Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Separation and Purification Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seppur

Combined treatment of highly contaminated winery wastewater

F. Kirzhner a,∗ , Y. Zimmels a , Y. Shraiber b
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Haifa 32000, Israel
b
Engineering Department, The Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael, POB 45, Kiriat-Haim 26103, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, electrocoagulation (EC) has received increasing attention concerning its potential for
Received 21 June 2007 destruction and removal of organic and non-organic pollutants in wastewater. The objective of the current
Received in revised form 9 January 2008 study was to examine the potential of EC, to treat different winery wastewaters (WWW), which are
Accepted 19 March 2008
characterized by heavy loads of organic pollutants. To this end EC of WWW was conducted at 2 A, and
applied voltage up to 10 V. Laboratory tests of raw WWW treatment in different application periods
Keywords:
(from 10 to 40 min) of EC were carried out, and the removal efficiency was studied. The potential of EC to
Electrocoagulation
improve the water quality of raw WWW, prior to further processing, was demonstrated. Enhanced removal
Winery wastewater
Aquatic plants
of the WWW pollutants was found at longer treatment periods. A 10 min batch treatment of WWW
BOD produced 16.4–27.9% reduction of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 28.2–41.9% of the chemical
COD oxygen demand (COD), and 89.2% the total phosphorus. In view of the high organic load of the WWW,
Removal this involved removal of thousands mg L−1 COD. This facilitates further treatment by aquatic plants. At
Economic aspects 1:1, W:F dilution, 97.5 and 95.6% of the BOD were removed, after 23 days of treatment, with the floating
Hydrocotyle umbellate and Eichhornia crassipes plants and aeration, respectively, as compared to 28.5% in
the control. Emergent plants (salt marshes with rushes) proved to be exceptionally effective in removing
99.2% of the BOD and 98.2% of the COD. These plants performed well at the high organic loads of the
WWW. A scheme for a two-stage treatment of raw WWW is described. In the first stage WWW is treated
by EC and its effluent with reduced organic load is then purified in the second stage, comprising aquatic
plants. Finally economic aspects of the proposed system are outlined.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The disposal of winery and distillery effluents in streams, creeks,
rivers and on soils involves unacceptable environmental risks.
Responsible management of these effluents requires that their
potential environmental impacts be minimal and within accept-
able range. Winery effluents are characterized by pH 4–5, and high
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) that falls outside the limits set by local authorities. The low
pH of winery effluents can partially be ascribed to the presence of
organic acids therein, while ethanol and sugars contribute to a high
COD. Winery effluents are normally discarded untreated, and con-
sequently the result can be environmental pollution that involves
contamination of land and water resources. Such pollutants often
enter surface waters either from diffuse sources that are associ-
∗ Corresponding author at: Environmental, Water Resources and Agricultural
Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Israel
Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel. Tel.: +972 4 8293774;
fax: +972 4 8228898.
E-mail address: kfelix@tx.technion.ac.il (F. Kirzhner).
ated with surface runoff, or from point sources due to concentrated
farming activities, such as the production of livestock [1]. In view
of their heavy organic loads, winery wastewater (WWW) should
not be delivered directly to municipal wastewater treatment plants,
or disposal sites, without suitable processing or conditioning. The
wine industry includes small producers, whose yearly wastewater
production and financial resources may not be sufficient to warrant
advanced technological treatments [2].
Several criteria should be considered when deciding on a
treatment system for WWW. These include an eco-friendly pro-
cess that is flexible enough to handle various concentration
loads and changing characteristics; low capital and operating
costs; and requirements of minimal labor and personal atten-
tion. In management practices, a number of biological systems
have been evaluated for WWW treatment. These include anaerobic
digesters [3], activated sludge reactors [4], rotating biological con-
tactor with biofilm communities [4,5] and constructed wetlands
[2,6–8].
As these systems require low capital cost and are easy to operate
and maintain, they meet the requirements associated with win-
ery effluents. Since wineries are often located in suburban or rural
areas, the availability of land to this end poses no problem. However

