Updated GEO TECHNICAL LABORATORY Final

Geo-technical Engineering Laboratory
1.OBJECTIVE, RELEVANCE
Soil is one of the very important engineering materials. Determination of soil conditions is
the most significant task in every civil engineering activity. Properties of the soil can be
determined by both field and laboratory test methods. It is critical to quantify the various
properties of soil in order to predict its behavior under different loading conditions for the
safe design of soil structures. This laboratory is a compulsory and basic undergraduate course
where introduction to Geotechnical Engineering will be provided and also for graduate level
research students.
The main objectives of the Geotechnical engineering lab will be:
1) Provide civil engineering students with the basic knowledge to carry out field
investigations and to indentify soils in Geotechnical engineering practice.
2) Educate civil engineering students in performing and interpretation of laboratory tests for
evaluating sub grade performance and for pavement design.
3) Knowledge of and ability to perform laboratory tests needed to determine soil design
parameters.
4) Ability to design and conduct experiments as well as analyze and interpret data.
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2 OUTCOMES :
1. Knowledge of site specific field investigations including collection Of soil samples

for testing and observation of soil behavior/ Building damage.
2. Be able to identify and classify soil based on standard geotechnical engineering

practice.
3. Be able to perform laboratory compaction and in-place density Tests for fill quality
control.
4. Be able to perform and evaluate un soaked and soaked California Bearing ratio (CBR)
tests used to estimate sub grade behavior during construction and beneath permanent
structures.
5. Be able to perform and interpret direct shear tests and estimate Shear strength
parameters.
6. Be able to conduct and estimate shear strength of soils in unconfined compression.
7. Be able to perform and analyze constant head permeability tests.
8. Be able to conduct one-dimensional compression tests and estimate Settlement

parameters.
9. Be able to develop and implement laboratory procedures to test Geotechnical

engineering concept(s).
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3. CODE OF CONDUCT
1. Students should report to the labs concerned as per the timetable.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the
experiment scheduled for the day.
3. After completion of the experiment/program, certification of the staff in-charge

concerned in the observation book is necessary.
4. Students should bring a notebook of about 200 pages and should enter the
readings/observations/results into the notebook while performing the experiment.
5. The record of the program(s) executed, results along with the description and algorithm
performed in the immediate previous session should be submitted and certified by the
staff member in-charge.
6. Before occupying the system students must enter appropriate information into the Log
book kept in the respective lab.
7. After completion of the lab work students should shut down the system properly.
8. Any damage of the equipment or burnout of components will be viewed seriously either
by putting penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the lab for the
semester/year.
9. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
10.Students are expected to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment/program before

coming to Laboratory.
Horseplay will not be tolerated and will constitute grounds for dismissal from the
course.
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4. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE CONDUCTING THE LAB:
 Laboratory equipment is never cheap, but the cost may vary widely. For accurate
experimental results, the equipment should be properly maintained.
 The calibration of certain equipment, such as balances and proving rings, should be
checked from time to time.
 It is always necessary to see that all equipment is clean both before and after use.
Better results will be obtained when the equipment being used is clean, so always
maintain the equipment as if it were your own.
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5. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER JNTUH
1. Atterberg’s Limits.
2. Field density-core cutter and sand replacement method
3. Grain size analysis
4. Permeability of soil, constant and variable head test
5. Compaction test
6. CBR Test
7. Consolidation test
8. Unconfined compression test
9. Tri-axial Compression test
10. Direct shear test.
11. Vane shear test
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6. SYLLABUS ANALYSIS
S.No Name of the Experiment Unit No Text/Reference

Books
1 Atterberg’s Limits. 2
T:70-74, T1:104-107
2 Field density-core cutter and sand replacement 2 T1:73-76,T:792-794

method
3 Grain size analysis 2 T:57-59,T1:95-97
4 Permeability of soil, constant and variable head test 3 T:137-140,T1:201-

205
5 Compaction test 6 T:358-360, TI:421-
423
6 Consolidation test 7 T1:354-355,T:259-
260s
7 Unconfined compression test 8 T1:442-443,T:330-
331
8 Tri-axial Compression test 8 T1:436-439,T:322-

323
9 Direct shear test. 8 T1:434-436,T:809-
810
10 Vane shear test 8 T:332-333,TI:450-

451
11 CBR Test 8 T:775-777,T1:832-

834
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7. TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS
Text Books
1. T-Arora, K. R., “Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering”, Standard Publishers, 2005.
2. Venkataramaiah, C.,“Geotechnical Engineering” (3rd Edn.), New Age International (P)
Ltd., New Delhi, 2005.
3. Gulhati, S.K. and Datta, M., “Geotechnical Engineering”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005.
4. T1-Soilmechanics And Foundation By B.C.PUNMIA, Lakshmi Publications
Reference Books
1. Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B., “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice”, John Wiley &
Sons, USA, 1967.
2. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A. S. R., “Basic & Applied Soil Mechanics”, New Age
International Publishers, 2000.
3. IS 1498-1970, “IS code of Practice for classification and identification of soils for general
engineering purposes”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
4. IS 2720, “IS code of Practice for methods of test for soils. (Latest Edition)”. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
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8. SESSION PLAN
SL.NO Week Unit

Activity Remarks
no. no.
1 1 1-8 Introduction To GE Lab Prerequisite
2 2 2 1. Atterberg’s Limits. JNTUH
3 3 2 2. Field density-core cutter and sand

JNTUH
replacement method
4 4 2 3. Grain size analysis JNTUH
5 5 3 4. Permeability of soil, constant and variable

JNTUH
head test
6 6 5 5. Compaction test
JNTUH
7 7 8 6. CBR Test
JNTUH
8 8 7 7. Consolidation test
JNTUH
9 9 8 8. Unconfined compression test

JNTUH
10 10 8 9. Tri-axial Compression test
JNTUH
11 11 8 10. Direct shear test.
JNTUH
12 12 8 11. Vane shear test

JNTUH
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9 EXPERIMENTAL WRITE UP
9.1 Introduction to geotechnical engineering lab

Equipments used in lab:
1.Pyconometer:
A pyconometer is a glass jar of about 1 litre capacity and fitted with a brass conical cap by
means of a screw-type cover. The cap has a small hole of 6mm diameter at its apex. A rubber
or fibre washer is placed between the cap and the jar to prevent leakage.
Fig 1.1 pycnometer
2.Core cutter:
The core cutter is driven into the soil using the driving hammer. Then the core is dug out,
trimmed, weighed, dried and the density and moisture content calculated. Made of steel
protected against corrosion. The set includes core cutter, driving dolly and driving rammer.
Two versions available: dia. 100x 130 mm high and dia. 150x180 mm core. The detachable
dolly is about 2.5 cm high abd the rammer weighs approximately 10 kgs.
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Fig 1.2 core cutter with dolly
3. Liquid limit device:
Used to determine the moisture content at which clay soils pass from a plastic to a liquid
state.
This instrument Comprises of : removable brass cup, adjustable crank and cam mechanism,
blow counter, and base. Different versions are available conforming to the various Standards
in use. They are identical in shape and differ, generally, from the type of base and weight of
the cup. Furthermore all versions are available either manually or motor operated. The
grooving tools, which also refer to the different Standards, are not included and have to
ordered separately.
Weights approx.:
Standard versions 2 kg or Motorized versions 4 kg
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Fig 1.3 liquid limit device with soil pat
4. Plastic Limit Determination Equipments
Used for determining the lowest moisture content of a soil at which the sample can be rolled
into little rolls, 3 mm dia., without breakages.
The set includes:
Plastic limit plate(300x300 mm),Stainless steel rod 3 mm dia,Mixing dish 120 mm dia.
Flexible spatula ,Moisture content tin dia. 75 x 30 mm (six containers are required).
Fig 1.4 plastic limit determination accessories
5.Permeameter
This equipment is used for testing the permeability of granular soils (sands and gravels).The
specimen is formed in a permeability cell and water is passed through it from a constant level
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tank. Take-off points located along the sides of the permeability cell are connected to three
manometer tubes mounted on a panel complete with a meter scale. Water passing through the
specimen is collected and measured, either for a specific quantity or over a period of time.
The reduction of head is noted from the variation of water level in the manometer tubes.
Fig 1.5 Permeability determination accessories
6. Triaxial Shear equipment: This equipment consists of the following components-
1. Load frame, Motorized, Capacity 50 kN, to give 6 rates of strain Proving Ring of 2.5
kN. Dial Gauge, 0.01 x 25 mm
2. Triaxial Cell for 38 mm dia. x 76 mm high specimen for lateral pressure upto 10
kg./cm2 (0 – 150)psi
3. Pore Pressure Apparatus for measurement of low negative and positive pore
pressures, high pore pressures upto 10 kg/cm2
4. Volume Change Gauge , for measurement of large volume changes with a sensitivity
of 0.003 ml/mm with 6 ml volume of fluid per cycle.
5. Lateral Pressure Assembly , 10 kg./cm2, with pressure gauge and foot pump
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6. Self Compensating Constant Pressure System ( Oil / Water type ) , pressure range 10
kg/cm², rotated through reduction gear.
Fig 1.6 triaxial cell
7. Standard proctor
This equipment is used in determining the optimum moisture content and
corresponding maximum dry density.
The Proctor compaction mold and hammer is 4” in diameter and 4.584” in height.
The inner volume is 1/30 ft3. The height of fall of the hammer is 12”.
Specifications: Weight of the rammer: 2.5Kg
Diameter of the hammer: 50mm
Drop or height of fall: 300mm
Diameter of the compaction mold: Φ100×127mm
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Fig 1.7 standard proctor equipment
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9.2.1 Determination of liquid limit of the soil
Ref : IS:2720 (Part V) -1985
Preamble
About 120 g of soil sample passing through 425 micron sieve is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water in the evaporation dish to form uniform paste. A portion of the paste is placed
in the cup of the apparatus and groove is cut in the soil pat. The handle is rotated at the rate of
about 2 revolutions per second and the no. of blows are counted until the two parts of the soil
sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 10mm. A graph is
plotted between no. of blows and corresponding water content. Then the water content
corresponding to 25 blows is noted down as liquid limit of the soil sample.
Aim : To determine the liquid limit of a soil.
Equipments required:
S.No Name of equipment Type Remark quantity
1 mechanical liquid Casagrande Consists of brass cup 1
limit device mounted a base
2 Grooving tool a)Casagrande Used for clayey soil 1
b)ASTM Usedd for sandy soil
Components required:
S.No Name of equipment Type quantity
1 Percelain dish 1
2 spatula metal 1
3 Moisture containers metal 4
5 oven thermostatic 1
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6 Weighing balance Sensitivity0.1g 1
7 IS sieve 425 micron 1
Photos of equipments and components:
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Fig 2.1.1 liquid limit apparatus
Theory: The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content, in percent, at which
a pat of soil in a standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together
at the base of the groove for a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) when subjected to 25 shocks from
the cup being dropped 10 mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two
shocks per second.
The liquid limit (LL) is often conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior
of a clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. Actually, clayey soil does have a very small
shear strength at the liquid limit and the strength decreases as water content increases; the
transition from plastic to liquid behavior occurs over a range of water contents. The precise
definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures described below.
Liquid limit is the water content at which soil passes from zero strength to an
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Infinitesimal strength, hence the true value of liquid limit can not be determined. For
determination purpose liquid limit is that water content at which a part of soil, cut by a
groove of standard
dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 1.25cm under an impact of 25 blows in a
standard liquid limit apparatus. The soil at the water content liquid limit apparatus. The soil at
the water content has some strength which is about 0.17 N/cm2 (17.6 gm/cm2). At this water
content soil just passes from liquid state to plastic state. The moisture content at which soil
has the smallest plasticity is called as the plastic limit. Just after the plastic limit the soil
displays the properties of a semi- solid. Change in state at these limits is shown in figure.
Fig. 2.1.2 Relationship between Volume of soil and Its Moisture Content
Procedure : The liquid limit is determined in the laboratory with the aid of the standard
mechanical liquid limit device designed by Arther Caragrande and adopted by the ISI. The
apparatus consists of a hard vulcanised rubber compound base with a brass cup suitably
mounted. The brass cup can be raised and made to fall on the rubber base through a cam
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arrangement operated by a handle. The height of fall of the cup can be adjusted with the help
of an adjusting screw. Before the start of the test, the height of fall of the cup is adjusted to
10mm. A grooving tool is used to make a groove in the part of soil placed in the cup.
Depending upon the type of soil, two types of grooving tools are used. These are a]
Casagrande Tool whick make a groove of 2mm width at the central bottom and 11mm width
at the top and 8mm deep and b] ASTM tool which cuts a groove of 2mm wide at bottom,
13.6mm wide at top.
About 120 gm of soil passing through 425 micron IS:Sieve is taken and mixed with
water such that the soil attains a pretty like paste or consistency. A portion of the paste is
placed in the cup and is levelled with the spatula so as to have a max. depth of about 10mm.
A groove is cut in the soil placed in the cup using the grooving tool. In cutting the groove,
the grooving tool is drawn through along the symmetrical axis of the cup holding the tool
perpendicular to the cup. The handle is rotated at the rate of 2 revolutions per second and the
number of blows necessary to close the groove over a length of 12 or 13mm is noted. The
groove should close by flow and not by slippage of soil. Then about 10 gm of the soil near
the closed groove is taken and its water content is determined.
By altering the water content of the paste and repeating the operations mentioned
above for four to five readings of water content in the range of 10 to 40 or 50 blows.
A grapth is then plotted between number of blows, N on logarithmic scale and the
water content, W on the natural scale. It will be seen that the semi logarithmic plot is a
straight line and is called the “ Flow curve”.
The liquid limit is determined from the plot by noting the water content corresponding
to 25 blows on the flow curve.
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From the definition of liquid limit, all soils possess the same value of shearing
strength at liquid limit. It is about 27 gm/cm2.
Observations
Tabular Form for observations for liquid limit test.
S.No./Trial No. Number of blows, Water content,

