Aquatic Invertebrates

of
South African Rivers
Field Guide

First edition
February 2002

Institute for Water Quality Studies

Printed for the Government Printer Pretoria by Fonneset Printers Cape.
( Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
 Aquatic Invertebrates
of
South African Rivers

Field Guide
A Gerber & MJM Gabriel

This Field Guide is available from :

Director : Institute for Water Quality Studies

Department of Water Mfairs and Forestry

Private Bag X313

Pretoria
0001

Tel 012 808 0374

Fax 012 808 2702 Published by :
or
Annelise Gerber
Institute for Water Quality Studies
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
Cell 082 808 9844
GerberA@dwaf. gov .za
First edition
February 2002
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements 2
Introduction 3

Part 1: Water Resources

Classification of water systems 8
A general river ecosystem 10
Biotopes in a river ecosystem 16
1: Guide to river substrate particle size 22
1: Part 2: Freshwater Invertebrates
1: Ephemeroptera 26
Trichoptera 38
1: Coleoptera 56
Hemiptera 70
~ 82
Odonata
~ Oiptera 96
Plecoptera 112
~ Lepidoptera 116
Megaloptera 118
~
Hydracarina 120
~ Turbellaria 122
Amphipoda 124
~ Decapoda 126
Annelida 130
~
Porifera 134
~ Gastropoda 136
Pelecypoda 142
~l
References 146
~1 Bibliography 147
~1 Index 149
Waterfall in the Swartberg mountains, Meiringspoort ~ ~
l
El
E
 ~',
~

Acknowledgements Introduction
E
Many friends and colleagues have assisted in the E In field surveys, it has often been observed that non-
compilation of this book and their support is greatly biologists encounter problems when identifying aquatic
appreciated. ~
invertebrates. The common problems include:
Specialist advice:
Or Mark Chutter
E ;jl
1:"1 Taxonomic keys are difficult to decipher and
Prof. Jenny Day ~
- I comprehend
-
Or Ferdy de Moor
Mrs Irene de Moor ~ ~

Certain anatomical features are described in

Or Chris Dickens
Mr Mark Graham
E - ~ specialised taxonomic terms that are unfamiliar to the
lay person
Ms Mary Anne Groepe E
Mrs Helen James
Or Nikite Muller e !3 Line drawings accompanying these keys often only
Or Martin Villet vaguely resemble the organism
! J
Editing:
--,
Mr Brendan Hohls ! .....'
Mr Mike Silberbauer
Collectors: Purpose of this field guide
Christa Thirion
Petro Vos
DWAF regional offices personnel It was felt that there was a need to develop a more user-
DEAT provincial and local personnel friendly guide. One that would:
General: 1:"1 Use photographs of live organisms
Mr James Kekana
IWQS personnel
Describe them in layman's terms
Our appreciation to Mr Hartig of de Wagensdrift and Mr
Venter of Rhenosterpoort for their enthusiasm and who gave
us unlimited access to the rivers on their farms .
Lastly, special thanks to our families for their patience, ,.'"' ~
understanding and the part they played in the realisation of
this book. -
~

-
~

2
•
~
3
 ~ : ~
Who should use this field guide ? Structure of this field guide
E
People who are interested in aquatic invertebrates and ,. The authors would like to acquaint the reader firstly with the
!; !:j
would like to know more about them. characteristics of the aquatic ecosystems (water resources)
~ ~ where these organisms can be found and then with the
People with little or no taxonomic background. invertebrates themselves. The structure of this document is as
~ •
Water Resource managers. follows :
~

Officers or personnel who assess water resources, ~ Part 1 - Water Resources

especially river ecosystems, using standard General Classification of water systems
~
biomonitoring techniques to assess instream aquatic A general river ecosystem
E -~
Biotopes in rivers
invertebrates.
E Guide to river substrate particle sizes
Children who, in turn, will follow in the footsteps of
~ -~
those we ourselves follow.
Part 2 - Fresh water invertebrates
E
E 3
~ ~

~ ~

~
~

~ Invertebrates

4 ~ 5
 Part 1: Water Resources

A typical river, free from interference of man, would run its

course from its source to the sea. Starting either as a spring or
as seepage, it moves slowly as it joins up with other
tributaries through the foothills to become wider and deeper
as it reaches its estuary.
In South Africa, few rivers can be found in this state because
water is a limited resource and is often utilised by a growing
population for activities such as agriculture, industry,
domestic use and other purposes.

Reservoirs , on the other hand, come into being through

natural causes (such as a landslide e.g. Lake Fundudzi) or are
man-made (e.g. Hartbeespoort Dam). Over time, a lake
would naturally change into a wetland and eventually
disappear as it fills up with silt and becomes dominated by
emergent and terrestrial plant species.
Currently, the dams, which are constructed in our river
systems, are undergoing these changes at a much faster rate
due to the effects of the human activities mentioned above.

Water resources, specifically rivers, can have different

characteristics in different geographical regions. This may be
due to the:
~ geology
~ geomorphology
~ climate
~ soils, and
~ human activities in the catchment.

Mfule River, Kwazulu Natal

6 7
 Classification of water systems Lotic systems
Lotic systems are waterbodies where water flows such as:
Water resources can be classified into two general groups : rivers
~ lentic systems, and streams, and
~ lotic systems (Davies & Day 1998) flood plains

Lentic systems
Lentic systems are defined as standing waterbodies and
include:
~ lakes
~ ponds
~ farm dams
~ coastal lakes
~ estuaries, and
~ some wetlands

Palmiet River, Western Cape

In South Africa rainfall is largely erratic and thus floodplains

and other wetlands can change from lentic to lotic and vice
versa or, in some instances, can dry up until the next good
rains arrive .

Different species of organisms inhabit these different systems.

In this book we focus mainly on rivers and on invertebrates
found in these lotic systems.
Buffeljachts Dam , Swellendam
8 9
 ~
A general river ecosystem The Headwater zone
E
To simplify matters, a general river ecosystem will be broken A typical mountain stream is characterised by:
~
up further into different zones as described by Dallas & Day rl Clear, fast flowing water - well oxygenated
(1993) : ~ __j rl Gradients often steep, causing swift currents
rl The headwater zones - mountain stream ~ rl Stream bed usually composed of stones and boulders
rl The middle zone, and with very little loose soil.
~
The lower zone River banks are often lined by large trees with
However, there are many exceptions to this e.g. some of the ~ branches shading the streams for a large part of the
rivers of the southern Cape or where a rejuvenation zone day.
~
occurs. A rejuvenation zone is one where the river Plants growing on and near the river bank form the
·~
characteristics change once again to resemble a head water riparian vegetation.
zone or middle zone. ~
-~ ~- ~ ~-- ~-
~,.,.. ~ . "'--- ---.........._ ~ ~
---,-- Hea dwa ter zone ~ ~
. --~ ~/ :~::: _,r.:-
.
~ ·-=~
',~ ~;-/·---:>/
//; ·,._...----
~
. ..,?::~;\
\.' -,
~ ~?
__:__;./
~