1383-5866/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2008.03.034
 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44 39

the high organic load of WWW may pose a problem for application
of aquatic plant systems.
The maximum recommended US EPA [9] organic loading
rates for wastewater treatment by constructed wetlands is 110 kg
BOD/ha day and 200 kg COD/ha day. Optimal COD removal −200 kg
COD/ha day for piggery wastewater, obtained in water hyacinth
ponds, was reported by Polprasert et al. [10]. Shepherd et al. [6]
showed that organic loading rates, typical of WWW treatment,
ranged from 345 to 1640 kg COD/ha day (1.5–8 times the US EPA
[9] recommended level).
Preliminary EC treatment of WWW could reduce the organic
loading on constructed wetlands and help to decrease treatment
time. The removal of pollutants from effluents by electrocoagu-
lation (EC) has become an attractive method in recent years. EC
is a process whereby metallic hydroxide flocs are created within
the wastewater due to the action of soluble anodes, usually iron or
aluminium. This method has been practiced for most of the 20th
century with limited success. Recently, the interest in use of EC
was renewed, owing to the increase in environmental restrictions
on effluent wastewater. Indeed, EC has been tested successfully to
treat urban wastewater [11] and restaurant wastewater [12,13]. It
has also been used to remove heavy metal [14,15].
EC introduces metal cations in situ rather than via external
dosing. Concurrently, electrolytic gases (typically hydrogen) are
generated at the cathode. Depending on the reactor operating con-
ditions and the pollutant, a portion of the coagulated pollutant may
be floated to the surface following their adherence to the rising gas
bubbles [16].
EC is one of the most effective techniques to remove organic
pollutants from wastewater, which reduces the sludge generation.
The main advantages of EC are its simple and easy to operate equip-
ment. Wastewater treated by EC often gives clear, colorless, and
odorless water. In addition flocs formed by EC settle easily and they
are readily de-waterable.
EC has a long history as a water treatment technology having
been employed to remove a wide range of pollutants. However EC
has never become accepted as a ‘mainstream’ technology of WWW
(characterized by high BOD and COD levels). In this regards, no data
was found in literature. Furthermore, it is of interest to determine
lower bounds of pollutants content which can be reached, following
their removal by EC, and under what conditions. EC is known to be
capable of removing organic constituents, but what is its maximum
level of performance is still an open question. This reflects on the
range of application of EC for WWW treatment.
The effectiveness of aquatic plants, when combined with EC
has not been determined yet. In this context, the value of EC has
not been demonstrated. In order to determine, what is the high-
est pollutants removal rate by EC and lowest level to which aquatic
plants, with circulation and/or aeration, can decrease the WWW
quality indicators, further research is called for. Alternatively, it is
of interest to determine the lower bounds of pollutants which can
be reached following their removal by aquatic plants, and under
what conditions and processing time. This reflects on the range
of application and effectiveness of aquatic plants for WWW treat-
ment.
In this study, the capacity of the aquatic plants to produce water
of higher quality from raw, diluted, or pretreated WWW was inves-
tigated, under laboratory and field conditions. The feasibility of
using EC for WWW treatment, in conjunction with aquatic plants,
was demonstrated. The results provide (a) assessment of effect of EC
on the WWW treatment capacity; (b) estimation of removal effi-
ciency of organic pollutants from WWW by EC, under laboratory
conditions; (c) treatment efficiency of WWW in the presence of
aquatic plants; (d) economic aspects of the proposed water treat-
ment flow sheet.
2. Experimental
2.1. Laboratory EC tests
WWW samples with adjusted pH (from 3.8–4.0 to 6.0, by potas-
sium hydroxide) were used in the tests. Batch laboratory tests
(three sets) were performed in identical 1 L glass containers. Two
11 cm × 8 cm aluminum electrodes, 1.5 cm apart, and connected to
a DC-power supply operated at 2.5 A and 10 V, were set in each con-
tainer. The tests duration ranged between 10 and 40 min. Sample
collections and handling procedures were performed, in the control
and treated WWW, according to the proceedings recommended
by Standard Methods [17]. Samples were collected in duplicates
and their BOD, COD, pH, electroconductivity as well as the current
changes during the test, were recorded.
Set 1. EC of WWW without additives.
Set 2. EC of WWW with 1 L min−1 O3 .
Set 3. EC of WWW with 30% H2 O2 (resulting in 2.5% dilution of the
WWW).
The WWW characteristics after pH adjustment were as follows
Parameter Value or concentration Local standard
pH 5.5–7 6–9
BOD (mg L−1 ) 1,500–2,500 1200
COD (mg L−1 ) 1,500–17,100 2000
Water composition and details of EC tests are specified in Table 1.
2.2. Floating plants, laboratory batch studies
The aquatic plants were obtained from natural specimens grown
in fresh water ponds in Israel. Batch laboratory tests were per-