N W
1
Determination of water content for each trial.
Container No. …………………….
Empty weight of container with Lid (W1) gm
Weight of container + wet soil (W2) gm
Weight of container + dry soil (W3) gm
Weight of dry soil, Ws, gm (W3 - W1) gm
Weight of water, Ww, gm (W2 – W3) gm
(W2 - W3)
Water content, w = ------------- x 100
(W3 - W1)
Four to five trials may be performed such that the number of blows are obtained between 10
to 50.
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Graphs
Application:
This testing method is used as an integral part of several engineering classifications systems
to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils and to specify the fine-grained fraction of
construction materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils are also used
extensively, either individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with
engineering behavior such as compressibility, permeability, compactibility, shrink-swell and
shear strength.
Sample Questions
1. Determine liquid limit of the given soil sample. Draw flow curve.
2. How can liquid limit of a soil sample be determined in lab?
3. Determine liquid limit of given soil sample .Also explain how is it different from
plastic limit.
4. What is meant by liquid limit? Determine liquid limit of given soil sample.
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5. How do you determine liquid limit of given soil sample in lab? Draw flow curve.
Viva Voce
1. What are atterberg limits?
2. Define liquid limit. How are they useful in classifying soils?
3. Name the apparatus commonly used for determining liquid limit?
4. Name the sieve no. used in preparing soil sample.
5. If plastic limit is greater than or equal to limit limit, how will you report Ip of the soil.
6. Is soil fully saturated at shrinkage limit?
7. What is the value of shear strength of soil possessed at limit liquid?
8. What is the size of groove cut?
9. What is the rate of revolution of the mechanical device?
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9.1.2 Determination of plastic limit of the soil
Ref : IS:2720 (Part V) -1985
Preamble
Soil sample passing through 425 micron sieve is mixed thoroughly with distilled water until
the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be molded with fingers. A ball is formed with this
plastic soil mass and rolled between fingers and a glass plate into a thread of uniform
diameter throughout its length. When a diameter of 3 mm is reached, the soil is remolded
again into a ball. This process of rolling and remolding is repeated until the thread starts just
crumbling at a diameter of 3 mm. The crumble threads are kept for water content
determination and plastic limit is calculated.
Aim : To determine the plastic limit of a soil.
S.No Name of Type Remarks Quantity
equipment
1. Evaporating dish Porcelain, Used for mixing soil 1
borosilicate glass sample with distilled
water
1 Glass plate 10mm thick and 1
45cm square
1 spatula metal 1
2 Moisture containers metal 3
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4 Weighing balance Sensitivity 1
0.01g
5 IS sieve 425 micron 1
Photos of equipments and components
Theory:
This test is done to determine the plastic limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985.The
plastic limit of fine-grained soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be
plastic. It begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm dia.
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For determination purpose, the plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a soil will
just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter the difference in moisture
content or interval between the liquid and plastic limits is termed the plasticity index.
Knowing the liquid limit and plasticity index soil may be classified with the help of plasticity
chart according to Indian standard on soil classification (IS1498-1970).
Fig.2.2.1 Plasticity Chart
In the plasticity chart following symbols are used:
CL = Clay of low compressibility
CL = Clay of low medium compressibility
CH = Clay of high compressibility
ML = Silt of low compressibility
MI = Silt of medium compressibility
MH = Silt of high compressibility
OL = Organic soil of low compressibility
OI = Organic soil of medium compressibility
OH = Organic soil of high compressibility
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Procedure : The soil specimen passing IS:Sieve 425 microns and about 25 to 30 gm is
mixed thoroughly with distilled water until the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily
moulded with fingers. The plastic soil mass should be left for enough time to allow water to
permeate through the soil mass. A ball is formed with about 8 to 10 gm of this plastic soil
mass and rolled between fingers and over the ground glass plate with just sufficient pressure
to roll the mass into a thread of uniform dia throughout its length. When a dia of 3mm is
approximately reached, the soil is remoulded again in to ball. The ball is again rolled into a
thread over the glass plate to an approximate dia of 3mm.
The process of rolling, remoulding is repeated until the thread at the approximate dia of 3mm
starts just crumbling (i.e. shows surfacial cracks). The crumbled threads are taken and the
water content is determined which is called the plastic limit.
If for this soil the liquid limit is determined then plasticity index, Ip= WL-Wp
WL=Liquid limit , Wp=Plastic limit
From the flow curve, compute the flow index as
W1  W2
If 
N
Log10 2
N1
Ip
Then obtain the value of toughness index as It 
If
Observations for determinig plastic limit.
Trial No. 1 2
Container No.
Weight of empty container with lid, W1 gm
Weight of container + wet soil (W2) gm
Weight of container + dry soil (W3) gm
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Weight of water = (W2 – W3) gm
Weight of Dry soil = (W3 – W1) gm

(W2 - W3)
Water content, w = ------------- x 100
(W3 - W1)
This water content is called the plastic limit.
Result:
The plastic limit of the given soil sample is (wp) = …… %
Application:
This testing method is used as an integral part of several engineering classifications systems
to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils and to specify the fine-grained fraction of
construction materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils are also used
extensively, either individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with
engineering behavior such as compressibility, permeability, compactibility, shrink-swell and
shear strength.
Sample Questions
1. Determine plastic limit for the given soil sample.
2. What is meant by plasticity index and determine plasticity index for the given soil
sample?
3. Determine plastic limit for the given soil sample.Also determine toughness index for
the same.
4. Determine plasticity index for the given soil sample.
5. What is meant by consistency index? Determine plasticity index of the sample and
hence consistency index.
Viva Voice
1. What is liquid limit?
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2. What is plastic limit?
3. What apparatus is used to measure the liquid limit of a given soil sample.
4. What number of blows is taken for consideration while determining the liquid limit of
a given soil sample.
5. What is plasticity index?
6. Liquid limit > 50 , indicates what kind of soil?
7. What is meant by consistency index?
8. What is toughness index? How can you obtain from flow curve?
9. What is flow index?
10. What does Ic = 0 indicate ?
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9.3.1 Determination of in-situ density of soil by core cutter Method
Ref : IS:2720 (Part XXIX) -1975
Preamble:
A core cutter is driven in the cleaned surface with the help of a suitable rammer, till about 1
cm of the dolly protrudes above the surface. The cutter containing the soil is dug out of the
ground, the dolly is removed and the excess soil is trimmed off. The mass of the soil is found.
By dividing it by the volume of the cutter the bulk density is determined. The water content
of the excavated soil is found and the dry density is computed.
Aim : To determine the in-place density of a soil using core cutter method.
S.No Name of equipment Type Remarks Quantity
1 Core cutter Mild steel Consists of cutting 1
edge at bottom
S.No Name of equipment Type Quantity
1 dolly Mild steel 1
2 rammer metal 1
3 Steel scale 1
4 Weighing balance Sensitivity 0.01g 1
5 Moisture containers 3
6 Palate knife 1
Photos of Equipment and components:
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a) Core cutter b) steel dolly
c) Steel rammer d) palette knife e) steel scale
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f) weighing balance
Theory:
The particle density of a soil measures the mass in a given volume of particles. Particle
density focuses on just the soil particles themselves and not the volume they occupy in the
soil. Bulk density includes both the volume of the solid (mineral and organic) portion of the
soil and the spaces where air and water are found.
Density is measured as mass per unit volume (mass divided by volume). Soil particle
density depends on the chemical composition and structure of the minerals in the soil. Most
mineral particles in soils have a particle density ranging from 2.60 to 2.75 g/cm3. However,
the density can be as high as 3.0 g/cm3 for very dense mineral particles, and as low as 0.9
g/cm3 for organic particles.
If we have information on both the particle density and the bulk density of the soil, we can
calculate the pore space (or porosity) that is occupied by air and water. This is useful because
it helps us to understand other important soil properties such as how much water can be
stored in the soil, how fast water and heat will be moved through the soil, how easily roots
can move through the soil, and the potential for flooding or drought in an area.
Field density is defined as weight of unit volume of soil present in site. That is
𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉
Where, 𝛾 = Density of soil
W = Total weight of soil
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V = Total volume of soil

The soil weight consists of three phase system that is solids, water and air. The voids
may be filled up with both water and air, or only with air, or only with water. Consequently
the soil may be dry, saturated or partially saturated.
Fig 3.1 core cutter apparatus

In soils, mass of air is considered to be negligible, and therefore the saturated density is
maximum, dry density is minimum and wet density is in between the two.
Dry density of the soil is calculated by using equation,
𝛾𝑡
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
Where, 𝛾𝑑 = dry density of soil
𝛾𝑡 = Wet density of soil
w = moisture content of soil.
Procedure : The apparatus consists of mild steel cylindrical in shape open at top and
bottom and provided with a cutting edge and dolly of 25 mm in height to fit its top and a
metal rammer.
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The core cutter is 10cm in dia and 12.5 cm in height. (However these measurements
must be made carefully with a steel scale and recorded). The core cutter is manufactured to
give a volume of 1000cc. The dolly fitted to its top is 2.5cm in height. The bottom 1 cm of
the core cutter is sharpened in to a cutting edge. The empty weight of the core cutter without
dolly is found – W1 gm. The site where the soil’s in-situ density is to be determined is
cleaned and levelled. The core cutter with the dolly in position is placed on the levelled
portion. It is gently driven into the soil completely with the dolly by means of a rammer.
After driving completely, the soil surrounding the core cutter is excavated with a small
crowbar so as to enable to cut the bottom of the core cutter with a spatula and the total unit is
removed from the position and kept on a plane surface. The surfaces of soil at top (remove
the dolly gently from its position) and bottom are then, trimmed with a spatula gently so as
to be flush with the top and bottom of the core cutter.
The core cutter in this position is cleaned carefully from outside.
Now the weight of core cutter with the wet soil (without dolly) is determined as W2 gm.
Now the weight of wet soil = W2 - W1 gm
The in-situ soil is generally assumed to be moist.
Weight of moist soil

In-situ moist density of soil = -------------------------------
Volume of soil (gm/cc)
The volume of the soil is equal to the volume of core cutter.
A small but representative sample from the core cutter is then taken and its moisture content
is determined (w)
Wet or moisture density

Now the Dry Density of in-situ soil = --------------------------------
1+w
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It is always preferable to express the soil density in terms of its dry density because the dry
density for the soil at any given place and at any time is constant.
Trial 1 Trial 2
Empty wt. of core cutter without

dolly (gm) (w1)
Wt. of core cutter with soil

trimmed flush with top & bottom
(gm) (w2)
Weight of moist soil gm

W=( W2 - W1 )
Height of Core cutter (cm)
Volume of core cutter equal to

volume of soil = V cc
Bulk or moist density of soil gm/cc

w/v
Wt. of container with moist soil

(gm) (w1)
Empty wt. of container gm (w3)
Weight of containing with dry soil

gm (w2)
Weight of water ( W2 - W1 ) gm
Wt. of dry soil (gm)

Ws=( W2 – W3 )
Water content (%)

( W1 – W2 )
W= ---------------x100
( W2 – W3 )
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Dry Density (gm / cc)

Wet density
= ------------------
1+w
Result:
Average Moist density = ………………………….. gm / cc
Average dry density = ………………………….. gm / cc
Application:
Field density is used in calculating the stress in the soil due to its overburden pressure
it is needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system, settlement of footing
earth pressures behind the retaining walls and embankments. Stability of natural slopes,
dams, embankments and cuts is checked with the help of density of those soils. It is the
density that controls the field compaction of soils. Permeability of soils depends upon its
density. Relative density of cohesionless soils is determined by knowing the dry density of
soil in natural, loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation need
the help of density of soil.
Core cutter method in particular, is suitable for soft to medium cohesive soils, in
which the cutter can be driven. It is not possible to drive the cutter into hard, boulder or
murrumy soils. In such case other methods are adopted.
Sample Question
1. Determine field density by core cutter.
2. Determine insitu density by core cutter.
3. How can dry density of soil be determined in field? Write the experimental procedure.
4. Determine dry density of soil in field by core cutter.
5. Measure the soil density by core cutter.
Viva questions:
1. Out of wet density, dry density, and saturated density, which one of them is maximum
and minimum? Explain.
2. What are the main factors which affect in-situ density of soil? Explain.
35
3. Beside the density what other properties do you need to calculate the void ratio and
degree of saturation of soils?
4. What are the other methods to calculate the field density of soil?
5. What is the value of density of organic clay?
6. What is the value of density of pure water?
7. Density of soil changes with?
8. Density of soil changes with depth of soil?
9. What are the main factors which affect dry density of soil? Explain
10. What is difference between bulk density and dry density?
36
9.3.2 Determination of in-situ density by sand replacement methods
Ref : IS:2720 (Part XXVIII) -1974.
Preamble
Uniformly graded, clean sand passing a 600 micron sieve and retained on 300 micron sieve is
used in the cylinder. The cylinder is filled upto a height of 1cm below the top and its initial
mass M1 is taken. The sand is run out of the cylinder equal in volume to that of the calibrating
container. The cylinder is then placed over a plane surface and the sand is allowed to fall.The
sand filled in the cone is measured as M2. The sand is refilled in the cylinder and it is
centrally placed over the calibrating container and sand is allowed to fall. The valve is shut
when there is no further movement of sand. The mass of the sand is found (M3). M’= M1-M2-
M3.M’ is then divided by the volume of calibrating container to give bulk density of the sand.
Aim : To determine the In-place density of a soil by sand replacement method.
equipment
1. Sand pouring 3 litre capacity 1
cylinder
2 Metal tray with 30 cm square with 10 cm 1
hole hole in the centre
3 Calibrating can 1
37
S.No Name of Type Quantity
equipment
1. spatula 1
2 Excavating tool 1
3 Weighing balance Sensitivity 1
0.01 g
a) Sand pouring cylinder b) calibrating can c) tray with central hole
38
d) Spatula e) weighing balance
Theory
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil
= V/W
Where = mass density of soil

w = total mass of soil
v = total volume of soil
Fig 3.2.1 soil phase diagram
39
Here mass and volume of soil comprise the whole soil mass. In the above figure, voids may
be filled with both water and air or only air or only water, consequently the soil may be wet
or dry or saturated. In soil the mass of air is consider negligible and there fore the saturated
density is maximum , dry density is minimum and wet density is in between the two if soils
are found below water table submerged density is also estimated. The density can be
expressed in g/cm3, or t/m3 or kg/m3 or 1b/t3. For calculating the submerged density the
density of water is taken as 1 g/c3 = 1 t/m3
Dry density of the soil is calculated by using equation-
γd = γt / 1+w
Where, γd = dry density of soil
γt = wet density of soil
w = moisture content of soil.
Density of soil may be determined by core cutter test, sand replacement method and
gamma ray method. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of soil solids.
A hole of specified dimensions is excavated in the ground. The mass of the excavated soil is
determined.
The volume of the hole is determined by filling it with clean, uniform sand whose dry density
is determined separately by calibration. The volume of the hole is equal to the mass of the
sand filled in the hole divided by its dry density.
The dry density of the excavated soil is determined as
Where M= mass of the excavated soil, V= volume of the hole and w= water content.
40
Fig 3.2.2 dimensions of sand pouring cylinder
Procedure : The equipment in the sand replacement method consists of
i) A sand pouring cylinder mounted above a pouring cone and separated by a valve
or shutter
ii) Calibrating container
iii) Tray with central circular hole and
iv) A small excavating tool, scoop, balance etc.
The procedure consists of

a] Calibration of the cylinder
b] measurement of soil density
c] determination of water content and dry density
a] Calibration of the cylinder :- This consists of the determination of the weight of sand
required to fill the pouring cone of the cylinder and the determination of the bulk density
of sand.
Uniformly graded, dry, clean sand preferably passing 600 micron sieve and retained
on 300 micron sieve is used in the cylinder. The cylinder is filled up to a height (¾ the
41
level) or 1cm below the top and its initial weight W1 gm is recorded. The cylinder is then
placed on a plane surface the valve is opened and the sand is allowed to run out to fill the
conical portion below. When no further sand runs out, the valve is closed. The weight of
sand pouring cylinder with the sand after filling the conical portion is determined as W 2
gm.
Now weight of sand filling the conical portion = W1- W2 gm. Now the sand pouring
cylinder with the sand (after W2 is recorded) is placed centrally over the calibrating can
such that the axis of the sand pouring cylinder coincides with the axis of calibrating can.
Now release sand to fill the calibration can and the conical portion. When no sand runs
out, close the valve and find the weight of sand pouring cylinder with the remaining sand
after filling calibrating can the conical portion. Let this weight be W3
Now weight of sand filling the calibrated can