~~/-· "'~ Middle zone ~

::. ;.;.:.---
.... _~--
""":.:··- ~ ~

//·-~;->-,~\ ~

~ ~
~~~-:. ,~ . r-=-.:....<•,L___
.-i;Y
~,~
=--
_ _ _. . . _ _ . . _. .
_,/,

! ,!>-"
Low~r zone /r ( ' --
;f - /----~--------......_____

L ~j
" -. , __________ _y
Diagrammatic representation of a general river
ecosystem (based on the River Continuum Concept
of Vannote , Minshall, Cummins, Sedell &Gushing 1980) Headwater zone of the Eerste River, Western Cape
10
11
 Some rivers arise in high altitude wetlands, called sponges.
(Wetlands are areas with water logged or saturated soils
dominated by emergent vegetation i.e. plants with roots in
water but the rest of the plant is aerial, such as grasses and
reeds). These rivers have different characteristics including:
~ Stream bed composed of sand, mud or clay or a
mixture of these.
~ Riparian vegetation dominated by reeds and grasses.
~ No overhanging tree canopy.
Headwater zone of the Crocodile River, Dullstroom
12
The middle zone
This section of the river lies in the lower altitudes of
mountains (foothills). This zone is characterised by:
~ Stream is wider due to contributions of tributaries
(other streams) .
~ Current speed slower due to the gentler slope .
~ Flow of water less turbulent - stream bed smoother
~ Water quality is often less pure than that of the
mountain stream due to abiotic processes e.g.
leaching and biotic activities of organisms living
upstream.
Water is usually more turbid - depending on the
geology and the contribution of the tributaries
Higher water temperatures than head waters -
because there is no closed canopy, altitude is lower
and the flow is also slower.
Middle zone of the Crocodile River, Mpumalanga
13
 The lower zone

As the river flows towards the coastal plain, in the lower

reaches above the estuary, it's:
1':1 Channel continues to widen.
Current speed decreases further.
Stream bed is composed mainly of sand or silt.
Oxygen concentration is often considerably less than
those of upper zones due to higher temperatures and
more biologically active material in the water.
Water quality is poorer due to leaching & weathering
of rocks
Rich in nutrients due to contributions of its tributaries.
Increased sunlight penetration - algae may be
observed.
Lower zone of the Orange River, loaded with sediments and nutrients

Lower zone of the Crocodile River at Nongoma,

Lower zone of the Kei River, East London Kruger National Park
14 15
 ~ 1
Biotopes in a river ecosystem Riffles and Runs
E ~
The stream bed composition is one of the most important Riffles are defined as shallow, fast-flowing reaches of a river
E ~ where the water flows over cobbles and gravel, causing
physical factors controlling the structure of a freshwater
invertebrate community ( Mackay & Eastburn 1990 ).
-
~ ~ turbulent flow, and broken water is observed on the surface.
The stream bed can be further described by biotopes. E ~
A run has tranquil flow, no broken water on the surface and
A biotope in a river ecosystem refers to the environment of a ~
-
J has a greater depth than riffles (Wadeson 1994, Rowntree &
- Wadeson 1999).
community of closely associated organisms (F. de Moor, I.J.
de Moor & H. James pers comm) . A brief description of
e 1

different types of biotopes found in river systems is also 'E

includ~d . These are: E -~
~ Riffles and runs
~ ~
~ Pools
~ Aquatic vegetation ~
~ Marginal vegetation ~ ~
~ Algae
~

I!!
I!!
~

!;
Crocodile River, Mpumalanga
16
~ 17
 Pools It can also be a collection of water that is not in the main
stream of the water flow e.g. in hollows formed in the
A pool is an area of a stream that is deep and where the bedrock.
water flows more slowly than in other parts of the river.

~1
~ I

~!
p; I,
II

II

~!
Pienaars River, Gauteng Wilge River, Mpumalanga
18 19
 Aquatic vegetation Algae

Aquatic vegetaion consists of plants that live in the stream
channel and that may be partly or fully submerged.
Marginal vegetation
Marginal vegetation is that vegetation, for example grasses,
reeds and sedges, on the water's edge.
Freshwater algae are simple plants which can occur in
· unicellular, filamentous or colonial forms . A primary
characteristic of algae is that photosynthesis is the primary
mode of nutrition (Wentzel 1983).
Algae is often observed during the warmer times of the year
floating as clumps or anchored to rocks and stones. Nutrient
enrichment is a result of nutrient rich agricultural runoff,
industrial and domestic effluent entering the river can
accelerate algal growth resulting in algal blooms.

Aquatic vegetation

Sand River, Orange Free State Sand River, Orange Free State
20 21
 ~
Guide to river substrate particle size Category size range
E
The material that constitutes or composes the bottom of a Silt < 0.06mm
~
Sand 0.06-2 mm
river is called the substrate . The substrate often characterises
~ Gravel 2-20 mm
the different zones and biotopes found in a river. For Stones 2-30 cm
example, headwater zones of a typical river would have a ~ Boulders > 30cm
substrate composed of boulders and bedrock which will Bedrock slabs of rock
~
gradually change to cobbles and pebbles (collectively called
stones) as it flows in the middle zones and eventually become l::
sandy and silty in the lower zones. There are exceptions ~
where the underlying geology sometimes changes this pattern
l::
and where hard geological formations cross rivers in lower
regions causing "rejuvenation" leading to waterfalls, rapids ~
etc. Table 1 provides a guideline on the sizes of substrate ~
material found in river beds. Information obtained from
~
Dickens & Graham (2001) & J.M. King {pers comm)
~

~
Kaaimans River, Southern Cape Stream, Meiringspoort
22 ~ 23
 Part 2: Freshwater Invertebrates Explanatory notes

Freshwater invertebrates are animals without backbones,

large enough to be seen with the naked eye, which live a part
of their lives in freshwater biotopes (Machay & Eastburn
s
Distribution restricted to rivers of the Southern and Western Cape
1990). Each animal will be confined to that part of the river
where chemical and physical conditions are suitable for it
(Davies & Day 1998).

Thus as the river flows from its source to the sea, the different
freshwater invertebrates would be found in different parts of
E
the river. Some will be adapted to the fast flowing waters of E
the mountains, others to the slower current of the lower part
Approximate
of the river while yet others may be adaptable and can be Size

found all along the length of the river. Just as rivers can be The grey inserts shows the most likely size of an animal that
different so it can be expected that there will also be anyone can expect to find in the field .
differences in the invertebrate communities in the respective
rivers.

This part of the book describes freshwater invertebrates

found in South African rivers. Because many of the
1 5 10 15
invertebrates collected are in the larval and nymphal stages, Sensitivity I
most of the descriptions are based on those stages.
The sensitivity scales were derived from the tolerances to pollution
as used in the SASS5 scoring system.(Dickens and Graham, 2001)
A broad explanation would be as follows :
1-5 Highly tolerant to pollution
6-10 Moderately tolerant to pollution
11-15 Very low tolerance to pollution

24 25
 ~ 1
ORDER:EPHEMEROPTERA -
Mayflies ~

~ ~
Mayfly nymphs vary greatly in shape and size, all are very well
adapted to suit the variety of habitats that they occur in. The ~
climbers, bottom sprawlers and burrowers prefer quiet waters -
of ponds or backwaters of streams while the clingers are to be ~ :!]

found in fast riffles where they cling to rocks or any other

~
submerged substrate.
~ ]
All mayfly nymphs are
chara<;:terised by an elongated ~
body, large head, well- developed Adult mayflies are dainty insects with transparent wings and
~
mouthparts and stout legs. long tails. They can be spotted in the vicinity of fresh water on
Paired gills on the abdomen are ~ calm sunny days or in the evenings when they are attracted to
the most characteristic feature to
~
lights.
distinguish mayfly nymphs from Adult mayflies only live for a few hours in which time the female
other insects.
~ ~ will mate and lay eggs.
These gills vary greatly, they can
be typically leaf-like, oval or even ~
fringed. Three tails are always .....,
present, except in the family ~
Baetidae where some species
~ ~
only have two tails. Mayfly nymph
The family Prosopistomatidae ~ ~
does not match the characteristics as described above.
Prosopistomatidae nymphs has flat, oval bodies with no
visible gills and a short stubby tail.

Fully developed nymphs will only come to the surface when

they are ready to transform in which case the outer skin is shed
and the first adult stage emerges.
This adult (subimago) will sit undisturbed on vegetation for
anything from a few minutes to 24 hours until another layer is
shed and the final adult (imago) emerges.

26 27
 Family name : Baetidae
Common name : Small minnow flies ~

Structure ~
fl Small spindle-shaped bodies
~
fl Leaf-shaped gills on both sides of the abdomen
fl Two or three tails, depending on species ~
Behaviour
fl Dart actively from stone to stone or cling onto ~
various substrates
E ~
Habitat
fl Rocks, plants or coarse sand ~ Approximate
Size
fl Moderately fast streams
Colour - E
fl Light sand to dark brown
E
Approximate
Size
1 5 10 15 ~ ~
Sensitivity I
~

.. ~

"' Gills
~

~
Approximate
Size
Approximate
Approximate Size
Mature Young Size
Young and mature stages of Baetis harrisonii Different Baetidae nymphs
28 29
 Family name : Caenidae Family name : Heptageniidae
Common name : Cainflies
E
.
_!
Common name : Flat-headed mayflies
Structure •
~ Structure
~ Nymphs relatively small
~ Unusually broad head
~ Humped backs •
~ ___j
~ Long spread-out tails
~ Two prominent square gills
~ Large black eyes
Behaviour ~ J
~ Flat body
~ Swim in short bursts, dolphin-style, or crawl slowly over
~ Behaviour
the substrate ~ Runs swiftly over short distances
Habitat ~ 3 ~ Legs are held close to the body when at rest
~ Stones or muddy areas
~
Habitat
~ Slow or very slow streams
~ Stones or submerged pieces of wood
Colour
~ 3 ~ Moderate to fast flowing streams
~ Brown
Colour
~ ~ Grey, yellow, dark brown or black with speckles
1 5 10 15
~
Sensitivity c:::=:======-== 1- - 1 5 10 15
~ jJ
Sensitivity
~

~
/
Long spreading tails

~ ~

Square gills 'I

~

Approximate
Size ~l Approximate
Size
Caenidae nymph ~
Heptageniidae nymph
30
~ 31
 Family name : Leptophlebiidae Family name: Oligoneuridae
Common name : Prongills Common name : Brush/egged mayfly

Structure Structure
f'l Square heads f'l Large nymphs
f'l Very long, spreading tails f'l Pointed heads
f'l Feathery, leaf-like gills on both sides of abdomen f'l Long tufts of hair on the forelegs
Behaviour f'l Large, leaf-shaped gills on the sides