Table 1
Details of EC tests under laboratory conditions

Set number Test number WWW (%) Additives Treatment time (min)

O3 (L min−1 ) 30% H2 O2 a (%)

1 1 100 – – 10
2 100 – – 20
3 100 – – 40

2 1 100 1 – 10
2 100 1 – 20
3 100 1 – 40

3 1 97.5 – 2.5 10
2 97.5 – 2.5 20
3 97.5 – 2.5 40
a
The data given in the table is in terms of 30% H2 O2 , which translates to 0.75% of 100% H2 O2 .
40 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44

Table 2
Details of batch tests with floating plants in containers under laboratory conditionsa

Test no. Type of plants/control Water composition (%) Aeration rate (L min−1 ) Circulation rate (L min−1 ) Legend of Fig. 4

W F

1 Eichhornia crassipes 50 50 – – EC (50)

2 Eichhornia crassipes 50 50 – 0.83 EC (50, C)
3 Eichhornia crassipes 50 50 0.4 – EC (50, A0.4)
4 Eichhornia crassipes 50 50 3.5 – EC (50, A3.5)
5 Hydrocotyle umbellate 50 50 – – HU (50)
6 Hydrocotyle umbellate 50 50 – 0.83 HU (50, C)
7 Hydrocotyle umbellate 50 50 0.4 – HU (50, A0.4)
8 Hydrocotyle umbellate 50 50 3.5 – HU (50, A3.5)
9 Control 50 50 – – Control (50)
a
10 Control 50 50 – 0.83 N (50, C)
a
11 Control 50 50 3.5 N (50, A3.5)
a
N: no plants, with aeration or circulation.

formed in identical containers (0.39 m × 0.56 m floor area), in order treated water were extracted from the tap, and then returned to
to test the effect of aeration and circulation. The working volume the container. This guaranteed that no effects due to stagnant water
of the containers was set at 46 L. The tests were performed using near the tap will be significant. Next, a 300 mL sample was taken
of artificial light at 1800–1900 lux (produced by special lamps for for analysis. Each BOD and COD result is given as an average of two
plant growing) in each container during all experiments (day and or three measurements taken from the same sample.
night). Common practice with plants shows that they need light at
1000–5000 lux. WWW at 50% dilution level was used to support 3. Results
the floating plants at different rates of circulation and aeration. The
tests duration was 23 days. The graphic outputs are characterized 3.1. EC tests
by four ID items: plant identity abbreviation, i.e. EC for Eichhornia
crassipes; percent of WWW in the treated wastewater; application The following experimental results are specified in detail, as
of either circulation (C) or aeration (A), and the air flow rate. it contains comparative kinetic data of changes in water quality
Diluted WWW (1:1, W:F), was used to support the Eichhornia indicators, under different operating conditions.
crassipes and Hydrocotyle umbellata plants, that covered the water
surface completely. Here W and F denote volume of WWW and Set 1. Fig. 1 depicts results of (a) BOD, (b) COD and (c) total phos-
fresh water, respectively. Three containers (without plants) were phorus vs. time. The EC decreases the BOD (from its 4380 mg L−1
used as control. Plant type, water composition, and circulation and
aeration conditions, of 11 batch tests, are specified in Table 2.
The average wastewater temperature during sampling for the
diluted WWW was 15 ◦ C. The average minimum and maximum
ambient temperatures during the study period were 11.4 and
19.5 ◦ C, respectively.