= ( W2- W3 ) – (W1- W2 )
Volume of calibrating can = Vcc (a known quantity)

(generally supplied by manufacturer)
Weight of sand filling calibrated can

Unit weight of sand = rsand = ------------------------------------
Volume of calibrating can
42
Measurement of the unit weight of in place soil :
The site at which the in-situ unit weight is to be determined is cleaned and levelled. A square
tray with a central hole in it is placed on the cleaned surface. A hole of the dia equal to the
dia of the hole in the tray and a depth of about 10-15 cm is made in the ground. The
excavated soil is carefully collected in to the tray and weighed. Next the sand pouring
cylinder with the sand (after W3 is taken) is placed on the hole in the tray carefully and the
falling of sand is released. The excavated pit and the conical portions are filled and when no
further sand falls the valve is closed and the weight of sand pouring cylinder with the
remaining sand is determined and recorded as W4 .
Now the weight of sand filling the excavated pit and conical portion = W3- W4
Weight of sand filling the excavated pit = ( W3- W4 ) – (W1- W2 )
Volume of sand filling the excavated pit = Weight of sand filling excavated pit
------------------------------------
Density of sand
This volume of sand filling the excavated pit is nothing but the volume of soil excavated
from pit.
Weight of sand filling excavated pit

 ---------------------------------------------- - is the volume of soil
excavated from pit.
rsand
Wet (bulk) density (gm/cc)

Now in-situ density soil = -------------------------------------------
Volume of soil excavated from pit
The core cutter method for this purpose cannot be used in the case of hard or gravelly
soils. Under such situations the sand replacement method is convenient.
Observation sheet for sand-replacement method for in-situ density of soil.
43
Wt. of sand pouring cylinder + ¾ sand (gm) (W1)
Wt. of empty sand pouring cylinder (gm) (W2)
Wt. of sand pouring cylinder + remaining sand after filling

conical portion (W3) (gm)
Wt. of sand filling conical portion (W4) (gm)
W4 = (W1 – W3) gm
Wt. of sand pouring cylinder + sand after filling pit and
conical portion (W5) (gm)
Wt. of sand filling pit and conical portion (W6) (gm)
W6 = (W3 – W5)
Wt. of sand filling only pit portion (gm) (W7)
W7 = (W6 – W4)
Volume of sand occupying pit portion (cc)
Weight of sand filling pit portion

= -----------------------------------------
Density of sand
This is equal to volume of soil removed from pit =V
44
Density of sand used in the test :
Wt. of calibrated can + sand flush with top of can

(gm) (W1)
Empty weight of calibrated can (gm) (W2)
Wt. of sand in calibrated can W gm
W = W1 – W2
Dia. of calibrated can (cm) (D)

Height of calibrated can (H) (cm)
Volume of calibrated can

D 2
V xH cc
4
W
Density of sand rsand  gm/cc
V
Wt. of soil excavated from pit and collected in to calibrated
can + wt. of can = W3 gm
Wt. of soil only excavated from pit = W gm
W = (W3 – W2)
In-situ density of soil = rb
W
rb  gm/cc
V
Result :
In-situ density of soil by Sand replacement = ------------ gm/cc
Aplication
Density is used in calculating the stress in the stress in the soil due to its overburden
pressure. It is needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system, settlement
of footings, earth pressures behind the retaining walls, dams, embankments. Stability of
natural slopes, dams, embankments and cutis checked with the help of deity of these soils. It
45
is the density of controls the field of soils. Permeability of soils depends upon its density.
Relative density of cohesion less soils is determined by knowing by knowing the dry density
of that soil in natural, loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation
need the help of density of soils.
Sample Question
1. Determine field density by sand replacement method.
2. Determine insitu density by sand replacement method .
3. How can dry density of soil be determined in field? Write the experimental procedure.
4. Determine dry density of soil in field by sand replacement method.
5. Measure the soil density by sand replacement method.
Viva Voice
1. What are the other methods to calculate the field density of soil?
2. What is the condition for maximum and minimum void ratios ?
3. Water content is also called? (Moisture content)
4. Which method is mostly used to determine the water content in field?
5. What is water content for clay soil?
6. On which factor water content is depended?
7. Density of soil changes with?
8. Density of soil changes with depth of soil?

9. What are the main factors which affect dry density of soil? Explain
10. What is difference between bulk density and dry density?
46
9.4.1 Determination of Particle size distribution (Mechanical Analysis) by

Sieve Analysis Method
Ref : IS:2720 (Part IV) -1985 – Test Procedure for sieve Analysis.
Preamble
Sieving is performed by arranging various sieves one over the other in order of their mesh
openings. A receiver is kept at bottom and cover is kept at top of the whole assembly. The
soil sample is put on the top sieve, and the whole assembly is fitted on a sieve shaking
machine at least 10 minutes of shaking is desirable. The portion of the soil sample retained on
each sieve is weighed .The percentage of the soil retained on each sieve is calculated on the
basis of the total mass of soil sample taken and these results , percentage passing through
each sieve is calculated.
Aim : To determine the particle size distribution of a coarse grained soil by a sieve analysis
test and classify the soil.
equipment
1 IS Sieves a)Brass frame <300 mm size 8
b)G.I frame >300 mm size
2 Sieve shaker Mechanical Sieve Accommodates 8 1
Shaker, inch dia sieves
Digital Sieve Shaker
47
1 Wire brush 1
2 porcelain dish 1
3 Weighing balance Sensitivity 0.01g 1
Photos of equipments and components
a) Sieve sets b) sieve shaker
c)Weighing balance d) porcelain dish e) wire brush
48
Theory:
Soils having particles larger than 0.075mm size are termed as coarse grained soils. In these
soils more than 50% of the total material by mass is larger than 75 micron. Coarse grained
soil may have boulder, cobble, gravel and sand.
Coarse grained soils may have rounded to angular bulky, hard, rock particles with the
following sizes:
Boulder - more than 300 mm dia.
Cobble - smaller than 300 mm and larger than 80mm dia.
Gravel (G) - smaller than 80mm and larger than 4.75mm.
Coarse gravel- 20mm to 4.75mm
Sand (S) - smaller than 4.75 mm and larger than 0.075mm
Coarse : 4.75mm to 2mm
Medium : 2.0mm to 425 micron
Fine : 425 micron to 75 micron
Name of the soil is given depending upon the maximum percentage of the above
components. Soils having less than 5% particles of size smaller than 0.075 mm are designed
by the symbols:
GW: Well graded gravel
GP-Poorly graded gravel
SW: Well graded sand
SP-Poorly graded sand
Soils having greater than 12% of particles of size smaller than 0.075 mm are designed by
the following symbols:
GM or GC: Silty gravel or clayey sand
SM or SC: Silty sand or clayey sand
Dual symbols are used for the soils having 75 micron passing between 5 to 12%. Dry sieve
analysis is performed for cohesion less soils if fines are less than 5%. Wet sieve analysis is
done if fines are more than 5% and of cohesive in nature. Gravel and sand may be either
poorly graded(uniformly graded) or well graded depending upon the value of coefficient of
curvature and uniformly coefficient.
Coefficient of curvature may be estimated as:-
Cc = (D30)2
(D10 x D60)
49
Where,
D60=diameter at 60% finer
It should lie between 1 and 2 for well graded gravels and sands
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = D60
D10
Its value should be more than 4 for well-graded gravels and more than 6 for well
graded sands (IS: 1498-1970).
The soil is sieved through a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is
determined. The percentage of material retained on any sieve is given by
Where = mass of soil retained on sieve ‘n’
M= total mass of the sample.
The cumulative percentage of the material retained
Where , etc are the percentages retained on sieve 1, 2 etc which are coarser than sieve
‘n’. The percentage finer than the sieve ‘n’
50
Particle size distribution on semi log graph
Fig 4.1 Grading of soils
[Note: If the fraction contains an appreciable amount of clay particles, the wet sieve analysis
is required. Alternatively following method may be used.]
Procedure : The percentage of various sizes of particles in a given dry soil sample is
found by a particle size analysis or mechanical analysis. By mechanical analysis is meant
the separation of soil into its different size fractions. The mechanical analysis is performed
in two stages:
51
i] Sieve Analysis and ii] Sedimentation Analysis or Wet Mechanical Analysis.
The fist stage is meant for coarse grained soils only while the second stage is
performed for fine grained soils.
In general, a soil sample may contain both coarse grained particles and as well as fine
particles and hence both the stages of the mechanical analysis may be necessary. The sieve
analysis is, however, the true representative of grain size distribution since the test is not
effected by temperature etc.
In the Indian standard (IS:460:1962), the sieves are designated by the size of aperture
in mm. The following IS : sieves are generally used in a sieve analysis procedure. The sieves
are cleaned with a brush for any soil particles sticking in the sieve openings. The sieves are
4.75mm; 2.36mm; 1.18 mm; 500 micron or 600 micron; 300 micron ; 150 micron ; 75
micron.
In the dry sieve analysis a suitable quantity of (generally 500gm) pulverized dry soil is
taken and is sieved through a set of selected sieves arranged according to their sizes with the
largest aperture sieve at the top and the smallest aperture sieve at the bottom. A receiver is
kept at the bottom and a cover is kept at the top of the whole assembly. The soil sample is
put on the top sieve and the whole assembly is fitted on a sieve shaking machine. The
amount of shaking depends upon the shape and number of particles. However 10 minutes of
shaking by a mechanical shaker is usually sufficient for soils with smallest particles. The
portion of the soil sample retained on each sieve is weighed. The percentage of soil retained
on each sieve is calculated on the basis of total weight of sample taken and from these results
the percent passing through each is calculated (also termed as percent finer than) as shown
below
52
Weight of soil retained on that particular sieve

% retained on a particular sieve = -----------------------------------x100
Total weight of soil taken
Cumulative % retained = sum of %retained on all sieves of larger sizes and the % retained on
that particular sieve.
Percentage finer than the sieve under reference = 100% - cumulative% retained.
The finest sieve size used in the sieve analysis is 75 microns or 0.075 mm.
The results of grain size analysis are usually represented in the form of a graph.
The aggregate or cumulative weight as a percentage of the total weight of all grains smaller
than any given diameter is plotted on the ordinate using an arithmetical scale and the size of
the soil particle (or particle diameter) in mm is plotted on the abscissa using a logarithmic
scale. In view of the very large range of particle sizes, a logarithmic scale becomes
necessary.
The plot generally of curve is called “particle size distribution curve” or “Grain size
distribution curve”. From the curve the gradation of the soil can be studied and the soil is
classified from the plot and the results from the plot.
Total weight of by soil taken =
Sieve Size Weight retained Cumulative %

% wt. retained % finer than
mm gm wt. retained
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3
0.15
0.075
-0.075
Result: The gradation of soil is……………………..
Graph
53
Application
The percentage of different sizes of soil particles coarser than 75μ is determined. Coarse
grained soils are classified mainly by sieve analysis. The grain size distribution curve gives
an idea regarding the gradation of the soil i.e. it is possible to identify whether a soil is well
graded or poorly graded. In mechanical soil stabilization, the main principle is to mix a few
selected soils in such a proportion that a desired grain size distribution is obtained for the
design mix. Hence for proportioning the selected soils, the grain size distribution of each soil
is to be first known.
Sample Question
1. Perform sieve analysis for the given soil sample. Draw the grading curve.
2. Determine grain size distribution for given soil sample by sieving.
3.Perform sedimentary analysis for the given soil sample and draw grading curve.
4. Perform sieve analysis and with help of particle size distribution curve classify the
type of soil sample.
5. Determine grain size distribution of coarse grained soil by sieving.
54
Viva Voce
1. What do you understand by well graded, poorly graded and uniformly graded soils?
2. What do you understand by dry sieve and wet sieve analysis? Which once did you
perform and why?
3. What is the grain size distribution curve? Why do you use a semi-long graph paper for
plotting it?
4. What do you understand by GW,GP,GM,GC,SW,SP,SM,SC,SW-SM,GP-SC?
5. Define coefficient of uniformity , coefficient of curvature .
6. What is meant by gap graded soil?
7. What is meant by well graded soils? Mention their uses.
8. What does s shape curve in particle size distribution graph signify?
9. Mention the application of sieve analysis.
10. By which method are Particle greater than 75 micron are analyzed?
9.4.2 Determination of Particle size distribution (Mechanical Analysis) by

Hydrometer Analysis Method
Preamble
55
Soil suspension of 1000ml volume is prepared. The sedimentation jar is shaken vigorously
and is then kept vertical over solid base. The stop watch is simultaneously started. The
hydrometer is slowly inserted in the jar and readings are taken at certain time intervals. Since
the soil suspension is opaque, the reading is taken corresponding to the upper level of the
meniscus. A suitable meniscus correction is then applied to hydrometer reading.
Aim: To determine the particle size distribution by hydrometer method

Equipment:
Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker, Mixer (blender), 152H Hydrometer,
Sedimentation cylinder, Control cylinder, Thermometer, Beaker, Timing device.
Equipment required:
equipment
1 Hydrometer 157H Hydrometer Used for fine grain 1
Specific soil
Gravity hydrometers Used for
determining
specific gravity of
solids
2 Sieve shaker Electrically operated 1
3 Set of sieves Brass framed 8
56
equipment
1 Sedimentation 1000ml 1
container
2 thermometer 1
3 Stop watch 1
Images of equipments and components:
57
58
Theory:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the
coarser, larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the
distribution of the finer particles.
Hydrometer method is used to determine the particle size distribution of fine-grained soils
passing 75 sieve. The hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the soil suspension at
the centre of its bulb. The specific gravity depends upon the mass of solids present, which in
turn depends upon the particle size. The particle size (D) is given by:
Where
In which, = viscosity of water in poise, G= specific gravity of solids,
59
= density of water (gm/ml); , = effective depth, t= time in

minutes at which observation is taken, reckoned with respect to the beginning of
sedimentation.
The percentage finer than the size D i given by
Where R= corrected hydrometer reading, Ms= mass of dry soil in 1000ml suspension.
Procedure
Sieve Analysis:
(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve.
Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each
sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the
bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
(1) Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add 125
mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexameta-phosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the
mixture until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
(2) While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and fill
it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top of the meniscus formed
by the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as
a negative (-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive
60
(+) correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the
difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control
jar (Usually about +1). Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are
mixed thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and
note the zero correction and temperature respectively.
(3) Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until
mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.
(4) Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled
water up to the mark.
(5) Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your
hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute.
(The cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)
(6) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder. After
an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully insert the
hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should take about ten seconds to insert or
remove the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer
should be made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive bobbing).
(7) The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the suspension and
the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the
control cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles that may
have adhered.
(8) Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24
hours
61
Data Analysis:
Sieve Analysis:
(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty
sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight
retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately
equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve
by the original sample mass.
(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and
subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
For example: Total mass = 500 g
Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
Mass retained on No. 10 sieve = 39.5 g
For the No.4 sieve:

Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained
= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;

% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %

For the No. 10 sieve:
Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained
= 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %

% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %
(Alternatively, use % passing = % Arriving - % Retained
For No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9 = 90.2 %)
(4) Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
(5) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
62
(1) Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.
(2) From Table 1, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for eniscus corrected
reading).
(3) For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab purpose), obtain the
value of K from Table 2.
(4) Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following formula:
L
DK
t
Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.
(5) Determine the temperature correction CT from Table 3.
(6) Determine correction factor “a” from Table 4 using Gs.
(7) Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:

Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + CT
(8) Calculate percent finer as follows:

Rc  a
P 100,
WS
Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams.
(9) Adjusted percent fines as follows:

P  F200
PA 
100
F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent
(10) Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on the semilogarithmic
sheet.
63
Grain Size Analysis
Sieve Analysis
Visual Classification of Soil: Brown Clayey to silty sand, trace fine gravel
Weight of Container: _______ gm
Wt. Container+Dry Soil: _______ gm
Wt. of Dry Sample: _______ gm
Mass of
Mass of Soil
Sieve Diameter Sieve+Soil Percent Percent
Empty Retained
Number (mm) Retained Retained Passing
Sieve (g) (g)
(g)
4 4.75
10 2.0
20 0.84
40 0.425
60 0.25
140 0.106
200 0.075
Pan ---
Total Weight =
From Grain Size Distribution Curve:
% Gravel= D10= ____ mm
% Sand= D30= ____ mm
% Fines= D60= ____ mm
Cu= ______________ CC= ________
Unified Classification of Soil: ________
64
Hydrometer Analysis
Specific Gravity of Solids : ________
Dispersing Agent : _________
Weight of Soil Sample : _________gm
Zero Correction : _________
Meniscus Correction : _________
Actual Corr. %
Elapsed Hyd. CT %
Temp. Hydro. L from K from D a from Hydr. Adjusted
Date Time Time Corr. for from Finer
OC Rdg. Table 1 Table 2 Mm Table 4 Rdg. Finer
(min) Meniscus Table 3 P
Ra Rc PA
Unified Classification of Soil:
65
Application:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in
classifying the soil.
Sample Questions
1.Determine the grain size distribution by hydrometer.
2.Determine the distribution of particle size finer than 75 micron sieve by hydrometer.
3.Plot grain size distribution curve by performing grain size distribution using density hydrometer.
4.Determine grain size distribution of finer particles.
5. Determine the distribution of particle size finer than 75 micron sieve by hydrometer. Plot the grain size distribution curve.
Viva Voce
1. Which type of soil is suitable for hydrometer analysis?
2. Is pretreatment of soil required for hydrometric analysis?
3. What is effective depth?
4. On what parameters does effective depth depend upon?
5. In calibration of hydrometer , density reading of 0.995 is recorded as ?
6. What is the volume of suspension?
66
7. What is the dispersing agent used in hydrometer test ?
8. What are the corrections applied to hydrometer readings?
9. When is positive temperature correction applied to readings?
10. When is negative temperature correction applied to readings?
67
9.5.1 Coefficient of Permeability (Constant Head Test) :
Ref : IS:2720 (Part XVII)
Preamble
The constant head permeability test involves flow of water through a column of cylindrical
soil sample under the constant pressure difference. The soil sample has a cylindrical form
with its diameter being large enough in order to be representative of the tested soil. The
permeability cell is also equipped with a loading piston that can be used to apply constant
axial stress to the sample during the test. Before starting the flow measurements, however,
the soil sample is saturated. During the test, the amount of water flowing through the soil
column is measured for given time intervals.
Aim : To determine the coefficient of Permeability of a soil by Constant Head
Permeability Test .
Apparatus :Permeameter mould of internal dia 100mm and effective height 127.3mm,
capacity 1000 ml; Detachable collar 100mm dia & 60mm high, Dummy plate 108mm
diameter and 12mm thick; Drainage base having porous disc; Drainage cap having a porous
disc with a spring attached to the top; Compaction equipment such as Proctor’s rammer or a
static compaction equipment, constant head water supply reservoir, vacuum pump; constant
head collecting chamber; stop watch; large funnel; Thermometer; weighing balance; accuracy
0.1 gm; filter papers.
1 permeameter Jodhpur permeameter Used for all types 1
of soil
68
2 Compaction Proctor rammer, Densifies soil 1
equipment static compaction
equipment
1 Large funnel 1
2 Weighing machine 0.1g 1
3 Filter papers 2
Images of equipments and components:
69
Thermostatic oven
Mixing pan meter scale
Graduated measuring stop watch moisture containers
70
cylinder
Theory:
The permeability test is a measure of the rate of the flow of water through soil.
In this test, water is forced by a known constant pressure through a soil specimen of
known dimensions and the rate of flow is determined. This test is used primarily to
determine the suitability of sands and gravels for drainage purposes, and is made only on
remolded samples. The test is limited to materials which have a coefficient of
permeability of approximately 300 mm/day or greater. The “Constant Head” type of test is
used on samples that represent materials to be used as backfill for abutments, as permeable
material for underdrains, as sand drains, as sand blanket for sand drain areas, and similar
Material.
71
Fig 5.1 principal of constant head permeameter
The coefficient of permeability is equal to the rate of flow of water through a unit cross
section area under a unit hydraulic gradient. In the constant head permeameter, the head
causing flow through the specimen remains constant throughout the test. The coefficient of
permeability (k) is obtained from the relation
Where q= discharge, Q=total volume of water, t=time period, h=head causing flow, L= length
of specimen, A= cross-sectional area.
The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of a sandy
soil by the constant head test method. There are two general types of permeability test
methods that are routinely performed in the laboratory: (1) the constant head test method, and
(2) the falling head test method. The constant head test method is used for permeable soils
(k>10-4 cm/s) and the falling head test is mainly used for less permeable soils (k<10-4 cm/s).
PROCEDURE :
1] Remove the collar of the mould. Measure the internal dimensions of the mould. Find
the weight of the mould with dummy plate to the nearest gram.
2] Apply a little grease or oil on the inside to the mould clamp the mould between the
base plate and the extension collar and place assembly on solid base.
3] Take about 2.5 kg of the soil sample from a thoroughly mixed wet soil in the mould.
Compact the soil at the required dry density using a suitable compacting device.
4] Remove the collar and the base plate. Trim the excess soil and level the soil surface
in level with the top of the mould.
5] Clean the outside of the mould and the dummy plate. Find the weight of soil in the
mould.
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6] Take a small specimen of the soil in a container and determine the water content.
7] Saturate the porous discs (stones).
8] Place a porous disc on the drainage base and place a fitter paper on the porous disc.
9] Remove the dummy plate and place the mould with the soil on the drainage base after
inserting the washer in between.
10] Clean the edges of the mould. Apply grease or oil in the grooves around them.
11] Place a fitter paper on the top soil face and the porous disc on the fitter paper and fix
the drainage cap using washers.
12] Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the base and allow the water to flow
upwards till it has saturated the sample. Let the free water collect for a depth of about
100mm on the top of the sample.
13] Fill the empty portion of the mould with deaired water without disturbing soil.
14] Disconnect the reservoir from the outlet at the bottom.
15] Connect the constant head reservoir to the drainage cap inlet.
16] Open the stop cock and all the water to flow downward so that all the air is removed.
17] Close the stop cock and allow the water to flow through the soil till a steady state is
attained.
18] Start the stop watch and collect the water flowing out of the base in a measuring jar
for some known time period ( say for 1 min. or 1½ min.)
19] Repeat this thrice, keeping the interval the same. Check that quantity of water
collected is approximately the same each time.
20] Measure the difference of head (h) in levels between the constant head reservoir and
the outlet in the base.
The constant head permeability test is suitable for clean sands and Gravels with K>10-2
mm/sec.
73
: Observation (Data) sheet for Constant Head Permeameter Test :
S.No. Observations & Determination No. Calculations 1

2 3
Observations :
1] Weight of empty mould with base plate W1 gm

2] Weight of mould, base & soil W2 gm
3] Hydraulic Head causing flow, h cm
4] Trim for which discharge is collected, t sec
5] Quantity of flow or discharge (Q) ml
a) First time in period, t
b) Second time in period, t
c) Third time in period, t
Average Q ( in ml x 103=mm3)
Calculations :
6] Weight of soil = (W2 – W1) gr
Weight
7] Bulk density = rb = -----------
Volume
8] Water content, w, determined

rwet
9] Dry Density = rdry = ----------
1+w
QL
10] K = ------
Aht
Dia. of soil sample = Dia. Of mould (D) = 100mm
D2
Area = ------- = 7854 mm2
4
L = Length or height of sample to be measured before commencing test
Result:
Coefficient of permeability of the given soil =_______ mm/sec.
Application
74
Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow through
a soil. This property is necessary for the calculation of seepage through earth dams or under
sheet pile walls, the calculation of the seepage rate from waste storage facilities (landfills,
ponds, etc.), and the calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits.
Sample Questions
1. Determine permeability of the given soil sample using constant permeability test.
2. Determine the coefficient of permeability of soil in the laboratory by constant head
test.
3. Determine permeability of coarse grained soil.
4. How is permeability of sandy soil determined in lab? Write the various steps involved
in the experiment.
Viva Voce
1. What is Darcy’s law of flow velocity through soils? What are its Limitations?
2. What are the steady and unsteady flows of water? What type of flow is
assumed to occur in soils?
3. What are the laboratory methods of determination of coefficient of permeability soil?

State their suitability.
4. What is the effect of entrapped air on the coefficient of permeability of soil?
5. List ‘k’ values for different types of soils.
6. How permeability test is done in the field?
7. Mention other permeability tests that can be done in the lab.
8. What is the application of permeability of soils?
9. Derive the expression for ‘k’ by falling head method.
10. Constant head soil is suitable for which type of soil?
75
9.5.2 Coefficient of Permeability (Variable Head Test) :
Ref : IS:2720 (Part XVII)
Preamble
The soil sample is saturated and the standpipes are filled with de-aired water to a given level.
The test then starts by allowing water to flow through the sample until the water in the
standpipe reaches a given lower limit. The time required for the water in the standpipe to to
drop from the upper to the lower level is recorded. Often, the standpipe is refilled and the test
is repeated for couple of times.
On the basis of the test results, the permeability of the sample can be calculated as
K=[a.L / (A.Δt)].Log(h_U / h_L)
in which we have
L: the height of the soil sample column
A: the sample cross section
a: the cross section of the standpipe
Δt: the recorded time for the water column to flow though the sample
h_U and h_L : the upper and lower water level in the standpipe measured using the same
water head reference
Aim : To determine the coefficient of Permeability of a soil by variable or falling head test.
Apparatus : Metallic mould of 100mm internal diameter, 127.3mm effective height and
1000ml capacity as per IS. The mould is provided with a detachable extension collar,
100mm diameter and 60mm high required during compaction of soil. The mould is provided
with a drainage base plate with a recess for porous stone. The mould is fitted with a drainage
cap having an inlet valve and an air release valve. The drainage base and cap have fitting for
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clamping to the mould. A vertical graduated stand pipe (½ cm; 1cm dia and 2 cm dia) is
fitted to the top of permeameter, proctor’s rammer, fitter papers; weighing balance, accuracy
0.1 gm; stop watch; supporting frame for stand pipe and clamping unit.
1 permeameter Jodhpur permeameter Used for all types 1
of soil
2 Compaction Proctor rammer, Densifies soil 1
equipment static compaction
equipment
Components required :
1 Large funnel 1
3 Filter papers 2
77
stop watch
Thermostatic oven
78
Meter scale measuring cylinder moisture containers
Theory:
The property of the soils which permits water (fluids) to percolate through its continuously
connected voids is called its permeability.
Depending upon the value of Reynolds number the flow of water through soils may be
‘laminar’ or ‘turbulent’. In laminar flow, a particle of water starting from a given position
follows a definite path without crisscrossing the path of other particles. In turbulent flow the
particles do not follow any definite path but have random, twisting and crisscrossing path.
For laminar and steady flow, according to Darcy’s law the rate of flow of water is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient in uniform and homogeneous soils.
i. e. V I ,where v = discharge velocity of water
V = ki
If q = discharge of water per unit time
q = k.i.A
If i = l
k=v
where i = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability
A = cross sectional area of the soil for discharge q.
In soil mechanics, the coefficient of permeability, k expresses the degree of permeability. It
has the velocity dimensions.
The variable head permeameter is used to measure the permeability of relatively less pervious
soils. The coefficient of permeability is given by
79
Where h1= initial head, = final head, t= time interval, a= cross-sectional area of the liquid
stand pipe, A=cross-sectional area of the specimen, L= length of specimen.
Fig 6.1 variable head permeameter
In this test, water is forced, by a falling head pressure, through a soil specimen of known
dimensions and the rate of flow is determined.This test is used to determine the drainage
characteristics of relatively fine-grained soils and is usually performed on undisturbed
samples.
80
Procedure : The variable read permeameter is used to measure the permeability of relatively
less pervious soils such as very fine sand and silt and silty clays with K=10-2 to 10-5 mm/sec.
The hydraulic head causing flow through soil sample is variable during the period of
conducting the test.
The coefficient of permeability of the soil is given by
2.303xaL h 
K log10  1 
At  h2 
Where h1 = intial head ; h2 = final head
t = time interval during which the head has fallen from h1 to h2
a = cross sectional area of stand pipe
A = cross sectional area of soil specimen
L = length or height of specimen
1] Remove the collar of the mould, measure the internal dimensions of the mould. Find
the empty weight of mould (W1 gm).
2] Apply a little grease or oil on the inside to the mould.
3] Take about 2.5Kg of soil sample, from a thoroughly mixed wet soil, in to the mould.
Compact the soil at the required dry density using a suitable compacting device.
4] Remove the collar and the base plate. Trim the excess soil in level with the top of the
mould.
5] Clean the outside of the mould and the dummy plate. Find the weight of mould+soil
(W2 gm).
(W2 - W1) = W=weight of soil in the mould
6] Take a small soil specimen and determine the water content .
7] Saturate the porous discs (stone).