f'l Running over the substrate Behaviour
f'l Swimming dolphin-style for short distances f'l Swift running over the substrate
Habitat Habitat
f'l Stones or submerged pieces of wood f'l Coarse sand or sandy patches
f'l Gentle flowing streams f'l Very fast flowing streams
Colour Colour
f'l Dark brown f'l Brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity
Sensitivity I
~ Square head
Leaf-shaped gills

I
Long hair
'·

~Gills

/
Very long tails

Approximate
Approximate Size Approximate
Size Size

Different species of Leptophlebiidae Oligoneuridae nymph

32 33
 Family name : Polymitarcyidae Family name : Prosopistomatidae
Common name : Pale burrowers Common name : Water specs

Structure Structure
ll"l Very prominent mouthparts ll"l Bodies oval-shaped , very flat
ll"l Legs are adapted for digging into riverbanks ll"l Short stubby tail
ll"l Long wavy gills on both sides of the abdomen ll"l Two very small eyes
Behaviour ll"l No legs visible
ll"l Sits quietly inside a burrow Behaviour
ll"l Active waving of the gills when at rest ll"l Active swimming
Habitat Habitat
ll"l Muddy riverbanks ll"l Stones or any floating substrate
ll"l Moderately fast flowing streams ll"l Fast flowing streams
Colour - Colour
ll"l Cream or pale brown ll"l Pale to dark brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I Sensitivity = = :...I

~ ~
Mouth parts Gills
~ !3
I I ~ 3
~

-
~
~
\
Stubby tail

!;

34
Polymitarcyidae nymph
Approximate
Size
-
l"!'!
Approximate
Size

Prosopistomatidae nymph
35
 Family name : Teloganodidae Family name : Tricorythidae
Common name : Spiny crawlers Common name : Stout crawlers

Structure Structure
f'l A well built upper body f'l A muscular upper body
f'l Eyes are set to the side of the head f'l Strong muscular legs
f'l Some species have muscular legs f'l Brush-like mouthparts
f'l Two large round gills visible on the abdomen f'l Large eyes
Behaviour Behaviour
f'l Crawling slowly f'l Clambering over substrate
f'l Swimming in a jerky fashion f'l The three tails tilt upwards when at rest
Habitat f'l Swimming is a convulsive upwards movement, followed by
f'l Stones or dense vegetation falling down with body in vertical position, legs extending
f'l Fast streams in Southern and Eastern Cape to the front
Colour Habitat
f'l Pale, brown, dark brown or speckled f'l Rocks or any solid submerged substrate
f'l Fast flowing streams
1 5 10 15 Colour
Sensitivity f'l Dark brown

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I

Brush-like mouthparts

Large eyes

Approximate Approximate
Size Size

Different species of Teloganodidae Tricorythidae nymph

36 37
 ORDER : TRICHOPTERA
Caddisflies

Caddisfly larvae can be divided in two categories, namely:

the portable case-building type (cased caddisflies) and the
type that construct non-portable shelters (case-less or free Caddisfly larva
living caddisflies).
In both instances the characteristic elongated soft body with The adults that emerge are small moth-like insects that will
finger-like gills on the abdomen and anal appendages are live for approximately one month . Adult females are
seen with which it anchor itself either to the case or to the sometimes
substrate. found under stones
Three pairs of legs extend from three segments behind the when they go under the
head. Depending on the family, one or all of these segments water to lay eggs.
are hardened.

The cased caddisflies construct cases from sand grains, bits of

vegetation or silk that are glued together to form a
characteristic case shape. The animals stay inside the cases
from larval stage through to pupal stage. Most of the case-
building types cannot swim, with the exception of the family
Leptoceridae where the legs are adapted for swimming.

The final instar larvae of the free living types build special
Caddisfly pupa
pupal cases, generally made from silk and sand or stone
fragments, and which are firmly cemented to the substrate. A
fine net is attached to the case to catch food particles. Free
living larvae can move around by flicking the abdomen from
side to side.

Caddisflies spend most of their time in the water in the

larval form, after which the pupal stage follows, lasting for
about two weeks.

Adult caddisfly

38 39

1
 Family name : Ecnomidae Family name : Ecnomidae
Common name : Caseless caddisflies Genus : Parecnomina

Structure Structure
f'l Soft, smooth body f'l Soft, smooth body
f'l No gills on the sides f'l No gills on the sides
f'l Distinctive pattern on the head f'l Distinctive segment behind the head
f'l Three hardened segments behind the head f'l Could be mistaken for Psychomyiidae
Behaviour Behaviour
f'l Active crawling f'l Crawling
f'l Active flicking of the abdomen when floating f'l Floats on the surface when disturbed
Habitat E Habitat
f'l Stones, submerged aquatic vegetation f'l Silk tunnels under stones
f'l Slow streams E f'l Head waters of streams
f'l Quiet pools
E Colour
Colour f'l Grey with blue or green
f'l Cream , greenish

1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity
Sensitivity ======-========= I
Three hardened segments

Gills absent

Gills absent

Distinctive pattern

Approximate Approximate
40 Ecnomidae larva Size Size Parecnomina larva 41
 Family name : Polycentropodidae Family name : Hydropsychidae
Common name : Case/ess caddisflies Common name : Case/ess caddisflies

Structure Structure
fl Broad .body fl Long slender body
fl First segment behind head hardened fl Tufts of gills on both sides of the body
fl Black hair on legs fl Two claws on last body segment
fl Characteristic protuberances where legs join body fl Distinctive patterns or colorations on the head are usefull
fl Characteristic pattern on the head for identification purposes (see page 44, 45)
Behaviour Behaviour
fl Crawling fl Crawling, using legs and claws on last segment
Habitat fl Float about in vertical position while abdomen is flicked
fl Silken nets on stones from side to side
fl Fast flowing water Habitat
Colour fl Under stones, living in shelters made of sand grains
fl Greenish fl Fast flowing rivers
Colour
1 5 10 15 fl Pale, green or brown
Sensitivity
1 ===-
====== 11=5 = =====
1 10 15
Sensitivity
Gills absent

\
Gills

Gills

Protuberance
(not visible with naked eye)

Approximate Approximate
42 Polycentropodidae larva Size Size Hydropsychidae larva 43
 Head pale with Flat head
faint pattern

/
Long tufted gills
/
Large mouthparts Large mouthparts

Aethaloptera maxima Hourglass pattern Macrostemum capense ~

Head chestnut brown
with no pattern

Long slender head and neck ~

Hydropsyche sp.

Polymorphanisus bipunctatus

Flat head
Cheumatopsyche afra type with distinctive pattern

Short tapering body ~

Cheumatopsyche thomasetti type Amphisyche scottae

44 A selection of Hydropsychidae larvae Hydropsychidae larvae 45
 Family name : Philopotamidae Family name : Psychomyiidae
Common name : Case/ess caddisflies Common name : Case/ess caddisflies

Structure Structure
ll"l Large head with well developed mouthparts ll"l Soft, smooth body
ll"l Soft white labrum visible when extended ll"l No gills on the sides
ll"l Soft bodies, brightly colored Behaviour
ll"l No gills on the sides ll"l Crawling
Behaviour ll"l Floats on the surface with body curled up when disturbed
ll"l A fast, vicious twitching of the body Habitat
ll"l Crawling backwards when held in the hand ll"l Silk tunnels under stones
Habitat ll"l On wet rocks around waterfalls
ll"l Narrow silken tubes under stones ll"l Head waters of streams
ll"l Fast flowing streams Colour
Colour ll"l Grey, blue, green
ll"l Cream, yellow or orange
1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity --========== ===I
Sensitivity I

Extended labrum
/

Gills absent

Approximate Approximate
46 Philopotamidae larva Size Size Psychomyiidae larva 47
 Family name : Barbarochthonidae Family name : Glossosomatidae
Common name : Cased caddisf/ies Common name : Cased caddisflies

Structure Structure
~ Cases are long, slender and slightly curved ~ Cases made from small stones
~ Constructed from silk ~ Stones bundled together to form a neat heap
~ Ornamented with minute sand grains ~ Two openings- one for the head and one to the rear for
Behaviour the two anal claws
~ Very active crawling Behaviour
Habitat ~ Very slow crawling
~ Stones and vegetation
E Habitat
~ Clear, acid mountain streams of Western and Southern E ~ On or under stones
Cape ~ Clear, acid mountain streams of Western and Southern
Colour Cape
~ Dark brown Colour
~ White to brown, depending on type of stone used
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity ::::::::::.1~ 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I ::::::::= ::3

Glossosomatids on a rock

Head

grains
/
Typical gathering of
Barbarochthonids on a rock

Curved case

Approximate Approximate
48 Barbarochthonidae Size Size Glossosomatidae 49
 Family name : Hydroptilidae Family name : Pisuliidae
Common name : Micro caddisflies Common name : Cased caddisflies

Structure Structure
r'l Cases are constructed from silk or very fine sand with r'l Fairly large, solid case
vegetable matter ~
r'l Constructed from large bits of leaves
r'l Oval, bottle-shaped or cylindrical ~
E r'l No swimming hair on legs
r'l Open on both ends Behaviour
r'l Anchored to substrate by means of silk threads or E - r'l Active crawling
anchoring discs Habitat
Behaviour e r'l Leaf pockets
r'l Not active
E r'l Streams with overhanging trees
Habitat r'l Slow moving streams, backwaters or fast streams with
r'l On or under stones E areas where dead leaves gather
r'l Slow to very slow flowing streams Colour
Colour ~
r'l Dark brown
r'l Pale, brown or green ~
1 5 10 15
~
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity I
Sensitivity
!!!
~

~
...,
~ ~

Approximate Approximate
Approximate
Size
Size Size Swimming hair absent
50 Hydroptilidae Pisuliidae 51
 Family name : Leptoceridae
Common name : Cased caddisf/ies

Structure
~ Cases straight or curved
~ Constructed from plant material, silk or sand
~ Long swimming legs, densely fringed
Behaviour
~ Active swimming
~ Resembles swimming sticks
Habitat
~ Amongst vegetation Silk lining inside the case
~ Acid streams of Western and Southern Cape
~ Any stream with low pH
Colour
~ Shades of brown or green
)

1 5 10 15
I
Sensitivity I

""'
Long legs, fringed

Naked Leptoceridae

Approximate
Size
Approximate
Size
52 Leptoceridae A selection of different Leptoceridae cases 53
 Family name : Petrothrincidae Family name : Sericostomatidae
Common name : Cased caddisflies Common name : Cased caddisflies

Structure Structure
~ Cases shield-like, flattened with a small pocket underneath ~ Cases tubular, slightly curved
~ Constructed from sand grains ~ Constructed from sand grains
Behaviour ~ Cases ornamented with a ring of larger grains at the base
~ Crawling slowly Behaviour
~ Larvae not visible unless cases are flipped over ~ Crawling