2.3. Emergent plants

Three containers which were used to represent the process

occurring in constructed wetlands, consisted of subsurface-flow
root zone systems with emergent plants. The construction of each
of these three 1.13 m × 0.71 m × 0.45 m (L × W × H) root zone sys-
tems was supplemented with 20 rooted stems of reed, and cattail,
per square meter, and salt marshes with rush, that covered the
water surface at high density. These containers and additional three
control cells were filled with beddings as follow:
Containers no. Type of bed medium Size fraction (mm) Void fraction

1 Gravel 5–10 0.45

2 Gravel 5–10 0.45
3 Gravel >5 0.35
4 Gravel >5 0.35
5 Tuff 19–25 0.52
6 Tuff 19–25 0.52

To ensure a vertical flow at the cell inlet, perforated pipes (the

inlet side) were placed on the bed medium surface. A standpipe
was set to maintain a water level of 0.45 m in the root zone system.
The time of each test was 9 days.
Sample collections and handling procedures were performed
according to the proceedings recommended by Standard Methods
[17]. The samples were withdrawn through a tap, set 3 cm above Fig. 1. Results of EC treatment of raw WWW: (a) BOD vs. time; (b) COD vs. time; (c)
bottom of the container. Before a sample was taken, 500 mL of total phosphorus vs. time.
 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44
Fig. 3. Results of EC treatment of raw WWW diluted by 0.75% H2 O2 : COD vs. time.
Fig. 2. Results of EC treatment of raw WWW with 1 L min−1 of O3 : (a) BOD vs. time;
(b) COD vs. time.
initial value) down to 3080 and 2087 mg L−1 after 10 and
40 min, respectively. The COD removal followed a similar pattern
(Fig. 1b). Here, 10 min of EC treatment decreased the COD from
its 10,147 mg L−1 initial value, down to 7286 mg L−1 . After 20 min
of treatment, the COD level was 6500 mg L−1 . Further increase of
time to 40 min produced a marginal effect at a level of 6424 mg L−1 .
These results are equivalent to 52.4 and 36.7% removal of BOD and
COD, by 40 min EC treatment, respectively. A unique behaviour of
total phosphorus vs. time was observed. A drastic decrease (from
13 to 1.4 mg L−1 ) of the total phosphorus was observed during
Fig. 4. Results of 0.83 L min−1 circulation and aeration (0.4 and 3.5 L min−1 ) tests (50% WWW) in the presence of Hydrocotyle and Eichhornia: (a) and (b) BOD vs. time; (c) and
(d) COD vs. time.
41
the first 10 min of the EC test. Additional 10 min of EC treatment
removed another 0.6 mg L−1 . The level of 0.8 mg L−1 persisted in
the 20–40 min time range. The electroconductivity remained vir-
tually unchanged during the EC treatment, i.e. decreasing by a
mear 0.1 mS/cm from its initial value of 2.2 mS/cm. The 40 min
EC treatment period produced a rise in pH from 5.95 to 8.06.
Set 2. The system comprised EC with 1 L min−1 O3 . Fig. 2 depicts
results of (a) BOD and (b) COD vs. time. After 20 min, the
BOD decreased from its 1562 mg L−1 initial value to 1227 mg L−1
(Fig. 2a). Beyond 20 min a rise in BOD to 1350 mg L−1 was observed.
The COD decreased from its 10,168 mg L−1 initial value to 5904 and
5330 mg L−1 (Fig. 2a) after 10 and 20 min, respectively. No further
change was observed thereafter. In the case of BOD removal, the
flow of 1 L min−1 O3 did not improve the EC performance. In con-
trast, the EC performance in removing the COD was enhanced by
the O3 . Here, the pH rose from 5.95 to 7.14, while the electrocon-
ductivity changed only slightly.
Set 3. Fig. 3 depicts the evolution of COD vs. time. Application
of EC, with 2.5% H2 O2 in the treated waster, produced a rise in
the COD from 11,172 up to 18,396 mg L−1 , within 10 min. At 20
and 40 min, further increase to 20,580 and 21,700 mg L−1 , was
observed, respectively. Once more, the pH level in the EC system
increased from 5.71 to 7.46 (data not shown) and the electrocon-
ductivity decreased from 2.5 to 2.1 mS/cm.
42 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44