Please note that the porous stones used shall be at least 10 times more pervious than
the soil.
8] Place a porous disc on the drainage base and on this keep a fitter paper.
81
9] Remove the dummy plate and place the mould with the soil on the drainage base after
inserting a washer in between.
10] Clean the edges of the mould. Apply grease or oil in the grooves around them.
11] Place a fitter paper and the porous disc and fix the drainage cap using washers.
12] Connect the stand pipe to the outlet at the base and allow the water to flow upwards
till it has saturated the sample. Let the free water collect for depth of about 100mm
on the top of the sample.
13] Fill the empty portion of the mould with deaired water without disturbing the sample.
14] Disconnect the stand pipe connection from the outlet at the bottom.
15] Connect the stand pipe to the drainage cap inlet. Fill the stand pipe with water.
16] Note the intial head h1 above the centre of the outlet. Before noting h1, open the stop
cock at the top and allow the water to flow out till all the air in the mould is removed
and close the stop cock. Now note h1.
17] and allow the water from the stand pipe to flow through the soil specimen
simultaneously start the stop watch.
18] After the head h1 has fallen to a level h2 difference in ( h1 and h2 shall 100mm to
300mm) note final head h2 and note the time taken for this.
It is necessary that steady state conditions shall be established.
It is fulfilled if the time for h1 to h2 is approximately the same as from h2 to h3.
19] Repeat the test for different values of h1 and h2 and record the time required.
20] In both the trials, the time, t, required for the head to tall from h1 to h2 and that from
h2 to h3 shall be noted carefully.
Stop the flow and disconnect all the parts.
Take a small quantity of the soil specimen and determine its water content.
82
: Data sheet for variable head Permeameter Test :
S.No. Observations & Calculations

Determination No.
Observations :
1] Weight of mould + base plate

2] Weight of mould + base + soil
3] Intial head, h1
4] Final head, h2
5] Time Interval from h1 to h2 =t
Calculations :
6] Weight of soil = (2) – (1)
Weight of soil
7] Bulk density = rb = --------------------
Volume of soil
rb
8] Dry Density = rdry = ----------
1+w
Grw
9] Void ratio, e = ------ -1
rdry
2.303xaL h 
10] K log10  1 
At  h2 
( in mm/sec or in cm/sec)
83
Application
The most common use of this test is in connection with the studies where drainage and
settlement of soft foundation soils are involved.This test can serve as a check on the
consolidation test results.The quantity of water that will flow through a
relatively fine-grained soil is so small that the presence of fissures or entrapped air may
seriously affect the results obtained. The use of the quantitative results obtained with this
test are usually questionable. The test may serve a useful purpose in comparing the
permeabilities of two soils or in comparing the permeabilities of a soil in horizontal and
vertical directions. Such information is valuable in the design of projects where vertical
sand drains are used.
Sample Questions
1. Determine permeability of the given soil sample using falling permeability test.
2. Determine the coefficient of permeability of soil in the laboratory by variable head
test.
3. Determine permeability of fine grained soil.
4. How is permeability of clayey soil determined in lab? Write the various steps
involved in the experiment.
5. Determine permeability of given soil sample using variable permeability test.
Viva Voce
1. What is Darcy’s law of flow velocity through soils? What are its Limitations?
2. What are the steady and unsteady flows of water? What type of flow is
assumed to occur in soils?
3. What are the laboratory methods of determination of coefficient of permeability of

soil? State their suitability.
4. What is the effect of entrapped air on the coefficient of permeability of soil?
5. Is hydraulic gradient constant in variable head test? Why?
84
6. How will you reduce observed permeability to permeability at standard temperature?
7. What is the necessity of two methods for determination of ‘k’ in lab?
8. Estimate discharge velocity in constant head test conducted. What is seepage

velocity?
9. This test is suitable for which type of soil?
10. What is the permeability test for less permeable soil?
85
9.6 Compaction Characteristics of soils
Ref : IS:2720 (Part VII) -1980 & 1987
Preamble
About 3kg of soil sample is sieve through 4.75 mm sieve and mixed with small quantity of
water.The empty mould attached to base plate is weighed without collar.The collar is then
attached to base plate.The mixed soil is the placed in the mould in three layers(about 1/3th
height of mould) and compacted for 25 blows by rammer.The base plate is removed and the
mould is weighed with compacted soil. After obtaining weight of soil it is divided with
volume of mould to obtain bulk density.A representative of the sample is taken for water
content determination.
Aim : To determine the compaction characteristics viz., Maximum Dry Density and
Optimum Moisture content for a given soil by Proctor’s Light compaction method.
Apparatus : Cylindrical metal mould of capacity 1000cc with an internal diameter of 100 ±
0.1mm and an internal effective height of 127.3 ± 0.1mm. The mould is fitted with a
detachable base and a removable extension (collar) approximately 50 to 60 mm high, Metal
edge, 20mm and 4.75mm IS Sieves, Balances 10kg capacity sensitive to 1gm and 200gm
capacity sensitive to 0.01 gm, Thermostatically controlled oven (105oC-110oC), water content
determination containers, Mixing equipment such as mixing pan, Enamel Trays, Spoon,
Trowel, Spatula etc, Measuring cylinder of glass 200ml capacity, sample extruder, metal
rammer 50mm dia. Circular face weighing 2.6kg and having a free drop of 310mm.
Equipment required:
S.No Name of equipment Type Remarks quantity
1 Cylindrical mould Standard proctor test capacity 1000cc 1
86
2 Metal rammer Light weight 2.6 kg 1
1 Graduated cylinder 100ml 1
3 spatula 1
5 Oven thermostatic 1
87
BLOCK DIAGRAM
fig 7.1 block diagram of standard proctor
Theory:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis
of field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design
specifications. Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the
“maximum” density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In
general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
88
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a
specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum
water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that
is weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less
susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil
compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results in a flocculated
soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil
compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same density.
Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The degree of
compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density. The dry density is
maximum at the optimum water content. A curve is drawn between the water content and the
dry density to obtain the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
Dry density
Where M = total mass of the soil, V= volume of soil, w= water content.
Procedure : Clean the mould, base plate and collar and rammer free of any soil.Take a
representative soil sample weighing approximately 20 to 30 kg thoroughly mixed air dried
material passing 20mm & 4.75mm IS Sieve. Add enough water to bring its water content to
about 7 percent for sandy soil or 10 percent for clay soil (much less than the estimated
optimum moisture content). Keep this soil in an air tight container for about 20 hours for
maturing.
89
Clean the mould and fix the base and find the empty weight of mould with the base,
W1 gm.
Attach the collar to the mould and apply a small quantity of oil or grease to the inside
of the mould, base and collar. Mix the matured soil thoroughly. From this take about 2½ Kg
of the soil into a tray, level the soil and divide this soil in to three approximate portions.
Introduce the first portion of the soil into the mould and compact the soil with the rammer by
giving 25 blows (keeping the rammer on the soil surface, raising it to the full height and
allow this to fall freely under gravity will cause one blow). The blows shall be evenly
distributed during compaction to cause uniform compaction. After compaction and before
introducing the second portion of the soil for compaction on similar lines, the soil surface of
the first compacted portion shall be scratched in all directions to create roughness. This will
help good bonding between the two layers. Keep the collar in position and now introduce the
second portion of soil and compact with the rammer by giving 25 blows with the rammer and
as explained above scratch the compacted surface after the compaction. Now introduce the
third portion and complete the compaction and it will be seen that the soil so compacted will
be occupying a portion of the collar. Remove the collar without causing breakage of soil in
the mould and the collar. Using a straight edge or a spatula trim the excess soil Protruding
above the top of mould to keep the trimmed surface correctly in level with the top of mould.
In this condition only the volume of the wet compacted soil is equal to the volume of the
mould. Now find the weight of mould with base and the compacted soil after cleaning the
mould from outside and record this as W2 gm.
If necessary using the proctor’s needle find the penetration resistance. Eject the soil
from the mould. Take a representative soil sample and determine its water content.
90
Take another fresh 2½ Kg of soil and change the water content by about 3% mix
thoroughly in the tray, level the soil and divide the soil into three portions and compact each
portion as explained above. Remove the excess soil, and find the weight of mould, base and
compacted soil. Find penetration resistance and determine the water content of soil.
In this manner perform the experiment for about four trials or so repeating the
procedure and changing the water content each time as mentioned above. Stop the
experiment with that trial when the wt. of base, mould and compacted soil will be found to be
reducing instead of increasing.
After the water contents for all the trials are determined the dry density of soil for
each trial is determined as
Wet Density
Dry Density for any trial = -----------------------
1+water content (gm/cc)
Weight of Wet compacted soil

And Wet Density for any trial = ------------------------------- (gm/cc)
Volume of compacted soil
( Volume of compacted soil is equal to volume of the mould )
Using the information of dry density and water content of all the trials, a curve is
plotted with water content on X-axis and dry density on Y-axis. Also plot on the same curve
between penetration resistance and water content as shown in the figure.
From the curve find the max. dry density corresponding to the peak point on the curve
and the water content corresponding to max. dry density and this water content is called
Optimum Moisture Content.
Max. Dry Density (gm/cc) = ……………………………….
Optimum moisture content (%) = ……………………………….
91
Observation sheet for Proctor’s Compaction Test :

(Light Compaction)
Determination No. : …………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 5
a] Density :
Weight of mould, base + compacted soil (gm) W2
Weight of empty mould with base (W1) gm
Weight of wet compacted soil (W2 – W1) gm
Internal average dia. of mould, d cm
Height (average) of mould, h cm
D 2
Volume of mould (cc) V  xH
4
Wet (bulk) density (gm/cc)
Dry density (gm/cc)
b] Water Content :
Container No. …………………….
Weight of container + wet soil (gm) W1
Weight of empty container W2 gm
Weight of wet soil (W1 – W2) gm
Weight of container + dry soil, W3 gm
Weight of dry soil Wd or Ws (W3 – W2) gm
Weight of water, gm (W1 – W3)
weight of water
Water content, w = ------------------------ x 100(%)
weight of dry soil
92
Graph
Application
Compaction of soils increases their density, shear strength bearing capacity but reduces their
void ratio, porosity, permeability and settlements. The results of this test are useful in the
stability of field problems like earthen dams, embankments, roads and airfields. In such
constructions, the soils are compacted. The moisture content at which the soils are compacted
in moisture content at which the soils are compacted in the field is controlled by the value of
optimum moisture content determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test. The
compaction energy to be given by the field compaction energy to be given by the field
compaction unit is also controlled by the maximum dry density determined in the laboratory..
Sample Question
1. Determine compaction properties of soil sample.

93
2. Determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture content for the given soil sample
using compaction test.
3. Determine compaction properties of soil sample. Plot graph between moisture content and
dry density to obtain OMC.
4. Determine the relationship between water content and dry density of soil using standard
proctor test.
5. Determine MDD and OMC of soil sample by conducting compaction test.
Viva Voice
1. What is meant by dry side and wet side of optimum? Which side is preferred in
the field compaction? Explain.
2. Explain how the gravel content in the soil mass affect the laboratory compaction
specifications.
3. What is the energy imparted by the standard and modified compaction test?
4. What are the approximate values of OMC and MDD for coarse grained and fine
grained soils?
5. What are the field methods of compaction the soils?
6. What is the approximate value of degree of saturation at OMC?1
7. How does amount of compaction affect maximum dry density and OMC?
8. What is the procedure for conducting modified proctor test?
9. What is the use of proctor’s needle? How is it used for compaction control in the
field?
10. Explain how soil compaction is achieved?
94
9.7 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
Preamble
The CBR test is small scale penetration test in which a cylindrical plunger of 5 cm in dia
cross section is penetrated into the soil mass at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. Observations are
taken between the penetration resistance ( called the test load) versus the penetration of
plunger. The penetration resistance of the plunger into standard sample of crushed stone for
the corresponding penetration is called the standard load. The CBR is then obtained by
dividing test load by standard load and is expressed in percentage.
Aim:
To determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the
laboratory.
Equipments:
Equipments and tool required.
1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable
extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450
mm.
4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147
mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head
or base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load indicating
device.
95
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.
9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan,
drying oven, filter paper and containers.
1 CBR apparatus Hand operated, Penetration Piston 1
motorized 50mm dia
2 Cylindrical mould 1
1 IS sieves 4.75mm 1
20 mm 1
2 Straight edge 1
3 Dial guage 0.01mm 1
4 Penetration piston 50 mm dia 1
5 Rammer Weight 2.6 kg 1
96
Photos of equipment and components:
Penetrating piston loading device IS 4.75 Sieve
97
BLOCK DIAGRAM
FIG 7.1 CBR apparatus block diagram
Theory:
The California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test was developed by the California Division of
Highways as a method of classifying and evaluating soil- subgrade and base course materials
for flexible pavements. CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of
standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. CBR test may be
conducted in remoulded or undisturbed sample. Test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger
of 50mm diameter to penetrate a pavement component material at 1.25mm/minute. The loads
for 2.5mm and 5mm are recorded. This load is expressed as a percentage of standard load
value at a respective deformation level to obtain CBR value.
The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade
strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the
most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.
98
This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as unsoaked
state.
Definition of c.b.r.
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular
piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a
standard material.
C.B.R. = Test load/Standard load x 100
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the
standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%
Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)

2.5 1370
5.0 2055
7.5 2630
10.0 3180
12.5 3600
The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimens
which may be compacted either statically or dynamically.
Preparation Of Test Specimen
Undisturbed specimen
99
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from
the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil, remove it from
weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot.
Determine the density
Remoulded specimen
Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctor� s maximum dry density or any other density at
which C.B.R> is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field
moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be
retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by dynamic compaction or by
static compaction.
100
Dynamic Compaction
Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water. Fix the extension
collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the base (See Fig.38). Place
the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction. For
light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by the
2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by
the 4.89 kg rammer.
Remove the collar and trim off soil.

Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc. Weigh the
mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density. Put filter paper on
the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate on to it.
Static compaction
Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired density
when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
Where W = Weight of the wet soil
w = desired water content
V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in
laboratory)
Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer disc
till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
101
Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of the
soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and pavement
expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction. A
minimum of two weights should be put.
Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours. Remove
the mould from tank.
Note the consolidation of the specimen.
Procedure for Penetration Test
Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
(Fig.39).
Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load, but
in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is established.
Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and
12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration
less than 12.5 mm.
Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top 3
cm layer and determine the moisture content.
102
Observation and Recording
For Dynamic Compaction

Optimum water content (%)
Weight of mould + compacted specimen g
Weight of empty mould g
Weight of compacted specimen g
Volume of specimen cm3
Bulk density g/cc
Dry density g/cc
For static compaction
Dry density g/cc

Moulding water content %
Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)g
Period of soaking 96 hrs. (4days).
For penetration Test

Calibration factor of the proving ring 1 Div. = 1.176 kg
Surcharge weight used (kg) 2.0 kg per 6 cm construction
Water content after penetration test %
Least count of penetration dial 1 Div. = 0.01 mm
If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent
to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin (Fig. 40). Find and record the
correct load reading corresponding to each penetration
C.B.R. = PT� /PS � 100where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen
penetration from the load penetration curve.
PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table .
103
Penetration Dial Load Dial Corrected Load

proving ring
Load (kg)
reading
Readings Penetration (mm)
Interpretation and recording
C.B.R. of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration
The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the
C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall be
taken as C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test
should be repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration
should be taken for design.
Sample questions:
1. Determine CBR value for the given soil sample.
2. Using CBR equipment, determine penetration value for given soil sample.
3. How can you determine CBR value in lab?
4. Perform CBR test and tabulate the result.
Viva Voce
1. What is the need and scope of CBR test?
104
2. What are the CBR ranges for coarse grained and Fine grained soils?
3. What is the effect on the CBR value if we move from soft to hard soil? Is it
increases or decreases.
4. Name one standard material used in the CBR test which has a value of 100.
5. How correction for initial concavity is done in load-penetration curve?
6. What is the application of CBR test results?
7. Write the procedure to find expansion ratios for a soaked test.
8. What is the need for adding surcharge weights?
9. Define test load and sample load.
10. For how many hours do we soak the specimen sample?
105
9.8 CONSOLIDATION TEST
Preamble
Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and bottom of
specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous stone. Position the
pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone. The specimen is allowed to consolidate under
no.of increments of vertical pressure and each pressure is maintained for 24 hours. The
vertical compression of the specimen is measured by means of dial gauge. After completion
of consolidation under the desired maximum vertical pressure, the specimen is unloaded and
allowed to swell. The final dial reading corresponding to the completion of swelling is
recorded and the specimen is taken out, dried to determine its water content and the weight of
soil solids.
Aim:
To determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by conducting one
dimensional test.
Equipments:
1.Consolidometer consisting essentially
2 Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device
and weights.
3. Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of 0.002mm.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven.
5. Stopwatch to read seconds.
6 Sample extractor.
7 Miscellaneous items like balance, soil trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample
containers.
106
equipment
1 consolidometer With accessories 1
2 Loading device Fram and lever system 1
3 Dial gauge accuracy of 0.002mm. 1
equipment
1 Palate knife 1
2 Filter papers 2
3 Moisture cans 3
4 Trimming tool 1
107
Consolidometer consolidation accessories
oven
108
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
fig 8.1 consolidometer
THEORY:
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the
decease in volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil
mass pertaining to its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as
compressibility. In a saturated soil mass having its void filled with incompressible water,
decrease in volume or compression can take place when water is expelled out of the voids.
Such a compression resulting from a long time static load and the consequent escape of pore
water is termed as consolidation.
Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore water in
the beginning. As the water starts escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water
gets gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil solids which increases effective on
them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The rate of escape of water depends on the
permeability of the soil.
109
1) From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring. The sample should
project about one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and flush with top and
bottom of the ring by using a knife. Clean the ring from outside and keep it ready from
weighing.
2) Remoulded sample :
a) Choose the density and water content at which samples has to be compacted from
the moisture density relationship.
b) Calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix and compact.
c) Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using the standard
rammers.
d) Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.
The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation. To determine
i. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
ii. Degree of consolidation at any time.
iii. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
iv. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
v. Compression index.
From the above information it will be possible for us to predict the time rate and extent of
settlement of structures founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress
history of soil. Since the settlement analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values
determined by the test, this test is very important for foundation design.
110
PROCEDURE
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or by
keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away excess water.
Fittings of the consolidometer which is to be enclosed shall be moistened.
2. Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and
bottom of specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous
stone. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone.
3. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such that the load
applied is axial.
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The dial
gauge holder should be set so that the dial gauge is in the begging of its releases run,
allowing sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.
5. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to
saturate. The level of the water in the reservoir should be at about the same level as
the soil specimen.
6. Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load should be chosen by
trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50 g/cm3 for ordinary
soils & 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be allowed to stand until there is
no change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hours or for a maximum of 24
hours.
7. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1
kg/cm2 start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at various
time intervals. The dial gauge readings are taken until 90% consolidation is reached.
Primary consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
8. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading.
Double the load intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals. Repeat
111
this procedure fir successive load increments. The usual loading intensity are as
follows :
a. 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to � of the value of the last load
and allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of � the previous
intensity till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading of the dial
gauge.
10. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of the
dial gauge.
11. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil
specimen in oven, note the dry weight of it.
OBSERVATION AND READING
Data and observation sheet for consolidation test pressure, compression and time.
Project : Name of the project Borehole no. : 1
Depth of the sample : 2m Description of soil :
Empty weight of ring : 635 gm Area of ring : 4560 mm2
(45.60 cm2)
Diameter of ring : 76.2 mm (7.62 cm) Volume of ring : 115.82 cm3
Height of ring : 25.4 (2.54 cm) Specific gravity of soil sample No:
Dial Gauge = 0.0127 mm (least count)
112
Pressure
Intensity 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4
8
(Kg/cm2)
Elapsed
Time
0.25
2.5
6.25
16
25
30
1 hr
2 hrs
4 hrs
8 hrs
24 hrs
113
Observation Sheet for Consolidation Test : Pressure Voids Ratio
Applied Final dial Specimen Height Height of

Dial change Void ration
pressure reading hieght solids voids
0
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
FORMULAE
1.Coefficient of compressibility,
2.Coefficient of volume change
Compression Index
114
3.Coefficient of consolidation
CALCULATIONS
1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation
HS = WS/G � A
2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation
e = (H � HS)/HS
3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressures increment

is calculated by using the following equations :
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)

ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)
In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial reading and logarithmic of time, the
time corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined.
In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and square root of
time and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is determined. The values of C v are
recorded in table .
4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) Vs logt
is made. The initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line
would give the compression index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is calculated as follows
av = 0.435 Cc/Avg. pressure for the increment

where Cc = Coefficient of compressibility
115
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as follows

K = Cv.av *(unit weight of water)/(1+e).
Graphs
1. Dial reading VS log of time or
Dial reading VS square root of time.
1. Voids ratio VS log � (average pressure for the increment).
Application
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This
data is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the pre
consolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained
can also be used to determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary
compression of the soil.
Sample Questions
1. Determine the consolidation properties of soil sample.
2. Determine the consolidation properties of soil sample by conducting one dimension
consolidation test.
3. Determine compression index of the soil sample by performing consolidation test.
4. Determine coefficient of permeability of soil sample by using either fixed ring or floating
type consolidometer.
5. Determine coefficient of consolidation of sample by conducting one dimensional
consolidation test.
116
Viva Voce
1. What is the use of Cv? When it is used?
2. Can permeability be determined from consolidation test indirectly?
3. Which type of permeability test can be done directly? Explain
4. What result do you expect if a consolidation test is conducted on sand?
5. Suppose loading pad is placed such that it touches the sides of the ring. What will
happen?
6. What are the uses of consolidation test ?
7. What are the various types of consolidometer?
8. In which ring cell both top and bottom porous stones are free to compress?
9. List out various advantages of floating ring cell.
10. What is mv ? What is the relationship between mv and compressibility modulus?
117
9.9 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
Preamble
The Unconfined compressive test.is special case of triaxial test where s2=s3 =0 .The
cylindrical specimen soil is subjected to major principle stress s1 till the specimen fails due to
shearing along a critical plane of failure. During the test , load versus deformation reading are
taken and a graph is plotted.The maximum stress from this curve gives the values of the
unconfined compressive strength.
Aim: Determine shear parameters of cohesive soil
1 Compression device Triaxial compression Produces axial 1
device strain
2 Loading frame Capacity 2 t 1
3 Proving rings 0.01 kg sensitivity Soft clays 1
Stiff clay
0.05 kg sensitivity
1 Soil trimmer 1
2 Evaporating dish 1
3 Balance sensitivity 0.01 g 1
4 Frictionless end plates 75 mm diameter 2
5 Dial gauge sensitivity 0.01mm 1
118
Sample trimming equipment weighing balance
moisture content can
119
Block Diagram
fig 9.1 unconfined compressive strength apparatus
Theory
The unconfined compressive strength ( ) is the load per unit area at which the cylindrical
specimen of a cohesive soil falls in compression.
Where P= axial load at failure, A= corrected area = , where is the initial area of
the specimen, = axial strain = change in length/original length.
The undrained shear strength (s) of the soil is equal to the one half of the unconfined
compressive strength,
It is not always possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the field. Some times it is
cheaper to take the undisturbed soil sample and test its strength in the laboratory. Also to
choose the best material for the embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the samples
120
selected. Under these conditions it is easy to perform the unconfined compression test on
undisturbed and remoulded soil sample. Now we will investigate experimentally the strength
of a given soil sample.
Experimental Procedure (Specimen)
1. In this test, a cylinder of soil without lateral support is tested to failure in simple
compression, at a constant rate of strain. The compressive load per unit area required
to fail the specimen as called Unconfined compressive strength of the soil.
Preparation of specimen for testing
A. Undisturbed specimen
1. Note down the sample number, bore hole number and the depth at which the sample
was taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube extractor and push the plunger till a small length of sample
moves out.
4. Trim the projected sample using a wire saw.
5. Again push the plunger of the extractor till a 75 mm long sample comes out.
6. Cutout this sample carefully and hold it on the split sampler so that it does not fall.
7. Take about 10 to 15 g of soil from the tube for water content determination.
8. Note the container number and take the net weight of the sample and the container.
9. Measure the diameter at the top, middle, and the bottom of the sample and find the
average and record the same.
10. Measure the length of the sample and record.
11. Find the weight of the sample and record.
121
A. Moulded sample
1. For the desired water content and the dry density, calculate the weight of the dry soil
Ws required for preparing a specimen of 3.8 cm diameter and 7.5 cm long.
2. Add required quantity of water Ww to this soil.

1. Ww = WS xW/100 gm
3. Mix the soil thoroughly with water.
4. Place the wet soil in a tight thick polythene bag in a humidity chamber and place the
soil in a constant volume mould, having an internal height of 7.5 cm and internal
diameter of 3.8 cm.
5. After 24 hours take the soil from the humidity chamber and place the soil in a
constant volume mould, having an internal height of 7.5 cm and internal diameter of
3.8 cm.
6. Place the lubricated moulded with plungers in position in the load frame.
7. Apply the compressive load till the specimen is compacted to a height of 7.5 cm.
8. Eject the specimen from the constant volume mould.
9. Record the correct height, weight and diameter of the specimen.
Test procedure
1. Take two frictionless bearing plates of 75 mm diameter.

2. Place the specimen on the base plate of the load frame (sandwiched between the end
plates).
3. Place a hardened steel ball on the bearing plate.
4. Adjust the center line of the specimen such that the proving ring and the steel ball are
in the same line.
5. Fix a dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen.
6. Adjust the gear position on the load frame to give suitable vertical displacement.
7. Start applying the load and record the readings of the proving ring dial and
compression dial for every 5 mm compression.
8. Continue loading till failure is complete.
9. Draw the sketch of the failure pattern in the specimen.
122
Project : Tested by :
Location : Boring No. :
Depth :
Sample details
Type UD/R : soil description
Specific gravity (GS) 2.71 Bulk density
Water content Degree of saturation .%
Diameter (Do) of the sample cm Area of cross-section = cm2
123
Initial length (Lo) of the sample = 76 mm
reading (L) (mm)
(e)
Proving ring reading (Divns.)

Ao /(1-e) (cm)2
time (minutes)
(%)
Compressive stress
Axial load (kg)
(kg/cm2)
L x 100/Lo
Compression dial
Elapsed
Area A
Strain
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
Interpretation and Reporting

Unconfined compression strength of the soil = qu =
Shear strength of the soil = qu/2 =
Sensitivity = (qu for undisturbed sample)/ (qu for remoulded sample).
Graph
124
Results:
From the plot, unconfined compressive strength, =
Shear strength,
Application
This is the simplest quickest test for determining cohesion and shear strength of cohesive
soils. These values are used for checking the short term stability of foundation and slopes,
where rate of loading is fast but drainage is very slow Soil consistency can easily be known
from the value of unconfined compressive strength.
Sample Questions
1.Determine the unconfined compressive strength of soil.
2.Determine the unconfined compressive strength of clayey soil using controlled strain.
3. Obtain quantitative value of compressive and shearing strength of soils in an undrained