Habitat Habitat
~ Stones ~ Vegetation or under stones
~ Acid mountain streams of Western and Southern Cape ~ Acid mountain streams of Western and Southern Cape
Colour
Colour ~ Pale brown
~ Pale brown

1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity
Sensitivity
1= ==--

/
Ornamented with larger stones

Approximate Approximate
54 Petrothrincidae Size Size Sericostomatidae 55
 ORDER:COLEOPTERA
Beetles
Beetle larvae differ considerably
from the adults, not only in
Coleoptera is the largest order of insects and certainly the appearance but also in the way
group that most people are familiar with . The majority of they move. Some swim very
beetles are terrestrial with the exception of a few families that well while others get around
are aquatic in both the adult and larval stages, while families with a sluggish crawl.
such as Psephenidae, only have the larval stage in the water. Some larvae also come to the
Coleoptera occupy almost every available freshwater habitat, surface for fresh air, while those
from mountain streams to temporary pools or the mud and with proper gills can remain
sand at the edges of ponds. submerged for a longer period
of time .
Adult members of this order have an outer pair of wings that
are hard and leathery and not used in flight. The soft
hindwings, which are used for flight, are concealed under the
outer wings when at rest
Beetle larva

In certain families, such as Elmidae, the legs are not adapted

for swimming and adult beetles crawl clumsily over substrate.
Other families , such as Dytiscidae, are very good swimmers
with hind legs flat and hairy to act like oars.

The majority of adult aquatic

beetles need atmospheric
oxygen to survive. They carry
a supply in air bubbles or in
the form of a thin film around
the body. This film shows up
as a silvery coating when the
beetles are submerged.

In certain families the adult beetles

are able to fly. This enables them
to move to different water bodies,
which they usually do at night. Adult beetle

56 57
 Family name : Dytiscidae - adults Family name : Dytiscidae - larva
Common name : Predacious diving beetles Common name : Predacious diving beetles

Structure Structure
~ Oval shaped bodies ~ Streamlined spindle-shaped bodies
~ Rounded backs ~ Large heads
~ Elongated hind legs with last segment flattened and fringed ~ Well-developed mouthparts
Behaviour ~ Fringed swimming legs
~ Fast swimming/diving using hind legs together like oars Behaviour
~ Resting just below water surface, head down and tip of ~ Swims slowly with alternate rowing of the legs
abdomen pushing trough surface film Habitat
Habitat ~ Amongst plants on the edges of ponds/pools
~ Amongst plants on the edges of ponds/pools ~ Backwater areas of streams
~ Bacl5water areas of streams Colour
Colour ~ Pale, light brown or dark brown
~ Black or brown
1 5 15
~ Some species carry yellow markings 10
Sensitivity c:::====== l= =====-
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity ====::::=::1 = =====-:: Well-developed mouthparts
/ / Large head

Approximate
Size

Approximate Approximate Approximate

Size Size Size
Approximate
Dytiscidae adults Size Dytiscidae larvae
58 59
 Family name : Elmidae - adults Family name : Elmidae - larvae
Common name : Riffle beetles
Common name : Riffle beetles
Structure
Structure
~ Very small
~ Different body shapes according to species
~ Slender antennae, last segment widened in some species ~ All body segments hardened
~ Sharp claws on the feet
~ Three tufts of anal gills
Behaviour
Behaviour
~ Very slow moving
~ Moves as slow as the adults
~ Walking/crawling whilst clinging to substrate with long claws ~ Tufts of anal gills visible at intervals
Habitat
Habitat
~ Stones or any solid substrate
~ Stones or any solid substrate
~ Fast streams
~ Fast streams
Colour
Colour
~ Black
~ Cream, dark brown or reddish brown
~ Some species with red toes
1 5 10 15
1
Sensitivity
5 10 15 Sensitivity I
I

Approximate
Size
(

Approximate
Size Approximate
I
Gills Approximate
Size
Approximate
Size

Size

Elmidae adults
60 Elmidae larvae
61
 Family name : Gyrinidae - adults Family name : Gyrinidae - larvae
Common name : Whirligig beetles Common name : Whirligig beetles

Structure Structure
~ Oval bodies, streamlined and shiny ~ Long slender body
~ Hind legs fringed, flattened like paddlles ~ Feathery gills on the sides
~ Eyes are divided , one half can look skywards, the other ~ Four hooks on last segment of abdomen
half into the water ~ Well developed mouthparts
Behaviour Behaviour
~ Floats on the water surface in circular patterns ~ Crawling on submerged vegetation or substrate
~ Scatter or dive when disturbed ~ Active swimming in a wavy, sinuous manner
~ Able to fly - they need to climb onto an emerging object in Habitat
order to take off ~ Under stones or other solid substrate
Habitat ~ On vegetation
~ On the surface of the water ~ Slow to moderately fast streams
~ Quiet ponds or flowing water Colour
Colour ~ Pale brown
~ Charcoal with waxy appearance
1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity
Sensitivity

I
Strong mouthparts

Approximate
Size Gills
Approximate
Gyrinidae adult Size
Gyrinidae larva
62
63
 Family name : Helodidae - larvae Family name : Hydraenidae - adults
Common name : Marsh beetles Common name : Minute moss beetles

Structure Structure
r'l Small broad body, clearly segmented r'l Minute in size
r'l Long hair on the last segment r'l Mouthparts longer than antennae
r'l Very long, thin antennae r'l Antennae dub-shaped
Behaviour Behaviour
r'l Cling to vegetation r'l Active swimmers
r'l Move around in an awkward wriggling fashion with Habitat
antenna arched side-ways r'l Stagnant pools
Habitat r'l Wet rocks around waterfalls
r'l On submerged vegetation · r'l Amongst plants on the edge of streams
r'l Under stones Colour
r'l Slow or fast streams with low pH value r'l Dark brown ,shiny
Colour
1 5 10 15
r'l Brown, reddish brown
Sensitivity ==== ========I
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I= =-

Long antenna
/
Mouthpart ~

Approximate Approximate
Size Size

Helodidae adult Hydraenidae adult

64 65
 Family name : Hydrophilidae - adults Family name : Hydrophilidae - larvae
Common name : Water scavenger beetles Common name : Water scavenger beetles

Structure Structure
~ Oval body with rounded back ~ Soft, worm-like
~ Short clubbed antennae, mostly hidden ~ Well-deveoped mouthparts
~ Mouthparts much longer than antennae Behaviour
Behaviour ~ Slow moving
~ Active swimming, using hind legs alternately ~ Creeping/crawling with head tilted upwards
~ They come to the surface with head first to break surface Habitat
film with tip of the antenna ~ Pools
Habitat ~ Quiet, shallow edges of streams
~ Amongst vegetation Colour
~ In muddy patches along riverbanks ~ Pale brown
~ Quiet shallow pools or slow edges of streams
Colour 10 15
~ Brownish or black Sensitivity

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity 11=======--

Mouth part

I /
Mouth part

~
Well-developed mouthparts

Approximate Approximate
Size Size
Hydrophilidae adult Hydrophilidae larva
66
67
 Family name : Psephenidae - larvae
Common name : Water penny beetles

Structure
~ Broad disc-like body, very flat
~ Head, legs and gills not visible from above
Behaviour
~ Move around in a slow gliding fashion
~ Entire body acts as a sucker to cling to rocks
Habitat
~ On rocks or other solid substrate
~ Shallow fast streams
Colour
~ Brown with copper tinge

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I
Dytiscidae - the legs are well adapted
for swimming and diving

/Legs

Sucker

Gills

~·

Male Dytiscidae. Suckers on the front legs are used

Approximate to hold the female during mating
Size
Psephenidae larva
68 69
 ORDER : HEMIPTERA
True bugs

Hemiptera could be described as the order with the greatest

variety of body shapes. Body size can also range from the
very small Pleidae to the very large Nepidae.

Bugs can be distinguished from other insects by the

mouthparts that are modified to pierce and suck. Some
families protect themselves by stinging viciously when
handled carelessly.
Young ~mgs look and behave like the adults, they are just
smaller and immature. Adult Hemiptera

Almost all aquatic Hemiptera are predators. The forelegs are

From this large order of insects only a few families are really
adapted to seize and hold prey while body fluids are sucked
adapted to aquatic habitats. Nepidae and Belostomatidae
can remain under water but need to be more or less in up through the mouthparts.
contact with the water surface film. Other families such as
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs) can be important pests in
Veliidae, Gerridae and Hydrometridae run or float on the
fish natcheries, since they feed on fish up to 7.5 cm long.
surface. Families such as Notonectidae and Corixidae are
the best swimmers with legs adapted specifically for that
purpose.

The types that stay on top of the water have the respiratory
characteristics of terrestrial insects, while the ones living
below the surface need to come to the surface at intervals to
renew their air supply.

70 71
 Family name : Belostomatidae Family name : Corixidae
Common name : Giant water bugs Common name : Water boatmen

Structure Structure
~ Small cigar-shaped
~ Large, robust nymphs
~ Middle legs long, ending with two claws for anchoring
~ Prominent eyes
~ Forelegs adapted to seize and hold prey
purposes
~ Hind legs long, fringed for swimming
Behaviour
~ No extended beak, mouthparts fused with the head
~ Swim with forelegs stretched forward
~ Cling to submerged substrate with tip of abdomen in
Behaviour
~ Swim in a quick darting fashion, rowing with the hind legs
contact with the air
Habitat Habitat
~ Shallow pools
~ Bottom of shallow pools
~ Quiet muddy areas of streams
~ Backwater areas or quiet areas of streams
Colour Colour
~ Dark grey, mottled yellow, brown or black
~ Brown or dull green

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity c:::=:= 1 ============ Sensitivity ~== 11===~

Fringed hind leg

~
Male Belostomatidae
carrying eggs on the back

Prominent eye

Approximate
Size
Approximate Approximate
Belostomatidae Size Size Corixidae
72 73
 Family name : Gerridae Family name : Hydrometridae
Common name : Pond skater Common name : Marsh treaders

Structure Structure
~ Body form either stout or narrow ~ Slender stick-like bodies

~ Forelegs short, adapted for seizing prey ~ Legs and antennae very thin, frail

~ Middle and hind legs thin and very long ~ Beak folds away under the head

Behaviour Behaviour
~ Skating or leaping on the surface film of ponds and ~ Walk about on floating vegetation
streams ~ Float around on surface of pools
Habitat Habitat
~ On surface of ponds or streams ~ Floating vegetation

~ Shaded areas ~ Backwaters of streams

Colour Colour
~ Brown