3.2. Floating plants

Fig. 4 depicts results of (a and b) BOD and (c and d) COD vs. time.
A clear effect of aeration on the BOD removal from diluted (1:1,
W:F) WWW by Hydrocotyle and Eichhornia was observed. Here a
monotonic decrease of organic matter (BOD and COD) in most con-
tainers was recorded. As compared to the control, removal of BOD
with plants at low, 0.4 L min−1 , aeration rate was faster. For exam-
ple (Fig. 4a), the level of BOD decreased: to 48.8 mg L−1 , (from its
1959 mg L−1 initial value, 97.5% removal) and to 82.5 mg L−1 (from
its 1879 mg L−1 initial value, 95.6% removal), due to action of the
Hydrocotyle and Eichhornia plants, respectively. In the absence of
aeration, the results were 278 mg L−1 with plants and 262 mg L−1 in
the control (1959 and 2220 mg L−1 initial value, respectively). In the
control at 3.5 L min−1 aeration, a level of 325 mg L−1 (2220 mg L−1
initial value, 85.3% removal) was reached after 23 days of treatment.
At 1:1, W:F dilution, the COD removal kinetics in the initial 5
days period was different compared to that of the BOD (Fig. 4c and
d). From day 6 and on, the COD removal followed a similar pat-
tern. After 23 days in the presence of plants and aeration, the initial
level of 1933–2050 mg L−1 was brought down to 212–265 mg L−1 ,
as compared to 1430 mg L−1 in the control, and 371 mg L−1 when
3.5 L min−1 aeration was applied. As compared to the circulation
with plants, removal of pollutants with plants and aeration was
faster. In summary, low aeration rates, were found to enhance
the kinetics of BOD and COD removal. Note that BOD levels of Fig. 5. Results of tests with diluted WWW (1:1, W:F) in the presence of emergent
2000 mg L−1 were available from WWW treated with EC for 40 min. plants: (a) BOD vs. time; (b) COD vs. time. GR: giant reed; SM + R: salt marshes with
rush; C: cattail; C2 and C4: two types of bed medium (gravel).
However, in order to obtain such levels of COD, further dilution of
the EC effluents is required.
to 7700 mg L−1 . With salt marshes and rush plants (Fig. 5b) the
3.3. Emergent plants COD decreased (after 9 days), from its 5062 mg L−1 initial value, to
89 mg L−1 , (98.2% removal). This constituted one of the best results
Fig. 5 depicts results of (a) BOD and (b) COD vs. time. Average air obtained hitherto, i.e., concerning the purification kinetics and the
temperature was 15.4 ◦ C. Fig. 5a shows that at 1:1, W:F, the plants final COD level.
cattail and salt marshes with rush are capable of decreasing, after Fig. 5a and b demonstrates the role of plants in comparison with
4 days, the BOD from 1372 and 1000 mg L−1 to 573 and 352 mg L−1 that of the bedding, e. g., in increasing the BOD and COD removal.
(58.2 and 64.8% removal), respectively. The plants salt marshes with For example, after 9 days, in the presence salt marshes with rush
rush are more efficient, compared with the control-gravel (42.2% plants, the additional decrease in BOD and COD (over that of the
removal). After 9 days in the presence of salt marshes with rush bedding) was 160 and 473 mg L−1 , respectively. The above results
plants, the BOD drops (from its 1000 mg L−1 initial value), down to indicate the potential capacity of emergent plants to process WWW
7.7 mg L−1 (99.2% removal). This can be compared with 169 mg L−1 in raw form, after treatment with EC, and under different dilutions.
in the control consisting of gravel without plants and 515.5 mg L−1
in the control, with no gravel and no plants. 4. Analysis of results and discussion
Fig. 5b depicts typical results of COD vs. time, obtained with
an initially higher level (over 5000 mg L−1 ) of this water qual- Table 3 summarizes the results (water quality indicators) in the
ity indicator. After 9 days in the presence of giant reed plants, different treatment systems.
the COD decreased (from its high 11,770 mg L−1 initial value), to In raw WWW, at initial COD levels ranging from 10,147 up to
5810 mg L−1 . Without plants the decrease (due to the action of the 10,168 mg L−1 , sets 1 and 2 of EC tests (performed in the absence,
gravel) was from 9490 down to 4850 mg L−1 , while in the control set 1, or with O3 , set 2), produced 28.2–47.6% removal. However
(with no gravel and no plants) the decrease was from 9050 down a 2.5% dilution of WWW by 30% hydrogen peroxide, generated a

