Abdul

Table of Contents
1 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 35
1.2 Data Analysis and Reporting ....................................................................................................... 35
2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................................................ 35
2.1 General Description of the Whole Area ...................................................................................... 35
3 General Geology and Hydrogeology ................................................................................................... 36
3.1 General........................................................................................................................................ 36
3.2 Stratigraphy of Somali Region..................................................................................................... 39
3.2.1 Basement ............................................................................................................................ 39
3.2.2 Paleozoic ............................................................................................................................. 39
3.2.3 Jurassic ................................................................................................................................ 39
3.2.4 Js. Adigrat Formation .......................................................................................................... 39
3.2.5 Ju. Uarandab Formation...................................................................................................... 40
3.2.6 Jo Gabredarre Formation .................................................................................................... 40
3.2.7 3.2.4. Kjg- Lower Cretaceous (Main Gypsum or Korahe Formation) .................................. 41
3.2.8 3.2.5. Upper Cretaceous ..................................................................................................... 41
3.2.9 3.2.6. Kj- Jessoma Formation .............................................................................................. 42
3.2.10 Ea- Paleocene (Auradu Formation) ..................................................................................... 43
3.2.11 Hydrogeology and Water points and abstraction ............................................................... 43
3.2.12 Hamanlei series ................................................................................................................... 44
3.2.13 Urandab formation ............................................................................................................. 44
3.2.14 Kabridahar formation.......................................................................................................... 44
3.3 Main gypsum formation ............................................................................................................. 45
3.4 Jessoma Sandstone ..................................................................................................................... 45
3.5 Auradu Series – Lower Eocene.................................................................................................... 45
4 Hydrogeological Mapping ................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 45
4.2 Objective ..................................................................................................................................... 47
Acronyms
AfDB Africa Development Bank
BPR Business Process Reengineering
BoFED Bureau of Finance & Economic Development
CDF Community Development Fund
CFT Community Facilitator Team
COWASH Community-Led Accelerated WaSH
CSO Civil Society Organization
DAG Development Assistance Group
DFID Department for International Development (UK)
FINNIDA Finnish International Development Cooperation
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
JTR Joint Technical Review
HDW Hand dug Well
HEW Health Extension Worker
HP Hand Pump
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KDC Kebele Development Committee
LSP Local Service Provider
MDG Millennium Development Goal
M&E Monitoring & Evaluation
MoE Ministry of Education
MFI Micro Finance Institution
MoFED Ministry of Finance & Economic Development
MoH Ministry of Health
MoWE Ministry of Water & Energy
NGO Non-governmental Organization
O&M Operation & Maintenance
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End the Poverty
R-WaSH Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene
RWCO Regional WaSH Coordination Office
RWSEP Rural Water Supply and Environment Program
RWS Rural Water Supply
SNNPRS South Nation & Nationalities Peoples Regional State
SP Spare Part
TVETC Technical Vocational & Educational Training College
UAP Universal Access Plan
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
VLOM Village Level Operation and Maintenance
WASHCO Water Supply and Sanitation Committee
WDC Woreda Development Committee
WB World Bank
WSG Woreda Support Group
WUG Water User Group
WWD Woreda Water Desk
BLPI Baseline Livelihood Parameters and Indicators
DPPB The Disaster Prevention and preparedness Bureau
HEA Household Economy Analysis
LACWT List Of Areas with Chronic water trucking
LZ Livelihood Zone
OAS Outcome Analysis system
PLRC Pastoralist Livelihoods Research Consulting
SRSE Somali Regional State of Ethiopia
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

WEDAS Water Emergency and Development Analytical System
WIM Water Inventory Map
Vulnerability assessments
Vulnerability assessments provide information about the nature of the problem that is critical to
understand in order to develop effective policy. The assessment informs policymaking in several
ways. First, it identifies the functional systems that are likely to be affected by climate change-
related impacts, such as buildings, utilities, emergency response, or ecosystems. Second, it enhances
understanding of the causes and components of each system’s vulnerabilities, going beyond intuitive
assumptions to explicitly identify vulnerable points in the system.
Finally, it provides information about the relationships between vulnerabilities of different systems
to allow both for prioritization and for a systems approach to policy-making. A vulnerability
assessment includes three primary components – exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity – each
of which contributes to the overall vulnerability of a functional system. Exposure is a determination
of whether the system will experience a specific changing climate condition or impact.
Sensitivity is the degree to which the system would be impaired by the impact if it were exposed.
Adaptive capacity is the ability of the system to change in order to maintain its primary functions
even as it is exposed to an impact. When a system is exposed, with high sensitivity and low adaptive
capacity, it is likely to be vulnerable. Application of these concepts and other methods are described
in more detail in Section 3.1, Assessment Approach.
Access to water & pastoralist livelihoods

