary works is to bring a flavor in order to make the stories seem
real to the readers.
Satire
Satire Definition
Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of
an individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. It intends to improve
humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which
stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption.
A writer may point a satire toward a person, a country, or even the entire world. Usually, a satire
is a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society, to expose its stupidity
and shortcomings. In addition, he hopes that those he criticizes will improve their characters by
overcoming their weaknesses.
Most political cartoons we see every day in newspapers and magazines are examples of satire.
These cartoons criticize some recent actions of political figures in a comical way.
Some shows on television are satire examples, such as The Daily Show, The Colbert Report,
and The Larry Sanders Show. These shows claim to target what they think are stupid political
and social viewpoints.
“If this is going to be a Christian nation that doesn’t help the poor, either we have to pretend that
Jesus was just as selfish as we are, or we’ve got to acknowledge that He commanded us to
love the poor and serve the needy without condition and then admit that we just don’t want to do
it.”
There are numerous examples of satire in Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
He uses satire as a tool to share his ideas and opinions on slavery, human nature, and many
other issues that afflicted American society at that time.
Below are a few citations from the novel that demonstrate satire:
• “What’s the use you learning to do right, when it’s troublesome to do right and isn’t no
trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?” (Ch. 16)
• “There warn’t anybody at the church, except maybe a hog or two, for there warn’t any
lock on the door, and hogs likes a puncheon floor in summer-time because it’s cool. If
you notice, most folks don’t go to church only when they’ve got to; but a hog is different.”
(Ch. 18)
• “The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that’s what an army is – a mob; they don’t fight with
courage that’s born in them, but with courage that’s borrowed from their mass, and from
their officers. But a mob without any man at the head of it is beneath pitifulness.” (Ch.
22)
Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock is an example of poetic satire in which he has satirized
the upper middle class of eighteenth century England. It exposes the vanity of young
fashionable ladies and gentlemen, and the frivolity of their actions. For example, Pope says,
about Belinda, after losing her lock of hair:
“Whether the nymph shall break Diana’s law,
Or some frail china jar receive a flaw,
Or stain her honor, or her new brocade…”
The line mocks the values of the fashionable class of that age. The trivial things were thought of
as equal to significant things. For Belinda, the loss of her virtue becomes equal to a China jar
being cracked.
Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver Travels is one of the finest satirical works in English Literature. Swift
relentlessly satirizes politics, religion, and Western culture. Criticizing party politics in England,
Swift writes:
“…that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire,
under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes,
by which they distinguish themselves.”
During Swift’s times, two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated the English
political scene. Similarly, “The Kingdom of Lilliput” is dominated by two parties distinguished by
the size of the heels of their boots. By the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties,
Swift satirizes the minor disputes of the two English parties of his period.
Function of Satire
The role of satire is to ridicule or criticize those vices in society the writer considers to be a
threat to civilization. The writer considers it his obligation to expose these vices for the
betterment of humanity. Therefore, the function of satire is not to make others laugh at persons
or ideas they make fun of. It intends to warn the public, and to change people’s opinions about
the prevailing corruption and conditions in society.
Scansion
Definition of Scansion
In literature, scansion means to divide the poetry or a poetic form into feet by pointing out
different syllables based on their lengths. Scansion is also known as “scanning,” which is, in
fact, a description of rhythms of poetry through break up of its lines or verses into feet, pointing
the locations of accented and unaccented syllables, working out on meter, as well as counting
the syllables.
These lines contained unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables, which are underlined.
This pattern repeats five times, which means it is iambic pentameter with un-rhyming lines
known as blank verse.
Example #3: Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town (by E.E Cumming)
Though first two lines rhyme in this example. However, there is no strict meter, as it is a free
verse poem. You can see the first, second and fourth lines have used iambic tetrameter, while
the third line has used tetrameter.
The metrical pattern of this stanza is trochaic octameter in which eight stressed syllables are
followed by eight unstressed syllables. Each line uses eight pairs of syllables. Total there are
sixteen syllables. The rhyme scheme of this stanza is ABCBB.
Example #5: The Charge of the Light Brigade (by Alfred Lord Tennyson)
This is a good example of dactylic dimeter with two feet in each line. Dactylic foot uses a
stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. This stressed syllable appears at the
beginning and in the middle of the lines. The rhyme scheme of this poem is irregular and
unpredictable, and in this stanza it is AAAB.
Example #6: The Bounty (by Derek Walcott)
Walcott has used mixed metrical pattern in this poem. In this example, the first two lines are
using trochaic heptameter, while the final line is using dactylic tetrameter. In the first line, you
can notice the use of caesura in the middle; it breaks the monotony and creates a dramatic
effect.
This is the famous example of a blank verse, using unrhyming lines with iambic pentameter (ten
syllables in a line and five are stressed).
Function of Scansion
Scansion demonstrates variation and regularity in poetry. It also proves very helpful in
determining the natural rhythm of a free and blank verse. Moreover, it makes a poem
pleasurable as well as more meaningful by marking the stressed and unstressed syllables. In
fact, scansion explains how rhythm contributes to beauty, significance and meaning of a poem.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Definition
Let us assume a teacher, who expects a student to be slothful, is likely to treat that student in
such a way that it draws out the very same response he or she expects. Similarly, if we start a
day and think “I’ll have a bad day today,” such thinking may alter our actions, and the prediction
might be fulfilled by those actions. The term “self-fulfilling prophecy” was coined by Robert
Merton in 1948. He described it as:
“A false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false
conception come true”
Individuals react to a situation the way they perceive it, and so their reaction is governed by their
perception of that particular situation. No matter what the situation means in reality, their
reaction toward the situation causes it to be fulfilled in accordance with their perception.
Examples of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Literature
One of the best self-fulfilling prophecy examples is in the Greek drama Oedipus Rex. Laius,
Oedipus’ father, abandoned his son to die after learning the prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi,
that he would kill him one day and marry his mother. He did not die as he was raised by the king
and queen of Corinth.
When he grew up, he came to know of the same prophecy from the same source. Not knowing
that the king and the queen of Corinth were not his real parents, he traveled toward Thebes”,
the city of his biological parents, in order to avert the prophecy. Ironically, the prophecy fulfilled
itself as he killed his father, defeated the Sphinx, became the king of Thebes, and married his
mother.
Example #2: The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream, from Arabian Nights
(By Muhsin Mahdi)
Self-fulfilling prophecy may take the form of a self-fulfilling dream, as in the famous work of
Arabic literature Arabian Nights. For example, in one of its stories, The Ruined Man Who
Became Rich Again Through a Dream, a man is told in a dream to leave his native city Baghdad
and travel to Cairo, where he will discover a hidden treasure in a certain place.
The man does so, but soon after facing misfortune, he loses his belief in that dream and ends
up in jail. He told the story of his dream to an officer, who told him that he was a fool, but took
note of the dream himself. The man returned to Baghdad along with the officer. Finally, the
officer discovers the treasure hidden in that man’s home. The prophecy would have been
fulfilled for that man, if he had had belief in the prophecy.
Eventually, the remaining half of the prophecy fulfilled itself. Macduff took revenge for his
father’s death, and killed Macbeth to ascend to the throne. The audience at the time of
Shakespeare did understand the fulfillment of the prophecy, as later on Macduff was succeeded
by James I of England, who was a descendant of Banquo. Thus, the prophecy was fulfilled.
Semantic
Definition of Semantics
Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and
meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading
comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In
addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a
sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative.
Types of Semantics
Connotative Semantic
Denotative Semantic
It suggests the literal, explicit, or dictionary meanings of the words, without using associated
meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of writers, such as an
exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, or quotation mark.
Juliet:
The above-mentioned quote is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding
text clarifies the meaning. Juliet is using metaphoric language, arguing with Romeo that his
family name is not important to her, because she only wants Romeo.
This sentence is conveying a denotative or general meaning that he likes his mother more than
his father. Thus the meaning is understandable and acceptable for all types of readers around
the world. Hence, the general acceptability for all people is the major factor for communicating
with people successfully.
In the famous soliloquy of Prince Hamlet, “To be or not to be,” William Shakespeare has used a
word that we use quite differently these days. Hamlet says:
Here, “mortal coil” carries a connotative meaning that suggests life, as Hamlet compares death
to sleep. However, we are using coils in different connection today, which means a series of
spirals tightly joined together.
We can understand the use of semantics in the beginning of Hedda Gabler, in which Bertha
mentions Hedda, saying:
This sentence lays emphasis on the implication that, unlike Hedda, other women are not real.
That they neither have any discipline, nor structure in the schedules of their lives. In another
dialogue, she says:
“But, Lord! I never dreamed I’d live to see a match between her and master George.”
Here, an exclamation mark highlights Bertha’s feelings of curiosity and astonishment. Her word
choice, “never dreamed,” shows her intensity of surprising emotions about class inequality.
We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the
meanings of sentences, phrases, and words, and make relations between them. These features
include personification, simile, imagery, metaphor, and allusion. For example, in William Blake’s
poem Night, he uses all semantic features. The poet employs a simile to compare the beauty of
the moon with a flower,
Here, the phrase “tears of gold” illustrates the value of tears. Then, we see personification:
and imagery:
Function of Semantics
The purpose of semantics is to propose exact meanings of words and phrases, and remove
confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings. It
makes a relationship between a word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides,
semantics enable the readers to explore a sense of the meaning because, if we remove or
change the place of a single word from the sentence, it will change the entire meaning, or else
the sentence will become anomalous. Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very
important, as a single word does not carry any sense or meaning.
Sesquipedalian
Definition of Sesquipedalian
Sesquipedalian is derived from the Latin word sesquipedalis, which means the words are a foot
and a half long. It is a stylistic device, defined as the use of words that are very long and have
several syllables. In other words, sesquipedalian writing or speech involves the overuse of long
syllabic (multisyllabic) words, or excessive use of extraordinarily long words.
This style of speaking and writing is called “sesquipedalian style,” and is shown in this example:
“Antipericatametaanaparcircumvolutiorectumgustpoops of the Coprofied”(From Gargantua and
Pantagruel by Francois Rabelais). Some words are made longer by adding multiple suffixes and
prefixes to the ordinary terms, like this long syllabic word, “antidisestablishmentarianism” (anti-
dis-establishment-arian-ism).
This device was first introduced in literary texts in Roman times, when the famous poet Horace
coined the word sesquipedaliaverba. Thereafter, no examples of sesquipedalian were found
until the 19th century. Later on, this literary device has been extensively used.
There are many sesquipedalian examples in this James Joyce book. Joyce has used words up
to hundred letters long in this novel. In this excerpt, he has used one of the most famous long
words in the first line. This word supposedly represents a symbolic thunderclap linked with the
fall of Adam and Eve.
This is a very good example of sesquipedalian, as Carey has coined long syllabic words. Here,
the opening line, and then the second to the last line, contain multisyllabic words that are very
long coinages that give a humorous effect.
“Cost. O! they have lived long on the alms basket of words. I marvel thy master hath not eaten
thee for a word; for thou art not so long by the head as honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art
easier swallowed than a flap-dragon…”
“Lopado¬¬temacho¬¬selacho¬¬galeo¬¬kranio¬¬leipsano¬¬drim¬¬hypo¬¬trimmato¬¬silphio¬¬
parao¬¬melito¬¬katakechy¬-
meno¬¬kichl¬¬epi¬¬kossypho¬¬phatto¬¬perister¬¬alektryon¬¬opte¬¬kephallio¬¬kigklo¬¬pelei
o¬¬lagoio¬¬siraio¬¬baphe¬¬tragano¬-pterygon….”
Aristophanes, being a comedic playwright, created a long Greek word of about 171 letters,
which is shown above. This word means a dish consisting of different ingredients, like fish,
dainties, sauces, and flesh.
“Osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous…
osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary…”
Thomas Peacock has coined two words in this example. The first one has 44 letters, and the
second has 51 letters. These two words are roughly translated as of “flesh, bone, organs, blood,
nerve, gristle and marrow.” He describes the human body by using these words.
Function of Sesquipedalian
The English language has an abundance of sesquipedalian words, which are often used to add
humorous effect. The most likely users of such words are language professionals and word
hobbyists. Many language lovers and hobbyists are prone to attempt topping one another in
order to set new records using these words and devising them.
It is also used as a humorous attempt to reformulate popular English expressions. Since the
multisyllabic words slow down the pace of a verse, it gives readers more time to comprehend
the meaning of such words. Hence, the main function of sesquipedalian words is to put
emphasis and draw the attention of the audience.
Sestet
Definition of Sestet
Sestet originates from the Italian word sestetto, which means “sixth.” The famous Italian poet
Petrarch was the first to have introduced this poetic form in Italian sonnet. This is the second
part of the sonnet, while the first part is called “octave,” and comprises of eight lines. It has six
lines, and also refers to a poem of six lines, or a six-lined stanza in a poem, which can be
distinguished from other units by line breaks. Hence, a sestet could also be a complete poem of
six lines, or could be a stanza in a poem.
This sestet is the second part of Keats’ sonnet, When I Have Fears that I May Cease to Be, in
which he has used classic iambic pentameter. In the first section, the poet has explored his
agonizing combination of desires, and then a turn comes in this section, where he reverses his
thoughts in entirely surprising and new directions.
This is also the second part of a sonnet, with a rhyming scheme of CDCDEE. In the sestet, the
speaker solves this uncertainty presented in the previous part, by witnessing his friend’s
presence in the woods when he says, “and you are here for proof.”
Usually, poets do not employ straightforward six-line stanzas, or sestets, in their work, other
than in a strict form of sonnet. In this example, however, Dickinson opens the poem with a
sestet that has the rhyme scheme of AABCCD.
This is a perfect example of Italian sestet with rhyme scheme of CDCDCD. This is a stanza
break that brings change in the poem by using dialogue and first person point of view, which is
different from octave.
This is another famous example of Italian sonnet, using second part as a sestet with a rhyme
scheme of CDECDE and metrical pattern of iambic pentameter. In the first part, the speaker
tries to convey a foolish question and in the second part, a figure named “patience” gives
response to that question.
Example #6: Annabel Lee (by Edgar Allan Poe)
Most of the stanzas in the given poem are sestets. Again this poet also begins the poem with
sestet by using a rhyme scheme of ABABCB.
Function of Sestet
The most fascinating thing about the structure of a sonnet is that the nature of octave is more
objective. In other words, it is set to present some dilemma or a problem. In contrast, the
function of sestet is subjective that answers or gives response to that problem presented in
octave, completing the complex world with fourteen lines. In simple words, sestet is a “turn or
volta” in a sonnet that resolves the issue presented in the first part, or it provides a new
perspective or a solution to an idea. Therefore, it gives surprise and new direction to the idea
expressed in the sonnet.
Sestina
Definition of Sestina
Sestina is a type of a poem that contains six stanzas, each stanza having six lines, while a
concluding seventh stanza has three lines called “envoi,” which is also known as “tornada.“ As
sestina derives its name from fixed structure and characteristics, it is as popular as the sextain.
Unlike other poetic forms, sestina does not rhyme. However, it has rhythmic quality on account
of the repetition of the final six words of the first stanza that recur in the remaining poem. Hence,
a sestina follows the rule of an end word pattern.
Types of Sestina
Depending upon the number and size of stanzas, different poets have changed sestinas as give
below.
Double Sestina
This may contain twelve stanzas with six lines in each stanza, and a final tercet. For instance, in
Philip Sydney’s, Ye Goatherd Gods; or the twelve stanzas with twelve lines in each stanza, and
final envoi with six lines, such as in Algernon Charles Swinburne’s, The Complaint of Lisa.
Trinita
This is a contracted form of sestina, containing three stanzas with three lines and final one-line
envoi.
This is a perfect sestina in which Pound uses repetitive ending words, “peace,” “music,” “clash,”
“opposing,” “crimson,” and “rejoicing,” respectively. As we know, sestinas have six stanzas with
six lines in each stanza, which repeat the final words of first stanza, and this repetition occurs in
the remaining poem too. The same happens in this poem.
The above example presents complex structure of sestina. The poet has repeatedly used the
words “coffee,” “crumb,” “balcony,” “miracle,” “sun,” and “river,” which show even from a surface
reading that these are its keywords. Towards her concluding envoi, Bishop uses all her
repeated words to illustrate the the breakfast miracle.
This example is presenting a modern form of sestina. In this form, again we see Auden has
employed repetitive words like, “valleys,” “mountains,” “water,” “islands,” “cities,” and “sorrows,”
which play on sensory description, creates vivid imagery in the minds of the readers, and adds
rhythm to the poem.
Example #4: Farm Implements and Rutabagas in a Landscape (By John Ashbury)
This one is another perfect example of sestina, containing six stanzas and a final envoi. Though
the poem does not have a regular rhythm, the repetition of six words, “thunder,” “apartment,”
“country,” “pleasant,” “scratched,” and “spinach,” towards the conclusion of each line, except the
final envoi, giving it a slight rhyme.
Function of Sestina
The form of sestina requires adherence to its arbitrary and strict order. Though it is a complex
verse form, it achieves its amazing effects due to intricate repetition of words, called “lexical
repetition.” Therefore, it does not rely upon its meter or rhyme alone. Apart from drawing
attention to its structure, this lexical repetition creates rhythm in the poem, brings harmony
among various stanzas, enhances the subject matter, keeps the idea alive in the reader’s
minds, and engages them. Hence, the basic function of sestina is to highlight an idea.
Setting
Definition of Setting
Setting is an environment or surrounding in which an event or story takes place. It may provide
particular information about placement and timing, such as New York, America, in the year
1820. Setting could be simply descriptive, like a lonely cottage on a mountain. Social conditions,
historical time, geographical locations, weather, immediate surroundings, and timing are all
different aspects of setting.
There are three major components to setting: social environment, place, and time. Moreover,
setting could be an actual region, or a city made larger than life, as James Joyce characterizes
Dublin in Ulysses. Or, it could be a work of the author’s imagination, such as Vladimir Nabokov’s
imaginative place, space-time continuum in Ada.
Types of Setting
Backdrop Setting
Backdrop setting emerges when it is not important for a story, and it could happen in any
setting. For instance, A. A. Milne’s story Winnie-the-Pooh could take place in any type of setting.
Integral Setting
It is when the place and time influences the theme, character, and action of a story. This type of
setting controls the characters. By confining a certain character to a particular setting, the writer
defines the character. Beatrix Potter’s short story The Tail of Peter Rabbit is an example of
integral setting, in which the behavior of Peter becomes an integral part of the setting. Another
good example of this type of setting can be seen in E. B. White’s novel Charlotte’s Web.
In Emily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights, its setting plays a vital role, as it reflects the mood of
major characters and their actions, while contributing to its overall atmosphere. The novel has
three main settings:
1. The Moors
2. Wuthering Heights
3. Thrushcross Grange
The Moors symbolize wilderness and freedom, as nobody owns them, and everyone can freely
move about anytime. Wuthering Heights depicts weather around this house, which is stormy
and gloomy. The characters are cruel and extremely passionate. Thrushcross Grange, on the
other hand, is contrary to Wuthering Heights because its weather is calm, while its inhabitants
are dull and weak.
Example #2: The Passionate Shepherd to His Love (By Christopher Marlowe)
Christopher Marlowe’s poem The Passionate Shepherd to His Love is set in the countryside in
the springtime. The springtime has a double purpose, as it refers to baby animals and budding
flowers, and the fifth month of the year. Then the month of May sets the scene as well as
emphasizes fertility and new life linked with springtime. Thus, the poet has idealized the image
of rural life in the background of his personal emotions, while time is stationary in the poem.
In Joseph Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness, the leading character Marlow goes to different
places and settings that influence his imagination, which adds to the themes of the story. The
title, Heart of Darkness, refers to the center of the jungle on the African continent, where
Marlowe travels to find Kurtz. The darkness not only applies to the shadowy jungle, but also to
the behavior and actions of the civilized people it affects, and they become savage like Kurtz.
The setting is also symbolic of imperialistic forces that have made black men their slaves.
In William Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies, weather plays a very important role, as it represents
mood, behavior, and attitudes of young boys throughout the storyline. During the day, the beach
looks bright, while the ocean is calm, and there is no conflict. The author describes the dense
areas of the jungle as scary and dark. One night, when Simon is killed, there comes a violent
storm, and the ocean looks very rough in the black night. Thus, its setting includes weather
conditions, and the ocean representing dark forces of nature present in human nature.