~ Dark brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity Sensitivity

Eyes
~Antenna
~ I /
----Foreleg

(
Approximate
Size

'I--
,.
Foreleg
Approximate
Size
Approximate
Different types of Gerridae Size Hydrometridae
74 75
 Family name: Nepidae
Common name : Water scorpions Forelegs
Antenna
/
Structure Forelegs~
r'! Body shapes varied according to species
r'! Forelegs modified for seizing prey
~ /

r'! Long respiratory tube on tip of abdomen

Behaviour
r'! Swim slowly with alternating strokes of middle and hind
legs I
r'! Sit quietly amongst vegetation with forelegs in striking I

position (
Habitat
r'! Vegetation, trash or mud
Respiratory tube
r'! Shallow pools or slow streams
Nepidae Hydrometridae
Colour
r'! Pale brown to dark brown or black Difference between Nepidae and Hydrometridae

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity 11= = ===

~
Foreleg Eye~ Foreleg

Respiratory tube - -

Approximate
Size Approximate Nepidae feasting on Libellulidae
Size
Different types of Nepidae
76 77
 Family name: Naucoridae Family name: Notonectidae
Common name : Creeping water bugs Common name : Back swimmers

Structure Structure
~ Oval, slightly flat bodies ~ Unusually large eyes
~ Heads exceptionally broad ~ Long hind legs
~ Forelegs adapted for holding prey Behaviour
~ A piercing beak situated under the head ~ Swim on their backs using only the hind legs
Behaviour ~ Rests with body at an angle with tip of abdomen in
~ Move around in a fast half creeping, swimming fashion contact with the air
~ Stings viciously when handled carelessly ~ Produce a burning sting when handled carelessly
Habitat Habitat
~ Dense vegetation ~ Pools
~ Edges of streams ~ Backwaters of streams
Colour Colour
~ Brown or green ~ Patterns of white, pearl, yellow, brown and black

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity ===== =====I Sensitivity

/Broad head Large eyes

Hind leg

Approximate
Size
Approximate Approximate
Different types of Naucoridae Size Size Notonectidae
78 79

J
 Family name : Pleidae Family name : Veliidae
Common name : Pigmy backswimmers Common name : Broad-shouldered water striders

Structure Structure
~ Very small bodies ~ Small, plump bodies

~ Strongly arched backs ~ Legs adapted for running

Behaviour ~ Middle and hind legs attaches to body at its widest part

~ Cling to submerged vegetation Behaviour

~ Running on surface of water
~ Swims with easy, fast motion
~ Scatters in all directions when disturbed
~ Entire body covered with air bubble which shows as a
silvery shine Habitat
Habitat ~ Pools

~ Dense vegetation ~ Some species prefer riffles in small streams

~ Shallow, clear water Colour

Colour ~ Brown or black

~ Yellow, grey or brown

1 5 10 15

1 5
Sensitivity
10 15
Sensitivity

Arched back

I
Side view

Approximate
Size

Approximate
Approximate Size
Pleidae Size Different types of Veliidae
80 81
ORDER : ODONATA
The damselfly nymphs on the
Dragonflies I Damselflies other hand, are more dainty,
with long bodies and usually
Odonata is divided into two suborders, namely: three gills at the tip of the
Anisoptera, (true dragonflies) and abdomen. The shape and size
Zygoptera, (damselflies) . of the gills differ greatly and can
It is easy to distinguish between the two when in the adult be used for identification
stages as true dragonflies are large insects, holding the wings purposes. These nymphs simply
horizontal when at rest. Damselflies are small, slender insects, walk around amongst
folding the wings parallel with the abdomen when at rest. vegetation or swim in an
awkward way, moving the
The nymphal stages of Odonata are probably the best- known abdomen from side to side.
as they are large and easy to spot.
Dragonfly nymphs are robust creatures, mostly Both dragonfly nymphs and Damselfly nymph
brown or speckled, living under damselfly nymphs have a modified
stones or in the sand. These lower lip, the mask, which lies folded back under the head.
nymphs move in a fascinating This mask can fold open to catch prey. The end of the mask
way. Water is taken into the widens, with different teeth arrangements and incisions - also
body for respiration purposes used for identification purposes.(See page 95)
and then squirted out through
the anus, which means that Just before transformation, the nymphs would crawl out of
they actually propel the water, usually onto vegetation or other suitable objects.
themselves with a stream of The outer skin splits open on the back, and when this opening
water. is large enough, the new adult emerges. It sits on the old
skeleton for an hour or more until the wings are dry and
hard.

Dragonfly nymph

Damselfly adult

Dragonfly adult

83
 Family name : Aeshnidae Family name : Gomphidae
Common name : Dragonflies Common name : Dragonflies

Structure Structure
~ Long, tapering bodies ~ Body shapes differ, depending on species
~ Large eyes ~ Large dark eyes
~ Thin antennae ~ Short stubby antennae
Behaviour ~ Legs adapted for digging in sand
~ Walking Behaviour
~ Swims in short bursts as water is propelled out of the body ~ Crawl about under sand, leaving tracks or indentations in
Habitat the sand
~ Under stones ~ Swim in short bursts using jet propulsion
~ Slow or fast streams Habitat
Colour ~ Sand banks, muddy patches
~ Green, brown or black ~ Edges of streams
Colour
1 5 10 15 ~ Pale, medium brown
Sensitivity c::::===========:l
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity
Stubby antenna

Approximate
Size
Long tapering body

Approximate
Approximate Approximate Size
Different types of Aeshnidae Size Size Different types of Gomphidae
84 85
 Family name : Corduliidae Family name : Libellulidae
Common name : Dragonflies Common name : Dragonflies

Structure Structure
~ Oval bodies ~ Oval bodies
~ Rounded heads ~ Triangular heads
~ Very long legs ~ Bulging eyes
Behaviour ~ Legs not as long as with Corduliidae
~ Walking Behaviour
~ Swims with legs stretched out backwards ~ Walking
Habitat ~ Swims in short bursts, legs are held in one position
~ Stones Habitat
~ Slower areas of the stream ~ Stones, muddy patches
Colour ~ Backwater areas, very slow streams
~ Pale brown, speckled Colour
~ Pale, speckled or dark brown
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity ::::::::::::::== ======1 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity

Rounded head ~ Triangular head

/
Bulging eyes

\
Very long legs
'"' .. --
Approximate Approximate
Size Size
Corduliidae nymph Different types of Libellulidae
86 87
 Family name : Calopterygidae Family name : Chlorocyphidae
Common name : Damselflies Common name : Damselflies

Structure
Structure
~ Long, cylindrical body
~ Short, cylindrical bodies
~ Long antennae, with base wider than tip
~ Two stiff gills
~ Three large gills, swollen, hollow on inside
~ Gills serrated
Behaviour
Behaviour .
~ Slow moving amongst vegetation
~ Walks slowly with abdomen and gills tilted upwards
Habitat
~ Habitat
~ Vegetation
~ Under stones
~ Edges of streams
~ ~ Backwater areas or slow streams
Colour
Colour
~ Pale brown e ~ Brown or dark brown

1 5 10 15 ~ 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I Sensitivity I

Long antennae Long antennae

/

__...-Gills

Approximate
Size Approximate
Size Gills stiff, serrated
Calopterygidae nymph Chlorocyphidae nymph
88 89
 Family name : Chlorolestidae (Synlestidae) Family name : Coenagrionidae
Common name : Damselflies Common name : Damselflies

Structure Structure
r'l Long slim bodies r'! Slender bodies
r'l Long antennae r'! Three leaf-like gills, pointed tips
r'l Three gills with rounded tips, single dark band across each r'! Certain species with jointed gills
gill Behaviour
Behaviour r'! Slow moving amongst vegetation
r'l Slow moving amongst vegetation Habitat
Habitat r'! Vegetation
r'l Vegetation r'! Edges of streams
r'l Edges of slow streams Colour
Colour r'! Pale, green or brown
r'l Pale brown
1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity
Sensitivity

I
Long antennae

Approximate
Approximate
Size
Size
Chlorolestidae nymph Different types of Coenagrionidae
90 91
Family name : Lestidae Family name : Platycnemidae
Common name : Damselflies Common name : Damselflies
Structure Structure
~ Very long, very slim bodies
~ Short, stout bodies
~ Large wide heads
~ Strong legs
~ Long, very thin legs
~ Three short gills with dark band across
~ Three long gills, rounded tips, curved ~ Gills swollen, hollow on the inside
Behaviour Behaviour
~ Slow moving amongst vegetation ~ Cimbers on rocks or vegetation
Habitat Habitat
~ Vegetation
~ Under stones, on vegetation
~ Backwater areas, pools
~ Headwaters of streams
Colour Colour
~ Brown
~ Brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I Sensitivity I
Large head

I
/

/
Long thin legs

" " " Gills with dark band

Approximate Approximate
Size Size
Lestidae nymph Platycnemidae nymph
93
Family name : Protoneuridae
Common name : Damselflies

Structure
~ Short tapering bodies
~ Long legs, hind legs reaching tips of gills
~ Pedicels present at base of gills
Behaviour
~ Slow moving amongst vegetation
Habitat Aeshnidae
~ Vegetation
E
~ Headwaters of streams
Colour
r-
~ Brown ~
r- --,
~ :!.]
I 5 10 15
Sensitivity
~ ~

~ ij
r-
~ ~
- -,
~ :!:!

~
Gomphidae
~ :!!J

~ ~ Calopterygidae

~ ~

~ ~

~ ~ Coenagrionidae

~ ~

~ Libellulidae
Approximate
Size

Protoneuridae nymph Different mask shapes

95
ORDER DIPTERA
Flies, mosquitoes, midges
At the end of the larval stage
the skin hardens to form a
Diptera is one of the largest orders of insects with only a few pupal case. Most Diptera
families having aquatic larval or pupal stages. pupa are inactive, floating
Man likes to think of Diptera in a negative way, mainly because around or tightly fastened to
the common types such as houseflies and mosquitoes can be rocks or other solid substrate.
such a nuisance, and also carry disease such as Malaria that is Mosquito and midge pupae
spread by the female Anopheles mosquito. are the only ones able to
move around by twitching Diptera pupa
Dipteran larvae occur in almost every conceivable aquatic the body.
habitat, from tree holes (e.g. Chironomidae and Culicidae) to Pupal stages generally last
streams, ponds, stagnant pools and even rushing rivers less than two weeks,
(e.g. Blepharoceridae) after which the case splits open and the young adult
The aquatic Diptera emerges.
larvae show great
variability in
structure
and habitat. The
majority, however,
would have
elongated, wormlike
!>iptera larva bodies, with eyes and
legs absent.
The bodies are soft, naked, or covered with bristles or scales.

Some larvae are able to swim with rapid wriggling motion,

others would simply crawl around using suckers, spines or
prolegs to drag themselves forward .
Certain families, such as Culicidae and Syrphidae, are not
equipped to obtain oxygen from the water. They use siphons
that are pushed through the surface film .

97