Table 3
Measured laboratory data of BOD and COD

Set no. EC treatment time (min) Test no. BOD (mg L−1 ) COD (mg L−1 )

Initial Final Removal (%) Initial Final Removal (%)

1 10 1 4380 3080 29.7 10,147 7,286 28.2

20 2 4380 2615 40.3 10,147 6,500 35.9
40 3 4380 2087 52.4 10,147 6,424 36.7

2 10 1 1562 1306 16.4 10,168 5,904 41.9

20 2 1562 1227 21.4 10,168 5,330 47.6
40 3 1562 1350 13.6 10,168 5,330 47.6

3 10 1 11,172 18,396 −64.7

20 2 11,172 20,580 −84.2
40 3 11,172 21,700 −94.2
 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44 43

Table 4
Calculation of capital cost for WWW treatment

No. Specification Value Quantity Price per unit (NISa ) Price (NISa )
3
1 Electrocoagulaion device for treatment 30.0 m per day Unit 1 40,000 40,000
2 Excavation including quarrying and earth transportation m3 350 40 14,000
3 Concrete works Unit 2 100,000 200,000
4 Isolation against seepage m2 400 130 52,000
5 Bedding material works m3 200 120 24,000
6 Control system desk Unit 4 2,000 8,000
7 Pipes, accessories and installation Complete 2 5,000 10,000
8 Pump for circulation of treated water Unit 2 4,000 8,000
9 Aeration system and installation Complete 2 10,000 20,000
10 Electrical works including control system Unit 1 50,000 50,000
11 Aquatic and emergent plants Unit 22,000 3 66,000
12 Green house for cold period m2 120 100 12,000
13 Design and control, 20% Complete 1 70,000 70,000

Total 574,000
a
1 NIS equivalent to US $ 0.25.