Function of Setting
The function of setting in a fictional, poetic, and prose work is of great importance. It has
immense effect on plots and characters, as it could act as an antagonist, post a conflict that
characters need to resolve, or shed light upon characters. It can also present symbolic persons,
objects, place, action, or situations. Setting can establish the mood or atmosphere of a scene or
story, and develop the plot into a more realistic form, resulting in more convincing characters.
By establishing mood, setting also helps the audience relate themselves to the characters in a
story.
Sibilance
Definition of Sibilance
Sibilance is a literary device where strongly stressed consonants are created deliberately by
producing air from vocal tracts through the use of lips and tongue. Such consonants produce
hissing sounds. However, in poetry, it is used as a stylistic device, and sibilants are used more
than twice in quick succession. Most of the times, the “s” sound is the sibilant.
Alliteration is produced by the repetition of first consonant sounds in the words, generally the
first one or two letters, such as in “A big bully beats a baby boy.” However, sibilance is also a
specific type of alliteration that uses the soft consonants. In sibilance, hissing sounds are
created. These soft consonants are s, with sh, ch, and th, including three others such as z, x, f
and soft c. For instance, “Sing a Song of Sixpence” is the title of a famous nursery rhyme, which
can be considered as a good example of sibilance.
The poem has a simple aabb rhyme scheme. Blake makes heavy use of sibilance in this poem,
especially the “s” sound, as in the bold words. In a similar way, the use of “sh” and “ch” sounds
in the words “shade” and “chase” gives softer effects.
Example #2: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)
This is the first stanza of the poem, which is filled with music and sibilance. The words noted in
bold are all are sibilance examples. These are voiced with hissing sounds.
Here we can clearly see the softer consonants of sibilance, such as “s” sounds in the words
noted in bold.
Function of Sibilance
An atmosphere can be created through sibilance, which helps in drawing the attention of
readers, painting a more colorful picture of the idea or the event. With the help of sibilance,
descriptive scenes can be explained more carefully by laying stress on the specific letters. In
fact, the sense of repeated sounds, and then the making up of different literary devices through
sibilance creates further musical effect for the readers.
Simile
Definition of Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two
different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words “like”
or “as.” Therefore, it is a direct comparison.
We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like, “John is as slow
as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here the slowness of John is compared
to that of a snail. The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some more
examples of common similes are given below.
Simile introduces vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize simile to convey their
sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures.
“I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its
invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage.”
In these lines from Lord Jim, the helplessness of the soul is being compared with a bird in a
cage, beating itself against the merciless wires to be free.
“… impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought was like
following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one’s pencil… “
Here, Ms. Woolf makes the point that her thoughts are difficult to follow, and cannot be written
quickly enough.
“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”
This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on walking sticks with
the ancient leaning tower of Pisa.
Here, Robert Burns uses a simile to describe the beauty of his beloved. He says that his love is
a fresh red rose that blossoms in the spring.
A significant thing to consider here is that, at times simile is drawn without using the words “as”
or “like.” Consider the following example:
In the very first line, Shakespeare poses a question if he should compare his beloved to a
summer’s day. But then he himself rejects this idea and says that his beloved is better than that.
This This is an example of an extended simile. is an example of an extended simile.
In this poem, the speaker is feeling dejected, wondering if there could be hope and morning
again. The poet has used trochees, giving a strong rhythm to the poem. Notice in this first
stanza, the accented syllables are emphasized. See that word “I” is unaccented or unstressed
with a different feet.
“… when I laid down the paper, I was aware of a flash — rush — flow — I do not know what to
call it — no word I can find is satisfactorily descriptive — in which I seemed to see that bedroom
passing through my room, like a picture impossibly painted on a running river.
Charles Dickens, in this excerpt, uses a simile in the last line, indicated in bold.
The last line here exhibits a beautiful use of simile by Shakespeare, where Othello compares
Desdemona’s smooth skin to alabaster.
Othello compares Desdemona’s infidelity to water, but Emilia calls him as rash as fire, and
testifies to her fidelity. In both cases, these are very good similes to reflect the character of a
person.
Function of Rhythm
From the above discussion, we can infer the function of similes, both in everyday life, and in
literature. Using similes attracts attention, and appeals directly to the senses of listeners or
readers, encouraging their imaginations to understand what is being communicated. In addition,
it rhythm life-like quality in our daily speech, and in the characters of fiction or poetry.
Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences.
Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for readers to understand the subject matter of a
literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like
metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offer new perspectives on the
world.
Simple Paragraph
Definition of Simple Paragraph
A paragraph contains a group of sentences intertwined with each other to discuss, or debate, or
explain a central idea. It conventionally begins with an indented line. A beginner writer or a
student usually starts writing a paragraph having seven sentences, while some professors of
composition advise beginners to start with nine sentences, and some others ask them to start
with eleven sentences. Some, however, teach all three paragraph types step by step.
A simple paragraph is comprised of three major components. The first sentence, which is often
a declarative sentence, is called the “topic sentence.” It introduces the topic of the paragraph,
setting its tone and mood. The next few sentences elaborate, explain, and exemplify the topic
introduced in it. These sentences also provide supporting details for the explanation or
examples. The final sentence is the concluding sentence, which wraps up the topic discussed in
the paragraph.
A simple paragraph is the first element taught in writing. It is an independent entity, without any
connection to any other topic, thought or idea. It exists on its own. However, a body paragraph
is part of an organized essay where several thoughts on a topic are discussed, and the body
paragraph discusses one of them mentioned in the thesis statement of the essay. It has no
ending sentence, as it connects the thought with the next paragraph.
“The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like
soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear
language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one’s real and one’s declared aims, one
turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out
ink. In our age there is no such thing as ‘keeping out of politics.’ All issues are political issues,
and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general
atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have
not sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages have all
deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship.”
Although this is a body paragraph, it can exist on its own. As this a typical example from
literature, there are more sentences than a general student-written paragraph has.
“The question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of
the three with which we shall deal. This may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought
that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. The trouble is
that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of
agreement between them would make a belief true. Let us begin with belief.”
This is another example of a good paragraph. It has also discussed a single point that is
knowledge and then elaborated it further. It has just four sentences, but they are quite long to
make it a unified whole.
“With clarity and definition is associated a certain physical spareness. Most of the great
deciduous trees of England give one the impression, at any rate in summer, of being rather
obese. In Scandinavian mythology Embla, the elm, was the first woman. Those who have lived
much with old elm trees—and I spent a good part of my boyhood under their ponderous
shade—will agree that the Scandinavians were men of insight. There is in effect something
blowsily female about those vast trees that brood with all their bulging masses of foliage above
the meadows of the home counties. In winter they are giant skeletons; and for a moment in the
early spring a cloud of transparent emerald vapor floats in the air; but by June they have settled
down to an enormous middle age.”
This is a very good example of a typical paragraph Aldous Huxley wrote for his essay “The Olive
Tree.” It has more sentences than a common paragraph has but it can exist on its own.
A paragraph is the smallest writing piece that can exist on its own. It discusses a complete
thought or idea or point. It tells readers in an organized way about the thing that it discusses,
describes or defines. For students, a paragraph is a first step to composition before writing a
complete essay.
Situational Irony
Definition of Situational Irony
Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary works. Simply, it occurs
when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually
happens instead. Thus, something entirely different happens from what audience may be
expecting, or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony
generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to
allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually
associate them to the theme of a story.
The Harry Potter series is one of the most popular novel series having employed situational
irony. Through seven novels, the audience believes that Harry can kill Voldemort, the evil lord.
However, the audience is thrown off guard near the end of this series when it becomes clear
that Harry must allow the evil lord to kill him, so that Voldemort’s soul could become mortal once
again. Hence, Harry allows himself to be killed in order to defeat Voldemort, which is exactly the
opposite of the audience’s expectations. By using situational irony, Rowling has done a great
job of adding a twist to the story to further a complex conflict.
A very famous example of this form of irony occurs toward the end of the short story, The story
of an Hour, by Kate Chopin. In this story, the wife of Mr. Brently comes to know that he is no
more alive and has died from an accident, so she feels contended to live a long life of freedom
with no restrictions. However, at the end of the tale, her husband comes back unexpectedly
and, upon seeing him, instantly she dies from shock.
The whole story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz presents a case of situational irony. Dorothy
goes to the wizard in order to find a way home, only to learn that she is capable of doing so
herself. Scarecrow wished to become intelligent, but he discovers himself a perfect genius.
Woodsman considers himself as not capable of love; nevertheless he learns that he has a good
heart. Lion appears as a coward, and turns out to be extremely fearless and courageous.
Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)
Romeo strives to bring out peace between Tybalt and Mercutio, and eventually between the
Capulets and the Montagues. However, Mercutio’s death, and subsequently Romeo’s pledge to
kill Tybalt, escalate a situation leading to his banishment, and finally to the death of both Romeo
and Juliet.
Eliot makes comparison between an evening with “a patient etherized upon a table.” By
portraying a beautiful natural image, and comparing it with a painful and difficult medical
procedure of the modern world, the poet makes use of situational irony for depicting a natural
beauty’s loss in the corrupted world.
The plot of de Maupassant’s entire short story The Necklace is an example of situational irony.
For keeping up appearances, the leading character, Mathilda, borrows a necklace from a
wealthy friend but loses it. In order to return her friend’s necklace, Mathilda and her husband
replace this jewel with another expensive one, however due to this replacement they went
through a serious financial crisis. Years later, Mathilda meets this friend again, and learns that
the jewelry she replaced with real and costly gemstones was merely a costume and artificial
piece of jewelry.
The function of situational irony is to lay emphasis on important scenes and make strange and
unusual images vivid. It creates an unexpected turn at the end of a story, and makes audience
laugh or cry. Therefore, situational irony could be tragic or funny. Usually writers employ strong
word connections with situational irony and add fresh thoughts, variations, and embellishments
to their works. It may range from the most comic to the most tragic situations. Its comical use
usually creates an unexpected turnaround in a plot for the betterment. Sometimes, these forms
of irony occur because people identify certain events and situations as unfair or odd.
Slang
Definition of Slang
Words that are not a part of standard vocabulary or language, and which are used informally,
are called “slang.” These words are more commonly used in speech than in writing.
Every culture and every region across the globe has its own slang. Some of these include
American slang, Costa Rican slang, Spanish slang and South African slang. European English
regions, such as Wales, Ireland, and Scotland also have their own slang.
The slang term used in this sentence is “Bob’s your uncle,” which means “there you have it.”
This phrase found its origin when, in 1887, British Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil
appointed his nephew, Arthur Balfour, to the seat of Minister for Ireland. Balfour referred to his
uncle as “Uncle Bob,” and the people decided it was a simple matter to be proclaimed Prime
Minister if “Bob’s your uncle.” This slang is mostly used by British citizens.
Example #2:
“Last night was flop. I was supposed to go to a party with my friends, but they flopped on me.
They are all such floppers.”
Here the slang term being used is “flop,” which means a planned event does not happen. A
“flopper” is someone who cancels the plans at the last minute.
Example #3:
“I’m so upset about my birthday party pictures. My brother is making faces behind me in every
picture, what a photo bomb!”
In the sentence above, “photo bomb” is the slang term. This is when a person or an object
accidentally or intentionally appears in the background of a photo and as a result, ruins it.
Example #4:
“I got a job promotion even though I don’t go to work half the time. I’m so sick.”
Here, the slang term used is “sick,” which literally means “ill.” However, in slang it refers to
something being awesome or cool. This type of slang terminology is mostly used by teenagers.
Example #5:
“I can’t believe she went and told my father about everything just to get me in trouble, what a
hater.”
The slang term used here is “hater,” which refers to someone who is jealous or angry towards
another person because of their success.
Example #6:
“The students caught cheating on the test were given the third-degree by the principal.”
The slang used in the sentence above is “third-degree,” which means “to be interrogated.”
Example #7:
“I can’t believe my life has passed so quickly. Now that I am in the hospital, I’ll probably just kick
the bucket here.”
The slang being used here is “kick the bucket,” which means to die. Some people believe that
this term is derived from the historical practice of having a person sentenced to hanging stand
on a bucket – rope tied around his neck. The bucket was then kicked out from under his feet,
leaving him hanging by the neck.
Example #8:
“The kids were ready to bite my arm off just because I promised to take them to the candy
store.”
The slang phrase being used here is “bite my arm off,” which means to “get overexcited.”
Function of Slang
Slang allows a person to become creative in the use of language. Some people use slang in
order to communicate with each other informally. Similarly, people using slang are able to
identify other members of their subculture easily.
There is a special Slang Dictionary that contains such words and their meanings. When a new
word is created in the slang language, and a majority of people start using it, then it is added
into the language. If it does not gain enough popularity, it is forgotten.
One of the reasons slang is around is that people believe that, by using slang, they will be able
to set themselves apart from others and be unique. However, others believe that this is an
improper way of speaking or writing, and strongly criticize its use. Children who use slang while
speaking end up using it while writing in school, which is discouraged in the academic world.
Snark is a combination of two words, “snide” and “remark,” which means a sarcastic comment.
It is a literary device that is meant to be sarcastic speech. Depending on the subject, the
audience, and the speaker, snark can be taken as sophisticated, witty, or asinine.
Snark is defined as making sharp and critical comments, and a wonderfully witty blending of
cynicism and sarcasm. There are many examples of snark from Shakespeare’s works such as,
“Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak’d meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables…”
(Hamlet). The major character, Hamlet, makes sarcastic remarks on the affair of his mother and
uncle, and regarding their marriage ceremony.
Characteristics of Snark
Snark is a witty and sarcastic comment used in writing or speech. Hate speeches pointed
towards large groups of people cannot be considered as snark examples. It is a rug-pulling and
teasing type of insult that is used to steal somebody’s charm, and annihilate his effectiveness.
Snark can appeal to the shrewd audience at large who can understand the derision of the
snarker and his references.
Examples of Snark in Literature
Example #1: Mending Walls (By Robert Frost)
Frost makes snarky remarks by pointing out that, although two neighbors have made a wall
between their countries, every winter the wall falls apart, and the neighbors meet to mend the
wall. Therefore, they spend a lot of time together while mending the wall.
The poet talks about two roads, one of which most people choose, while the other is less
traveled. The poet has chosen the less traveled one. Since he feels regret for his choice of path,
he makes a snarky and sarcastic comment that it made a difference.
Chaucer depicts the character Friar in a bitter speech, because the said character is a priest
who accepts bribes from rich people. He does not take interest in his duties, and he spends
money from confessions of sinners on women and merry-making.
Here, Juliet makes a sarcastic comment, and asks Romeo his name, asking why his name is
Romeo. It is because their families are enemies, and they could never be united. She tells him
to change his name or she will change hers.
Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)
Here, Mark Antony recurrently uses a specific phrase, “an honorable man.” He calls Brutus an
honorable man who has killed Caesar. His persistent use of this phrase reverses the real
meaning, hence it is a sarcastic use of this phrase.
Function of Snark
Snark can be used for different purposes. However, mostly it is utilized as a mask. Others might
use it as a defensive device. When bitterness is not easy to express in an agreeable way, snark
is used without hurting anyone directly.
The major purpose of snark in literary works is to create a special flavor, just to make the piece
of work real. However, the essence of snark in literary works is to hurt someone through bitter
words.
Solecism
Definition of Reductio ad Absurdum
Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin term that means “to reduce something to absurdity.” It is a
figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something for one’s own position by
showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an
argument to absurdity, by drawing conclusions with logical limits, or by showing ridiculous
consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity.
Reductio ad absurdum examples cannot be used as an appeal to ridicule. Though both devices
are extensively used in satire, an appeal to ridicule is the use of ridiculing a situation without
arguing or explanation; while, reductio ad absurdum pursues arguments and logical
consequences.
Swift uses reductio ad absurdum as a satirizing technique here. In this case, the purpose is to
ridicule the duality of individuals in their private and public spheres.
“I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the
backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present
deplorable state of the kingdom … cheap and easy method of making these children sound and
useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his
statue set up for a preserver of the nation.”
This is one of the more famous examples of reductio ad absurdum in English literature. Here,
Swift uses reductio ad absurdum by arguing about social conditions to ridiculous lengths. This
highlights a horrific situation of children.
Estragon and Vladimir indulge themselves in useless and aimless activities. They talk, joke,
rebuke, question, and argue about the reason of their existence. This excerpt is full of reductio
ad absurdum because characters push the conversation to extreme ridicule with
argumentations.
In this extract, Plato argues for justice – that men should be just. By using this technique, he
ridicules the questions of other speakers. Adeimantus disagrees to the extreme of absurdity
against Glaucon’s claims regarding people wanting to be unjust rather than just.
Today, it is used mostly in informal debates. The purpose of using this technique is to expose
the foolishness and ridiculous attitudes of certain assumptions and behaviors. However, there is
a great danger that readers might fail to recognize the objectives clearly.
Soliloquy
Definition of Soliloquy
A soliloquy is a popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost thoughts of a
character. It is a great technique used to convey the progress of action of the play, by means of
expressing a character’s thoughts about a certain character or past, present, or upcoming
event, while talking to himself without acknowledging the presence of any other person.
The word soliloquy is derived from the Latin word solo, which means “to himself,” and loquor,
which means “I speak,” respectively. A soliloquy is often used as a means of character
revelation or character manifestation to the reader or the audience of the play.
Due to a lack of time and space, it was sometimes considered essential to present information
about the plot, and to expose the feelings and intentions of the characters. Historically,
dramatists made extensive use of soliloquies in their plays, but it has become outdated, though
some playwrights still use it in their plays. Soliloquy examples abound during the Elizabethan
era.
Sometimes soliloquy is wrongly mixed up with monologue and aside. These two techniques are
distinctly different from a soliloquy. Although, like soliloquy, a monologue is a speech, the
purpose and presentation of both is different. In a monologue, a character usually makes a
speech in the presence of other characters, while in a soliloquy, the character or speaker
speaks to himself. By doing so, the character keeps these thoughts secret from the other
characters of the play. An aside on the other hand, is a short comment by a character towards
the audience, often for another character, but usually without his knowledge.
Examples of Soliloquy in Literature
Shakespeare made extensive use of soliloquies in his plays. But before Shakespeare, we find
considerable use of this significant dramatic technique in Christopher Marlow’s play Doctor
Faustus. Modern plays do not have as many examples of soliloquy as the Renaissance era.
In the first soliloquy of Doctor Faustus, Marlow has nicely summed up Faustus’ life, motives,
intentions, and growth of his ideas that took place before the start of the action. The
extraordinarily ambitious soul of Doctor Faustus is revealed here, who was not satisfied with the
existing branches of knowledge, and needed something beyond the powers of man.
These lines are taken from Dr. Faustus’ last soliloquy, where Faustus makes an appeal in the
last hour’s anguish to stop whatever was done.
Hamlet is in a state of mind that only Shakespeare can describe through his magnificent pen.
Uncertain, reluctant Prince Hamlet was literally unable to do anything but merely wait to “catch
the conscience of the king” to complete his supposed plan.
Juliet was thinking aloud about the traditional enmity between Romeo’s clan and her family,
expressing her hopelessness about the success of their love.
“Peace. It is providence, and no great change; we are only what we always were, but naked
now. Aye, naked! And the wind, God’s icy wind, will blow!”
Although modern plays hardly use any soliloquies, The Crucible has some used in the second
act. This short form of soliloquy comes at the end of Act 2, where John Proctor faces the open
sky when talking to Mary Warren.
Function of Soliloquy
A soliloquy in a play is a great dramatic technique or tool that intends to reveal the inner
workings of the character. No other technique can perform the function of supplying essential
progress of the action of the story better than a soliloquy. It is used, not only to convey the
development of the play to the audience, but also to provide an opportunity to see inside the
mind of a certain character.
Sonnet
Definition of Sonnet
The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word “sonetto,” which means a “little song” or small
lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10
syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme, and a volta, or a specific turn.
Generally, sonnets are divided into different groups based on the rhyme scheme they follow.
The rhymes of a sonnet are arranged according to a certain rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme
in English is usually abab–cdcd–efef–gg, and in Italian abba–abba–cde–cde.
Types of Sonnet
1. Italian Sonnet
2. Shakespearean Sonnet
3. Spenserian Sonnet
4. Miltonic Sonnet
5. Terza Rima Sonnet
6. Curtal Sonnet
Let us take a look at the examples of sonnets in literature, based on the various categories:
Italian or Petrarchan sonnet was introduced by 14th century Italian poet Francesco Petrarch.
The rhyme scheme of a Petrarchan sonnet features the first eight lines, called an octet, which
rhymes as abba–abba–cdc–dcd. The remaining six lines are called a sestet, and might have a
range of rhyme schemes.