 Family name : Athericidae Family name : Blepharoceridae
Common name : Snipe flies Common name : Net-winged midges

Structure Structure
~ Elongated, cylindrical ~ Bodies flattened
~ Head retractable ~ Segments deeply incised
~ End of abdomen forks into two fringed appendages ~ First six segments with suckers underneath
~ Paired prolegs on abdomen ~ Prolegs and tufts of gills on the sides
Behaviour Behaviour
~ Excessive twitching of the body when disturbed ~ Closely attached to substrate
Habitat ~ Slow movement using suckers and prolegs
~ Leaf pockets Habitat
~ Mountain streams ~ Stones
Colour ~ Mountain streams
~ Brown Colour
~ Light brown to dark brown
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity

Sucker
Forked abdomen

Retractable head I Blepharocerid Pupa

/
•
Deep incision

Approximate
Approximate Approximate Size
Size Size
Athericidae larva Blepharoceridae larva and pupa
98 99
 Family name : Ceratopogonidae ~ Family name : Chironomidae
Common name : Biting midges Common name : Midges

Structure Structure
~ Very thin, hair-like ~ Slender, elongated, cylindrical
~ All body segments equal in diameter ~ Small heads
~ No prolegs ~ Prolegs and gill appendages on tip of abdomen
~ No respiratory tube on abdomen Behaviour
Behaviour ~ Back and forth flicking of entire body
~ Swim with curved body, like a snake Habitat
Habitat ~ Silk tubes on any type of substrate
~ Sand, mud ~ Pools, streams
~ Edges of streams ~ Any container filled with water
Colour Colour
~ Pale or brown ~ Yellow, brown, green, red

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity Sensitivity 1=========~-=

Small head

"'Head
Pro leg
/ Proleg

Thin hairlike body Approximate

Size

Approximate
Size

Approximate Approximate
Ceratopogonidae larva Size Size Chironomidae larva
100 101
 Family name : Culicidae - larvae Family name : Culicidae - pupae
Common name : Mosquitoes Common name : Mosquitoes

Structure
Structure
~ Elongated, covered with tufts of hair ~ Large heads
~ Large heads
~ Abdomen curved around head
~ Segment behind head noticeably enlarged ~ Two paddle-like structures on tip of abdomen
~ Respiratory tube on tip of abdomen
~ Two ear-like structures on head
Behaviour
Behaviour
~ Floats under surface, slanted, with respiratory tub e in ~ Floats under the surface, curled up into a comma shape
contact with air Habitat
~ Wriggles away when disturbed
~ Pools
Habitat
~ Any temporary puddle
~ Pools
Colour
~ Any temporary puddle
~ Brown
Colour
~ Yellow, brownish
1 5 10 15

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I--============
Sensitivity I

Large head

Respiratory tube
Approximate
Size
""
~ 1~ /
~ Paddles

'1 ~~ Curved abdomen

I~
j.
Antenna
Approximate Approxi mate
102
Culicidae larva Size
I Size Culicidae pupa
103
 Family name : Dixidae Family name : Ephydridae
Common name : Meniscus midges Common name : Shore flies

Structure Structure
r'l Long, slender bodies r'l Soft, cylindrical bodies
r'l Clearly defined heads r'l Mouth hooks
r'l Prolegs on only two segments r'l Prolegs present
r'l A bundle of hairs and lobes on tip of abdomen r'l Forked respiratory tube on tip of abdomen
Behaviour Behaviour
r'l Floats on, or just under the surface r'l Slow crawling motion
r'l Body bent in a U shape r'l Inactive with respiratory tube in contact with air
r'l Swims in a zig-zag fashion Habitat
Habitat r'l Shallow pools, puddles, stagnant saline water
r'l Slow streams Colour
r'l Backwater areas of fast streams r'l Pale, yellowish brown
Colour
r'l Brown or black 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I
Forked respiratory tube

Mouth hook

-I ""
Fringed lobes

Approximate Approximate
Dixidae larva Size Size Ephydridae larva
104 105
Family name : Muscidae Family name : Psychodidae
Common name : House flies Common name : Moth flies

Structure Structure
.-:l Soft, smooth tapered
.-:l Slender, cylindrical, covered with fine hair
.-:l Retractable heads
.-:l Small, hardened head
.-:l Black mouth hooks
.-:l Dark hardened plates on all segments
.-:l Pupae housed in closed capsules .-:l Single tube and tuft of hair on tip of abdomen
Behaviour Behaviour
.-:l Creeping whilst probing with head .-:l Active creeping, crawling motion
.-:l Pupae float on surface
Habitat
Habitat .-:l Streams
.-:l Moss or masses of algae
.-:l Stagnant puddles with decaying organic matter (certain
.-:l Shallow, still water species only)
Colour Colour
.-:l White
.-:l Grey and black
.-:l Pupae brown

1 5 10 15
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity I:::::::::=============
Sensitivity I

Closed capsule Hardened plate

/""' Mouth hook

""' Respiratory tube

Pupa

Approximate
Larva
I
Size Approx imate Approxi mate
Muscidae larva and pupa Size Size Psychodidae larva
107
Family name : Simuliidae Family name : Syrphidae
Common name : Black flies Common name : Rat-tailed maggots

Structure Structure
r'l Soft, smooth bodies, swollen at the base r'l Soft, wrinkled appearance
r'l A single round, hooked sucker at the base r'l Seven pairs of prolegs
r'l A single proleg behind the head r'l Small retracted head
r'l Two fan-like structures on the head r'l Telescopic respiratory tube
Behaviour Behaviour
r'l Attaches itself to substrate, with head downstream, filters r'l Inactive, merely staying in a position close to surface to use
food from water respiratory tube
r'l Move around in looping manner using sucker and proleg Habitat
Habitat r'l Water-filled holes, polluted streams, decaying vegetation
r'l Stones, plants any solid surface on the edges of ponds
r'l Shallow, rapid streams Colour
Colour r'l Creamy brown
r'l Brown, gray, black
1 5 10 15

Sensitivity
1 5 10 15 Sensitivity 1===============-
Fan-like structure

pupa
Respiratory tube
""
Proleg

Approximate
Size

Sucker
/
Approximate Approximate Size
Simulidae larva and pupa Size Syrphidae larva
109
 Family name : Tabanidae Family name : Tipulidae
Common name : Horseflies Common name : Crane flies

Structure Structure
~ Large, cylindrical, pointed at both ends ~ Large, soft, cylindrical
~ Very small retractable head ~ Very small retractable head
~ Creeping ridges encircling all abdominal segments ~ Respiratory disc at end of abdomen consists of
~ Short siphon at tip of abdomen arrangement of hairs and lobes
Behaviour ~ One species without disc, with only two appendages
~ Body contracting and expanding lengthwise Behaviour
~ During this motion the intestines also seem to move back ~ Active twitching of body , folding head across abdomen
and forth ~ One type inflates one segment of the abdomen to look
Habitat like a bubble
~ Muddy areas of pools and streams Habitat
Colour ~ Species are habitat specific
~ White, off-white ~ Bottoms of streams, muddy edges of streams, under algal

1
scum or in aquatic mosses
5 10 15
Sensitivity c:::====:=--11--=:~=- Colour
~ Off-white to brown

1 5 10 15
Sensitlvity r========--11========

Siphon
/
Creeping ridges

""'
tJ~ Approximate
Size

Inflated segment

110
""'Head

Tabanidae larva
Approximate
Size
Retractable head
Approximate
Size Tipulidae - different species
111
 ORDER PLECOPTERA
Stoneflies
These young adults usually
sit for a while until the body
Stoneflies are a common sight around unpolluted rivers
and wings have hardened,
where adults can be spotted as they clamber about on the
after which they fly away
rocks.
or crawl out of sight.
The nymphs
Sometimes dry cast skins
are strictly aquatic and
can be found on stones
occur under stones in
along a river's edge .
every kind of unpolluted
stream with an abundance
of oxygen. They can also
be seen in debris, algae
or masses of leaves.
Adult Plecoptera
Some species of Perlidae
are brightly coloured with
yellow and black on the
backs while the smaller
Notonemouridae are dull
Plecoptera nymph and inconspicuous.

A very characteristic feature of Perlidae nymphs are the tufts

of gills on the side of the body as well as gills between the
two tails. These gills can be seen with the naked eye when
working with large specimens.

After various immature stages, the nymphs would crawl out

of the water onto stones or debris. The skin on the back splits
Plecoptera skin on a rock
open to allow the adult to emerge .

112 113
 Family name : Notonemouridae Family name : Perlidae
Common name : Stoneflies Common name : Stoneflies

Structure Structure
rl Small, slender rl Large, robust
rl Two tails rl Two tails
rl Gills absent rl Clearly segmented upper body
Behaviour r1 Gills present
rl Slowly running or swimming Behaviour
Habitat r1 Slowly running or swimming
rl Under stones, amongst dead leaves r1 Moves body rhythmically up and down when at rest
r1 Fast flowing streams Habitat
rl Mountain streams and coastal streams rl Under stones, amongst dead leaves
Colour r1 Fast flowing streams
r1 Grey or brown rl Northern and Eastern half of the country
Colour
1 5 10 15
r1 Brown or black with yellow
Sensitivity
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity 11-:::::==::::l

Hairy legs

I
Two tails

Two tails

Approximate
Size
Approximate
Notonemouridae nymph Size Perlidae nymph
114 115
ORDER : LEPIDOPTERA Family name : Pyralidae
Aquatic caterpillars Common name : Aquatic caterpillars

Structure
Lepidoptera are characteristically terrestrial but one family f'l Soft, worm-like bodies
includes a couple of species with truly aquatic larvae . These f'l Six legs
larvae have the characteristic caterpillar body shape as well f'l Five pairs of prolegs on abdomen
as the legs and prolegs as in the terrestrial species. f'l Body covered with gill filaments
Behaviour
The larvae either live in cases attached to floating vegetation, f'l Hiding inside silk or stone shelters
or in silken nets on rocks in rapid streams. Habitat
f'l Exposed rock surfaces
Mouthparts are adapted for scraping algae off the rocks. The f'l On submerged plants or algae
bodies -are covered with gill filaments for respiration purposes f'l Rapid streams
Colour
f'l Creamy brown to brown

1 5 10 15
~ Sensitivity

~
~

•
~

~
_J
_]

~ Ap proximate
Size
ORDER MEGALOPTERA Family name : Corydalidae
Common name : Dobsonflies
Dobsonflies
Structure
r'l Large, long, slender
The order Megaloptera is a small order of insects with only r'l Eight pairs of segmented appendages on abdomen
two families. Larvae of all species of Megaloptera are aquatic r'l Tuft of gills at base of each appendage
and are also the largest of all aquatic insects. These larvae r'l Well developed mouthparts
are among the most striking of aquatic insects. They can r'l One pair prolegs with claws on last segment
easily be identified Behaviour
by the long cylindrical body shape resembling that of r'l Crawling over substrate
centipedes.
r'l Swims like a crayfish with abdomen folded under the body
Habitat
The family Corydalidae have 8 pairs of unsegmented r'l Under stones
appendages on the abdomen, with a tuft of hairlike gills at r'l Fast flowing streams