state.
4.Perform compression test for undisturbed soil sample. Plot graph between compressive
stress and axial strain to obtain qu.
5.Determine qu of clayey soil sample in undrained state.
Viva Voce
1. What do you mean by sensitivity of clay?
2. Draw mohr’s circle for state of stress at failure in an unconfined compression test.
3. This test is used only for cohesive soils. Why?
4. Explain the relation between consistency and UCC value of clay
5. Why is this test called unconfined compressive strength?
6. What is the value of failure load taken in plastic failure?
125
7. What is pole in mohr circle?
8. This test is generally applicable for which kind of soil?
9. What is the value of shearing resistance in saturated clays?
10. What is the least count of the dial gauge attached to the proving ring!
126
9.10 UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST
Preamble
The solid specimen, cylindrical in shape, is subjected to direct stresses acting in three
mutually perpendicular directions.In the common solid cylindrical specimen test,the major
principal stress s 1is applied in the vertical direction and other two principal stresses s2 and s3
are applied in horizontal direction by the fluid pressure round the specimen.The shear
parameters are obtained from a plot of Mohr circles for which purpose peak value as desired
of principal stress difference or stress ratio or ultimate value as desired may be used.
Aim
To find the shear of the soil by Undrained Triaxial Test.
1 Axial loading a deadweight load Compressive device 1
device apparatus; produces axial
a hydraulic or strain
pneumatic loading
device
2 Axial-load load ring, electronic Measures axial 1
measuring device load cell, hydraulic strain
load cell
1 Sample tubes 3.8 cm internal dia 2
2 Rubber ring 1
3 Stop watch 1
127
6 balance accurate to 0.01 gm 1
Thermostatic oven
128
Stop clock moisture container balance of 250 gm capacity
Theory
This is the most widely used and is suitable for all types of soils. A cylindrical specimen,
generally having a length to diameter ratio of 2, is used in the test and is stressed under
conditions of axial symmetry in the manner shown in figure.
10.1 stresses at axial symmetry condition
129
The specimen is subjected to an all round fluid pressure in the cell, consolidation is allowed
to take place if appropriate, and then the axial stress is gradually increased by the application
of compressive load through the ram until failure of the specimen takes place, usually on a
diagonal plane.
10.2 Triaxial cell setup
Stress conditions in soil specimen during Triaxial Testing:
The effective stresses acting on the soil specimen during testing are shown in figure. In this
case effective minor principle stresses is equal to the cell pressure (fluid pressure) minus the
pore pressure. The major principle stress is equal to deviator stress plus the cell pressure.
Hence, the effective major principle stress is equal to the major principle stress minus
the pore pressure.
Let the stress components on the failure plane MN be and and the failure plane is
inclined at an angle to the major principle plane.
130
The standard consolidated undrained test is compression test, in which the soil specimen is
first consolidated under all round pressure in the triaxial cell before failure is brought about
by increasing the major principal stress.
It may be perform with or without measurement of pore pressure although for most
applications the measurement of pore pressure is desirable.
Experimental Procedure
1. The sample is placed in the compression machine and a pressure plate is placed on the
top. Care must be taken to prevent any part of the machine or cell from jogging the
sample while it is being setup, for example, by knocking against this bottom of the
loading piston. The probable strength of the sample is estimated and a suitable proving
ring selected and fitted to the machine.
2. The cell must be properly set up and uniformly clamped down to prevent leakage of
pressure during the test, making sure first that the sample is properly sealed with its end
caps and rings (rubber) in position and that the sealing rings for the cell are also correctly
placed.
131
3. When the sample is setup water is admitted and the cell is fitted under water escapes
from the beed valve, at the top, which is closed. If the sample is to be tested at zero lateral
pressure water is not required.
4. The air pressure in the reservoir is then increased to raise the hydrostatic pressure in the
required amount. The pressure gauge must be watched during the test and any necessary
adjustments must be made to keep the pressure constant.
5. The handle wheel of the screw jack is rotated until the under side of the hemispherical
seating of the proving ring, through which the loading is applied, just touches the cell
piston.
6. The piston is then removed down by handle until it is just in touch with the pressure
plate on the top of the sample, and the proving ring seating is again brought into contact
for the begging of the test.
132
Observation and Recording
The machine is set in motion (or if hand operated the hand wheel is turned at a constant rate)
to give a rate of strain 2% per minute. The strain dial gauge reading is then taken and the
corresponding proving ring reading is taken the corresponding proving ring chart. The load
applied is known. The experiment is stopped at the strain dial gauge reading for 15% length
of the sample or 15% strain.
Operator : Sample No:
Date : Job :
Location : Size of specimen :
Length : Proving ring constant :
Diameter : 3.81 cm Initial area L:
Initial Volume : Strain dial least count (const) :
Cell
Proving ring Load on Corrected area c
pressure Deviator stress
Strain reading sample k
kg/cm2 m 2
dial g
2
6
3 4 5
1
0
50
100
150
0.5
200
250
300
133
350
400
450
0
50
100
150
200
0.5
250
300
350
400
450
0
50
100
150
200
0.5
250
300
350
400
450
134
Compressive
Wet bulk Cell stress Shear Angle of
Sample Strain at Moisture
density pressure strength shearing
No. failure content
gm/cc kg/cm2 (kg/cm2) resistance
at failure
1.
2.
3.
Application
In deep foundation, confining pressures play the significant role in changing the behavior of
soils. Similarly in the high rise earth dam. The confining pressure are of very high magnitude.
Triaxial test is the only test to simulate these confining pressures. For short term stability of
foundation, dam and slopes, shear strength parameter for unconsolidated untrained or
consolidated untrained condition are used, while for lading term stability shear parameter
corresponding to consolidated drained condition will give more reliable results.
All such special condition can be achieved in Triaxial tests.
Sample Questions
1. Determine shear parameters by triaxial test.
2. Determine shear parameters of undisturbed soil specimen in the triaxial
compression test.
3. Determine shear parameters of undisturbed soil specimen in the triaxial
compression test by unconsolidated undrained test.
4. Determine hear parameters of undisturbed soil sample by triaxial test.
5. Determine hear parameters of undisturbed soil sample by triaxial test without
the measurement of pore pressure.
135
Viva Voce
1. What are the advantages of triaxial test over direct shear test?
2. What is the practical significance of cell pressure in this test?
3. Explain the changes to be incorporated for a drained test, in the procedure for
undrained test.
4. Explain the stress conditions at the time of failure by drawing mohr’s circle.
5. Why triaxial testing is considered. As test-like conditions in the most natural?
6. How CU test is different from a test CD.
7. What are the advantages of triaxial test over direct shear test?
8. What is the practical significance of cell pressure in this test?
9. Explain the changes to be incorporated for a drained test, in the procedure for
undrained test.
10. Explain the stress conditions at the time of failure by drawing mohr’s circle.
136
9.11 Direct Shear Test
Preamble
The specimen of the shear box is sheared under a normal load N. The shear force F at failure,
corresponding to the normal load N is measured with the help of the proving ring.a no. of
identical specimens are tested under increasing normal loads and the required maximum
shear force is recorded. A graph is plotted between the shear force F(ordinate) and the normal
load N(abscissa).Such a plot gives the failure envelope for the soil under the given test
conditions
Aim: To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear apparatus.
Equipment required:
1 Direct shear box Loading frame, Dial Measures direct 1
gauge,proving ring shear strength
2 Loading frame 1
3 Dial gauge. 1
4 Proving ring. 1
1 Tamper 1
2 Aluminum container. 3
3 Straight edge. metal 1
4 Balance weigh upto 200 1
mg.
KNOWLEDGE OF EQUIPMENT:
137
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading unit,
proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two piece
square shear box is one type of soil container used.
A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated in the shearing
plane
Direct shear device accessories
Theory
Shear strength of a soil has its maximum resistance to shearing stress at failure on the failure
plane. Shear strength is composed of
(i) Internal friction which is the resistance due to friction between individual particles at their
contact points and interlocking of particles.
(ii) Cohesion which is resistance due to interparticles forces which tend to hold the particles
together in a soil mass. Coulomb has represented the shear strength of soil by the equation:
t = c + n tan 
138
Where t t = shear strength of soil
= shear stress at failure
C = Cohesion
sn = Total normal stress on the failure plane
f = Angle of internal (shearing) friction
The parameters c and f are not constant for type of soil but depend on it degree of
saturation and the condition of laboratory testing. There are three types of laboratory test.
(a) Undrained Test –water is not allowed to drain out during the entire test, hence there is no
dissipation of pressure.
(b) Consolidate under the initially applied normal stress only, hence drainage is permitted.
But no drainage is allowed during shear.
(c) Drained Test— Drainage is slowed throughout the test during the application of normal
and shear stresses, No pore pressure is set-up at any stage of the test.
Coulomb’s shear strength equation has been modified on the concept of pore pressure
development. Modified equation is
t t = c’ + s ’ tan f
Or t t = c’ + (s−u) tan f
Where c’ = effective cohesion
s ’ = effective normal stress
u = pore pressure
s = total normal stress
f = effective angle of shearing resistance
Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing stresses. The shear strength is
expressed as
139
Where c’ = effective cohesion, = effective stress, = effective angle of shearing
resistance.
The shear tests can be conducted under three different drainage conditions. The direct shear
test is generally conducted on sandy soils as a consolidated drained test.
Fig: 11.1 Stress Strain Curve from Direct Shear Test
140
Fig:11.2 Failure Envelope
Procedure
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is desired
tamp the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate the
density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10.Remove the shear pin.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
141
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between
two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15.Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment
142
DATA CALCULATION SHEET FOR DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=.........
Hori.Di Shear Vertica Vertical Provin Shear stress =

Vertica Provin
Horizont al gauge deformati l gauge deformatio g div.col.(8)x
l Dial g ring
al Gauge Reading on Col.(4) readin n= div.in readin proving ring
gauge Readin
Reading Initial x g col.6 xL.C g constant Area
Readin g
reading Leastcoun Initial of dial Initial of the
g
div. t of dial Readin gauge readin specimen(kg/c
(1) gauge g g m2 )
(2) (3)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Normal stress 1.0 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=........
143

Vertica Provin
l Dial g ring
gauge Readin
Readin g
g
(1) gauge g g m2 )
(2) (3)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Normal stress 1.5 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=........
144

Vertica Provin
l Dial g ring
gauge Readin
Readin g
g
(1) gauge g g m2 )
(2) (3)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
145
Observation And Recording
Proving Ring constant.......
Least count of the dial........
Calibration factor.......
Leverage factor........
Dimensions of shear box 60 x 60 mm
Empty weight of shear box........
Least count of dial gauge.........
Volume change.......
Normal Shear stress proving

Normal
stress(kg/cm2) Ring reading x
stress(kg/cm2)
Normal calibration / Area of
S.No
load (kg) load x leverage/Area container
load x
leverage/Area
Result:
From plot, c’ =
Application
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges,
pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved
are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The
146
laboratory report cover the laboratory procedures for determining these values for
cohesionless soils.
Sample questions:
1. Determine the shear properties of soil by performing direct shear test.
2. How can shear strength be determined in lab using direct shear test?
3. Perform direct shear test and tabulate the result.
4. Perform direct shear strength and evaluate the shear properties of soil.
Viva Voce
1. Differentiate between the angle of repose and angle of shearing resistance of soils.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct shear test?
3. What are other laboratory tests to determine the shear strength of soils?
4. Why do you put the grids keeping the serration at right angles to the direction of
shear?
5. Are you using stress or strain controlled device?
6 What are the limitations of this test?
7 Draw mohr’s circle for failure for a direct shear test and mark the
failure plane, major and minor principal plane.
8. If test is done under normal stress of 40 N/cm2.
9. Find the shear load at which this soil will fail.
10. What is the procedure for determination of shear strength parametersof

clay using direct shear test?
147
9.12. VANE SHEAR TEST
Preamble
Vane shear test is conducted to determine the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil. Here
vane is pushed gently into the soil, the torque rod is rotated at a uniformly speed. The rotation
of the vane shear the soil along a cylindrical surface. The rotation of the spring in degrees is
indicated by a pointer moving on a graduated dial attached to the worm wheel shaft. The
torque T is then calculated by multiplying the dial reading with spring constant. Knowing
T,H and d, the shear strength can be determined.
Aim: To find shear strength of a given soil specimen.
1 Vane shear Vane shaft, proving Produces torque 1
apparatus ring
1 Specimen container. 1
2 Callipers. 1
148
Photos of equipment and components
a)Vanes b) vane shear test accessories
Theory
The vane shear test apparatus consists of four stainless steel blades fixed at right angle to
each other and firmly attached to a high tensile steel rod. The length of the vane is usually
kept equal to twice its overall width. The diameters and length of the stainless steel rod were
limited to 2.5mm and 60mm respectively.
149
Fig 12.1 principle of vane shear test
Let = unit shear strength of the soil
T= maximum torque at failure in kg.cm
H = height of vanes in cm
d = diameter of vane tester in cm
Shear strength at failure along the cylindrical surface
——–>(1)
Consider the sheared surface to be composed of a number of elementary rings of thickness dr.
Shearing resistance on an elementary ring of radius ‘r’ =
Total shear resistance on the top and bottom of the surface of the cylinder
—————-(2)
Total shear strength = (1) + (2)
Equating the torque T to the total shear resistance, we get
150
If the top of the vane is above the soil surface and depth of the vane inside the sample is ,
then
151
Experimental Procedure
1. Prepare two or three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 37.5 mm
diameter and 75 mm length in specimen.(L/D ratio 2 or 3).
2. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus.
If the specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about
1 mm diameter at the bottom.
3. Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the
soil specimen. The top of the vanes should be at least 10 mm below the top of the
specimen. Note the readings of the angle of twist.
4. Rotate the vanes at an uniform rate say 0.1o/s by suitable operating the torque application
handle until the specimen fails.
5. Note the final reading of the angle of twist.
6. Find the value of blade height in cm.
7. Find the value of blade width in cm.
152
OBSERVATIONS:
Name of the project:
Soil description:
T=Spring G=1/ π
Ave- Spring
Initial Final Constant/ (D2H/2
Difference S=TxG rage 'S' Cons-
Reading Reading 180x + D3/6)
S. tant
No (Deg.) Difference Kg/cm2 Kg/
(Deg) (Deg.)
cm2 Kg-cm
Kg-cm
Application:
The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength.
Vane shear test is a useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and
quicker method. The test can also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear
test for the measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils, is useful for soils of low shear
strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2) for which triaxial or unconfined tests can not be performed.
The test gives the undrained strength of the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strength
obtained are useful for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.
153
Sample Questions
1. Determine shear strength of soil performing vane shear test.
2. Determine undrained shear strength of cohesive soil.
3. Perform vane shear test to evaluate shear parameters of soil sample.
4. Determine shear parameters of clayey soil with help of vane shear test.
Viva Voce
1. Explain the terms sensitivity and thixotropy.
2. What type of soil yield dependable results by vane shear test? Why?
3. Why are different sizes of blades used in field vane shear test?
4. Why this test is an undrained test
5. Is it possible to determine the effective shear strength parameters in vane shear test?
6. What parameter is determined using vane shear test?
7. Vane shear test is conducted for which type of soil?
8. What are lab vane dimensions?
9. On what parameters does shear strength depends
154
10. CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
10.1 Determination of water content by Pycnometer method
.Preamble
Dry pycnometer is weighed(M1),then it is filled with 200g to 400g soil and weighed (M2)
Now add water and stir the content(M3) and finally measure the weight of pycnometer with
water. Water content then can be determined by an empirical formula mentioned in the
experiment.
Aim : To determine the water content of the soil sample using the Pycnometer method.
1 pycnometer Fitted with rubber Capacity 1000ml 1
washer
2 Balance Accuracy 0.1g Measures weight 1
1 Glass rod 1
EQUIPMENT IMAGES
a)Pyconmeter bottle b) glass rod c) weighing balance
155
Theory
A soil is an aggregate of soil particles having a porous structure. The pores may have water
and/or air. The pores are also known as voids. If voids are fully filled with water. The soil is
called saturated soil and if voids have only air, the soil is called dry.
Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the mass/weight of water to the mass/weight of soil
solids .
W= Ww / Ws
Where, W = water content
Ww = Weight/ mass of water
Ws = Weight/ mass of soil solids
(mass of oven dry soil)
The mass of water used in the above expression is the mass of free pore water only. Hence
for moisture content determination the soil samples are dried to the temperature at which only
pore water is evaporated. This temperature was standardized 1050 C to 1100 C. Soils having
gypsum are dried at 600 C to 800 C.
The quantity of soil sample needed for the determination of moisture content depends on
the gradation and the maximum size of particles.
The methods to determine moisture content in the laboratory are oven-drying, pycnometer,
infrared lamp with torsion balance moisture meter. The approximate methods are alcohol
burning method and calcium carbide method.
Procedure : This method is used when the specific gravity of soil solids is known. This
relatively a quick method and is considered to suitable for course grained soils only.
156
Determine the weight of the clean, dry, Pycnometer with its cap and washer (W 1) Put about
200 to 400 gm (upto about ¼ to ⅓ rd of the volume) of wet soil and its weight is determined
(W2).
Weight of Pycnometer bottle with cap + wet soil = W2 gm. Fill the Pycnometer to half of its
height with water and mix it thoroughly with the glass rod. Add more water and stir it.
Continue to add water. Replace the conical cap. Add water until water is flush with the hole
in the conical cap. Clean the Pycnometer from the outside and dry it and its weight is
obtained (W3).
Weight of Pycnometer with conical cap + Soil + water fall = W3 gm.
The Pycnometer is empfied of water and soil and is cleaned perfectly so as to be free from
any soil particles and then it is filled with water only to the same full level. Find its weight
(W4).
Weight of Pycnometer bottle with cap + water only to the same full level as in the
observation of W3 = W4 gm.
The water content of the soil sample is calculated as follows .
 w  w1   G  1  
W   2    1 x100%
 w3  w4   G  
Since the weight W3 cannot be determined accurately the method is suitable for coarse
grained soils.
Water Water only to full

level
Soil Soil
Pyc. Empty Pyc + wet soil Pyc+Soil+Water Pyc + water
Wt = w1 weight = w2 weight = w3 weight = w4
Water content Determination
157
Determination of water content, w, using pycnometer
Empty weight of Pycnometer with conical cup (W1) gm
Weight of Pcynometer + wet soil (W2) gm
Weight of Pcynometer + soil + water to full level (W3) gm
Weight of Pcynometer+water only filled to the same full level as in W3 observation (W4) gm
Water content is calculated as
 W  W1 
W  2
 G  1  1 x100%