Shakespearean Sonnet
Spenserian Sonnet
Sir Edmund Spenser was the first poet who modified the Petrarch’s form, and introduced a new
rhyme scheme as follows:
The rhyme scheme in this sonnet is abab–bcbc–cdcd–ee, which is specific to Spenser, and
such types of sonnets are called Spenserian sonnets.
Function of Sonnet
The sonnet has become popular among different poets because it has a great adaptability to
different purposes and requirements. Rhythms are strictly followed. It could be a perfect poetic
style for elaboration or expression of a single feeling or thought, with its short length in iambic
pentameter. In fact, it gives an ideal setting for a poet to explore strong emotions. Due to its
short length, it is easy to manage for both the writer and the reader.
Speaker
Definition of Speaker
In writing, the speaker is the voice that speaks behind the scene. In fact, it is the narrative voice
that speaks of a writer’s feelings or situation. It is not necessary that a poet is always the
speaker, because sometimes he may be writing from a different perspective, or may be in the
voice of another race, gender, or even a material object. It usually appears as a persona or
voice in a poem. Read on to learn more about speaker in literature.
The speaker in Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken” is a conflicted person, who does not tell
anything about himself. However, the readers of this poem know that he is undergoing a big
decision, that he has chosen a single path according to which he is directing his life, and this
splits into two options ahead.
Falling leaves and yellow woods are metaphors for the speaker’s life, showing the downfall of
his life. At this stage of life, it is not possible to return and make a new decision, because he
knows the time is gone. The speaker is impulsive and adventurous, the reason that he has
chosen the less traveled path. He is feeling a little regret, while his tone is also a bit sad.
In his poem “Ode to Nightingale,” the speaker is Keats himself. He has played with tricky
language, which proved lucky for him. He has managed to persuade himself that he has moved
to a new setting and completely new perspective. He must have been under huge pressure that
he wanted to escape into fantasy and leave this world. In fact, he is feeling down in life as a
whole, and readers recognize that, at this point, he would try to end it all.
However, readers are not convinced by his conversation about death – that it would be easy –
and he himself does not seem to be convinced either. It all seems merely a show. The speaker
also has displayed his knowledge of the Bible and the Greek myth in this tale. He has an active
imagination, is well-read, and wants his readers to know it.
The speaker in “Annabel Lee,” by Edgar Allan Poe, is the lover of Annabel Lee. The speaker
seems to be engaging, charming, and someone whom a girl would meet and fall in love with
right away. He is someone who would tell stories. As readers move on reading the poem, they
start realizing that there is something wrong.
The readers begin to feel the speaker will return to a particular subject, and would rage about
something bad that may have happened to him. They notice a little sparkle in his eyes that
makes readers a bit uncomfortable, because he fascinates them, and he cannot be ignored.
Also, his voice has something powerful in it that draws the reader in.
In “A Modest Proposal,” Swift wants his readers to view the speaker as a reasonable and
compassionate man that has a genuine interest in solving the problems and issues of the Irish
people. In the first eight paragraphs, readers meet a kind and considerate man, who has keen
insight into their troubles, which he will address shortly. In doing so, he moves from a rational
approach to the problems, toward more sarcastic view.
Through his speaker, Swift suggests a solution to poverty that makes use of children of less
fortunate and poor families as a food source. By expressing this idea through the speaker, the
author uses sarcasm, exaggeration, and imagery to put into words his disgust for the Irish
society. It is, in fact, Swift himself who speaks through the voice of a speaker. The role of Swift’s
speaker is to give readers a glimpse of the underlying social problems in Ireland. This gets the
point across, as well as challenges the readers to think about the plight of those less fortunate,
rather than thinking only of themselves.
Function
The role of a speaker is one of the most important aspects in a written work. A speaker allows a
more active voice, and plays the role of the mouthpiece in conveying the ideas of a writer or a
poet to the audience. Just like actors, a speaker tells, or acts out directly, an account of what
exactly occurs. It is found in different forms of writing, but is very common in poetry and novels.
Spondee
Definition of Spondee
A metrical foot, spondee is a beat in a poetic line that consists of two accented syllables
(stressed/stressed) or DUM-DUM stress pattern. Spondee is a poetic device that is not as
common as other metrical feet, like iamb and trochee. We rarely find poems written in spondee
alone; however, poets use spondee by combining other metrical feet. For instance, the word
“faithful” contains spondee. If you say this word loudly, you would notice that you are putting an
equal amount of stress on both syllables “faith” and “ful.”
Features of Spondee
It is one of the most commonly used five metrical feet, including iambic meter, trochaic meter,
dactylic meter, and anapestic meter. It rarely occurs in poetic forms. Also, usually poets do not
use spondaic meter in the entire poem, as it does not add a basis to the metrical line. Therefore,
they combine it with other metrical patterns – a combination which changes the pace of the
poem. Since it is an irregular foot, it does not add high structure or rhythm to a verse.
Spondee contains two long or accented syllables (stressed/stressed), while pyrrhic meter
contains two short or unaccented syllables (unstressed/unstressed) in a quantitative meter,
which is opposite to spondee. For example, see the pyrrhic syllables in bold in this line: “To a
green thought in a green shade.” We generally find pyrrhic meter in classical Greek poetry,
whereas we find spondee in the modern prosodic system.
Longfellow has written this poem in tetrameter, which means the lines of this poem contains four
beats, in which three beats are of spondee and one of trochee. Here, the spondaic feet are
underlined.
This is a very good example of spondaic meter, where we can see double spondee in the first
line “If I,” and “do prove,” and in the second line “heart-strings.”
Hopkins uses heavy spondaic meter in this poem. The second line in this excerpt contains two
consecutive accented syllables, “all” and “trades.” Then, the third line also uses
spondee “fathers-forth.”
Shakespeare begins these lines with double spondees. See there is a stress on both syllables
of the word “cry,” and then there is stress again on the two syllables “Troy burns.”
In this example, the first line contains spondee in the first two syllables. However, we do not see
the use of this meter in the entire poem.
Function of Spondee
The purpose of using spondaic meter is to emphasize particular words, and to create
heightened feeling, or provide an emotional experience to the readers by converting a normal
expression into dramatic form. It also makes sense more compact and compressed. Though
spondee does not add much rhythm, it adds feelings of expectancy in a verse. In addition, it
governs both the individual couplet and the entire verse, and makes a poetic line structured in
modern poetry. On the other hand, spondee has become more experimental.
Stanza
Definition of Stanza
In poetry, a stanza is a division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming
scheme.
Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and paragraphs include
connected thoughts, and are set off by a space. The number of lines varies in different kinds of
stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza
is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme.
On the basis of a fixed number of lines and rhyming scheme, traditional English language
poems have the following kinds of stanzas:
• Couplet
• Tercet
• Quatrain
• Quintain
• Sestet
Let us make ourselves familiar with the above mentioned kinds of stanzas:
Couplet
A couplet consists of two rhyming lines having the same meter. Consider the following couplet
stanza examples:
A tercet comprises three lines following a same rhyming scheme a a a, or have a rhyming
pattern a b a. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced tercet in the 16th century.
Read the following tercets from Wyatt’s poem Second Satire with a rhyming scheme a b a:
The famous Romantic poet, Alfred Lord Tennyson employed tercets in his poem The Eagle with
a rhyming scheme a a a:
Quatrain
Quatrain is a form of stanza popularized by a Persian poet, Omar Khayyam, who called it a
Rubai. It has common rhyming schemes a a a a, a a b b, a b a b.
A quintain, also referred to as “cinquain,” is a stanza of five lines, which may be rhymed or
unrhymed, and has a typical stress pattern. Its invention is attributed to Adelaide Crapsey.
“Listen…
With faint dry sound,
Like steps of passing ghosts,
The leaves, frost-crisp’d, break from the trees
And fall.”
Sestet
Sestet is a kind of stanza that consists of six lines. It is the second division of Italian or sonnets
of Petrarch, following an octave or the first division comprising eight lines. In a sonnet, a sestet
marks a change of emotional state of a poet as they tend to be more subjective in the second
part of the sonnet.
The poet answers the rude inquirer passionately as soon as the sestet commences.
See every line in this excerpt ends with the word “we.” Here, the poet has used a lot of
enjambment. Beginning a sentence in one line, and keeping it moving to the next line, is known
as “enjambment,” and the poem is written in couplet form.
Here, Frost has used three-line stanzas, also known as “tercets.” These stanzas have used a
chain rhyme scheme as aba, bcb, cdc, and so on. In the first stanza, the speaker tells that he
walks a lot at night, and in the second stanza he feels sad and passed by a watchman, whom
he avoids.
In this given example, Shelley has used iambic pentameter in the second part of his sonnet.
This part brings a major shift in poem’s direction by using “volta,” in which the speaker reveals
the inscription that reveals Ozymandias. The rhyme scheme of sestet is flexible. This rhymes as
CDCDCD and CDECDE.
Function of Stanza
Stanza divides a poem in such a way that does not harm its balance, but rather adds to the
beauty, and to the symmetry of a poem. Moreover, it allows poets to shift their moods, and
present different subject matters in their poems.
Static Character
Definition of Static Character
A static character is one that does not undergo inner changes, or undergoes a little change. It is
a character that does not develop or grow, such as Sherlock Holmes and James Bond.
In fact, this character does not develop the inner understanding to know how his environment is
affecting him, or he does not understand that his actions have positive or negative impacts on
others. The personality of this character remains the same at the end of the story as it appeared
in the beginning. All his actions stay true and unchanged to his personality in-between the
scenes.
Static characters should not be confused or mixed up with flat, one-dimensional characters.
Though neither changes as the story progresses, if a character remains unchanged, it does not
mean that he is one-dimensional like a flat character. A static character can be perfectly
interesting, like Sherlock Holmes, who is completely ingenious, eccentric, and sometimes jerky.
He never changes, but the audience still loves him. Thus, a static character could be the
protagonist too, and a flat character, on the other hand, only plays a side role in the story.
Scar is another excellent example of a static character. Scar is a sly and clever brother of the
Lion King. This cunning character plots to kill Simba and his father. As the film goes on, we
notice that Scar does not go through any changes, keeping his personality traits until the end.
By the end of the story, he does not survive and dies due to his wicked deeds.
Draco Malfoy is another good example of a static character. Although he gets many
opportunities to grow and transform for the better, he prefers not to change. He also dimly
senses that Lord Voldemort and the Death Eaters are evil, even though he continues to believe
that only purebloods are worthy, and “Mudbloods” and “Muggles” are to be disdained.
In his short story, The Necklace, Guy de Maupassant introduces M. Loisel as a static character
that does not care much to develop himself. He basically appreciates little things in life, seems
happy with his life, and plays as a foil to his perpetually dissatisfied wife. He exists because his
wife needs an escort, as she cannot attend the balls by herself. Also, Mathilde could not find
any way to pay back the diamond necklace herself. Therefore, all she does to help him pay for
necklace is to save money in every possible way by doing all laundry work and other household
labor.
Atticus Finch is another good example of a static character in the novel, To Kill a Mocking Bird.
Though his attitude about his father changes, he shows the same fortitude in the courtroom, as
he explains that he shot the dog earlier in the story. Finch exercises the same principle of
seeing things from other people’s perspectives throughout the narrative. For instance, in the
beginning, he gives a warning to the children to give respect to Boo’s privacy and eccentric
ways. Then, towards the end, he again recognizes the value of giving respect to Boo’s privacy
by agreeing with judgment of Heck Tate regarding Bob Ewell’s death.
The function of the static character is not less than the hero with whom he is often found at
every critical juncture in the narrative. It happens that, whenever the protagonist is in some
quandary, the static character is there to help him out. It is because the main character or the
protagonist cannot get there on his own. He needs other characters to serve some purpose to
add to the plot or help outright. This is the static character who helps the protagonist and also
serves as a foil to a character. Moreover, the foil helps reveal the differences between the two
characters.
Straw Man
Definition of Straw Man
The term straw man refers to a form of informal fallacy used in arguments and debates. A type
of rhetorical device, straw man is based on refuting the argument of one’s opponent on a view
he doesn’t share. When the subject wants to prove that his or her perspective or argument is
superior to an opposing argument, he uses straw man argumentative fallacy.
It is taken literally, misleading the audience into thinking the subject has misunderstood the
opposition’s argument or position. In England, straw man is also commonly known as “Aunt
Sally.” Read on to learn more about straw man in literature.
“It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate he had sent all the way from Texas. Black and white
spotted. And our little girl – Tricia, the six year old – named it Checkers. And you know, the kids,
like all kids, love the dog and I just want to say this right now, that regardless of what they say
about it, we’re going to keep it.”
U.S. President Richard Nixon gave this straw man response to his critics, who accused him of
taking money illegally from election campaign funds for personal use. They never criticized him
for receiving a dog as a gift; however, this argument became successful despite being an
informal fallacy.
“OEDIPUS:
Monster! thy silence would incense a flint. Will nothing loose thy tongue? Can nothing melt thee,
Or shake thy dogged taciturnity?
TEIRESIAS:
Thou blam’st my mood and seest not thine own Wherewith thou art mated; no, thou taxest me…
TEIRESIAS:
: Yea, I am free, strong in the strength of truth.
OEDIPUS:
Who was thy teacher? not methinks thy art.
TEIRESIAS:
Thou, goading me against my will to speak.”
Oedipus is a strong-willed character that does not like to be proved wrong. At first, when the
wise man does not reveal the truth, Oedipus keeps begging him. He finally uses straw man by
saying that a blind man is not wise, particularly when Teiresias points at him as the cause of the
tragedy befallen the citizens of Thebes.
Example #2: The Crucible (by Arthur Miller)
“Procter: I have no love for Mr. Parris. It is no secret. But God I surely love.
Cheever: He plow on Sunday, sir.
Danforth: Plow on Sunday!
Cheever: I think it be evidence, John. I am an official of the court, I cannot keep it.
Procter: I – I have once or twice plowed on Sunday. I have 3 children, sir, and until last year my
land give little.”
Cheever and Procter argue over the innocence of Procter in the court. Cheever brings up the
issue of religion to overshadow the issue. Cheever’s straw man argument appeals to emotions
and prejudices, rather than reason and intellect.
In “Modest Proposal,” Swift has used the straw man argument to convince readers. He, in fact,
responds to the governmental issue of handling an increasing population, and offers a solution
through this informal fallacy. It is a straw man objection, with which the author reminds readers
that reducing population is an overall goal anyway.
He introduces a good objection that there are a number of ways to fix the problem, as he
presents the idea of giving the children of the poor to the elite class as food. Though this idea is
not logical, it makes his argument effective, as readers are led to think about real solutions to
the actual problem.
“DESDEMONA:
And have you mercy too! I never did
Offend you in my life, never loved Cassio
OTHELLO:
By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in ‘s hand.
O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart,
I saw the handkerchief.”
In these lines, Othello does not listen to his faithful wife, instead using straw man fallacy to
refute Desdemona’s argument. He just talks out of emotions and anger, rather than using his
intellectual reasoning.
Function
The use of the straw man device is very common in literature, history, political debates,
advertising, and all those fields of life where arguments about highly charged emotional issues
arise. Since it is an attempt to undermine the argument of an opponent, writers and speakers
use it to belittle or weaken the opponent’s position, to make it vulnerable to an argumentative
attack. It could be annoyingly effective as, in response to this, the opponent may be lured into
expressing something contradictory.
Stream of Consciousness
Stream of Consciousness Definition
The term was initially coined by psychologist William James in his research, The Principles of
Psychology. He writes:
Another appropriate term for this device is “interior monologue,” where the individual thought
processes of a character, associated to his or her actions, are portrayed in the form of a
monologue that addresses the character itself. Therefore, it is different from the “dramatic
monologue” or “soliloquy,” where the speaker addresses the audience or the third person.
The stream of consciousness style of writing is marked by the sudden rise of thoughts and lack
of punctuation. The use of this narration style is generally associated with the modern novelist
and short story writers of the 20th century. Let us analyze a few examples of the stream of
consciousness narrative technique in literature:
James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his novel Ulysses, which describes a
day in the life of a middle-aged Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. Read the
following excerpt:
“He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!),
he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping
morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier
wise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother’s thought.”
These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom, as he thinks of the younger Bloom. The self-reflection
is achieved by the flow of thoughts that takes him back to his past.
Another 20th-century writer that followed James Joyce’s narrative method was Virginia Woolf.
Let us read an excerpt from her novel Mrs. Dalloway:
“What a lark! What a plunge! For so it always seemed to me when, with a little squeak of the
hinges, which I can hear now, I burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the
open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like
the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I then
was) solemn, feeling as I did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was
about to happen …”
By voicing her internal feelings, the Ms. Woolf gives freedom to the characters to travel back
and forth in time. Mrs. Dalloway went out to buy flower for herself, and on the way her thoughts
move through the past and present, giving us an insight into the complex nature of her
character.
Example #3: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge)
We notice the use of this technique in David Lodge’s novel The British Museum Is Falling Down.
It is a comic novel that imitates the stream of consciousness narrative techniques of writers like
Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. Below is an excerpt from Chapter 3 of the
novel:
“It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble
life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of
closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to
having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal
property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the
limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The
policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring ‘Philip’, ‘Tony’, ‘Margaret’,
‘Prince Andrew’.”
We see the imitation of the typical structure of the stream-of-conscious narrative technique of
Virginia Woolf. We notice the integration of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so
typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses “he thought,” and “he
wondered,” in the middle of the reported clauses.
Style
Definition of Style
The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes. It is the technique that an
individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author, and depends upon one’s
syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a “voice” that readers listen to when
they read the work of a writer.
Types of Style
There are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish the works of different
authors, one from another. Here are four styles of writing:
Expository or Argumentative Style
Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing
style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic, and in the end the author leaves out
his own opinion about that topic.
Descriptive Style
In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in
detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an
event, an object, or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has
happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details.
Persuasive Style
Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and
justification to make the readers believe his point of view. The persuasive style aims to
persuade and convince the readers.
Narrative Style
Narrative writing style is a type of writing wherein the writer narrates a story. It includes short
stories, novels, novellas, biographies, and poetry.
“The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense.
… A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures … A man should endeavour,
therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire
into them with safety … Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly
influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the
imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy …”
This is an example of expository writing style, in which the author describes advantages of
imagination with facts and logical sequence, and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he
discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor.
This poem gives an example of descriptive style. Ms. Dickinson describes a summer rainstorm
in detail, with beautiful images, so that the readers can visualize this storm in their own minds as
if it is actually happening.
Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
In this poem, Coleridge uses narrative style, as he tells a story about the ancient mariner. He
uses dialogues, disputes, actions, and events in a sequence, thus providing a perfect example
of the narrative style of writing.
“The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst
the trees of the garden… The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through… or
circling with monotonous insistence…”
This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings,
description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard.
“Pretty soon it darkened up and begun to thunder and lighten; so the birds was right about it …
and here would come a blast of wind that would bend the trees down and turn up the pale
underside of the leaves …”
Here, Twain has demonstrated a narrative style, as well as used colloquial words in presenting
this passage, as expressed through the voice of a young Southern-American boy.
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
Shall be lifted – nevermore!”
Here, the poet crafts a story of longing and desolation. The poem reads like a tale, containing a
proper beginning, middle, and end. It has narrative elements like characterization, symbols, plot
elements, and resolution that make it dramatic.
Thoreau describes the intensity of the smoke that helps form a colorful image in the minds of
the readers. He uses metaphor to compare smoke to “incense,” or an “Icarian bird.” He also
describes “star-veiling” and “shadowy” and let the readers imagine smoke.
Function of Style
A unique literary style can have great impact on the piece in which it is used, and on the
readers. When authors write and put their ideas into words, they have many choices to make,
which include: words, sounds, logic, sentence structures. However, different authors use
different literary styles that depend on their distinct expression, and their utilization of these
choices. And their choices create their niche
Subjective
Definition of Subjective
Third person point of view can also be subjective. It is known as “limited omniscience,” in which
a writer knows every detail about a character and sees the whole story through that character’s
eyes.
The major difference between subjective and objective is that subjective information is based on
just one person’s feelings, assumptions, and opinions. It has a viewpoint of that person
regardless of information or arguments it offers. Objective, on the other hand, is the information
a writer or speaker provides outside of his/her personal opinions or feelings. It is based on facts.
“Harry had taken up his place at wizard school, where he and his scar were famous … but now
the school year was over, and he was back with the Dursleys for the summer, back to being
treated like a dog that had rolled in something smelly. The Dursleys hadn’t even remembered
that today happened to be Harry’s twelfth birthday …”
In this passage, readers can see how Harry is feeling, thinking, and what is happening with him.