the base of each appendage. The respiratory system of r'l Mountainous areas of Cape Province and Natal
Megaloptera are efficient in such a way that they can survive Colour
out of the water for long periods of time provided the body r'l Pale brown, reddish brown
stays damp. The abdomen ends in two hooked claws.
The well developed mouthparts indicate that they are active 1 5 10 15
predators, feeding on other aquatic insects. Sensitivity c==============l
Just before pupation the
larvae crawl out of the
water to pupate under
stones or in the soil

Gills Well-developed mouthparts Gills

Segmented appendage

Close-up view of Megaloptera showing the gills

Approximate
Size
Megaloptera nymph
119
 TAXON HYDRACARINA Taxon : Hydracarina ( Hydrachnellae )
Common name : Water mites
Water mites
Structure
r'l Minute, round shape
Hydracarina appear to be minute spiders, but differ from r'l Soft body with translucent skin
true spiders in the way that the head and body segmentation r'l Eight legs
disappeared. All body segments are fused together into one r'l Body not divided into separate segments
single structure. Behaviour
r'l Swimming, using all eight legs
Generally the bodies are soft, smooth and round with four Habitat
pairs of long hairy legs. Another pair of short appendages r'l Submerged vegetation or bottom debris
are situated close to the mouth, these are withdrawn into the r'l Slow streams or quiet pools
head most of the time. Two minute eyes are situated towards Colour
the front of the body. r'l Brown, green or red

Although very small, Hydracarina are easily spotted due to ~ 1 5 10 15

their bright coloration which can vary from yellow to green Sensitivity I
or red. Dark markings are due to the digestive tract being ~
visible through the skin
~ ~
Hydracarina are most abundant in all freshwater habitats ~
where they can cling to submerged vegetation or hang
around in quiet pools. ~

Approximate
Size

120
Hydracarina
121
j
CLASS : TURBELLARIA Class : Turbellaria
Common name : Flatworms
Flatworms
~ Structure
f'l Elongated worms
Freshwater Turbellaria are more or less elongated, cylindrical
f'l Very flat
or spindle-shaped worms worms. The general characteristics
f'l Arrow-shaped head with two eyespots
are the very flat bodies with one end widened to form an
arrow-shaped head. Behaviour
f'l Glide over any solid object
Two dark eyespots are situated on the head, the rest of the
f'l Curled up when at rest
body is without legs or appendages.
Habitat
f'l Under stones or any other solid substrate
Flatworms cannot swim but move over any solid substrate in
a gliding fashion. This movement is done smoothly and Colour
f'l Dark on top, white underneath
effortlessly due to muscle contractions down the length of the
body. 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity - -1
All Turbellaria are sensitive to strong light, for this reason they
are more abundant in shaded areas or areas where they can
hide and where there is a good supply of food.
Arrow-shaped head

\ Eyespot

~
White belly
~ ~
/
~

~ ~

~
Approximate
~ "i Size
Planaria

J
123
 ORDER AMPHIPODA Family name : Amphipoda
Scuds Common name : Scuds, sideswimmers

Structure
Freshwater Amphipoda are a varied group occurring in f'l Curved body shape
unpolluted rivers, caves or even in boreholes. f'l Flattened side- ways
In general the bodies are slightly curved, flattened laterally, f'l Four antennae, two long, two short
with two pairs of antennae and five pairs of walking legs. f'l Five pairs walking legs
Scuds are higher than they are wide and swim rapidly on Behaviour
their sides. f'l Swim on the side or back
Eyes are well developed except in the cave-dwelling species f'l Bury themselves under top layers of soft substrate
where the eyes can be absent. The cave-dwelling types are Habitat
also pale or white-coloured opposed to the brightly coloured f'l Under stones, amongst vegetation or on bottom debris
specie~ in surface waters
f'l Unpolluted rivers
Colour
Amphipoda are more active in the dark and stay hidden f'l Cream, grey, brown or orange
during the day-time, either under stones, amongst vegetation
or buried beneath the top layers of soft bottom substrate . 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity

Curved body
Antennae
/
~
Cave-dwelling Amphipoda are normally white, Walking legs
with eyes absent

Approximate
Size Amphipoda
124 125
 ORDER : DECAPODA Family name : Potamonautidae
Common name : Crabs
Crabs, shrimps
Structure
11"'1 Bodies broad, no abdomen visible
Decapoda represents all animals with bodies and legs 11"'1 Four pairs jointed legs
hardened to form a tough shell. The head and upper body 11"'1 One pair appendages modified into pinchers
are fused together, but the abdomen has clear segmentation. 11"'1 Eyes on movable stalks
Crabs differ slightly in that the abdomen is reduced and 11"'1 Abdomen tucked away under body
tucked away under the body. Behaviour
11"'1 Running side-ways
In general, Decapoda would have four or five pairs of Habitat
walking legs, of which the first pair is greatly modified with 11"'1 Under or amongst rocks
the tip~ enlarged to form claws with which to defend itself or Colour
to catch food . 11"'1 Brown
Eyes are carried on stalks and are movable.
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity 1 ===~====-

Walking leg

Approx imate
Size

Potamonautidae
126 127
 Family name : Atyidae Family name : Palaemonidae
Common name : Freshwater shrimps Common name : Freshwater prawns

Structure Structure
~ Bodies longer than broad
~ Large animals, bodies longer than broad
~ Fan tail at end of abdomen
~ Fan tail at end of abdomen
~ Five pairs of legs
~ Five pairs of legs, second pair much longer than the others
~ Small pinchers on first two pairs of legs with tufts of long
~ Pinchers on front legs without any hair
hair Behaviour
~ Eyes on movable stalks
~ Moves extremely fast
Behaviour
Habitat
~ Moves very fast
~ Among stones, in rock crevices
~ Jumps when disturbed or surprised
~ In riffle areas
Habitat .
~ Macrobrachium spp in Kwazulu Natal
~ Among vegetation
Colour
~ Edges of pools or streams
~ Mottled grey
Colour
~ Translucent grey, pink 1 5 10 15

1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I
Sensitivity

Fan tail Eye on movable stalk

~Longer 2nd leg

I
"'
Walking legs-

Approximate
Atyidae Size
Approximate Size Palaemonidae
128
129
 PHYLUM : ANNELIDA Class : Oligochaeta
CLASS : OLIGOCHAETA Common name : Aquatic earthworms

Aquatic earthworms Structure

r'l Long, thin , soft and muscular
r'l Thin, translucent body wall
Annelida, or segmented worms as they are commonly r'l No legs or tentacles
known, are worm-like animals with soft muscular bodies. r'l Bundles of hair close to surface of the body
Behaviour
Aquatic Oligochaeta have the same structure as the common r'l Crawling about in the muddy substrate
garden earthworms. The body is in the form of a tube, with r'l Inactive in a coiled up position
no definite head, no tentacles or legs. The body wall is thin Habitat
and translucent, and the internal organs can easily be seen. r'l Mud or bottom substrate
Bundles of hair, that help with movement, are present close r'l Pools or quiet area of a stream
to surface of the body. These, however, are not visible to the Colour
naked eye. r'l Pink

Oligochaeta are common in the mud and bottom substrate of 1 5 10 15

stagnant pools where they lie coiled up or probe around, Sensitivity 1 ------=::::========~===-
digesting the substrate. They can survive very low levels of
oxygen .
Translu-cent body wall

Approximate
Size Oligochaeta
130 131
 PHYLUM : ANNELIDA Class : Hirudinae
Common name : Leeches
CLASS : HIRUDINAE
Leeches Structure
~ Flattened, with rear slightly wider than front
~ No legs or tentacles
Hirudinae is commonly referred to as "bloodsuckers" but
~ Suckers at both ends of body
only a few freshwater species will take blood from warm-
Behaviour
blooded animals.
~ Move in a creeping, looping fashion
Hirudinae differ in size from minute to the giant species that
can reach up to 45cm when extended. ~ Swim with side-to-side motion, with body stretched out
Habitat
~ Under stones, vegetation or debris
The segmented body is not as soft as with Oligochaeta, but
~ Shallow pools or quiet areas of river
also in the shape of a tube, flattened and very muscular.
They have suckers on both ends of the body, the front sucker Colour
being the smaller one and more or less fused with the body. ~ Pale with bright spots or stripes, brown or black
Both suckers are used for attachment, feeding and 1 10 15
locomotion which is in a looping fashion . The rear sucker Sensitivity
holds on to substrate while the body stretches out far
forward, grabs onto something with the front sucker, and let
go at the rear to bring that end of the body forward.

Leeches avoid light and generally hide under stones or Approximate

among plants or in detritus Size

Certain species of leeches are often parasitic and can be seen

on fish and crustaceans where they feed on blood and tissue /
fluids. "Sucker Head

Soft muscular body

"' /
Head

Approximate Size

_________________
132
_..~~._ ______________ _ _
Hirudinae
133
 PHYLUM : PORIFERA Phylum : Porifera
Sponges Common name : Freshwater sponges

Structure
Porifera differ greatly from other freshwater invertebrates and f'l Thin mat -like crust

are mostly overlooked or mistaken for plants. f'l Feels slightly rough to the touch
Behaviour
Sponges are sessile, inconspicuous animals that will live only f'l Sessile

in clean ponds or slow streams. The general forms are crusty, f'l Growing in patches or covering large areas of substrate

mat-like patches on almost any stable submerged substrate Habitat

such as pebbles, rocks, logs or twigs. Sponges growing f'l On or under rocks, pebbles, any solid submerged substrate

actively can cover large areas of substrate, covering upper f'l . Unpolluted slow streams

and lower surfaces or the sides. Colour

These patches are normally only 1-2 mm thick and consists f'l grey, green or black

of millions of microscopic needle-like structures growing in all

1 5
directions. 10 15
Sensitivity
These needle-like structures form a soft skeleton in and
around the body tissue. Furthermore there are no organs or
attachments.

Porifera
134
135
 PHYLUM : MOLLUSCA Family name : Ancylidae
Common name : Limpets
CLASS:GASTROPODA
Snails, limpets Structure
fj Shells flattened limpet-like
Snails are soft-bodied unsegmented animals that live inside fj Base of shell wide, round or oval
a shell. The majority of freshwater Gastropoda have spiral fj Resembles a sand dune when viewed from the side
shells, only a few limpet genera have flatter more conical Behaviour
shells. fj Slow gliding movement
Habitat
All Gastropoda are characterized by the large muscular foot fj On rocks or any solid submerged substrate