Water development in pastoral drylands of Africa has always been a priority for humanitarian
and development agencies and for governments. However, experts have raised increasing
concerns about its numerous adverse effects. In 2006 FAO’s Livelihood Support Programme
reviewed the lessons learned in implementing pastoral and hydraulic projects in parts of
eastern Africa: the Haud in Ethiopia where underground cemented cisterns (berkado) are
expanding quickly, in northeastern Kenya where boreholes are multiplying, and in the riverside
area of Southern Somalia where pastoralists seek access to rehabilitated irrigation canals. The
study found that, in the absence of clear national policies for development of the drylands in
eastern Africa, unplanned water development represents a threat for pastoralism, even if the
process of sedentarisation around new permanent water sources offers to a minority of the
population complementary or/and alternative livelihoods with the development of agriculture
and access to education. Water development is often focused on water supply and quantity to
the expense of water quality. The planning of new permanent water infrastructures has been
erratic and not integrated, and effective participation of the local communities in the
managing and maintaining these investments has been absent or insufficient. Where water-
users associations were created and trained, these faced serious challenges. See “Access to
water, pastoral resource management and pastoralists’ livelihoods: lessons learned from water
development in selected areas of eastern Africa (Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia)”
Access to water is a top priority in the Kordofan area of central Sudan, which is has a dry and
challenging climate. In Sudan, SOS Sahel UK is increasing the amount of water available and
lengthening the time it is accessible in the dry season by rehabilitating traditional hafirs (water
reservoirs) and constructing sand and sub-surface dams. This reduces the burden of water collection
on women, increases the opportunities for income generation and reduces incidences of conflict over
resources, thereby improving the livelihoods of nomadic and settled communities.
Activities
Last year we helped over 8,000 people across five villages to increase their water supplies by
rehabilitating their hafirs. With an improved water supply, clashes over water access have
considerably reduced in these areas and visiting pastoralists are now welcomed to draw water. This
year our activities include:
Sand & sub-surface dams:
 Facilitating a ten-day exchange visit for five key Sudanese people to Kenya see for themselves
the potential for this technology and the impact it is having on Kenyan communities.
 Providing four months of apprenticeship training for Damba villagers (South Kordofan) & key
development agents in the area, using skilled expertise from Kenya, so that local people
(including demobilised soldiers) gain the skills to build their own dams in the future.
 Constructing sand/sub-surface dams with the communities Damba and Tourlake villages, to
ensure local ownership and the transfer of valuable skills in dam construction and management.
Hafirs (water reservoirs):
 Constructing & maintaining hafirs: rebuilding earth embankments, de-silting the reservoirs and
providing fencing to protect them from contamination by animals.
 Raising awareness amongst and mobilising local communities to participate in the project
activities.
 Establishing Water Committees to manage their hafirs sustainably and effectively into the
future.
1 TRAINING THE WATER COMMITTEES ON TOPICS SUCH AS BOOK-KEEPING AND

ORGANISATIONAL MANAGEMENT
1.1 3.4 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

This study reviews water, sanitation and hygiene sector implementation in Somali Region
compared to PASDEP and Neighbouring Oromiya Region, identifies major gaps and
suggests possible solutions. One limitation is that there are some discrepancies and
inconsistencies between the figures of the Ministry of Water Resource (MoWR) and the
figures reported by the DRSs. To show gaps and make comparisons between the DRSs and
their neighbours, the study mainly uses the figures from the MoWR (2009a and 2009b) when
evaluating rural water supply.
1.1.1 3.4.1 Water Supply

The GoE’s plan to improve the water supply situation is reflected in the continuous and
rigorous revision of coverage targets as illustrated on Table-3.4.1 The MDG targets of
achieving 70% of national coverage by 2015 is revised upward in PASDEP by increasing the
target coverage to 84.5% by 2010 i.e. five years earlier than the MDGs target period.
Table 3.4.1: Comparison of water supply coverage targets
Major Water-Supply Related PASDE UAP MDG Current

Indicators P target target access
target, (end (2015) (2007/08
2010 2012) )
Rural population with access to 80.0 98.0 66.0 54.0
potable water within 1.5 km (15
litres/ capita/day) (%)
Urban population with access to 92.5 100.0 98.0 86.0
potable water within 0.5 km (20
litres/ capita/day) (%)
National population with access to 84.5 98.0 70.0 59.0
potable water (%)
Source: PASDEP, 2007
The Universal Access Program for water supply and sanitation services was designed as a
result of the determination of the government to radically alter the low level of rural water
supply and sanitation coverage of the country. Accordingly, UAP is designed to extend rural
water supply and sanitation services to all rural communities within seven years (2006-2012),
a time frame which is shorter than that of the MDGs and that of the Water Sector
Development Program, with much higher targets. As a guiding program document the UAP
provides comprehensive cost estimates and financing requirements; identifies human
resource and material needs; and recommends approaches to implementation in both rural
and urban areas. The UAP aims to achieve its target by constructing 149,024 new schemes
and rehabilitating 48,510. The UAP gives priority for low cost technologies, which can be
implemented by contributions from the beneficiaries, where it is feasible and shifts to high
cost technologies1 only if the low cost options are not technically possible.
In 2008, the MoWR reviewed the performance of the UAP during the first 3 years of the
implementation period (2006-2008) based on reports from all the regions and from the
MoWR2. The review revealed that actual performance achieved lagged significantly behind
the UAP targets. The national water supply coverage increased from 35% (at the end of
2005/6) to 52.3% at the end of 2008, i.e. there was an increment of about 18% coverage
during the 3 year period. This shows that the coverage increased with an annual average rate
of 6% against the planned greater than 9%. To meet this target would have required doubling
the beneficiaries being served each year for the last 3 years at national level, i.e. more than 9
million people would have had to be covered every year.
1.1.2 Water Supply Coverage in Somali Regional State