They follow him very closely, but are unable to see what the Dursleys are feeling or thinking
about Harry. This is a depiction of subjective feelings.
This excerpt is a very good example of a subjective approach. Here, the speaker is expressing
his feelings of love for the old days of Ancient Greece, as displayed through pictures on a
marble pot. In this stanza, he is talking about a musician, playing pipes beautifully. He escapes
from physical world to his world of fantasy, where weather never changes and there is an
eternal spring.
In these lines, the speaker expresses his opinion about his beloved, who is lovelier than the
summer’s day. All the elements such as admiration and comparisons are subjective because
standards of beauty for one person may not be the same for others.
In this poem, the speaker is a sailor. He sings this song for the captain who leads his ship and
crew safely into harbor after a dangerous long voyage. However, the captain dies in the end,
and the speaker is in a somber and intense mood of sadness. This is also an excellent example
of a subjective mood.
Example #5: She Walks in Beauty (by George Gordon, Lord Byron)
“She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes and starry skies;
And all that’s best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes:
Thus mellowed to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies.”
In this stanza, the speaker is a poet himself who praises an anonymous woman. Comparing her
beauty to night on the sky filled with stars. He expresses his feelings by comparing her to light
and dark that she is a combination of both. This is purely a subjective approach of expression.
Function of Subjective
Subjective approach or presentation or view point is useful and allows the readers to get an
insight into the mind of a writer through interpretations and explication of his characters,
thoughts, opinions and beliefs. Subjective writing or point of view builds tension and provides a
greater freedom to readers to interpret actions of individual characters. This approach givens a
view that every person sees a thing from different perspective.
Subplot
Definition of Subplot
A literary technique, subplot is a secondary plot, or a strand of the main plot that runs parallel to
it and supports it. It is usually found in plays, novels, short stories, television shows, and movies.
It is also known as a “minor story,” or as “B” or “C” story. Its purpose is to add complexity and
depth to the story, and thereby increases tension – a state of high interest and suspense about
events in a story. Not only does it show various aspects of the characters, connecting the
readers with them, but it is also a story within a story.
William Shakespeare has incorporated subplots many times in his plays, such as in Romeo and
Juliet, which is a love story of the two leading title characters. While a subplot runs in the form of
an old rivalry between their families (the Capulets and the Montagues), the conflict increases
due to the restrictions placed on young lovers’ romance further adds to the drama in the story.
There are many scenes depicting young Capulets (Juliet’s friends and cousins) fighting with
young Montagues (including Romeo’s friends), and some scenes depicting older Capulets and
Montagues discussing hatred towards one another. Thus, this subplot plays a vital role, else the
central romantic plot would have been ordinary rather than dramatic.
In his popular novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has shown his main character, Jay
Gatsby, becoming an overnight success, despite having no family inheritance. It becomes clear
that Gatsby has earned good fortune through bootlegging — the illegal preparation and selling
of liquor. He, on the other hand, wastes his wealth on useless and extravagant parties.
He does this to seek enjoyment with friends, including a beautiful married woman, Daisy
Buchanan, whose company he enjoys very much. However, when Daisy’s husband Tom learns
Gatsby is engaged in illegal activities, he shows his suspicion in an intense argument by
accusing Gatsby of illegally selling alcohol through their drug stores. This subplot about
prohibition adds intensity to the main plot..
William Shakespeare, in his popular play King Lear, describes the main plot: King Lear disowns
Cordelia, his faithful and loyal daughter, and divides his entire kingdom between his unfaithful
and treacherous daughters, Regan and Goneril. However, the subplot involves the Earl of
Gloucester and his sons, Edmund, an illegitimate son, and Edgar, a tricky man.
Edgar is very cunning, tricking his father into thinking his faithful son Edgar is engaging in
intrigue against him. The earl forces Edgar to leave. This subplot points toward major events in
the plot, such as neither father could differentiate between their faithful and treacherous
children. Nevertheless, the events get mixed up, and Regan and Goneril start falling for
Edmund, when he becomes the Earl, and Edgar ties the knot with Cordelia.
Charles Dickens’ novel Great Expectations is a huge web with a series of subplots. One of
these subplots is Pip’s acquaintance with Herbert, as he cares more for his friend’s finances
than his own. Pip even asks for money from Mrs. Havisham to help Herbert. Another subplot
involves Pip’s plan to get Abel Magwitch out of the country with the help of Wemmick.
J. R. R. Tolkien’s novel The Lord of Ring contains an excellent example of a subplot. The main
plot concerns the quest of Frodo to go back to the ring, while the secondary plot moves around
Legolas and Aragon’s adventures in their pursuit to protect settlements while destroying the
Orcs’ armies. Another subplot concerns the escape of Merry and Pippin from the Orcs. By the
end, these three subplots weave into the main storyline.
Function of Subplot
The function of subplot is to describe hidden impulses behind actions of the major characters.
While this secondary strand has two effects on a storyline, mostly it ties directly to the main plot
and characters, putting an immediate effect on situations and characters.
However, an alternative way is that subplots run parallel to the main story. This serves as a
contrast to explain decisions of the leading characters. Usually, subplots create justifications for
actions, and unexpected actions taken by protagonists and antagonists. In addition, they add a
back-story, or reminiscing element, to a main plot without directly affecting the pace of action.
Subplots also provide contrast to the events of the main story in order to make it more
meaningful and intricate.
Superlative
Definition of Superlative
Superlatives are usually formed by adding the suffix –est to most adjectives and adverbs, or by
adding “most” or “least” before them. Some common examples of superlative are given below.
It is important to note here that superlatives should not be confused with comparative adjectives
and adverbs. In comparative adjectives or adverbs you compare two objects, while the
superlative comparison is between three or more objects.
Just observe the words in bold. Here, the double superlative has been used by Shakespeare.
John Donne employed some of the most beautiful usage of superlatives in his famous poems,
such as the one given here: “Sweetest Love.”
Barbara M. Joosse has used some beautiful examples of superlatives in her “I Love You the
Purplest.
“It has the longest rides of any subway in the world, the biggest stations, the fastest trains, the
most track, the most passengers, the most police officers. It also has the filthiest trains, the
most bizarre graffiti, the noisiest wheels, the craziest passengers, the wildest crimes.”
Paul Theroux, in “Subterranean Gothic,” makes a very interesting use of superlative as can be
seen in this paragraph.
“It is turning out to be the most beautiful, most quiet, largest, most generous, sky-vaulted
summer I’ve ever seen or known – inordinately blue, with greener leaves and taller trees than I
can remember, and the sound of the lawnmowers all over this valley is a sound I could hum to
forever.”
Another amusing example of superlatives can be found in The Anthologist, by Nicholson Baker,
as shown in the above excerpt.
Function of Superlative
Surrealism
Definition of Surrealism
The term surrealism indicates a specific thought and movement in literature, the arts, and
theatre, which tries to integrate the confused realms of imagination and reality. The proponents
of surrealism endeavor to mix up the differences of conscious and unconscious thought through
writing and painting by using irrational juxtaposition of images.
Initiated by André Breton (1896-1966), surrealism is a kind of artistic movement started in the
French capital, Paris, during the 1920s. This movement lasted until the 1940s. Breton, a famous
writer as well as a philosopher, boosted this movement further by publishing his manifesto, “The
Manifesto of Surrealism.”
Although it gave new dimensions to art, it was not a political manifesto. The manifesto states
that, horrified by the destruction caused by the world wars and subsequent confusion, art and
literature faced numerous political challenges in resolving those confusions, the reaction of
which emerged in the shape of surrealism. This movement rather aimed at preventing bloody
revolutions by breaking the limitations placed on arts and literature by the politics of that time.
This is one of the best examples of surrealist poetry by Andre Breton. These lines have been
taken from his poem “Freedom of Love.” See the irrationality in images about his wife and a
wood fire, an hourglass, and teeth of a tiger. None of these images have any relation. They
have been just irrationally put together to demonstrate the mind of the poet, and a situation of
the reality in which he is living.
These lines have been taken from poem “Dark Poet” by Antonin Artaud. This poem juxtaposes
the poet with the breasts that is quite irrational and hence surreal.
“A while back, if I remember right, my life was one long party where all hearts were open wide,
where all wines kept flowing.
One night, I sat Beauty down on my lap.—And I found her galling.—And I roughed her up.
I armed myself against justice.
I ran away. O witches, O misery, O hatred, my treasure’s been turned over to you!
(Lines 1-5)
Just check the images presented in the first few lines of this poem by Arthur Rimbaud. These
are contradictory and irrational images. That is why “A Season in Hell” is one of the best surreal
poems.
“Then an unheard-of being, unheard-of beings, will be seen to rise, their brains compressed by
sonorous helmets, their temples pierced by the whistling of air waves, their bodies naked,
turned yellow by fever, pocked by deep vegetal stigmata swarming with insects and filled to the
brim with the slimy juices of venom, overflowing and running down a skin tiger-striped and
leopard-spotted by the gangrene of wounds and the leprosy of camouflage, their swollen bellies
plugged to death by electric umbilical chords [sic] tangling with the ignominiousness of torn
intestines and bits of flesh, roasting in the burning steel carapaces of the punitive tortures of
gutted tanks.
That is man! Backs of lead, sexual organs of fire, fears of mica, chemical hearts of the
televisions of blood, hidden faces and wings — always wings, the north and south of our being!”
This excerpt has been taken from “Hidden Faces,” a novel by Salvador Dali. it uses irrational
images to describe a person.
Function of Surrealism
Life became topsy-turvy after two world wars. Literature and art faced the dilemma of presenting
this topsy-turvy state of mind in words or colors. The artists and writers of that time tried to
resolve this situation by presenting strange and shocking images in their writings and paintings.
This technique of presenting images helps the readers and the audiences connect with the
confused state of mind of that time, and of the people living after the two world wars. Surrealism
is a representation of this confusion. It makes people aware of bizarre reality around them. They
connect themselves with this reality and become familiar with it.
Suspense
Definition of Suspense
Suspense is a literary device that authors use to keep their readers’ interest alive throughout the
work. It is a feeling of anticipation that something risky or dangerous is about to happen. The
purpose of using this type of anxiety in literature is to make readers more concerned about the
characters, and to form sympathetic association with them. Therefore, authors create scenarios
that could force readers to understand, and to want to read on to see what their beloved
characters face the next.
Mystery and suspense are interrelated. Sometimes it becomes difficult to differentiate between
them. For example, the author exposes the same information for his readers in the mystery
narrative that a detective may know. In a suspense narrative, on the other hand, the protagonist
gradually becomes aware of the peril and dangers, which readers already know. Secondly, in a
mystery, a major event such as a murder or robbery happens at first and then the protagonist
solves it, whereas in a suspense story, a major event occurs at the end, and various events
unfold, twist, turn, and surprise the readers prior to that event.
In his novel, Tarzan of the Apes, Edgar Rice Burroughs builds suspense through different verbal
clues. Tarzan falls for a girl named Jane, who is carried away by a brutal gorilla. Then, Jane
asks, “How can anyone vanquish such a mighty antagonist?” It is quite a surprising question,
which informs readers that the gorilla is a very strong and powerful opponent, and that Jane
thinks Tarzan has very little chance of besting him. This situation creates suspense in Tarzan’s
life, pushing readers to keep reading the story to find out what Tarzan and Jane are going to
face in their lives.
An author may also use dramatic irony to create suspense in his work. Dramatic irony occurs
when readers or audiences know something that characters do not. This is exactly what
Shakespeare has done in “Othello” in which malevolent Iago plays the role of a villain who
creates jealousy in Othello, to destroy his life and career by convincing him that his wife is
deceitful. The readers know that Othello’s wife is not guilty, and that Iago has wicked intentions
toward Othello. However, Othello is ignorant of this fact.
Throughout the play, readers feel curious and worried, because they know that Iago is making a
fool of Othello. This creates suspense for readers and members of the audience, encouraging
them to continue reading and watching, as they are eager to know if Othello gets out of Iago’s
trap or not.
The novel, Sharp Objects, is a chilling story of a Chicago-based journalist, Camille Preaker, who
comes from a family with a dead sister, a troubled mother, and an irritable stepsister. The
suspense starts when Camille’s boss asks her to go to her hometown in Missouri, to cover the
story of a local girl who had been brutally murdered. During her trip home, a series of suspicious
murders occurs. As the story unravels, Camille discovers the real source of evil is close to her
beloved home.
Twilight falls under the categories of suspense, romance, and horror. Bella falls in love with a
mysterious and handsome boy, Edward Cullen. She learns that Edward is a vampire who,
unlike other vampires, does not drink human blood, but that of animal. It is an exquisite fantasy
and suspense story in which readers discover these two star-crossed lovers. Edward has a
difficult time controlling the blood lust Bella arouses in him, because, after all, he is a vampire.
At any time, Edward’s blood hunger could drive him to kill Bella. This leaves him in a constant
state of anxiety over the danger. While a sadistic vampire, James, draws towards Bella, hunting
her down, Edward and his other family members defend her. Looking for protection, Bella
leaves for Phoenix, Arizona, but James tricks her, and tries to murder her. Though Edward
saves her, Bella is wounded.
Function
Suspense ensures the interest of readers by putting them on the edges of their seats, waiting
for what’s next. If an author does this well, suspense continues to increase gradually until the
climax, or the turning point, and final confrontation is reached. Writers and authors use
suspense to create empathy with their readers, by giving their characters internal struggles with
which readers can identify. Readers feel apprehension for their beloved characters whenever
they are in danger.
Syllogism
Syllogism Definition
Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general,
and from this it draws a conclusion about something more specific.
Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We start with a general
argument “All men are mortal.” We know that John is a man, so John is mortal. It is a deductive
approach to reason, and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts.
Therefore, “All men are mortal” is a major statement or premise, which stands as a general fact.
“John is a man” is minor statement or premise that is specific, and “John is mortal” is the logical
conclusion deduced from the two prior statements.
Syllogism takes the form of enthymeme when it is compressed. Enthymeme combines the
minor premise and the conclusion, omitting the major statement. For instance, a syllogism “All
dogs are canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine,” can be compressed in an
enthymeme as “Tommy is a canine because it is a dog.” The major premise remains implied or
hidden.
Syllogism Fallacy
Syllogism may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. For instance, “All crows
are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow.” This is a false
argument, as it implies a conclusion that “all blackbirds are crows,” which is incorrect. It is
known as “syllogism fallacy.” Another example of syllogism fallacy is “Some televisions are
black and white, and all penguins are black and white. Therefore, some televisions are
penguins.” You can easily see that the conclusion is practically impossible, and in fact has a
comical outcome.
There are numerous examples of syllogism or coming-of-age novels in English literature. Let us
briefly analyze a few:
William Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play Timon of Athens, Act 4, scene 3:
Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten him like he has forgotten
all other men. It can be expanded in a three-set argument as: “I usually do forget, as I have
forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have forgotten you as well.”
Poetry is known for its passion and not reason, but we find syllogistic argument in Andrew
Marvell’s poem To his Coy Mistress. The poet says to his bashful beloved:
“Had we but world enough, and time. This coyness, Lady, were no crime.”
It implies a general truth that life is short and man is mortal. They do not have enough time to
love, and cannot waste it in display of coyness.
Likewise, he and his darling may separate eternally before their union in this world is
established. Therefore, he says:
and speaks to his beloved, with the conclusion that they should avail themselves of the time
they have:
Compressed syllogism is found in famous metaphysical poet John Donne’s Elegy 2 The
Anagram:
“All love is wonder; if we justly do
Account her wonderful, why not lovely too?”
If we expand the above syllogism, it will have the following organization of statements: All that is
lovable is wonderful, and the mistress is wonderful. Therefore, the mistress is lovable.
Function of Syllogism
In logic, syllogism aims at identifying the general truths in a particular situation. It is a tool in the
hands of a speaker or a writer to persuade the audience or the readers, as their belief in a
general truth may tempt them to believe in a specific conclusion drawn from those truths. In
literature, syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements. Moreover, syllogism fallacy may
give us an opportunity to enjoy nonsensical conclusions.
Symbolism
Definition of Symbolism
Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic
meanings that are different from their literal sense.
Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an
entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an
action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance,
“smile” is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a
symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.
Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. “A chain,” for
example, may stand for “union” as well as “imprisonment”. Thus, symbolic meaning of an object
or an action is understood by when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads
the work.
In our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples of symbolism, such
as the following:
1. Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red symbolizes
property and happiness.)
2. David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red is symbol of
blood, passion, and danger.)
3. Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white symbolizes making
peace with the enemy. Otherwise, it represents purity and life.)
4. The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross represents
Christianity, and the red cross in particular represents aid in times of need.)
5. The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent moon represents
Islam.)
6. He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated with greed,
jealousy, and monetary affairs.)
7. They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is associated with
death.)
8. The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy. The color yellow
color is the symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as well as the symbol of freshness and
happiness.)
9. He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an symbol of separation.)
10. He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a symbol for love.)
11. He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival of his brother. (Silver
edge/lining of clouds symbolize hope and optimism.)
12. You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.)
13. You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.)
14. When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are the symbol of death.)
To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors,
similes, and allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief
analysis:
We find symbolic value in Shakespeare’s famous monologue in his play As you Like It:
These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of their lives, perform
different roles. “A stage” here symbolizes the world, and “players” is a symbol for human beings.
Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and
events in a symbolic perspective. The word “Wuthering,” which means “stormy,” represents the
wild nature of inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two
characters:
“My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I’m well aware, as winter
changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little
visible delight, but necessary.”
The phrase “foliage of leaves” for is a symbol for Linton’s fertile and civilized nature. On the
contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an “eternal rock,” which symbolizes his crude and unbendable
nature.
Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols:
In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbols of youth. “Brown and barren” are symbols
of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, “Bitter autumn” symbolizes death.
In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to show the different
classes of society. He does this by describing the way the upper leaves benefit from the rain
first, and then hand down the rest to the lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the
leftover benefits to the poor people.
Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth)
In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general wellbeing throughout his
life.
Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman)
The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past memories associated with
it.
Function of Symbolism
Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one
that is self-evident, and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal.
Symbolism, therefore, gives universality to the characters and the themes of a piece of
literature. Symbolism in literature evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an
insight into the writer’s mind on how he views the world, and how he thinks of common objects
and actions, having broader implications.
Syncope
Definition of Syncope
Syncope is a literary device that can be defined as the contraction or the shortening of a word
by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle of the word, such as bos’n for the word
“boatswain.” Similarly, ne’er for the word “never,” and fo’c’sle’ for the word “forecastle” are also
used. From these examples, syncope can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed
vowels, letters, or syllables, or dropping the consonants from the middle of a word. It can be
found in synchronic analysis and diachronic analysis of languages.
Uses of Syncope
1. As a Poetic Device
Syncope is mainly used in poetry, when poets desperately want to avoid a single syllable from a
word to harmonize the meter in each line. However, syncope can be found in drama and in
prose as well.
2. Used in Informal Speech
Syncope is also used in informal speech. For instance, different kinds of colloquial contractions
may also be called syncope.
Poetic contractions are often found in English verse, from the Restoration period to the end of
the 18th century. Poets and writers use syncope to produce rhetorical effects in literature. Let’s
take a look at some examples from literary texts to understand syncope.
In the 18th century, contractions were signified typographically by using apostrophes, such as in
this example:
Example #2: The World Is Too Much with Us (By William Wordsworth)
Here, Wordsworth necessarily contracts the word over into “o’er,” for the sake of rhyme, and to
give the lines a colloquial feel.
The best examples of syncope can be seen in Shakespeare’s poetry. Here, Shakespeare made
use of syncope in these words: wat’ry for “watery,” levell’d for “levelled,” and flowe’d for
“flowered.” The contractions have been used to keep the metrical rhythm the same in each line.
Further he says,
“I would thou grew’st unto the shores o’ the haven,
And question’dst every sail: if he should write
And not have it, ’twere a paper lost,
As offer’d mercy is. What was the last
That he spake to thee?”
The words ta’en for “taken,” grew’st, question’dst, and offer’d have been used as syncope to
rhyme the poem.
Function of Syncope
The syllables or letters are mostly deleted from the center of words in speech to speed up the
conversation, or to balance the rhythmical pattern of the poetic verse. The purpose is to create a
rhetorical effect for embellishment and meter. However, in poetry and stylized prose it is
generally used to modify the word sound.