COD rise of 64.7 and 94.2% after 10 and 40 min of EC treatment,

respectively. This adverse effect of H2 O2 was rather unexpected.
In all tests, the pH levels increased. A 10 min of batch EC treatment
reduced the total phosphorus by a remarkable 89.2%. In this respect
EC offers an efficient, high rate, means to remove the phosphorus.
Data of organic loads obtained in this study were compared
with those reported by Bensalah et al. [18] concerning the treat-
ment of olive oil mill wastewater, where 65% of the COD content
was removed. Can et al. [19] reported a 50% decrease of COD in
10 min electrolysis. Best results in terms of COD removal (84%)
were reported for processing of industrial textile wastewater, in
batch reactor, by Zaroual [20]. The results indicate that at 600 mV,
EC was very efficient in removing COD within 3 min. The wastew-
ater effluent appeared very clear and its quality exceeded the
direct discharge standard. EC reduced COD levels of food-industry
wastewater by 88%, using a batch reactor coupled to a rotating
electrode [21].
4.1. Aquatic plants
Data of organic loads obtained in this study were compared with
those reported by Cossu et al. [22] concerning the treatment of raw
and pre-treated leachate, from municipal sanitary waste, with four
vegetable aquatic and terrestrial species, at different organic loads.
Best results in terms of COD and BOD removal were obtained for
raw leachate with COD = 2 g m−2 day−1 in free water surface (FWS)
wetlands [22], while lower removal rates of COD = 1.5 g m−2 day−1
and BOD = 0.75–1.0 g m−2 day−1 were reported for WWW. The per-
centage reduction of high organic load in the WWW, in the various
treatment methods that were examined toward the end of this
study, demonstrate the potential of both floating and emergent
plant cultures for use in diluted and raw WWW remediation.
EC, presents an effective method of pre-treatment of WWW
in order to reduce organic loads of the polluted water. EC takes
advantage of the fact that surface charges are neutralised in an elec-
trochemical cell. The system is relatively inexpensive to construct
and operate, and can act on high-strength (i.e. highly contaminated)
WWW. In order to decrease the organic loads, as expressed by BOD
(less than 5000 mg L−1 ) and COD (less that 10,000 mg L−1 ), to levels
amenable to emergent and/or floating aquatic plants, the WWW
can be diluted with pre-settled sewage wastewater, or processed
by an EC device. Pre-treatment of winery wastewaters in order to
reduce their high organic loads may be necessary to avoid subject-
ing the plants to stress. The various treatment methods that were
examined in this study, demonstrate the potential of both floating
and emergent plant cultures for use in diluted WWW remedia-
Fig. 6. Combined EC and wetland system for treatment of WWW.
tion. Thus, based on the results of this work, a combined scheme
for treatment of raw WWW may be proposed (Fig. 6). In the first
stage, WWW will be treated by EC. In the second stage, WWW with
reduced organic load due to EC or dilution, is treated by aquatic
plants. The circulation load enhanced the process efficiency and
controls the dilution of the WWW, during treatment by the plants
with aeration.
5. Economic aspects
The following data were used in the economic model: flow
rate −30.0 m3 per day; volume of treated WWW −8000.0 m3 per
year (270 working days); residence time for treatment of WWW
by emergent plants – 3 days; bed composition – gravel, with size
5–10 mm; void fraction −0.35; required volume of constructed wet-
land pond (30 × 3)/(0.35) = 257 m3 .
The pond consists of two identical parts, each with volume of
130 m3 . Each part is divided into 8 small modules supplemented
by circulation and aeration systems. The capital required for con-
struction of a 2 × 130 m3 WWW treatment plant is summarized in
Table 4. Data of construction costs of similar projects in Israel was
used in capital investment calculations.
The operating cost of WWW treatment plant was calculated, as
8.57 NIS/m3 of treated WWW.
The internal rate of return for this project is 29.5% and the pay-
back time 4.0 years. These parameters suggest the viability of the
economic model.
6. Conclusion
EC, presents an effective method of pre-treatment of WWW
in order to reduce organic loads in the polluted water. EC takes
44 F. Kirzhner et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 63 (2008) 38–44
advantage of the fact that surface charges are neutralised in an
electrochemical cell. Repelling forces between the particles are
practically eliminated and the dispersed fine particles combine into
larger separable aggregates that can settle gravitationally, within
the treatment time. After a short 5–10 min treatment at 1–2.5 A,
followed by sedimentation, the water turned clear. Laboratory scale
tests verified the amenability of WWW to treatment by EC, and fur-
nished data necessary for design of a larger scale treatment device.
In practice, mobile devices with capacity of 2 m3 /h are available
commercially. The efficiency of the EC procedure (Figs. 1 and 2),
ranges between 28.2 and 52.4%. Pollutants removal depends on the
treatment time. All tests were reproducible. EC facilitates 50–60%
removal of BOD and COD within 5–10 min of operation. In general,