that extends from under the shell. To the front of the foot fj All streams country-wide
lies a well developed head, bearing tentacles, eyes and a Colour
mouth. The exposed foot is anchored to the shell by means fj Brown or black
of a muscle which, when contracted, withdraws the foot
from sight. 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity
The shells may appear smooth but growth lines
are present when examined closely. The shell is covered
with a thin protective layer which also contains the colour
pigments. Tentacle --~..
~

Snails move about slowly, gliding on the foot while leaving

behind the familiar slime track. Foot

Eye

Approximate
Size Ancylidae
136
137
Family name : Lymnaeidae Family name : Physidae
Common name : Pond snails Common name : Pouch snails

Structure Structure
~ Shell opening on the right ~ Shell opening to the left
~ Shell opening large, wide ~ Shell smooth, glossy
~ Triangular tentacles ~ Slender tentacles
Behaviour Behaviour
~ Slow gliding movement ~ Slow gliding movement
Habitat Habitat
~ Gravel beds, or on aquatic vegetation ~ Gravel beds, or on aquatic vegetation
Colour Colour
~ Mottled brown ~ Brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity Sensitivity

' Mouth

Tentacle
Eye

Opening left ~
Foot

- Triangular shaped tentacle

Eye
Approximate Approximate
Lymnaeidae Size Size Physidae
138 139
Family name : Planorbidae Family name : Thiaridae
Common name : Orb snails Common name : Snails

Structure Structure
f'l Flat shell, tightly coiled f'l Strong, thick shell
f'l Host for the bilharzia parasite f'l Well developed spiral
Behaviour f'l Tubercles more pronounced in some individuals
f'l Slow moving on the foot Behaviour
f'l Shell in vertical position when animal moves around f'l Slow moving on the foot
Habitat Habitat
f'l Gravel beds or aquatic vegetation f'l Gravel beds in flowing streams
f'l Flowing streams f'l Silty substrate in pools
Colour Colour
f'l Brown f'l Cream with brown markings, brown

1 5 10 15 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity I Sensitivity I

Well developed spiral

I
I
Tubercles
Tentacle ~ -

/ Head
~ ~
/ i :-1
~ ~
Tight coils ~~
I

I
' Tentacle
I
1

l
Planorbidae
Approximate
Size
l~ Approximate
Size Thiaridae
140 ~ 141
 PHYLUM : MOLLUSCA Family name : Corbiculidae
Common name : Clams
CLASS : BIVALVIA (PELECYPODA)
Clams, mussels Structure
~ Strong hard shell
~ Prominent growth lines
Clams and mussels are varied in shape, elongated, oval or
~ Strong hinge
anything in between . The shell consists of two halves, joined
Behaviour
together with an elastic ligament that forms a hinge.
~ Appears to be inactive
The shells are often heavily marked with growth lines and
Habitat
imperfections due to periods of lack of food or low oxygen
~ Sand or gravel beds
levels.
~ Flowing streams
Colour
Clams and mussels also have a small muscular foot which
~ Pale yellow, green or brown
extends from between the two shells. This is used mainly for
locomotion as it does not have a proper head, eyes or 1 5 10 15
tentacles . Sensitivity

Mussels and clams can bury themselves deep into the sand
or substrate

Two halves~

I
Strong hinge

Approximate
Size
Corbiculidae
142
143
Family name : Sphaeriidae Family name : Unionidae
Common name : Pill clams Common name : Pearly mussels

Structure Structure
~ Small, fragile shells ~ Large elongate shells
~ Smooth without growth rings
~ Prominent growth rings
Behaviour ~ Erosion of the outer layer visible
~ Inactive Behaviour
Habitat ~ Inactive
~ Sand or gravel beds
~ Two halves open slightly when filtering water
Colour Habitat
~ Whitish ~ Deep muddy substrate
~ Brown with dark speckles Colour
~ Dark brown with pearly eroded patches
1 5 10 15
Sensitivity c:::::::====l=---========~ 1 5 10 15
Sensitivity

Soft shell without growth rings Growth ring

Approximate Actua l Size

Approximate Size
Size

Sphaeriidae
Unionidae
144
145
References
Dallas, H.F. and J .A .Day, 1993. The effect of water quality
variables on riverine ecosystems : A review. Water Research
Commission Report No. TT 61!93. 240pp
Dallas, H.F. 1999. Ecological reference condition project: draft
field manual. 26pp (unpublished)
Davies, B.R. and J.A. Day 1998. Vanishing waters. University of
Cape Town Press. Cape Town . South Africa.
Dickens,C and M. Graham, 2001. South African Scoring System
(SASS) version 5. Rapid Bioassessment Method for Rivers.
Umgeni Water, Pietermaritzburg.(unpublished)
Freshwater Research Unit, 1992. Field guide to substrate particle
size. University of Cape Town . (unpublished)
Mackay, Nand D. Eastburn, ( eds) 1990. The Murray. lnprint
Limited, Brisbane, Australia. 363pp.
Rowntree, KM . And R.A. Wadeson, 1999. A hierarchical
geomorphological model for the classification of selected South
African rivers. Water Research Commission Report 497/1/99,
Pretoria. 334pp.
Vannote, R.L., G.W. Minshall, KW. Cummins, J .R. Sedell and
C.E. Cushing, 1980. The River Continuum Concept. Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science. 37: 130-137.
Wadeson, R.A. 1994. A geomorphological approach to the
identification and classification of instream flow requirements.
Southern African Journal of Aquatic Sciences. 20 {1/2 ) 38-61.
Wetzel,R.G. 1983. Limnology. 2nd ed. Saunders College
Publishing, Philadelphia, USA.
146
Bibliography
Appleton, C. C. 1996. Freshwater Molluscs of Southern Africa.
University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburb, South Africa.
Barraclouch, D.A. & Londt, J.G.H. 1986. Order Diptera pp283-
321 in Scholtz & Holm ( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa.
Butterworths, Durban, South Africa.
Colless, D.H. & McAipine, D.K 1991. Diptera (Flies) pp 717-
786 in CSIRO ( ed ) Insects of Australia. A textbook for students
and research workers. 2nd ed. Vol 2 . Melbourne, Australia.
Davies, B. & Day, J. 1998. Vanishing Waters. UCT Press. Cape
Town, South Africa.
Deleve, J. Dryopidae and Elminthidae of Southern Africa (Ad ult
stages) . 8-27. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles, Bruxelles.
Endrody-Younga, S. 1986. Order Coleoptera pp 188-280 in
Scboltz & Holm ( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths,
Durban, South Africa.
Evans, H.E. 1984. Insect Biology. A textbook of Entomology.
Addison-Wesley, USA.
Jacobs, D.H. 1986. Order hemiptera pp 112-175 in Scholtz &
Holm ( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban,
South Africa.
Lawrence, J .F. & Britton, E.B. 1991. Coleoptera (Beetles) pp
543-683 in CSIRO ( ed ) Insects of Australia. A textbook for
students and research workers. 2nd ed. Vol 2 . Melbourne,
Australia.
147
 Index
Aeshnidae 84 dragonflies 82
eboiss, A. 1991. Trichoptera ( Caddis flies , Caddises) pp 787- Aethaloptera maxima 44 Dytiscidae 58, 59
816 in CSIRO ( ed ) Insects of Australia. A textbook for students AMPHIPODA 124,125 Ecnomidae 40
Amphisyche scottae 45 Elmidae 60,61
and research workers. 2nd ed. Vol2 . Melbourne, Australia. Ancylidae 137 EPHEMEROPTERA 25
ANNELIDA 130,132 Ephydridae 105
Pennak, R.W. 1953. Freshwater Invertebrates of The United aquatic caterpillars 116,117 flat-headed mayflies 31
States ( 2nd Edition ) The Ronald Press Co, New York. USA. aquatic earthworms 130,131 flatworms 122,123
Athericidae 98 flies 96
Atyidae 128 freshwater prawns 129
Picker, M.D. 1986. Order Plecoptera pp 74-77 in Scholtz & Holm back swimmers 79 freshwater shrimps 128
( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban, South Baetidae 27 freshwater sponges 135
Barbarochthonidae 48 GASTROPODA 136
Africa. beetles 56 Gerridae 74
Belostomatidae 72 giant water bugs 72
Pinhey, E.C.G. 1986. Order Odonata pp 41-52 in Scholtz & Holm biting midges 100 Glossosomatidae 49
BIVALVIA 142 Gomphidae 85
( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban, South black flies 108 Gyrinidae 62,63
Africa. Blepharoceridae 99 Helodidae 64
broad-shouldered water striders 81 HEMIPTERA 70
Quigley, M. 1977. Invertebrates of Streams and Rivers. A key to brushlegged mayfly 33 Heptageniidae 31
bugs 70 Hirudinae 132,133
identification. Edward Arnold, London, Great Britain. caddisflies 38 horseflies 11 0
Caenidae 30 houseflies 106
Scott, K.M .F. 1986. Order Trichoptera pp 327-340 in Scholtz & cainflies 30 HYDRACARINA 120,121
Calopterygidae 88
Holm ( ed ) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban, =~ Ceratopogonidae 100
Hydrachnellae 121
Hydraenidae 65
South Africa. Cheumatopsyche affra 44
~ Cheumatopsyche thomasetti 44
Hydrometridae 75
Hydrophilidae 66,67
Chironomidae 101
Thirion, C. & Mocke, A. & Woest, R. 1995. Biological Monitoring
Of Streams and Rivers using SASS4. A user manual. IWQS,
::c Chlorosyphidae 89
Hydropsychidae 43,44,45
Hydroptilidae 50
Chlorolestidae 90
DWAF, Pretoria, South Africa. ::c clams 142
Coenagrionidae 91
leeches 132,133
LEPIDOPTERA 116
Leptoceridae 52
Van Eeden, J.A. 1960. Key to the genera of South African
-c COLEOPTERA 56 Leptophlebiidae 32
Corbiculidae 143 Lestidae 92
Freshwater and Estuarine Gastropods (Mollusca). Annals of the
Transvaal Museum. 24(1) : 1-17. Great Britain.
:o Corduliidae 86
Corixidae 73
Libellulidae 87
limpets 137
~ -G Corydalidae 119
crabs 127
Lymnaeidae 138
Macrostemum capense 45
'P- -~ crane flies 111 marsh beetles 64
~
creeping water bugs 78 marsh treaders 75
Culicidae 102,103 mayflies 25
~ damselflies 82 MEGALOPTERA 118
DECAPODA 126 meniscus midges 104
DIPTERA 96 midges 101
Dixidae 104 minute moss beetles 65
148 149
 MOLLUSCA 136, 142 Sericostomatidae 55
!mosquitoes 102,103 shore flies 105
moth flies 107 shrimps 126
1Muscidae 106 sideswimmers 125
, mussels 142 Simuliidae 108
I Naucoridae 78 small minnow flies 27
1 Nepidae 76 snails 136 (!
net-winged midges 99 snipe flies 98
Notonectidae 79 Sphaeriidae 144
Notonemouridae 114 spiny crawlers 36
sponges 134
r~
ODONATA 82
Oligochaeta 130,131 stoneflies 112 I ~

'~
Oligoneuridae 33 Stout crawlers 37
orb snails 140 Synlestidae 90
Palaemonidae 129
pale burrowers 34
Syrphidae 109
Tabanidae 11 0 ~~
!' ~~
Parecnomina 41 Teloganodidae 36
pearly mussels 145 Thiaridae 141
PELECYPODA 142 Tipulidae 111
Perlidae 115 TRICOPTERA 38

'! ~~
Petrothrincidae 54 Tricorythidae 37
Philopotamidae 46 TURBELLARIA 122,123
Physidae 139 Unionidae 145
pigmy backswimmers 80 Veliidae 81
pill clams 144
Pisuliidae 51
water boatmen 73
water mites 120,121
I-
Planaria 122 water penny beetles 68 ' ~
Planorbidae 140
Platycnemidae 93
water scavenger beetles 66,67
water scorpions 76 !~
PLECOPTERA 112
Pleidae 80
water specs 35
Whirligig beetles 62,63 !~
Polycentropodidae 42
Polymitarcyidae 42 l~
1~
Polymorphanisus bipunctatus 45
pond seater 74

1~
pond snails 138
PORI FE RA 134,135

!~
Potamonautidae 127
Pouch snails 139
predacious diving beetles 58,59
prongills 32 II @
Prosopistomatidae 35
Protoneuridae 94 l1 (!
Psephenidae 68
Psychodidae 107
Psychomyiidae 4 7 ~
Pyralidae 117
rat-tailed maggots 109 (!
riffle beetles 60,61
150