Either single letters or complete syllables are removed from a word with the insertion of an
apostrophe –this makes it easy to read, and perfects the metrical rhythm. Generally, it was a
fashion during the Chaucerian age, and more so during the Elizabeth age, when erudite people
used it in their writings to embellish the piece, and to create artistic effect in the readers’ minds.
However, sometimes it comes into view as a rustic style, and is therefore used as a literary
device to differentiate simple country folk. Some dialects and languages make more use of
syncope than others, such as the Scots.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche Definition
Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use
a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups,
or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to
a thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing.
Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). While they
resemble one another to some extent, they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole of
a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car “wheels” is a synecdoche
because a part of the car, its “wheels,” stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the
word used to describe a thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a
part of it. For example, using the word “crown” to refer to power or authority is a metonymy,
used to replace the word “king” or “queen.”
It is very common to refer to a thing by the name of its parts. Let us look at some of the
examples of synecdoche that we often hear in casual conversations:
• The word “bread” refers to food or money, as in “Writing is my bread and butter,” or “He
is the sole breadwinner.”
• The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man.
• The word “sails” refers to a whole ship.
• The word “suit” refers to a businessman.
• The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers.
• The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.
• “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.
• The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.
The “western wave” is a synecdoche, as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts, a
wave.
“The hand” in these lines refers to the sculptor, who carved the “lifeless things” into a grand
statue.
“At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate’s great surprise put the ship round on the other
tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism.”
The word “whiskers” mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator’s
mate.
“His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious
faces about her.”
Function of Synecdoche
Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works.
By using synecdoche, writers give otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings, and
thus draw readers’ attention.
Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying “The
soldiers were equipped with steel” is more concise than saying “The soldiers were equipped
with swords, knives, daggers, and arrows.”
Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to
words, making them appear vivid. To insert this “life” factor to literary works, writers describe
simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device.
Synesis
Definition of Synesis
Synesis is a conventional grammatical term derived from a Greek word that means unification,
sense, meeting, or realization. It is a rhetorical device in which the traditional grammatical
agreement of syntax is replaced by an agreement in its sense. In other words, synesis is a
grammatical construction that is in agreement with the sense instead of the strict syntax. It is
used to highlight the words’ construction according to the sense not its morphosyntactic form.
Such as:
Types of Synesis
Synesis is a kind of anacoluthon, which is a syntactic interruption. Though both are anti-
grammatical constructions but are different. It is because synesis is used to highlight the word
construction according to their sense rather than grammatical form. For example:
“Among the growing numbers of men seeking his services, a significant proportion are
spurred to do so by female voices…”
On the other hand, anacoluthon is the disruption in the grammatical flow of the words, by
beginning another sentence immediately. Such as:
“A plank that was dry was not disturbing the smell of burning and altogether there was the best
kind of sitting there could never be all the edging that the largest chair was having….”
“What’s the use you learning to do right, when it’s troublesome to do right and it ain’t no trouble
to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?”
In these lines, the writer uses the plural form of “wage,” with the auxiliary verb “is,” which is
syntactically wrong. However, the agreement of the words is made in accordance with the
sense, which is to say it is singular in a sense, but plural in form.
“For, after all, how do we know that two and two make four? Or that the force of gravity works?
Or that the past is unchangeable? If both the past and the external world exist only in the mind,
and if the mind itself is controllable – what then?”
In this excerpt, the grammatical construction of the words “two and two make four,” which
should be “makes” instead of “make.” The arrangement is not made in morphosyntactic form.
Instead, the words are arranged according to their logic.
“Most of the audience were standing, and the house was in a buzz of conversation and
expectation.”
Here, the word “audience” takes the number with the word “was” because with this auxiliary
verb, it regularly agrees grammatically. However, it is in harmony with “were,” which is correct
logically and not grammatically.
In this passage, Shakespeare uses “revenges” in the sentence, which is plural in sense. It is
logically true, but syntactically wrong.
Function of Synesis
Synesthesia
Synesthesia Definition
Generally, the term synesthesia refers to a certain medical condition in which one of the five
senses simultaneously stimulates another sense. A person with such a condition may not only
see letters of the alphabet, but also associate them with particular scents. This happens when
the different parts of the brain that are responsible in identifying color, sound, taste, and smell
somehow get interlinked, and thus one sense triggers another sense.
In everyday language, we find many examples of synesthesia, such as the frequently used
adjective “cool.” This word is generally associated with temperature. However, in casual
conversation, we hear phrases like “cool dress,”, “cool color,” or “you look cool,” wherein the
visual sensation is blended with the sense of touch. Moreover, we commonly hear phrases like
“loud colors,” “frozen silence,” “warm colors,” and “bitter cold.”
In literature, synesthesia is a figurative use of words that intends to draw out a response from
readers by stimulating multiple senses.
Dante Alighieri’s The Divine Comedy contains a good synesthesia example in literature. In the
first canto, the poet tells us about a place called “Inferno.” He says,
“Back to the region where the sun is silent.”
Here, Dante binds the sense of sight (sun) with the sense of hearing (silent).
In the above example, Keats combines visual sensation with the sensations of taste and
hearing. In the same poem, he further states:
Keats associates the act of melodious singing with a plot covered with green beechen trees,
and thus connects visual sense with the sense of hearing.
We see Shakespeare employing the synesthetic device in his play King Lear, Act 2, Scene 2:
In the above excerpt, King Lear makes fun of his daughter Goneril for wearing revealing attire.
He associates the word “warm” with “gorgeous,” which is an attempt to blend the sense of touch
with the sense of sight.
In the above excerpt, the speaker reveals a blend of sensory experiences he is experiencing.
The speaker’s visual sense and his sense of hearing make him aware of his surroundings.
Here, the poetess added a visual element to the buzzing sound “buzz” by describing it as having
a blue color.
The character Saga, in Julia Glass’ novel The Whole World Over, has a condition of
synesthesia, in which she seems to sense colors in the words she reads, as illustrated below:
“The word would fill her mind for a few minutes with a single color: not an unpleasant sensation
but still an intrusion… Patriarch: Brown, she thought, a temple of a word, a shiny red brown, like
the surface of a chestnut.”
These lines are comments spoken by Duffy, who thinks that Saga’s synesthesia is a distraction.
Function of Synesthesia
Writers employ this device to be creative in communicating their ideas to the readers. It makes
their ideas more vivid, and adds more layers of meaning to a text for the readers’ pleasure. By
blending different senses, writers make their works more interesting and appealing.
Syntax
Syntax Definition
Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are
put together in order to convey a complete thought.
Syntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular
situation, while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. More
often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences,
and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood, and
atmosphere in a text, along with evoking readers’ interest.
The general word order of an English sentence is Subject+Verb+Object. In poetry, however, the
word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects, such as producing rhythm or
melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, and heightening connection between two words. The
unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Let us consider the following
examples of syntax:
Example #1: Beyond Decoration (By P. J. Kavanagh)
In casual conversations, we can simply say, “I cannot go out” to convey our inability to go out. P.
J. Kavanagh’s poem Beyond Decoration does not rely on merely stating a prosaic “I cannot go
out.” Rather, he shifts the syntax and says “Go out I cannot,” which lays a much stronger
emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the word “cannot.”
Similarly, John Milton shifts words in his poems frequently. Let us analyze lines from his poem
Lycidas:
Syntax in Prose
Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings, and contributes
toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness, and speed are added to a text by using short phrases,
clauses, and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious, requiring
contemplation, long, convoluted sentences are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. The
two syntax examples below show a distinct use of syntax:
“That night I sat on Tyan-yu’s bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn’t. I was relieved.”
Here, Amy Tan uses short sentences to communicate in a powerful and concise manner.
“They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the papers awhile, the news from the front, and
the list of dead officers with their decorations and then reached down and brought up the bottle
of Cinzano and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass against my stomach, and took
little drinks making rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there between drinks, and
watched it get dark outside over the roofs of the town.”
Ernest Hemingway uses long and complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his
character.
Syntax in Shakespeare
Writing all of his plays and sonnets in iambic pentameter, Shakespeare habitually reversed the
general order of English sentences by placing verbs at the ends of the sentences.
Instead of using the common expression, “What light breaks from yonder window,”
Shakespeare emphasized his meaning by using different syntax.
In Richard III, Shakespeare deliberately reverses the word order of a sentence, turning a
common description: “And all the clouds that lowered upon our house buried in the deep bosom
of the ocean,” into:
“And all the clouds that lower’d upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried.”
Function of Syntax
To convey meaning is one of the main functions of syntax. In literature, writers utilize syntax and
diction to achieve certain artistic effects, like mood, and tone. Like diction, syntax aims to affect
the readers as well as express the writer’s attitude.
Tautology
Definition of Tautology
Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words,
it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times. The word tautology is
derived from the Greek word tauto, meaning “the same,” and logos, meaning “a word or an
idea.” A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within a phrase, paragraph, or
sentence to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information.
Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has
borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that, during its evolution, the English language
has been greatly influenced by several other languages – including Germanic and Latin – it is
not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. This is how tautologies can often be found in
English poetry and prose.
Types of Tautology
There are several types of tautology that are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in
prose, in songs, and in discussions, depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the
common categories include:
Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say repetition uses the same
words, while tautology uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition – not
of words, but of ideas. Others say there is no clear distinction between the two, that tautology
includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of
Tautology.
Example #1:
Example #2:
The term déjà vu means to have a feeling of having previously done or experienced something,
or to be doing it all over again. “Déjà vu all over again” is an example of tautology.
The emphatic function of tautology reveals itself in the example given below:
Thomas Stern Eliot shows the emphatic function of tautology, using the word “burning”
repeatedly in the same line.
In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it.
Here, different types of tautologies have been used in a technical way of repetition, which
dominates others, such as figures of speech, imitation, and ornamentation. All of above
examples might appear in the daily use of language, and also as poetic devices.
Unlike the artistic inspiration built into the preceding types of redundancy, here are a couple of
tautology examples with psychological implications. The speakers show the acceptance of their
destiny in these types of repetition:
Function of Tautology
The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however,
writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It
has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious and
redundant phrases.
Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a
powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea, or to draw their readers’ attention to a certain
aspect of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken
as a specific rhetorical device.
Tercet
Definition of Tercet
A tercet is a three-lined verse, or a group, or unit of three lines. These three lines are often
rhymed together, or they rhyme with another triplet. It has a flow of words as rolling waves.
Creating rhythmic flow in in just three lines, however, is quite a challenging job.
Types of Tercet
1. Haiku
Haiku is a Japanese type of tercet. It is a three-line poem based usually on nature, and
follows five-seven-five syllable counts. It means the first line contains five, the second
seven, and the third line five syllables.
2. Triplet
A triplet has three rhymed lines in each stanza. Its rhyme scheme is AAA.
3. Enclosed or Sicilian Tercet
An enclosed or Sicilian tercet uses a rhyme scheme of ABA. In simple words, the first
and third lines rhyme together and enclose a rhyming middle line. This tercet adds the
challenge of using iambic pentameter. It means each line uses ten syllables with
emphasis on each second syllable.
4. Villanelle
Another type of triplet which uses five tercets and one quatrain. It follows the rhyme
scheme as: A1 b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 A2.
5. Terza Rima
Terza rima is one of the most challenging types of tercet. It usually follows iambic
pentameter with rhyme scheme of ABA BCB CDC. This is a complicated rhyme scheme
that binds stanzas together in which the second line in each stanza rhyme with the next
tercet.
This haiku poem contains three lines with no rhyming pattern. The focus of the poem is on a
natural scene. There are five-syllables in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the third
line.
See the rhyming words “goes”, “flows”, “clothes.” These rhyming words strengthen smooth flow
of ideas. This rhyme scheme is perfect for triplet because it follows AAA scheme.
This is an example of villanelle with a rhyme scheme of tercet ABA. Each line is following strong
iambic pentameter. They are shown through underlined lines with stressed/unstressed syllabic
patterns.
Example #5: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley)
This is a perfect example of terza rima tercet with the interlocking pattern of rhyme scheme ABA
BCB CDC. This pattern continues throughout the poem.
Function of Tercet
A tercet gives a smooth, flowing reading experience due to its rhyme scheme. It evokes both
physical and cerebral response in their senses. It is commonly found in historical poetry.
Contemporary poets, too, use slant rhymes, broken rhymes, and free verse in tercets. The use
of iambic pentameter adds to the rhythm and flow of the poems. Moreover, subtle variation
through iambic pentameter produces emotional impacts on readers, which is the major
objectives of these short poems.
Theme
Definition of Theme
Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be
stated directly or indirectly.
Major and minor themes are two types of themes that appear in literary works. A major theme is
an idea that a writer repeats in his literary work, making it the most significant idea in the work.
A minor theme, on the other hand, refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly, giving way to
another minor theme. Examples of theme in Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” are
matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major theme
of matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc.
It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic that
acts as a foundation for a literary work, while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject.
For example, a writer may choose a subject of war for his story, and the theme may be his
personal opinion that war is a curse for humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore the
theme of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot, and other literary devices.
Presentation of Themes
A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may express a
theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he has chosen to write
about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and conversations of different
characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in the course of a literary work give
us an idea about its theme. Finally, the actions and events taking place in a narrative are
consequential in determining its theme.
1. When the astronaut landed on the moon, he felt loneliness. Thinking there was no one
else, he became a little forlorned, though the view of Earth was stunningly beautiful.
(lonesomeness)
2. The space travelers were travelling to the moon, when their spaceship suddenly ran out
of fuel. They were all frightened to learn that they wouldn’t be able to return to Earth, and
could only land on the moon.
(fear)
3. The bus was travelling at a great speed when it was stopped by a gang of robbers. The
passengers were ordered to get out, leaving their precious belongings in the bus.
(fear)
4. Their marriage ceremony was taking place in a grand hotel. All the eminent people of the
city were invited, the reason that the celebration was excellent.
(happiness)
5. As soon as the clock struck 12 at noon, the jubilations started. It travelled from East to
West on the first day of the year.
(felicitation)
6. The religious leader was leading a huge congregation of followers, praying with utmost
humility.
(religiosity)
7. All the family members were dressed in black, with somber faces. They were
participating in the funeral ceremony of their deceased relative.
(gloom)
8. The cricket match was reaching a highpoint, the fans of both teams screaming their
support. It was an excellent game.
(cheerfulness)
9. The teacher said that she hoped all of her students would pass with good grades.
(optimism)
10. The father of the slowwitted student said he had no false hopes about his son’s future.
(pessimism)
11. The immigrant looked around to talk to somebody, but could find no one who spoke his
language. He felt claustrophobic and desolate.
(hopelessness)
12. Only the laborers were working on Labor Day.
(irony)
13. The conference was in full swing, with scholars delivering knowledgeable lectures on
varying subjects. The audience enjoyed it immensely.
(learning)
14. The politician was delivering a speech on the need for peace between two neighboring
states. He said through peace they could achieve what not possible through war.
(peace)
15. The general commanded his troops to open fire at the enemy, and to kill each and every
soldier of the combatants.
(war)
Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional
twists and turns in a narrative, and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad, or bittersweet.
The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes:
The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. literary woks utilizing this
theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary works portray war as a
curse for humanity, due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous examples include:
Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include sub-themes,
such as “crimes cannot be hidden,” “evil is always punished,” and others. Some well-known
crime and mystery theme examples include:
Revenge is another recurrent theme found in many popular literary works. A character comes
across certain circumstances that make him aware of his need for revenge. The outcome of his
action is often bitter, but sometimes they may end up being satisfied. Examples are:
Example #6: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Tennyson)
This extract from a poem by Tennyson has two interwoven themes. War is the main theme of
the poem, which naturally leads to death — while the theme of death is interwoven with the
theme of war.
Function of Theme
Theme is an element of a story that binds together various essential elements of a narrative. It
is often a truth that exhibits universality, and stands true for people of all cultures. Theme gives
readers better understanding of the main character’s conflicts, experiences, discoveries, and
emotions as they are derived from them. Through themes, a writer tries to give his readers an
insight into how the world works, or how he or she views human life.
Thesis
Thesis Definition
A thesis is a statement in a non-fiction or a fiction work that a writer intends to support and
prove. One can find examples of thesis statement at the beginning of literary pieces. These
thesis statements are of utmost importance, as they provide clear indicators as to which
direction the writer will follow in their work.
A thesis statement is carefully crafted by a writer, and is marked by vigilant selection of words
that will never miss its target. Generally, such a statement shows up in the first paragraph, or
what is called an introduction. Despite writers’ efforts to prove their thesis statements, not all of
these statements can be verified for their exactness. Nevertheless, they do develop an
argument.
In writing an essay, a thesis statement determines the worth of the essay by its capacity to stay
focused on its thesis statement. For instance, if a writer fails to clearly mention or define a solid
thesis statement in his or her essay, it will be difficult for readers to track the issue the writer
plans to discuss and explain. Suppose a writer wants to write an essay on how to make a
perfect fruit salad, the quality of his or her writing will exceedingly improve if he or she lets the
readers know the subject matter at the start of the essay, for example:
“In this essay, I will tell you how to make the perfect fruit salad. Not only will it be tasty, but also
healthy for your body.”
Narrative Thesis
Below is a list of a few narrative thesis examples – opening lines that determine the entire
course of the narratives.
“It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must
be in want of a wife.”
Example #2: One Hundred Years of Solitude (By Gabriel García Márquez)
“Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember
that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice.”
“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”
“It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
“If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you’ll probably want to know is where I was
born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before
they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don’t feel like going into it, if you
want to know the truth.”
Example #8: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)
“Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the
road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby
tuckoo.”
Function of Thesis
The above arguments clearly reveal the function of a thesis statements or a narrative thesis as
a driving force behind a literary composition. It guides the narrative toward its ultimate purpose,
which is the moral lesson it aims to inculcate.
Tmesis
Definition of Tmesis
Tmesis is derived from the Greek word tmesis, which means “to cut.” It is a rhetorical device
that involves the breaking down of a phrase or a word into two parts. In simpler words, tmesis is
an insertion of a word between the parts of a word, a compound word, or a phrase (phrasal
verbs usually). It is a practice of dividing a phrase or word into its components by inserting
another word in the middle of that phrase or word. Tmesis is commonly employed in words that
have more than three syllables. Let us examine these two examples of tmesis to have a better
understanding of this device:
Here, the words “fantastic” and “absolutely” are separated by the words “bloody” and
“blooming,” respectively.
Classification of Tmesis
Tmesis examples may be classified according to the device’s two main groups. The first group
of tmesis is formed from cutting phrasal verbs. For example, the phrasal verb “turn off” can be
cut into two parts by inserting another word, such as “radio,” to form the phrase “turn the radio
off“). The meaning of the phrasal verb in this example is retained. In other instances, however,
it may change. Another category of English tmesis is formed by adding an infix in modifiers. A
good example for this is, “I got forty-bloody-seven /and that’s good e-bloody-nough” (Tumba
Bloody Rumba, by John O’Grady).
This is a very good example of phrasal verb tmesis. “Whatsoever” is split into two parts by
inserting the words, “torn ship.” The same is done in the third line, where the word “sea” is
inserted in the middle of the compound word “whatsoever.”
scolds Forbid
den Stop
Must
n’t Don’t
Cumming has used plenty of tmesis in his works. This poem is a good example. The phrasal
verb “yanks down” is split apart by the word “them.” This split up of words is used for artistic
purpose.
“It’s a sort of long cocktail—he got the formula off a barman in Marrakesh or some-bloody-
where.”
The word “somewhere” is divided by the word “bloody.” This inserted word makes the readers
focus on the speaker’s “I don’t care” attitude toward the origin of the formula.
Function of Tmesis
Tmesis is mainly used to create humor, and lay emphasis on a particular word or phrase. The
Romans and Greeks used tmesis for special effects in literature. In comedy, it works as over-
done exaggeration. In poetry, its task is to stress a point, as it forces readers to give more
attention to the cut phrase or line. It is regularly used in informal speech, as well. In Australian
English, it is called “tumba rumba.”
Tone
Definition of Tone
Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer
approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious,
comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude. Consider the following
examples of tone:
• “I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic?
It is eating up lives like a monster.”
• “I want to draw the attention of the appropriate authorities toward damage caused by the
epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community.”
The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them
is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal
in the second.
We adopt a variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines
what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below:
Example #1
Father: “We are going on a vacation.”
Son: “That’s great!!!”
Example #2
Example #3
“Yeah, your grades on this exam will be as good as the previous exams.”
Example #4
1. Though the starry sky was beautiful, his mood was so melancholic that he took no
interest in it.