EC is expected to improve the removal of BOD and COD with time.
However, the main effect is observed in the first 20 min. Addition
of 1 L min−1 O3 enhanced the processes efficiency. In contrast H2 O2
had an adverse effect.
The aquatic emergent plants treatment technology appears to
have the following potential advantages: physico-chemical: high
sorption characteristics; biological: high rate of reproduction; tech-
nological: high rate of treatment in relatively short adaptation
time, and capacity to treat record high organic loads; economi-
cal: low cost of installation, maintenance and operation. The role
of a new type of emergent plants, in enhancing the BOD and COD
removal kinetics, for diluted WWW, was demonstrated. A com-
bined scheme, with EC pre-treatment, optional dilution, followed
by aquatic plants treatment technology is proposed. The viability of
an economic model is demonstrated for the case of 8000 m3 /year
treatment facility.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Golan Heights Winery Ltd.,
the Center for Absorption in Science, Ministry of Immigrant Absorp-
tion, State of Israel.
References
[1] R.L. Knight Jr., V.W.E. Payne, R.E. Borer Jr., R.A. Clarke, J.H. Pries, Constructed
wetlands for livestock wastewater management, Ecol. Eng. 15 (1/2) (2000)
41–55.
[2] F. Masi, G. Conte, N. Martinuzzi, B. Pucci, Winery high organic content wastewa-
ters treated by constructed wetlands in Mediterranean climate, in: Proceedings
of the IWA, 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollu-
tion Control, 2002, Arusha, Tanzania, 2002, pp. 1–9.
[3] D. Daffonchio, M. Colombo, G. Origgi, C. Sorlini, V. Andreoni, Anaerobic diges-
tion of winery wastewaters derived from different wine making processes, J.
Environ. Sci. Health A 33 (1998) 1753–1770.
[4] M. Petruccioli, J.C. Duarte, A. Eusebio, F. Federici, Aerobic treatment of win-
ery wastewater using a jet-loop activated sludge reactor, Process. Biochem. 37
(2002) 821–829.
[5] L. Malandra, G. Wolfaardt, A. Zietsman, M. Viljoen-Bloom, Microbiology of a bio-
logical contactor for winery wastewater treatment, Water Res. 37 (17) (2003)
4125–4134.
[6] H.L. Shepherd, M.E. Grismer, G. Tchobanoglous, Treatment of high-strength
winery wastewater using a subsurface flow constructed wetland, Water Envi-
ron. Res. 73 (4) (2001) 394–403.
[7] E. O’Brien, M. Hetrick, A. Dusault, Wastewater to wetlands: opportunities for
California agriculture, Report, August, 2002.
[8] S. Kerner, J. Rochard, Winery wastewater treatment by constructed wetland:
principles and prospects, in: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference
on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Avignon, France, 2004, vol. 1,
2004, pp. 105–110.
[9] US Environmental Protection Agency, Design Manual. Constructed wetlands
and aquatic plant systems for municipal wastewater treatment, Office of
Research and Development, Center of Environmental Research Information,
Cincinnati, OH, 1988, p. 83.
[10] C. Polprasert, S. Kessomboon, W. Kanjanaprapin, Pig wastewater treat-
ment in water hyacinth ponds, Water Sci. Technol. 26 (9–11) (1992) 2381–
2384.
[11] M.-F. Pouet, A. Grasmick, Urban wastewater treatment by electrocoagulation
and flotation, Water Sci. Technol. 31 (3/4) (1995) 275–283.
[12] X. Chen, G. Chen, P.L. Yue, Separation of pollutants from restaurant wastewater
by electrocoagulation, Sep. Purif. Technol. 19 (2000) 65–76.
[13] G. Chen, X. Chen, P.L. Yue, Electrocoagulation and electroflotation of restaurant
wastewater, J. Environ. Eng. 126 (9) (2000) 858–863.
[14] N. Balasubramanian, K. Madhavan, Arsenic removal from industrial
effluent through electrocoagulation, Chem. Eng. Technol. 24 (5) (2001)
519–521.
[15] C.B. Diaz, M.P. Pardave, M.R. Romo, S. Martinez, Chemical and electrochemical
considerations on the removal process of hexavalent chromium from aqueous
media, J. Appl. Electrochem. 33 (2003) 61–71.
[16] P.K. Holt, G.W. Barton, C.A. Mitchell, The future for electrocoagulation
as a localised water treatment technology, Chemosphere 59 (3) (2005)
355–367.
[17] American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water
Environment Federation, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 16th ed., American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C,
1995.
[18] N. Bensalah, A. Bedoui, A. Gadri, Influence of anode material on the electro-
chemical treatment of olive oil mill wastewaters, Chem. Technol. Indian J. 1
(2006) 2–4.
[19] O.T. Can, M. Kobya, E. Demirbas, M. Bayramoglu, Treatment of the textile
wastewater by combined electrocoagulation, Chemosphere 62 (2) (2006)
181–187.
[20] Z. Zaroual, M. Azzi, N. Saib, E. Chainet, Contribution to the study of electrocoag-
ulation mechanism in basic textile effluent, J. Hazard. Mater. 131 (1–3) (2006)
73–78.
[21] C. Barrera-Dı́az, G. Roa-Morales, L. Ávila-Córdoba, T. Pavón-Silva, B. Bilyeu, Elec-
trochemical Treatment Applied to Food-Processing Industrial Wastewater, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (1) (2006) 34–38.
[22] R. Cossu, K. Haarstad, M.Cr. Lavagnolo, P. Littarru, Removal of municipal solid
waste COD and NH4 –N by phyto-reduction: a laboratory-scale comparison of
terrestrial and aquatic species at different organic loads, Ecol. Eng. 16 (4) (2001)
459–470.