 W3  W4  G 
Result:
Water content of the given soil sample is ……..%
Application:
Moisture content plays an important role in understanding the behaviour of fine
grained soils. It is the moisture content which changes the soils from liquid state to plastic
and solid states. Its value controls the shear strength and compressibility of soils. Compaction
of soils in the field is also controlled by the quantity of water present. Densities of soils are
directly influenced by its value and are used in calculating the Stability of slopes, bearing
capacity of soils-foundation system, earth pressure behind the retaining walls and pressure
due to overburden.
The knowledge of determining the moisture content is helpful in many of the laboratory tests
such as Atterberg’s limits, shears strength compaction and consolidation.
Sample questions:
1.Determine water content of given soil sample by pycnometer.
158
2.Determine moisture content of given soil sampe by pycnometer.
3. Determine moisture content of given coarse grained soil sample using Pycnometer method.
4. Determine water content of coarse grain soil by using pycnometer method.
Viva Voice
1. Water content is also called? (Moisture content)
2. Which method is mostly used to determine the water content in field?
3. What is water content for clay soil?
4. On which factor water content is depended?
5. Water Content determined by direct weighing, this method is called? (Gravimetric)
6. Maximum water content maintained in the soil without the water draining rapidly is
called? (Field capacity)
7. Wilting point means? (no water in soil)
8. What is capacity of pycnometer ?
9. Define water content
10. Define degree of saturation.
159
10.2 Determination of specific gravity of soil solids
Ref : IS:2720 (Part III) -1980
Preamble
Dry pycnometer is weighed(M1),then it is filled with 200g to 400g soil and weighed (M2)
Now add water and stir the content(M3) and finally measure the weight of pycnometer with
water. Specific gravity then can be determined by an empirical formula mentioned in the
procedure.
Aim : To determine the specific gravity of solids.
Equipment required:
1 Density bottle 50 cc density bottle Used for 1
1000cc pycnometer determining
specific gravity.
1 balance .01g 1
2 spatula 1
160
Pycnometer
Block diagram ;
Fig 14.1 pycnometer
161
Theory:
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass/weight in air of a given volume of dry soil solids to
the
mass/weight of equal volume of distilled water at 40 C.
From fig. we observed that,
(a)Represent the empty pycnometer of mass =W1
(b) Represent the pycnometer +soil grains of mass= W2
(c) Represent the pycnometer + soil grains+ water of mass= W3
(d) Represents the pycnometer +water of mass = W4
fig 14.2 determination of specific gravity
Mass of soil grains Ws = W2-W1
Mass of equal volume of distilled water = (W4+W2-W1 –W3)
Specific gravity of soil grains = (W 2-W 1)/ ((W 2-W 1)-(W 3-W 4))
= (W S)/ (W s+W 4-W 3)
The value of specific gravity depends upon depends upon temperature, hence its value is
reported
at standard temperature of 270C.
Gs (at270C) = GS (atTt0C) + [Sp. gr. of water at Tt° c / Sp. gr. of water at 270 C]
162
Procedure : A 50 cc density bottle or a Pycnometer may be used. While the density bottle
is the more accurate and suitable for all types of soils, the Pycnometer is used only for
coarse grained soils. The procedure and sequence of observations are similar to both cases.
1. Determine the empty weight of clean, dry, Pycnometer with conical cap W1 gm.
2. Then place the sample of oven dried and cooled in the desiccator in the
Pycnometer and find its weight with conical top and soil sample W2 gm.
Now fill the remaining volume of the Pycnometer, gradually, with distilled water (or
kerosene). The entrapped air should be removed either by gentle heating and vigorous
shaking or by applying vacuum.
3. The weight of the Pycnometer with conical cap, soil and water to full level is determined
as W3 gm.
The Pycnometer with its contents is emptied and cleaned with water till all soil particles
are removed.
4. The Pycnometer is now filled with only distilled water (or kerosene) to the samefull level
and its weight is determined and recorded as W4 gm.
In both the observations W3 and W4, the Pycnometer shall be cleaned to dry state carefully
before tooking W3 and W4 observations.
With the help of these four weight observations the specific gravity of solids may be
determined using the formula.
Weight of soil solids
163
G  --------------------------------------------------------
Weight of water of volume equal to that of solids
Ws
G  ------------------
Ws-(W3-W4)
Ws is nothing but the dry weight of soil
Observation sheet for determination of specific gravity of solids by pycnometer
Trial No. 1 2 3
Pycnometer No.
Weight of Pycnometer with conical cup,

W1 gm
Weight of Pycnometer with soil W2 gm
Weight of Pcynometer + soil + water to

full level, (W3) gm
Weight of Pcynometer+water only filled
to the same full level as in observation W3
, W4 gm
Specific gravity of solids
The specific gravity of soil solids is calculated from the equation
W2  W1
G
W2  W1   W3  W4 
Average value of specific gravity of solids
G = ………………………
164
Application:
Specific gravity of soil grains is important property and is used in calculating void ratio,
porosity, degree of saturation if density and water content are known.
Its value helps up to some extent in identification and classification of soils. It gives an idea
about the suitability of the soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity
gives more strength for roads and foundations. It is used in computing the soil particle size by
165
means of hydrometer analysis the soil particle size by means of hydrometer analysis. It is also
used in estimating the critical hydraulic gradient in soil when a sand boiling condition is
being studied and in zero air-void calculations in the compaction theory of soils.
Sample Questions
1. Determine specific gravity of soil sample by pycnometer.
2. Determine specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm sieve.
3. Using pycnometer determine specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm sieve.
4. Determine specific gravel of coarse grain soil using pyconometer.
Viva Question
1. Define specific gravity.
2. Pycnometer is suitable for which type of soil?
3. What is specific gravity of soil?
4. What is the temperature at which specific gravity is found out?
5. Mention applications of specific gravity.
6. Define relative density?
7. Why is kerosene used for specific gravity determination?
8. What is capacity of pyconometer?
9. What is specific gravity of organic soil?
166
10.3 Determination of Shrinkage limit of a soil
Ref : IS:2720 (Part VI) -1972
Preamble:
The experiment consists of preparation of soil paste and filling in shrinkage dish which is
internally coated by a thin layer of Vaseline. The wet soil cake is air dried first then over
dried for certain period of time. Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. It floats submerge it
with the pronged glass plate which is again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury
spills over into the larger plate. Pour the mercury that is displayed by the soil pat into the
measuring jar and find the volume of the soil pat directly. Through volume difference
shrinkage limit can be determine.
Aim : To determine the shrinkage limit of a soil.
Apparatus : Porcelain evaporating dish of about 12cm dia and with a flat bottom, A
shrinkage dish of stainless steel with flat bottom, 45cm in dia and 15mmhigh, Two glass
plates each 75x75mm and 3mm thick – one plain glass and the other other with 3 metal
prongs, glass cup 50mm in dia and 25mm high with its top rim ground smooth and level,
straight edge, spatula, oven, mercury, desiccator, balances and sieves.
1 Shrinkage dish Stainless steel cup about 5.0 cm in dia 1
or glass cup and 2.5 cm high
1 Glass plates 75x75mm and 3mm thick 2
167
2 Glass cup 50mm in dia 1
3 straight edge 1
4 spatula 1
5 mercury 1
6 desiccator 1
7 balances 1
Shrinkage limit accessories
Theory
Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content does not
cause an appreciable decrease in volume of the soil mass. At shrinkage limit, on further
168
reduction in water, air starts to enter into the voids of the soil and keeps the volume of voids
constant.
Represent the initial soil sample in saturated stage with initial mass W1 and volume V1;
(c) Represent the oven dry sample with mass Ws and volume V2. According to definition, the
water content at (b) will be the shrinkage limit.
Mass of water in (a) = W1 - Ws
Loss in water from (a) to (b) = (V1 – V2) gw
\Mass of water in (b),
Ws = (W1 - Ws) - (V1 – V2) gw
\Water content in (b)
W = (W1 -- Ws) --- (V1 – V2) w / ws


[
Shrinkage limit, W.S.L (%)= wL = (W1 -- Ws) --- (V1 – V2) w ] x 100
ws
Procedure : If the test is to be made on an undisturbed sample, it is to be trimmed to a pat
about 45mm in dia and 15mm high. If it is to be conducted on a remoulded sample about
100gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing IS: Sieve 425 microns is to be
used.
The volume Vi of the shrinkage dish is first determined by filling it with mercury, removing
the excess by pressing a flat glass plate over the top and then weighing the dish filled with
mercury. The weight of the mercury divided by its unit weight (0.136N/cm3 or 13.6 gm/cm3)
gives the volume of the dish which is also the initial volume of wet soil pat (Vi). The inside
of the dish is coated with thin layer of Vaseline. The dish is then filled with the prepared soil
paste in installments. Gentle tapping is given on to hard surface to eliminate the entrapped
air. The excess soil is removed with the aid of straight edge and any soil adhering to the
outside of the dish is wiped off. The weight of the wet soil pat of known volume is found
169
Wi. The dish is then placed in an oven and the soil pat is allowed to dry up. The weight of
the dry soil pat can be found from weighing (Ws) or (Wd).
The glass cup is filled with mercury and the excess is removed by pressing with a glass plate
with three prongs firmly over the top. The dry soil pat is placed on the surface of the mercury
in the cup and carefully pressed by means of the glass plate with three prongs. The weight of
the displaced mercury is found and divided by its unit weight to get the volume of the dry soil
pat (Vs or Vd).
The shrinkage limit may then be obtained
 (V  V )r 
Shrinkage limit,
Ws  Wi  i d w  x100%
 Vd 
Wi  Wd   Vi  Vd orVm  rw 

or Shrinkage limit,
Ws   x100%
Wd
Observation sheet for shrinkage factors :

(for remoulded sample)
a] Water content of wet sample :
Shrinkage Dish No. :…………….
Empty weight of shrinkage dish gm (W1)
Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil pat gm (W2)
Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil pat gm (W3)
Weight of dry soil pat Ws = (W3 – W1) gm
Weight of water (Ww) = (W2 – W3) gm
Water content of soil pat,
170
W
W2  W3  x100%
W3  W1 
b] Volume of wet soil pat :
Shrinkage limit Dish No. :…………….
Weight of empty of shrinkage dish (W1) gm
Weight of shrinkage dish + mercury filling the dish (W2) gm
Weight of mercury filling the dish (W3) gm = (W2 – W1) gm
W3
Volume of wet soil pat (cc) V (cc)
13.6
c] Volume of Dry soil pat :
Shrinkage Dish No. :…………….
Wt. of shrinkage limit dish gm (W1)+Wt. of mercury displaced by dry soil pat=W2 gm
Wt. of mercury displaced by dry soil pat (W3) gm = (W2 – W1) gm
W3
Volume of dry soil pat (cc) Vs  (cc)
13.6
 V  Vs 
Shrinkage limit = Ws   w   x100
 Ws 
Ws
Shrinkage ratio, SR 
Vs
Volumetric shrinkage (%) = Vs = (W-Ws) SR
171
Fig 15.1
172
Application:
The value of shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage properties
of cohesive soils. It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps in the design
problem of the structures made up of the soils or/and resting on soil. It gives an idea about the
suitability of the soil as construction material in foundations, roads, embankment & dams. It
helps knowing the state of the given soil. Approximate values of Sp. Gr. Of soil grains may
also be determine from the data of shrinkage limit test.
Sample Question
1.Determine shrinkage limit of given soil sample.
2. Determine shrinkage factors of given soil sample
3.Determine shrinkage ratio of given soil sample.
4.Determine volumetric hrinkage of soil sample
5.Determine shrinkage limit for given remoulded soil sample.
Viva Voce
1. Determine shrinkage limit.
2. What is meant by volumetric shrinkage ?
3. For how many hours soil the soil pat be dried?
4. What precautions should be taken while performing this experiment?
5. What are atterbergs limits?
6. Define shrinkage ratio.
7. Define linear shrinkage
8. What are the applications of this experiment?
9. Can specific gravity be equal to mass specific gravity?
173
174
175
176
177

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Geo-technical Engineering Laboratory

The main objectives of the Geotechnical engineering lab will be:

1. Knowledge of site specific field investigations including collection Of soil samples

2. Be able to identify and classify soil based on standard geotechnical engineering

6. Be able to conduct and estimate shear strength of soils in unconfined compression.

7. Be able to perform and analyze constant head permeability tests.

8. Be able to conduct one-dimensional compression tests and estimate Settlement

9. Be able to develop and implement laboratory procedures to test Geotechnical

1. Students should report to the labs concerned as per the timetable.

3. After completion of the experiment/program, certification of the staff in-charge

10.Students are expected to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment/program before

4. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE CONDUCTING THE LAB:

experimental results, the equipment should be properly maintained.

checked from time to time.

maintain the equipment as if it were your own.

5. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER JNTUH

2. Field density-core cutter and sand replacement method

3. Grain size analysis

4. Permeability of soil, constant and variable head test

8. Unconfined compression test

9. Tri-axial Compression test

10. Direct shear test.

11. Vane shear test

S.No Name of the Experiment Unit No Text/Reference

2 Field density-core cutter and sand replacement 2 T1:73-76,T:792-794

3 Grain size analysis 2 T:57-59,T1:95-97

4 Permeability of soil, constant and variable head test 3 T:137-140,T1:201-

8 Tri-axial Compression test 8 T1:436-439,T:322-

10 Vane shear test 8 T:332-333,TI:450-

11 CBR Test 8 T:775-777,T1:832-

7. TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS

SL.NO Week Unit

2 2 2 1. Atterberg’s Limits. JNTUH

3 3 2 2. Field density-core cutter and sand

5 5 3 4. Permeability of soil, constant and variable

9 9 8 8. Unconfined compression test

12 12 8 11. Vane shear test

9.1 Introduction to geotechnical engineering lab

Fig 1.1 pycnometer

Fig 1.2 core cutter with dolly

3. Liquid limit device:

Standard versions 2 kg or Motorized versions 4 kg

Fig 1.3 liquid limit device with soil pat

4. Plastic Limit Determination Equipments

into little rolls, 3 mm dia., without breakages.

The set includes:

Fig 1.4 plastic limit determination accessories

Fig 1.5 Permeability determination accessories

6. Triaxial Shear equipment: This equipment consists of the following components-

Fig 1.6 triaxial cell

Fig 1.7 standard proctor equipment

9.2.1 Determination of liquid limit of the soil

Ref : IS:2720 (Part V) -1985

corresponding to 25 blows is noted down as liquid limit of the soil sample.

Aim : To determine the liquid limit of a soil.

S.No Name of equipment Type Remark quantity

1 mechanical liquid Casagrande Consists of brass cup 1

limit device mounted a base

2 Grooving tool a)Casagrande Used for clayey soil 1

b)ASTM Usedd for sandy soil

S.No Name of equipment Type quantity

3 Moisture containers metal 4

6 Weighing balance Sensitivity0.1g 1