2. The old man took the handful of dust from his farm and sniffed it with great pleasure.
3. The sweet smell of spring roses made overjoyed him.
4. The old man’s face looked so peaceful after death that he seemed in deep sleep.
5. The spectacle of sunset was so astounding that people stood watching breathlessly.
6. The scorching heat of the desert sun burned his skin black, and he could see death
hovering over his head.
7. The singing of birds was deemed a messenger for approaching spring.
8. His stinking breath kept listeners at a considerable distance from him.
9. The muffled church bell sounded as thought it came from an unfathomably deep well.
10. The kind touch of her mother’s hand comforted her in her pain.
11. He was on his way to home when he saw a boy of ten, who moved his heart as he stood
weeping.
12. The negotiations between the two states came to a halt after terms of reference could
not be agreed upon.
13. The harsh gusts of cruel cold wind battered her body.
14. He went into the restaurant and ordered a hot coffee, the cozy atmosphere inside
reminded him of the past.
Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality through the tone
he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks:
Holden’s tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character
may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life, as it is common for writers to use their
characters as their mouthpieces.
“And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they just died.
Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn’t the
best. We complained about it. So we’ve got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little
tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown
sticks, it was depressing.”
The use of the adjectives “dead” and “depressing” sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees
signify life here, their unexpected “death” from an unknown cause gives the above passage an
unhappy and pessimistic tone.
Robert Frost, in the last stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, gives us an insight into the
effect of tone:
Frost tells us about his past with a “sigh,” this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone
leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice.
The extract contains tones of loss and nostalgia; however, the characters look quite satisfied
with the way things are moving forward.
“It was A LOW, DULL, QUICK SOUND – MUCH SUCH A SOUND AS A WATCH MAKES
WHEN ENVELOPED IN COTTON. I gasped for breath, and yet the officers heard it not. I talked
more quickly, more vehemently but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about
trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why
WOULD they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by
the observations of the men, but the noise steadily increased. O God! What COULD I do?”
This short story by Poe contains the tones of insanity, nervousness, and guilt. The character
suffers from all these feelings, which the writer has translated into a story.
“It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the
leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at
night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at
night it was quiet and he felt the difference.”
In this short excerpt, the culminating tone of the writer is that of peace and serenity, though he
talks of the day time in a bit different tone.
Function of Tone
Tone, in a piece of literature, decides how the readers read a literary piece, and how they
should feel while they are reading it. It stimulates the readers to read a piece of literature as a
serious, comical, spectacular, or distressing manner. In addition, tone lends shape and life to a
piece of literature because it creates a mood. Moreover, tone bestows voice to characters, and
throws light on the personalities and dispositions of characters that readers understand better.
Tragedy
Tragedy Definition
Tragedy is a type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and
corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner.
Greek Tragedy
The term is Greek in origin, dating back to the 5th century BC, when it was assigned by the
Greeks to a specific form of plays performed at festivals in Greece. The local governments
supported such plays, and the mood surrounding the presentation of these plays was that of a
religious ceremony, as the entire community, along with the grand priest, attended the
performances.
The subject matter of Greek tragedies was derived chiefly from Homer’s Iliad, and Odyssey,
which included misfortunes of heroes of history and religious mythology. The three prominent
Greek dramatists were Aeschylus (525–456 BC), Sophocles (496–406 BC), and Euripides
(480–406 BC).
From the above definition, we can understand the objective of the Greek tragedies, which is the
“…purification of such emotions,” also called “catharsis.” Catharsis is a release of emotional
tension, after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit.
English Tragedy
Shaped on the models of Seneca, the first English tragedy appeared in 1561, written by
Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. The play chose the story of a British king and his
sufferings at the hand of his two disobedient sons as a subject matter. The importance of the
play lies in the fact that it transformed the style of English drama, from morality and mystery
plays, to the writing of tragedies in the Elizabethan era.
Tragedy Examples
Below is the list of prominent English tragedy writers and their famous works:
A. Christopher Marlowe
Marlowe was the first English dramatist worthy of the tradition of Greek tragedy. The characters
of his tragedies are the great men of history, who became victims of their own fate.
• Tamburlaine
• Doctor Faustus
• The Jew of Malta
• Edward III
B. William Shakespeare
Shakespeare, the most popular of all playwrights, knew the Greek tragedy style well and he
used several Greek themes but modified them to his own purpose. He intentionally violates the
unity of action and mixes tragic actions with comical. Examples of tragedy written by
Shakespeare include:
• Hamlet
• Othello
• King Lear
• Macbeth
• Antony and Cleopatra
• Troilus and Cressida
C. John Webster
Webster was a Jacobean dramatist who modeled his tragedies on the Shakespearean model.
Among his famous works are the following tragedy examples:
• Titus Andronicus
• The White Devil
• The Duchess of Malfi
D. Henrick Ibsen
He is known as “the father of realism”. He was the creator of some of the well-known tragedies
also called “problem plays”. His famous works are:
• A Doll’s House
• Hedda Gabler
• The Wild Duck
• Emperor and Galilean
E. Arthur Miller
• All My Sons
• Death of a Salesman
• The Crucible
• A View from the Bridge
• The misfits
We notice the following differences between the tragedies by the Greek playwrights, and those
written by English playwrights:
Instructive of a religious or
ethical issue, though their
Purpose/Objective Religious teaching
primary objective is to
entertain.
Tragic Flaw
Definition of Tragic Flaw
Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his
downfall, and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of
self-knowledge, lack of judgment, and often it is hubris (pride).
The Greek word for Tragic flaw is hamaratia or hamartanein, which means “to err.” It was
Aristotle who introduced this term first in his book Poetics, and his idea was that it is an “error of
judgment” on the part of a hero that brings his downfall. A tragic flaw is also called a “fatal flaw”
in literature and films. This is taken as a defective trait in the character of the hero.
OEDIPUS:
“Aye, and on thee in all humility
I lay this charge: let her who lies within
Receive such burial as thou shalt ordain…
But for myself, O never let my Thebes…
The burden of my presence while I live…
God speed thee! and as meed for bringing them
May Providence deal with thee kindlier
Than it has dealt with me …
His will was set forth fully — to destroy
The parricide, the scoundrel; and I am he…
But I am the gods’ abhorrence.”
Tragic flaw examples are found in tragedies – and Oedipus Rex is the major play that is set as a
yardstick.
Oedipus is a perfect example of having a tragic flaw in this famous Greek tragedy. The cause of
his downfall was his inadvertent wrongdoings. The hubris of Oedipus is the cause which made
him disobey the prophecy of the gods. Ironically, he ended up doing what he was scared of the
most, such that he became an abhorrence to the gods, in his own words.
HAMLET:
“To be, or not to be–that is the question:
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, ’tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish’d. To die, to sleep…”
In Hamlet, the tragic flaw determines his downfall in the play. And his tragic flaw is his
indecisiveness, which is due to grave thinking on the topic of whether vengeance is wrong or
right, and whether to kill his father’s murderer or not. In the course of time, his relationship with
his mother is spoiled, and Ophelia commits suicide. He reveals this indecisiveness in this
excerpt.
Faustus:
“But Faustus’ offense can ne’er be pardoned;
The serpent that tempted Eve may be saved,
But not Faustus … God forbade it indeed but Faustus hath done it. For
the vain pleasure of four and twenty years hath Faustus
lost eternal joy and felicity … Fair nature’s eye, rise, rise again and make
Perpetual day. Or let this hour be but a year,
A month, a week, a natural day,
That Faustus may repent and save his soul
O mercy, heaven! Look not so fierce on me … I’ll burn my books.”
The character of Dr. Faustus is also one of the best examples of tragic flaw. The tragic flaw of
Dr. Faustus is his ambitious nature to learn. He made a contract with Lucifer and sold his soul in
this connection. Finally, his soul is taken to hell, and then he realizes his sin and repents but it
was too late.
Tragic flaw is used for moral purposes, in order to encourage the audience to improve their
characters and remove the flaws which could bring their downfall in life. The readers and the
audience can identify themselves with the tragic hero, since it imparts feelings of pity and fear
among them, thereby completing their catharsis – or in other words, they are purged of bad
emotions. Therefore, they can learn a moral lesson so that they might not indulge in similar
actions in future.
Tragic Hero
Definition of Tragic Hero
The term hero is derived from a Greek word that means a person who faces adversity, or
demonstrates courage, in the face of danger. However, sometimes he faces downfall as well.
When a hero confronts downfall, he is recognized as a tragic hero or protagonist. Aristotle, the
Greek philosopher, characterizes these plays or stories, in which the main character is a tragic
hero, as tragedies. Here, the hero confronts his downfall whether due to fate, or by his own
mistake, or any other social reason.
Aristotle defines a tragic hero as “a person who must evoke a sense of pity and fear in the
audience. He is considered a man of misfortune that comes to him through error of judgment.” A
tragic hero’s downfall evokes feelings of pity and fear among the audience.
Aristotle has used his character Oedipus as a perfect example of a tragic hero, as he has hubris
such that he is blind to the truth. He refuses to listen to wise men, such as Tiresias, who
predicts that Oedipus has killed his father, Laius. He is tragic because he struggles against the
forces of his fate, and pitiable due to his weakness, which arouses fear in the audience. Thus,
Oedipus is an ideal example of the tragic hero, as he caused his own downfall, falling from his
own estate and facing undeserved punishment.
Hamlet is the prince of Denmark, a man of high social status and noble by birth. He is almost
driven to madness by his father’s tortured ghost, who convinces him that Claudius is
responsible for his father’s death, and that he has committed treachery. Hamlet then makes a
plan to take revenge on his father’s killer, but he is blinded by his hamartia, neglecting his
relations with other loved ones – Ophelia and his mother Gertrude. Hamlet’s hamartia is his
constant contemplation and brooding, which causes him to delay, which ultimately results in his
destruction. By the end, Hamlet also falls in a bloodbath, touching the hearts of the audience by
highlighting the most primal fear, death.
Romeo is also a very good example of a tragic hero. He is a man of high social standing, who
falls in love easily with a girl whose family holds animosity towards his own family. Romeo’s
tragic flaw is start believing on his fate immediately. Juliet acts like a dead person, and Romeo
thinks her actually dead. Therefore, he kills himself. When she wakes up and sees him dead,
she also kills herself. Thus, it is not only fate, but also his actions and choices that bring his
downfall and death.
Example #4: Davy Jones, Pirates of the Caribbean (by Irene Trimble)
Davy Jones is a modern example of a typical tragic hero. He is basically a sea captain, who falls
in love with the sea goddess, Calypso. However, Calypso breaks Jones’ heart, making him
enraged, tragic, and bitter. He grows into a mixture of a humanoid and octopus, and leads his
savage crew on raids in the entire sea on his ship, the Flying Dutchman. At first, he was not
bad, but his beloved breaks his heart that turns him into bad man. Eventually, Will Sparrow kills
him. Jones’ hamartia is that he is a broken-hearted hero, who suffers at the hands of his
beloved, Calypso.
The purpose of a tragic hero is to evoke sad emotions, such as pity and fear, which makes the
audience experience catharsis, relieving them of their pent up emotions. The tragic flaw of the
hero leads to his demise or downfall that in turn brings tragic end. This gives wisdom to the
audience to avoid such things in their everyday lives. The sufferings and fall of a hero, arousing
feelings of pity and fear through catharsis, purges the audiences of those emotions, to transform
them into good human beings and good citizens.
Tragicomedy
Definition of Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains both tragedy and comedy.
Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy
ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story,
just to lighten the tone.
The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare is considered one of the most popular
traditional tragicomedy examples. Though it has a comedic structure, there are tragic
characters, such as Shylock (who is a central character), and tragic events, such as Antonio’s
“loss” of life (because he is not really dead).
Although the play ends on a happy note with the union of the lovers in the story, and Antonio is
saved from a tragic incident, readers are left with a taste of Shylock’s sufferings. Hence, the
feeling and mood of the play at the end is neither happy nor gloomy. Though, this play definitely
has a comic structure, it also has a strong tragic story. Therefore, it can be classified as a
tragicomedy.
Anton Chekhov’s play, The Cherry Orchard, turned out to be his final play that has a
combination of comedy and tragedy. It is the story of an elite family that is on the verge of losing
its inherited estate. As this play is based on an inevitable social change, which came with the
dawn of the 20th century, it presents the end of an aristocratic era, blended with tragic and
comic elements. The comic elements can be seen in the behavior, humorous aspects, and lack
of responsibility of the characters.
Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot can also be considered one of the great examples of
tragicomedy. There are many gestures, dialogues, actions, and situations that are filled with
pure comedy. All types of musical devices have been used to create laughter.
The overall atmosphere is that of a dark-comedy. For example, Vladimir is determined not to
listen to Estragon’s nightmare. However, the latter keeps pleading with him to listen. Similarly,
Estragon takes off and puts on his shoes several times while Vladimir plays with his hat again
and again. On the other hand, comedy turns into a tragedy due to the haplessness of these
tramps. Vladimir and Estragon wait for somebody who does not come, which makes them
disappointed. During the course of time, they indulge themselves in meaningless activities.
Shakespearean tragicomedies have complex and dubious plots. One of his perfect
tragicomedies is The Winter’s Tale. The first three acts are both tragic and serious, while the
final two acts are based on pastoral romance, roguery, songs, humor, and reunion. A sheep-
shearing celebration with the elegant, innocent Perdita serving as a hostess, dancing and
singing with shepherds, is suggestive of rural life in England. The blend of suffering, sorrows,
humor, romance, forgiveness, and reunion in the play confirms its label as a tragicomedy. There
are different aspects of the tragicomedy in the play that include: tragic elements, comic
elements, romantic elements, and a happy ending.
The Caretaker, written by Harold Pinteris, is mixed with two modes, tragedy and comedy, and is
a fine modern example of tragicomedy. The comic elements come out in the monologues of
Mick and Davies, and even the interactions between characters sometimes approach farce.
Davies’ repetition, confusion, and deceit of the brothers makes the play comedic. However, the
tragic element appears in the climatic monologue of Anton, regarding his shock treatments, at
the end of the play and in “that place,” although its ending is somewhat ambiguous.
Function of Tragicomedy
The main purpose of tragicomedy is to describe the dual nature of reality, where both modes
can coexist, perhaps simultaneously. Therefore, the interweaving of both aspects gives both a
comic and tragic view of life. Tragicomedy is mainly used in dramas and theater. Since tragic
plays focus exclusively on protagonists, while comic plays are devoid of focus and concern,
therefore plays that fell between these two categories were developed. These types of plays
present both modes of life through absurdity and seriousness.
Transition
Definition of Transition
Transitions are words and phrases that provide a connection between ideas, sentences, and
paragraphs. Transitions help to make a piece of writing flow better. They can turn disconnected
pieces of ideas into a unified whole, and prevent a reader from getting lost in the storyline.
Since the goal of a writer is to convey information clearly and concisely, transitions help achieve
that aim by providing a logical connection between one or more sections of a piece of writing.
Transitions usually work best when used to link one paragraph to the next, and are usually
found at the beginning of the paragraph, although they can be used anywhere when needed.
A piece of writing usually contains two elements: (1) the order in which different parts of a
discussion or argument are provided to the readers; and (2) the relationship the writer has used
to link these parts together. Transitions cannot be used as a substitute for good organization,
but they do aid in making the writing easier and clearer to follow by keeping a constant,
consistent flow from one paragraph to the next.
Following is an example of a disjointed paragraph can be made to flow smoothly by the use of
transitions:
Disjointed Sentence:
“We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. We are staying
longer because we do not want to miss the Tech Info conference taking place next week.”
In the first sentence, the two ideas are abruptly linked without a transition present to connect the
two together. In the revised version, the sentences are linked by a transition to connect the two
ideas for smoother flow, giving the reader a better understanding of what the writer wanted them
to know.
In longer pieces of writing, transitional paragraphs summarize the information for readers, and
specify the relevance of the information in the sections to come.
2. Between Paragraphs
Transitions form a relationship between paragraphs by connecting them with phrases, words, or
sentences that can be placed at the end of the first paragraph, the start of the second
paragraph, or in both places.
3. Within Paragraphs
These help the reader anticipate what is to come by serving as cues. Within paragraphs,
transitions are usually short phrases or single words.
Examples of Transition
Example #1:
Example #2:
Example #3:
Example #4:
Example #5:
To concede a point in the essay: although, at least, at any rate
Example #6:
Example #7:
Example #8:
Example #9:
Example #10:
To make a suggestion in the essay: to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind
Example #11:
Function of Transition
Transitions can be used in diverse circumstances. A transition can be a word, a phrase, or even
an entire paragraph. The function of a transition is the same in each case: it summarizes the
content of the preceding paragraph or section, and it helps the reader anticipate what’s to come
in the next paragraph.
However, the major function is not just to embellish one’s writing by making it read or sound
better; these are words which serve the function of presenting the ideas in such a way that help
readers react in particular ways to the ideas presented. They play a very important part in
helping readers see the logical sequence of the idea.
Tricolon
Definition of Tricolon
Tricolon is a rhetorical term that consists of three parallel clauses, phrases, or words, which
happen to come in quick succession without any interruption. The origin of this rhetorical device
is traced to the Greek word tricolon, meaning “section of a sentence.” These three parallel
words, phrases, or clauses have almost the same length, though this condition is not strictly
followed.
It also refers to a collection of three lines, paragraphs, chapters, or stanzas. For instance,
William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar uses it in his famous speech in ascending order as, “Veni,
vidi, vici (I came, I saw, [and] I conquered.“) The purpose of tricolon is to give a greater sense of
roundness, completeness, and wholeness, whereas the third part brings in a surprising effect in
the sentence.
“After this great liberator is laid to rest, and when we have returned to our cities and villages and
rejoined our daily routines, let us search for his strength. Let us search for his largeness of spirit
somewhere inside of ourselves. And when the night grows dark, when injustice weighs
heavy on our hearts, when our best-laid plans seem beyond our reach, let us think of
Madiba and the words that brought him comfort within the four walls of his cell …”
Example #2: President Dwight Eisenhower, “The Chance for Peace.” Speech delivered to the
American Society of Newspaper Editors, April, 1953
“Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final
sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed.
This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the
genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children.”
The lines above, highlighted in bold, present examples of tricolon. First is presented by the
incumbent President Obama in his 2013 speech, while the second one was given by President
Eisenhower in his speech delivered in 1953.
“You are talking to a man who has laughed in the face of death, sneered at doom, and chuckled
at catastrophe.”
The use of three phrases makes the speaker – or the author – appear knowledgeable, simple,
and catchy. It combines clauses to create a powerful impression, emphasizing the point in a
memorable and pithy way.
Example #2: Pirates of Caribbean (by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio)
“I actually feel rather good about this. I think we’ve all arrived at a very special place, eh?
Spiritually, ecumenically, grammatically.”
Here the last three words present the use of tricolon. This serves as a powerful rhetorical
device, also creating a little humor. The first two clauses make the readers think they are going
in one direction, while the third part introduces a surprising twist in it.
The use of tricolon has made this example interesting, funnier, satisfying, and memorable by
emphasizing the lines.
“They liked his diffidence when he apologized for the company he kept, his insincerity when he
defended the vagaries of his subordinates, his flexibilities when formulating new commitments.”
This is another excellent example of tricolon. The use of three equal structures makes it
rhythmic and appealing, while also making it more likely the readers will remember the given
information.
Function of Tricolon
Tricolon is not only found in poetry, novels, and short stories, but also in oral storytelling,
advertising, films, and photography. In writing, it helps readers absorb the idea, and remember it
more effectively. Sometimes, writers use tricolon for creating a humorous effect. In comedy, it is
known as a “comic triple,” where it creates a surprising effect for the audience. Besides, many
public information slogans and advertising campaigns use it to create a memorable and
captivating display of information. However, the most useful aspect of this literary device is its
effectiveness in making the idea memorable.
Trimeter
Definition of Trimeter
Trimeter is a poetic device that is defined as a meter or a line that consists of three iambic feet.
It is one of the five main types of iamb. An iamb is a foot that contains an unaccented syllable
followed by an accented syllable.
“Is like a pleasant sleep,/ Wherein I rest and heed/ The dreams that by me sweep.”
Apart from poetry, one can also find examples of trimeter in the dialogues of comedic and tragic
plays.
This excerpt is a good example of iambic trimeter, in which the lines have three iambs or three
metrical feet. Normally, the extract contains six syllables in each line, with the pattern of iambic
trimeter. Here, the trimeter pattern is in bold.
