Tectonic plates of the Earth.

Credit: USGS

From the deepest ocean trench to the tallest mountain, plate tectonics explains the features and
movement of Earth's surface in the present and the past.

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over
the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared
to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere, which is 100 km (60 miles) thick,
according to Encyclopedia Britannica. The lithosphere includes the crust and outer part of the
mantle. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which is malleable or partially malleable,
allowing the lithosphere to move around. How it moves around is an evolving idea.
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History

Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version of continental
drift, a theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't have an
explanation for how continents could move around the planet, but researchers do now. Plate
tectonics is the unifying theory of geology, said Nicholas van der Elst, a seismologist at Columbia
University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York.

"Before plate tectonics, people had to come up with explanations of the geologic features in their
region that were unique to that particular region," Van der Elst said. "Plate tectonics unified all
these descriptions and said that you should be able to describe all geologic features as though
driven by the relative motion of these tectonic plates."

How many plates are there?

There are nine major plates, according to World Atlas. These plates are named after the landforms
found on them. The nine major plates are North American, Pacific, Eurasian, African, Indo-
Australian, Australian, Indian, South American and Antarctic.
The largest plate is the Pacific Plate at 39,768,522 square miles (103,000,000 square kilometers).
Most of it is located under the ocean. It is moving northwest at a speed of around 2.75 inches (7
cm) per year.
There are also many smaller plates throughout the world.

How plate tectonics works

The driving force behind plate tectonics is convection in the mantle. Hot material near the Earth's
core rises, and colder mantle rock sinks. "It's kind of like a pot boiling on a stove," Van der Elst said.
The convection drive plates tectonics through a combination of pushing and spreading apart
at mid-ocean ridges and pulling and sinking downward at subduction zones, researchers think.
Scientists continue to study and debate the mechanisms that move the plates.
Mid-ocean ridges are gaps between tectonic plates that mantle the Earth like seams on a baseball.
Hot magma wells up at the ridges, forming new ocean crust and shoving the plates apart.
At subduction zones, two tectonic plates meet and one slides beneath the other back into the
mantle, the layer underneath the crust. The cold, sinking plate pulls the crust behind it downward.

Many spectacular volcanoes are found along subduction zones, such as the "Ring of Fire" that
surrounds the Pacific Ocean.

Plate boundaries

Subduction zones, or convergent margins, are one of the three types of plate boundaries. The
others are divergent and transform margins.

At a divergent margin, two plates are spreading apart, as at seafloor-spreading ridges or

continental rift zones such as the East Africa Rift.

Transform margins mark slip-sliding plates, such as California's San Andreas Fault, where the North
America and Pacific plates grind past each other with a mostly horizontal motion.

Reconstructing the past

While the Earth is 4.54 billion years old, because oceanic crust is constantly recycled at subduction
zones, the oldest seafloor is only about 200 million years old. The oldest ocean rocks are found in
the northwestern Pacific Ocean and the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Fragments of continental
crust are much older, with large chunks at least 3.8 billion years found in Greenland.

With clues left behind in rocks and fossils, geoscientists can reconstruct the past history of Earth's
continents. Most researchers think modern plate tectonics began about 3 billion years ago, based
on ancient magmas and minerals preserved in rocks from that period. Some believe it could have
started a billion years after Earth's birth, at around 3.5 billion years.
"We don't really know when plate tectonics as it looks today got started, but we do know that we
have continental crust that was likely scraped off a down-going slab [a tectonic plate in a
subduction zone] that is 3.8 billion years old," Van der Elst said. "We could guess that means plate
tectonics was operating, but it might have looked very different from today."
As the continents jostle around the Earth, they occasionally come together to form
giant supercontinents, a single landmass. One of the earliest big supercontinents, called Rodinia,
assembled about 1 billion years ago. Its breakup is linked to a global glaciation called Snowball
Earth.
A more recent supercontinent called Pangaea formed about 300 million years ago. Africa, South
America, North America and Europe nestled closely together, leaving a characteristic pattern of
fossils and rocks for geologists to decipher once Pangaea broke apart. The puzzle pieces left behind
by Pangaea, from fossils to the matching shorelines along the Atlantic Ocean, provided the first
hints that the Earth's continents move.
Plates bumping into each other can also cause mountain ranges. For example, India and Asia came
together about 55 million years ago, which created the Himalaya Mountains, according to National
Geographic.