Among the poems that can be considered as good trimeter examples is E. Housman’s When I
Was One-and-Twenty. Houseman follows a perfect pattern of trimeter in this poem. The pattern
lends regular beats and rhythm to the poem.
This whole excerpt is following the pattern of trimeter. The lines are very short. With iamb
trimeter, it has a regular pattern and rhythmical sense.
Example #4: Verses Supposed to be Written (By Alexander Selkirkby William Cowper)
This poem is a fine example of a combination of iambic trimeter and anapestic meter. At
different places trimeter is replaced by anapestic trimeter.
This poem follows an alternating trimeter and iambic tetrameter pattern. The first and third lines
represent iambic tetrameter, whereas the second and fourth lines are written in trimeter pattern.
Function of Trimeter
The main function of trimeter is to create regular beats and rhythm in a literary text. However, it
is also useful to achieve heightened formality in dramas when used as normal speech. Since
trimeter creates a regular rhythm, it lends formality and high drama to a text. Hence, the basic
purpose of using this pattern is to create a beautiful poetic work, and produce a greatly
emotional experience. In addition, it helps to make a piece of art more artistic by producing a
regular rhythm. Poetry, comedies, and Greek tragedies often use this device.
Trope
Definition of Trope
Trope is a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of
words differently than their literal meanings. In other words, it is a metaphorical or figurative use
of words in which writers shift from the literal meanings of words to their non-literal meanings.
The trope, in fact, could be a phrase, a word, or an image used to create artistic effect. We may
find its use almost anywhere, such as in literature, political rhetoric, and everyday speech.
Types of Trope
Depending upon the meanings and understanding of trope, it has been classified into several
types. Some of its types include, irony, hyperbole, metaphor, allegory, litotes, pun,
personification, simile, metonymy, and synecdoche. Here are some examples of the types of
trope:
Irony is used to imply an opposite meaning to the literal meaning of an idea, such as in the
opening lines of Romeo & Juliet:
Shakespeare leads the audience to believe that Montague and Capulet are both respectful
families. However, as the narrative proceeds, we realize that both families were not noble. Many
of their actions were not worthy of their good positions in society. Hence, Shakespeare has
used irony to develop this situation.
This type of trope uses exaggerated statement for effect or emphasis. It is contrary to
understatement and, like metaphor and simile, is overstated and ridiculous. We usually find its
usage in oral communication and literature, such as:
In this poem, the poet uses hyperbole by overstating his love for his beloved, that he would love
her until the seas dry, and rocks melt with the sun. In fact, the poet has used exaggeration to
emphasize the power of his love.
This type of trope is opposite to hyperbole in that it is an understatement that negates its
opposite.
In these lines, the poet tries to understate the idea that he is unable to have sex with his
beloved in this world, and suggests the opposite idea of having it in coffins where they could
have privacy. However, there would be no hugging at all.
Metonymy is a type of trope in which an alternative name takes the place of the name of an
original idea, while both are closely associated. As in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, we can
find use of metonymy many times, such as the ghost of Hamlet’s father referring to his assassin:
This means to imply that he should pay attention to what others say, speaking little.
Synecdoche is a type of trope in which a part of a thing or idea represents the whole thing. T. S.
Eliot uses this figure of speech several times in his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.
The poet uses faces as a synecdoche in this line:
Here, the “face” represents the entire person. Again, he use eyes as a synecdoche in these
lines:
“And I have known the eyes already, known them all —
The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase …”
Where, the eyes are a small part that represent the whole person. Then, he makes use of arms
as a synecdoche to represent a whole woman as:
Function of Trope
Since trope is a figurative expression, its major function is to give additional meaning to the
texts, and allow readers to think profoundly, to understand the idea or a character. Also, it
creates images that produce artistic effects on the audience’s senses. Through trope, writers
intensify normal human feelings into extraordinary emotions, where they feel that those
emotions are not ordinary. Additionally, most types of trope present comparisons that make the
understanding of the text easier for readers.
Truism
Definition of Truism
Several statements and aphorisms are also examples of truism when they present a universally
accepted opinion, and when a majority of the people agree with them. Platitudes, clichés, and
bromides are some truism examples.
Jocasta:
“(The oracle) told him
that it was his fate that he should die a victim
at the hands of his own son, a son to be born
of Laius and me …”
Oedipus:
“That I was fated to lie with my mother,
and show to daylight an accursed breed
which men would not endure, and I was doomed
to be murderer of the father that begot me …”
In this excerpt, Jocasta recollects the prophecy that the oracle mentioned to King Laius before
the birth of Oedipus. In the second paragraph, Oedipus also reveals that prophecy, and hence
leaves Corinth. These statements are the perfect examples of truism, where the fact is obvious
and nobody can deny it.
Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)
This is Hamlet’s famous soliloquy, and it is a good example of truism. Hamlet was enraged at
his mother for marrying his uncle after the death of the king a month previous. He is expressing
his feelings of dejection for his mother’s greed.
Mannon:
“He pushes his back up against the head of the bed in a half sitting position. His face, with the
flickering candle light… You like the dark where you can’t see your old man of a husband, is that
it … I don’t know… This house is not my house. This is not my room nor my bed. They are
empty… And you are not my wife! You are waiting for something … You made me appear a
lustful beast in my own eyes… I would feel cleaner now if I had gone to a brothel! I would feel
more honor between myself and life…”
In this extract, Mannon is talking to his wife Christine, and gives self-evident statements. He
talks about his wife’s unfaithfulness to him. This is a truism based on accepted truth that his wife
has had an affair.
Prince:
“Let Romeo hence in haste,
Else, when he’s found, that hour is his last.
Bear hence this body and attend our will.
Mercy but murders, pardoning those that kill.”
In this excerpt, Prince is angry due to Romeo’s killing of Tybalt, and says that he must leave the
city. Here the statement of truism is used as he later says:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
Here, the double meanings of the “best of times” and the “worst of times” indicate the theme of
resurrection, and also indicate the conflict between England and France. These statements are
expressing truism.
Function of Truism
Truism is a specific category of truth, platitude, or cliché, and is used as evidence. It is used as
an agreed or intuitive truth about life, since the majority of people accept it, and arguments are
so perfect that readers do not ask questions. It is also used in literature and philosophical
writings where it serves an ironic purpose.
Understatement
Understatement Definition
For example, you win 10 million dollars in a lottery. When you tell a news reporter “I am
delighted,” you are making an understatement. Similarly, suppose a team loses to its opponent
50 to 0 in a soccer match, and the captain of the team says in a post-match ceremony, “We did
not do well,” it is an understatement because he is trying to decrease the intensity of the loss.
Let us try to understand understatement better with the help of some common examples of
understatement used in daily conversations:
• “Deserts are sometimes hot, dry, and sandy.” – Describing deserts of the world.
• “He is not too thin.” – Describing an obese person.
• “It rained a bit more than usual.” – Describing an area being flooded by heavy rainfall.
• “It was O.K.” – Said by the student who got the highest score on the test.
• “It is a bit nippy today.” – Describing the temperature, which is 5 degrees below freezing.
“I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.”
Having a tumor in the brain is a serious issue, which has been understated in this excerpt.
Example #2: Emperor Mage (By Tamora Pierce)
In Emperor Mage, a fantasy novel by Tamora Pierce, Daine states (as if she has done nothing
wrong):
This is an understatement that Daine makes, after raising an army of dinosaur skeletons to
destroy the king and later, she destroys the imperial palace in order to avenge the death of her
teacher.
This excerpt from Mark Twain’s famous work provides one of the great understatement
examples found in Twain’s literary pieces. Huck’s response, “No’m. Killed a nigger” exposes the
thinking of the people of the time, who did not consider black men humans. Killing a black man
was not considered something serious.
“I’ve always been a massive admirer of the Edenist ability to understate. But I think defining a
chunk of land fifteen kilometers across that suddenly takes flight and wanders off into another
dimension as a little problem is possibly the best example yet.”
Another example of understatement comes from Primula Bond’s novel The Silver Chain:
“And you, who have told me a hundred times how deeply you pitied me for the sorceries by
which I was bound, will doubtless hear with joy that they are now ended forever. There was, it
seems, some small error in your Ladyship’s way of treating them.”
The reference of “some small error” is an understatement as the error which ends somebody’s
power is not small at all.
In another fantasy novel, Consider Phlebas, an understatement was made about a war that
lasted for 48 years, and took the lives of more than 851 billion beings.
“A small, short war that rarely extended throughout more than .02% of the galaxy and .01% by
stellar population … the galaxy’s elder civilisations rate the Idiran-Culture war as … one of those
singularly interesting Events they see so rarely these days.”
Function of Understatement
An understatement is a tool that helps to develop other figures of speech, such as irony and
sarcasm, by deliberately decreasing the severity of a situation, when an intense response is
expected by the listeners or the readers.
Undertone
Definition of Undertone
Undertone is an attitude that lies under the ostensible tone of a literary work. In simple words, it
is an implied meaning that usually points towards the underlying theme of a work. It is because
mostly writers do not express it directly as their attitude or theme; rather, they do it by using
images or symbols. Therefore, sometimes it becomes difficult to identify undertones.
In Anton Chekhov’s “Cherry Orchard,” there are several undertones, including time, contrasting
regions, morality, and love. Although it is a tragic-comedy, it is full of love triangles, unrequited
love, physical love, spiritual love, platonic love, maternal love, and master and servant love.
Also, there is a very prominent undertone of mortality. For instance, the memory of her dead
husband and son haunts, Lubov. The departing family depicts its beloved home as “at the end
of its life.”
The undertone in The Lord of the Rings is fundamentally Catholic and religious, unconsciously
at first, and consciously in revision, because by design, it is about Catholic and Christian truths.
For instance, the protagonists in the novel pursue absolutes, rejecting willingness to relativize or
compromise. There is an absoluteness of right and wrong in Middle-earth. We do not see any
moral clue of relativism that separates different races, people, and creators of free lands. The
protagonists also embrace suffering as an essential element of their salvation. They must
sacrifice to get freedom from tyranny of evil.
The deceptive undertone in “Hamlet” is a fear of being deceived. After two consistent
appearances of the Ghost, Horatio joins Bernado, Marcellus, and Francisco on an evening
watch on the third night. Horatio mocks their stories about the appearances of the Ghost by
saying, “Tush tush, ’twill not appear.”
He is a sensible and intelligent person who wants to see things himself before accepting them.
Therefore, at the appearance of the Ghost, he immediately changes his point of view. He
informs Prince Hamlet of the Ghost’s resemblance to King Hamlet and warns him of its origin.
Thus, Hamlet fears that this Ghost might be just a deception and appears to push Hamlet to go
for a wicked action.
Example #4: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald)
“…I was standing beside his bed and he was sitting up between the sheets, clad in his
underwear, with a great portfolio in his hands.
‘Beauty and the beast… Loneliness… Old Grocery Horse… Brook’n Bridge’
Then I was lying half asleep in the cold lower level of the Pennsylvania Station, staring at the
morning ‘Tribune’ and waiting for the four o’clock train.”
With Nick Caraway, Fitzgerald has portrayed an undertone of homosexuality. This scene is the
period of four hours between Nick’s departure from the party and waiting for the train. Nick sees
Mackee as a feminine man, feels attraction towards him, and follows him to his bed room while
Mackee sleeps.
In his poem, “The Tyger,” Blake has used religious undertones. In his days, religious institutions
and individuals held a great influence over people. He has questioned absolute supremacy of
God and dabbled into the religious arena through this poem, by employing the image of a tiger.
Blake is not afraid to challenge the religious assumptions. In the first two lines, he praises this
animal a work of art, which is strikingly beautiful, “Tyger Tyger, burning bright …” But the tiger
also symbolizes horror. That is in the third and the fourth lines he questions, “What immortal
hand or eye / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?” which means what kind of God could design a
beautiful yet terrifying and horrible beast, a Tyger.
Function
Undertone adds depth to a literary work. Not only does it enhance writing, but it also develops
interest of the readers to get an insight into the mind of a writer. Failing to convince their readers
of their themes, writers and poets substitute direct persuasion with skeptical undertone of
teaching. Just like tone, it could be cheery, fearful, threatening, or optimistic, etc. Besides that, it
gives the readers an understanding of the characters, their emotions, and conflicts in a literary
piece.
Utopia
Definition of Utopia
The literary term utopia denotes an illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society
to the reader. Here, the “perfect society” refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material
world, as opposed to the expected idealism of afterlife in Christianity or other religions. Further,
the citizens presiding in such utopias are bearers of a perfect moral code, or at the least, every
violator of the moral code is harshly punished. A utopian society is one where all social evils
have been cured.
A piece of writing that concerns itself with the description of a perfect society in the physical
world, as opposed to the perfection of afterlife, is considered to be utopian literature. The
original motives behind utopian novels were political, social, and philosophical. Plato’s The
Republic, written around 380 BC, is usually considered the first example of Utopia in history.
Some traces of utopian elements can be found in Arthurian literature – in the idealization of King
Arthur’s court at Camelot – but the trend followed by medieval poets involved romanticizing an
imaginary past, rather than using hypothetical utopias for the purposes of criticizing political
institutions and suggesting alternatives. It was by the time of Sir Thomas More’s book Utopia,
written in 1516, that the notion of utopia was practically manifested, and his name for the
imaginary kingdom became the new name for the writing genre.
One of the common misunderstandings about utopian models is that they serve to project a
better way of life. To the contrary, the reason behind such literature is to help the reader
envision the problems, paradoxes, or faults entrenched within such a political framework.
Function of Utopia
Over time, the vision encapsulating the notion of utopia has suffered radical transformations.
Events such as war, church reform, revolution, and economic change have contributed toward
the construction of a new type of utopia.
The term utopia formulated new shapes and new prefixes, each type having its own function
and its own use. They are generally employed as a means of constructing an organized society
in the reader’s mind. The writer makes use of the tool to highlight the discrepancies prevalent
within an existing political and legal framework.
A utopian society is framed in such a manner as to present the idea of an ideal sociopolitical
culture to the reader. The writer is presenting his audience with a standard example of a socially
and morally fit society with the use of utopia, to make them realize the various deficiencies of
their existing societal framework.
Utopia is a tool for exposing the flaws prevalent within an existing political structure. Further, the
tool has been widely employed by writers who intended to make an impact on the consciences
of readers. The writer uses utopia in order to portray a scenic picture in the eyes of the reader,
in an attempt to make him fully appreciate the various diverging factors contributing towards the
failings of the existing society. It deals with constructing a standard sociopolitical society in the
reader’s mind, in order to criticize the prevalent legal norms.
Verbal Irony
Definition of Verbal Irony
Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say.
It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions.
To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that
contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on
the audience’s intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers
also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as “soft
as concrete.”
• Sarcasm
• Exaggeration or Overstatement
• Understatement
“Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked
away with his nose in the air, saying: ‘I am sure they are sour.’ ”
“I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather
than Paris.”
Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead
adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it
ironically that whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo – whom she dislikes – and not
Paris, thus confusing her mother.
We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we
relish ironic flavor of Darcy’s statement, as we later find out that the woman he found unsuitable
to dance with, ends up taking a place in his heart.
The title of the poem, The Unknown Citizen, employs verbal irony, as the poet describes a
person whom everyone knows, yet he is still unknown. Also, by deliberately capitalizing
common words, the speaker makes them sound meaningless, ironic, and sarcastic: “the Greater
Community,” “Social Psychology,” “Union,” “Public Opinion,” and “High Grade Living.” All of
these terms sound formal, pompous, bureaucratic, and arrogant. Simply, through verbal irony,
the poet shows how governmental agencies, which should serve human beings, have rather
enslaved them.
TIRESIAS:
“You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I can call your grief
as well.”
OEDIPUS:
“Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?”
All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, Oedipus Rex. One fine example of
verbal irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the prophecy to Oedipus.
In fact, Oedipus has misunderstood Tiresias’ statement, “… which I can call your grief as well.”
By this, Tiresias means that, if he reveals the truth, it would become Oedipus’ grief that he is the
murderer of his king, Laius. This is a verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this “grief” is
going to be an impending fate for him.
“I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do
roasting pigs.”
Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel by Swift. For instance, in the above
statement the author intends to point out that the government should not treat Irish people like
animals. In irony, he compares the Irish to animals.
Example #6: Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (By Lemony Snicket)
“Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of
hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours.”
Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds to break down this
simile, by overturning its meaning. By making a complex structure, the author creates verbal
irony to let readers enjoy.
Verbal irony is very common in everyday speech, plays, novels, and poetry, and usually occurs
in the form of sarcasm. It depends upon timing and suitable circumstances to achieve its effect.
Verbal irony develops funny and dramatic situations. Through verbal irony, writers and poets
can convey their bitter messages indirectly, in a less bitter and more effective way. It makes a
literary piece more effective by provoking readers into analyzing and thinking harder about a
situation. By contrasting and comparing suppositions with reality, the readers can better
understand the writer’s intent.
Verisimilitude
Verisimilitude Definition
In a literary work, verisimilitude is likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a fictitious
work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude ensures that even a fantasy
must be rooted in reality, which means that events should be plausible to the extent that readers
consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real
life.
Origin of Verisimilitude
The theory of verisimilitude comes from a Platonic and Aristotelian dramatic theory called
“mimesis.” According to this theory, a work of art should convince the audience by imitating and
representing nature, and having a basis in reality. The playwright, conforming to the above-
mentioned theory, had to draw themes from sources well-known to the common people of his
time, and maintain the unities of action, place, and time. Besides, he had to bring a realistic
union between the style and the subject.
Suspension of Disbelief
The theory of verisimilitude leads to the idea of “suspension of disbelief,” or “willing suspension
of disbelief,” a term coined in 1817 by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was of the opinion that, if a
writer was able to fill his work with a “human interest and a semblance of truth,” the readers
would willingly suspend or delay their judgment in relation to the doubtfulness of a narrative. In
his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge says:
Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver Travels is a brilliant work of fantasy that may be considered as one of
the best examples of Verisimilitude. It achieves verisimilitude due to the fact that it is one of the
finest examples of political satire in English Literature. Readers find in it a resemblance to a
reality, as they are aware of the fact that Swift satirizes contemporary politics, religion, and
English culture. For instance, criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes:
“… that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire,
under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes,
by which they distinguish themselves.”
Two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated England’s political scene during
Swift’s time. In his novel, the fictitious kingdom of Lilliput is dominated by two parties
distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By relating the trivial disputes between the
two Lilliputian parties, Swift relentlessly satirizes the insignificant disputes of the two English
parties of his period. He achieves verisimilitude through this.
Mark Twain in his popular Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain used Black American
vernacular to show realistically how the “negroes” [Black Americans] talked in real life:
“I didn’t want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn’t like it; but
now I took to it again because pap hadn’t no objections … But by-and-by pap got too handy with
his hick’ry, and I could’t stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too,
and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome.”
Drawing analogies from real life gives a semblance of truth to even fantastic ideas. For instance:
In the above excerpt, the poet constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares
the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the
ground. Such comparisons give her far-fetched ideas an air of reality.
Function of Verisimilitude
A literary work throws a lasting impression on its readers if it presents the theme in such a way
that readers can relate it to real life. Conformity to the theory of verisimilitude ensures the
existence of reality in a literary work. Political satires are abundant with verisimilitude examples.
Vernacular
Definition of Vernacular
Vernacular is a literary genre that uses daily-used language in writing and speaking. It is
different from written works, as they normally follow the formal variety of language. The word
“vernacular” refers to writing or speaking of the public. We find the origin of vernacular literature
during the Middle Ages, in various countries of Europe. In fact, Latin was the language of
historical documents and religion, and ordinary people would not even speak it in Medieval
Europe, like that of the Sanskrit language in India. However, the writers of vernacular language,
such as Dante, Geoffrey Chaucer and Mark Twain. Dante Alighieri, diverged from this tendency
by writing in the language of ordinary people.
Vernacular is the use of ordinary, everyday, and plain language in speaking or writing, such as
corn is a common name of a plant, and its scientific name is “maize,” or “zea mays.” Dialect is
related to a particular region, geographical area, a particular social class, or an occupational
group. Also, it uses a distinguished pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For instance,
people in Shanghai have a different pronunciation or dialect than those in Yunnan.
In these opening lines, Chaucer has used words from the Middle English, which is a very
different language. The poet has employed a vernacular style in the words such as “whan,”
“Aprille,” “soote,” “droghte,” “roote,” “veyne,” “licour,” and “flour.”
Anthony Burgess uses vernacular language in his novel, A Clockwork Orange. Although
Burgess has made the base of his novel with English, he used vernacular words from Russian,
Arabic, Gypsy, and English. He formed a different language style of its own that managed to
portray the state of mind of the character Alex, as well as cruelty of the world around him in
which he lived.
Burgess uses words such as “eggiweg,” which means “eggs” in English, describes the childlike
nature of Alex, who often exhibits it. Another word is, “moloko,” which means “milk blended with
drugs,” which shows a dark side of Alex, characterized by demonic and criminal overtones.
Other terms include “baboochka,” which means “old woman,” and “Bog,” which means “God.”
Example #3: Boxy an Star (By Daren King)
“We me an Star are waitin for Boxy his head. Waitin standin in the fone box in the station of
Wolfer Humpton holdin the letter what we have tapped in the number from. Tappin the number
what Boxy had typed on the letter. Tappin it in on the fone pad. Tappin it makin Boxy come on
the screen of the fone makin on the screen of the fone his head.”
This novel is a perfect example of using futuristic vernacular. Its language is hypnotic and
disturbing, unrefined and vernacular, yet effective and proper. Here the author’s words are
expressing brevity, directness, childlike effect, and honesty.
“Suppose that ah ken aw the pros and cons, know that ah’m gaunnae huv a short life…but still
want tae use smack? They won’t let ye dae it. They won’t let ye dae it, because it’s seen as a
sign ay thir ain failure. The fact that ye jist simply choose tae reject whut they huv tae offer.
Choose us. Choose life. Choose mortgage payments; choose washing machines; choose cars;
choose sitting oan a couch watching mind-numbing and spirit-crushing game shows…”
It takes time to know the rhythm of this book, as it is rich with Scottish vernacular, and slang
words, which make its tone lilting.
Function of Vernacular
The use of vernacular is everywhere – in schools, university courses, at home, offices, in law
terms, medicine, and the media. In fact, language is a starting point for any literary work, and if it
is ineffective, then readers cannot get anything from the work. Vernacular is one of the literary
techniques that can strike a chord with the majority of the people, makes a strong connection
with them because it is closer to their everyday conversation. Also, the dialogues and phrases
often reinforce the setting of a narrative, and add depth by creating a sense of realism, allowing
readers to relate their real lives with a literary piece.
Verse
Definition of Verse
The literary device verse denotes a single line of poetry. The term can also be used to refer to a
stanza or other parts of poetry.
Generally, the device is stated to encompass three possible meanings, namely a line of metrical
writing, a stanza, or a piece written in meter. It is important to note here that the term “verse” is
often incorrectly used for referring to “poetry” in order to differentiate it from prose.
Types of Verse
There are generally two types of verse, namely free verse and blank verse.
Free Verse
A free verse poem has no set meter; that is to say there is no rhyming scheme present, and the
poem doesn’t follow a set pattern. For some poets this characteristic serves as a handy tool for
the purpose of camouflaging their fluctuation of thoughts, whereas others think that it affects the
quality of work being presented.
As can be seen from the stanza quoted above, there is an absence of rhyming effect and
structure in each verse.
Here, it can be observed that there is no form or rhyme scheme present in the verse.
Blank Verse
There is no rhyming effect present in a blank verse poem. However, it has an iambic
pentameter. It is usually employed for presenting passionate events, and to create an impact on
the reader. Shakespeare was an ardent user of blank verse.
The poem quoted above depicts the use of blank verse throughout. Here, it is important to note
that there is no rhyming scheme present. Also, it can be seen that there is a presence of iambic
pentameter throughout the verses.
“I now delight
In spite
Of the might
And the right
Of classic tradition,
In writing
And reciting
Straight ahead,
Without let or omission…
Because, I’ve said,
My rhymes no longer shall stand arrayed
No! No!
My rhymes must go
Twinkling, frosty,
Will-o’-the-wisp-like, misty…”
This is an excellent example of a free verse poem, as it’s free from artificial expression of
poetry. Without any poetic restraints, it gives a natural flow of reading experience.
This is another instance of free verse poetry that does not follow any rules, nor any rhyme
scheme. However, it still gives an artistic and creative expression.
The above mentioned poem presents an example of blank verse that adds cadence and a
subtle rhythm, mimicking the pattern of the language that is audible in nature.
Example #4: Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art (By John Keats)
This is an example of a rhymed verse poem that has used an ABAB rhyme scheme, which
means the first and third, and the second and fourth lines rhyme with one another.
The above quoted stanza from William Wordsworth’s poem Daffodils presents to the reader
various examples of verse. It can be noted here that the use of the tool of verse adds a scenic
element to the structure of poetry.
Function of Verse
The use of verse in a piece of writing has a pleasing effect on the reader’s mind. It is usually
employed in poetry writing. The poets make use of the tool of verse in order to provide their
poetry with a desired structure. It serves as an avenue through which writers project their ideas
in the form of a composition having rhyme, rhythm, and deeper meanings. The device provides
the writer with a framework for poetry writing.
Vignette
Definition of Vignette
Literally, vignette is a French word that means “little vine.” The printers, during the nineteenth-
century, would decorate their title pages with drawings of looping vines. Hence, the derivation of
this term is that source of drawings. Contemporary ideas from the scenes shown in television
and film scripts also have influenced vignettes.
“Maera lay still, his head on his arms, his face in the sand. He felt warm and sticky from the
bleeding. Each time he felt the horn coming. Sometimes the bull only bumped him with his
head. Once the horn went all the way through him and he felt it go into the sand … Maera felt
everything getting larger and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then it got larger and larger
and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then everything commenced to run faster and faster
as when they speed up a cinematograph film. Then he was dead.”
In this impressionistic sketch, the author gives an illustration of the character Maera, who is a
bullfighter that dies from injures inflicted by a bull.
“Some boys taught me to play football. This was fine sport. You thought up a new strategy for
every play and whispered it to the others. You went out for a pass, fooling everyone. Best, you
got to throw yourself mightily at someone’s running legs … In winter, in the snow, there was
neither baseball nor football, so the boys and I threw snowballs at passing cars. I got in trouble
throwing snowballs, and have seldom been happier since.”
In this excerpt, Dillard has used her personal experiences while growing up in Pittsburgh, and
describes the nature of American life. In this particular scene, she tells us how she learned to
play football with the boys, and offering this incident of her teenage years.
“The strong streak of insanity in railroads, which accounts for a child’s instinctive feeling for
them and for a man’s unashamed devotion to them, is congenital; there seems to be no reason
to fear that any disturbing improvement in the railroads’ condition will set in … He gravely wrote
‘Providence’ in the proper space, and we experienced anew the reassurance that rail travel is
unchanged and unchanging, and that it suits our temperament perfectly – a dash of lunacy, a
sense of detachment, not much speed, and no altitude whatsoever.”
In this descriptive passage, White laments the bad condition of the passenger train industry in
the state of Main, his home state, and worries for the future. He softens his complaints by going
into past memories when he would ride as an adult.
Example #4: House on Mango Street (By Sandra Cisneros)
“Then Uncle Nacho is pulling and pulling my arm and it doesn’t matter how new the dress Mama
bought is because my feet are ugly until my uncle who is a liar says, “You are the prettiest girl
here, will you dance … My uncle and me bow and he walks me back in my thick shoes to my
mother who is proud to be my mother. All night the boy who is a man watches me dance. He
watched me dance.”
This whole story provides us a collection of vignettes. There are several passages with detailed
descriptions about particular ideas or characters, such as this extract illustrating a dancing
scene.
Function of Vignette
We often find vignettes in creative writing, as it provides description to achieve an artistic effect.
However, we also see its usage in prose and poetry. Writers use this device to explore a
character, and describe the setting of a scene. Vignettes give deeper understanding of texts, as
writers densely pack them with imagery and symbolism. Besides, it increases writers’ language
proficiency, as they use their language to its fullest by employing imagery to set a certain color
and mood. Hence, the nature of vignettes is evocative and puts an impact on the senses of
readers.
Villanelle
Definition of Villanelle
Villanelle is derived from the Italian word villano, which means “peasant.’ In fact, a villanelle is a
dance song coupled with pastoral themes. In literature, it is defined as a poetic device that
which requires a poem to have 19 lines and a fixed form. It has five tercets (first 15 lines), a
quatrain (last four lines), and a couplet at the end of the quatrain.
(A1) refrain 1
Line 2 (b)
(A2) refrain 2
Line 4 (a)
Line 5 (b)
(A1) refrain 1
Line 7 (a)
Line 8 (b)
(A2) refrain 2
Line 10 (a)
Line 11 (b)
(A1) refrain 1
Line 13 (a)
Line 14 (b)
(A2) refrain 2
Line 16 (a)
Line 17 (b)
(A1) refrain 1
(A2) refrain 2
Here, the letters “a” and “b” denote two rhyming sounds, while “A” indicates refrain, and the
numerals “1” and “2” denote refrain 1 and refrain 2 respectively.
Function of Villanelle
Villanelle is divided into three segments. The first segment is called the “introduction.” The
second is called the “development,” and the third is called the “conclusion.” Villanelle builds up
the intensity and tone of a poem. It is mostly used in lyrical poems and songs, with the objective
of using repeated lines to soften the typical repetition of traditional forms.
Voice
Definition of Voice
A voice in literature is the form or a format through which narrators tell their stories. It is
prominent when a writer places himself herself into words, and provides a sense that the
character is real person, conveying a specific message the writer intends to convey. In simple
words, it is an author’s individual writing style or point of view.
When a writer engages personally with a topic, he imparts his personality to that piece of
literature. This individual personality is different from other individual personalities, which other
writers put into their own works. Thus, voice is a unique personality of a literary work.
Depending upon the type of work, authors may use a single voice, or multiple voices.
Types of Voice
Though there are many types of voice, two are most commonly used:
• Author’s Voice – Author’s voice is the writer’s particular style, which he employs in a
particular story, or piece of writing.
• Character’s Voice – A character’s voice is the voice of the main character, how he
views the world. It is a common narrative voice used with first and third person points of
view. Here, the author uses a conscious person as a narrator in the story.
Stream of consciousness is a narrative voice that comprises the thought processes of the
characters. James Joyce’s novel, Ulysses, and William Faulkner’s novels, As I Lay Dying, and
The Sound and Fury, are modes of stream of consciousness narrative.
Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird is a very good example of a character’s voice, in which the
character Scout narrates the whole story. Though she is an adult, she tells her story from her
childhood’s point of view. When she grows older, her language becomes more sophisticated.
Scout uses first-person narrative to create a realistic sense, enabling the audience to notice the
child is growing up. Her dialogue allows readers to hear the language of younger Scout. Also, it
enables the readers to feel the voice of an adult in her actions and thinking.
Unreliable Voice
Edgar Allan Poe’s short story The Tell-Tale Heart is an example of first-person unreliable
narrative voice, which is significantly unknowledgeable, biased, childish, and ignorant, which
purposefully tries to deceive the readers. As the story proceeds, readers notice the voice is
unusual, characterized by starts and stops. The character directly talks to the readers, showing
a highly exaggerated and wrought style. It is obvious that the effectiveness of this story relies on
its style, voice, and structure, which reveal the diseased state of mind of the narrator.
Epistolary Voice
Epistolary narrative voice makes use of letters and documents to convey the message and
reveal the story. It may use multiple persons’ voices, or there could be no narrator at all, as the
author may have gathered different documents into a single place to shape the story. For
instance, Mary Shelley, in her novel Frankenstein, employs epistolary form, in which she uses a
sequence of letters to express the voice of her narrator – a scientific explorer, Captain Robert
Walton. He attempts to reach the North Pole, where he meets Victor Frankenstein, and then
records his experiences and confessions.
Example #5: Old Man and the Sea (By George R. R. Martin)
Third person narrative voice employs a third-person point of view. In a third-person subjective
voice, a narrator describes feelings, thoughts, and opinions of one or more characters.
Hemingway’s novel Old Man and the Sea, and George R. R. Martin’s fantasy novel A Song of
Ice and Fire, present examples of third person subjective voice.
In a third person objective voice, a narrator narrates the story without showing the character’s
feelings and thoughts, and gives unbiased and objective points of view. A typical example of this
voice is Ernest Hemingway’s Hills Like White Elephants.
Function of Voice
While identifying the function of voice in literature, it is necessary to consider the narrator’s
degree of objectivity, reliability, and omniscience. Voice shows whose eyes readers see the
narrative through, which gives a personality to a literary piece. Moreover, a strong voice helps
make every word count, sets up consistency, and most importantly grabs the attention of the
readers.
Wit
Definition of Wit
Wit has originated from an old English term wit, which means “to know.” It is a literary device
used to make the readers laugh. Over the years, its meanings have kept changing. Today, it is
associated with laughter and comedy. It is, in fact, a clever expression of thought; whether
harmless or aggressive, with or without any disparaging intent toward something or someone.
Wit has paradoxical and mocking quality, and evokes laughter through apt phrasing. It is a
cleverly woven expression and idea that evokes pleasure and amusement when used
appropriately. Wit has historically been a specific sign of a cultivated intellect and mind. It was
often found in poetry, but stage plays were also full of wit, specifically during the Restoration
Period. In modern times, wit is a hallmark of political and social writings.
John Donne has used plenty of wit and conceit in this poem. He has presented a comparison
between his beloved and two hemispheres which form the earth. This unusual comparison
between the speaker and his beloved makes the reader feel pleased, making it a good example
of the use of wit in a poem.
Example #2: Canto-I, The Rape of the Lock (by Alexander Pope)
“The Rape of the Lock” has an abundance of scintillating and sparkling wit. In fact, through his
wit, Alexander Pope has made a comic assault on a society preoccupied with superficialities. It
is a witty satire that ridicules idleness, laziness, follies, frivolities, shallowness, hypocrisy, and
vanities of aristocratic ladies of the eighteenth century. He gives his readers an amusing picture
of the ladies of his time.
In this example, Pope brings into question whether “little men” can engage the boldness of
women – in whose bosoms is found great anger. Only Pope could have coined this wit.
The dialogues in Oscar Wilde’s play, The Importance of Being Earnest, are full of wit,
paradoxical twists, epigrams, and humor. For instance, the character Algernon Moncrieff
delivers a witty statement that “Divorces are made in heaven,” which is an amendment of
another statement, “Marriages are made in heaven.” A saying that “Two is company and three is
none” flows into another naughty implication, “In married life three is company and two is none.”
The character, John “Jack” Worthing, also uses witty statements in speaking to Algernon,
saying that “Some aunts are tall, some aunts are not tall. You seem to think that every aunt
should be exactly like your aunt.”
A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift is another good example of sharp wit and biting sarcasm.
His proposal is brief, in that the government of Ireland can resolve its economic problems by
allowing poor families to sell their children as a source of food for the wealthy. By doing this,
Swift suggests, the impoverished families could be useful to society.
Swift delivers sarcastic and witty statements against landlords by saying, “I grant this food will
be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for the landlords, who, as they have already
devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children.”
Function
Wit is frequently used in literature, public speeches, media, politics, everyday conversation, and
many other fields of life. An inferior form of wit lies in the use of word play, oxymorons, puns,
and paradoxes, whereas higher wit appears in the use of conceits, metaphors, and arguments.
By intelligent wit, writers mock the social foibles and follies of society; often using paradoxical
expressions, which appear to appreciate those foibles, but, in fact, they are disparaging.
Zeugma
Zeugma Definition
Zeugma, from Greek meaning “yoking” or “bonding,” is a figure of speech in which a word,
usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically
and logically different ideas.
For instance, in the sentence, “John lost his coat and his temper,” the verb “lost” applies to both
the nouns “coat” and “temper.” Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically
different ideas, which are brought together in this sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully,
produces a unique artistic effect, making the literary works more interesting and effective as it
serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.
The Zeugma is sometimes differentiated from “syllepsis.” Like zeugma, syllepsis also employs
the technique of using a single verb for more than one part in a sentence, but where that single
verb applies grammatically and logically to only one. For example, in the sentence, “They saw
lots of thunder and lightning,” the verb “saw” is logically correct only for the lightning, as thunder
is “heard.”
Similarly, Tennyson’s line from Ulysses, “He works his work, I mine” is an example of syllepsis,
as the verb “works” is grammatically correct with the first person pronoun “he,” but it is incorrect
grammar to say “I works mine.” Despite this distinction, syllepsis is often considered a kind of
zeugma. Bryan A. Garner gives his views about the distinction between zeugma and syllepsis in
The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style:
“Although commentators have historically tried to distinguish between zeugma and syllepsis, the
distinctions have been confusing and contradictory. We’re better off using zeugma in its
broadest sense and not confusing matters by introducing syllepsis, a little-known term the
meaning of which even the experts can’t agree on.”
“And all the people saw the thundering, and the lightning, and the noise of the trumpet, and the
mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off.”
“Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep;
moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.”
Example #4: The Rape of the Lock, Canto III (By Alexander Pope)
“Miss Bolo […] went straight home, in a flood of tears and a sedan-chair.”
“[H]e was alternately cudgelling his brains and his donkey when, passing the workhouse, his
eyes encountered the bill on the gate.”
“We were partners, not soul mates, two separate people who happened to be sharing a menu
and a life.”
Example #11: Have Some Madeira, M’Dear (By Flanders and Swann)
“But Ted Lavender, who was scared, carried 34 rounds when he was shot and killed outside
Than Khe, and he went down under an exceptional burden, more than 20 pounds of
ammunition, plus the flak jacket and helmet and rations and water and toilet paper and
tranquilizers and all the rest, plus an unweighed fear.”
Function of Zeugma
The above examples of Zeugma show that this literary device may create confusing or dangling
sentences. However, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a
dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result. Zeugma examples are also in
literary works of famous writers and poets from several centuries ago, to add vividness and
conciseness to their texts.
Zoomorphism
Definition of Zoomorphism
Zoomorphism is a derivative of the Greek words zōon, which means “animal,” and morphē,
which means “form,” or “shape.” It is a literary technique in which animal attributes are imposed
upon non-animal objects, humans, and events; and animal features are ascribed to humans,
gods, and other objects. Like in this instance,
“A couple of customers that had been heading for my slot began to knock against each other,
like scared pigs in a chute.”
Here pigs are meant to be intelligent animals, and have been used as a simile to show how
people were behaving.
Opposite of Anthropomorphism
One can find zoomorphism examples in literary pieces written during the time of the Romans
and ancient Greeks. However, modern literature has used it extensively as well.
“The two sisters got down, big, bovine, in a flutter of cheap ribbons; one of them drew from the
jumbled wagon bed a battered lantern, the other a worn broom. His father handed the reins to
the older son and began to climb stiffly over the wheels … There was something about his wolf-
like independence and even courage when the advantage was at least neutral which
impressed strangers, as if they got from his latent ravening ferocity not so much a sense of
dependability, as a feeling that his ferocious conviction in the rightness of his own actions would
be of advantage to all whose interest lay with his …”
Bovines are cows. They are perceived often as slow, stupid, and lazy animals that do not
question their masters. On the other hand, wolves are ferocious predators. In the above excerpt,
the girls are represented as cows – having a lack independence, following their father without
questioning. The father is compared to a wolf, which has “ferocious conviction in the rightness of
his own actions.”
“You never know for sure how girls’ minds work (do you really think it’s a mind in there or just a
little buzz like a bee in a glass jar?) but you got the idea she had talked the other two into
coming in here with here, and now she was showing them how to do it, walk slow and hold
yourself straight … The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle – the girls were walking
against the usual traffic (not that we have one-way signs or anything) – were pretty hilarious…”
In this case, buzzing like a bee is supposed to imply that there is really nothing important in the
girls’ minds. While the customers are compared to sheep, who wander in groups mindlessly
down the aisles.
“For you have been my help. I will rejoice in the shadow of your wings. (Psalm 63:7, English
Version)
“If I take the wings of the dawn, and settle in the remotest part of the sea…” (Psalm 139:9,
English Version)
Here, God is represented as a bird. The bird’s/God’s wings are compared to the comfort and
shelter that God gives to His people.
“I have had a dream, past the wit of man to say what dream it was: man is but an ass, if he go
about to expound this dream …”
This excerpt is the speech of Bottom in the play, who had a dream in which he was an ass-
headed monster adored by a gorgeous fairy queen. He describes that humans cannot
comprehend his dream; it is beyond their approach.
Function of Zoomorphism
Zoomorphism is a literary technique. Examples of zoomorphism are often found in short stories
(used to effectively provide detailed descriptions about the characters in stories). Records show
that it has been used as a literary device since the times of the ancient Romans and Greeks. It
is a very helpful tool for the effective description of different characters. The purpose of using
this technique is to create a figurative language and provide a comparison.