Somali Regional State, with a population of 4.5 million in 9 Administrative zones and 57
woredas, is a region that is usually affected by water and moisture constraints due to low and
unpredictable rainfall. Only, Jijiga, Fiq and Degehabur zones receive 400-600mm rainfall per
annum and whereas the rest of the six zones receive 300mm or less. In this water scarce
region, in 2005/06, the total rural population that had access to safe water was 21% (MoFED,
2008), by 2008 this had increased to 37.9% and the urban coverage was 61.6%, with an
overall coverage of 37.9% (MoWR, 2009b)
The rural water supply coverage of Somali Region is two thirds of that of its neighbour
Oromiya (55%) and the least of all the regions (Table 3.4.2 and Figures-3.4.1).
Table-3.4.2 Rural water supply coverage compared to regional plan and

UAP plan
1 High cost technologies include, deep wells, spring with pipe system, pipe system, etc.
2
The Ministry of Water Resource evaluated UAP in 2009 as a midterm review.
Region UAP coverage Regional plan Water supply
plan until 2008 until 2008 (%) coverage 2008
(%) (%)
Afar 53 76 53.1
Benishangul-Gumuz 64 53 44.3
Gambella 42 53 43.9
Somali 32 48 32.9
DRS Average 48 58 43.6
National 65 66 53.9
Source: MoWR (2007/08 PASDEP Report);
Figure 3.4.1: Rural water supply coverage of Somali and Oromiya, June 2008
Somali
Region
Oromiya
National Average
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percent
Source: Ministry of Water Resources/ MoWR (2007/08 PASDEP Report)
In Somali Region, the total rural population that benefited from implementation of water
supply schemes in the 2006-2008 period was about 605,475. This raised the total coverage
from 373,275 in 2005 to 978,750 in 2008. The current coverage is 32.9% of the rural
population, and the region is left with 67% of its target uncovered. At current rate of
implementation, achieving the PASDEP and UAP targets is impossible. The urban water
supply coverage is also the least of all regions, i.e. only 61.6% of the urban population has
access to clean water within 0.5km (MWR, 2009), a figure which is well below the 83%
average of DRSs. Though the water supply coverage is very low it has marginally increased
over the 2005-2008 period (Table 3.4.3).
Table-3.4.3: Coverage of rural water supply of DRS and neighbouring regions

Region 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08
Rural Urban Total Rura Urban Total Rural Urba Total
41.1 73.0 44.0 l
51.0 73.0 52.9 (%)
53.1 n77.4
(%) (%)
55.4
Afar
Benishangul.-Gumuz 46.0 66.2 48.0 48.7 85.5 52.3 44.3 93.1 49.3
Gambella 41.4 37.0 40.6 49.4 72.9 53.7 43.9 98.6 54.7
Somali 21.5 60.0 28.0 23.3 60.0 29.4 32.9 61.6 37.9
DRS Average 37.5 59.1 40.2 43.1 72.9 47.1 43.5 82.7 49.3
Tigray 42.8 50.9 44.3 51.2 60.0 52.8 56.0 72.0 59.1
Amhara 36.6 80 41.5 42.4 82.0 48.0 49.0 87.8 53.7
Oromiya 40.2 87.6 46.5 45.0 90.4 50.9 55.2 97.9 61.1
SNNPR 53.0 64.5 54.0 58.0 66.0 59.0 63.0 72.1 63.6
NRS Average 43.2 70.8 46.6 49.2 74.6 52.7 55.8 82.5 59.4
National Average 41.2 78.8 47.3 46.4 82.0 52.5 54 86.2 59.5
Source: 2005/06 and 2006/07 (MoFED) PASDEP Progress Report;

2008/09 is from MoWR, 2007/08 PASDEP Report.
Figure 3.4.2: Coverage of rural water supply of DRS and NRS
Coverage of Rural Water Supply (%)

70
2005/06 Rural
2006/07 Rural
60
2008 Rural
50
40
30
20
10
0
Afar Benishangul- Gambella Somali Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNNPR
Gumuz
Source: Data from Ministry of Water Resource (2009)

The MoWR document also indicates that during the 2006-2008 time period, 4,548 new water
schemes were implemented in the region. Surprisingly, in terms of the number of new water
supply schemes, the region has implemented almost fourfold of its plan (386%); a
performance that has not been observed in any other region (Figure-3.4.3). Of the
implemented schemes, only 19% are low cost while 81% are high cost technologies. This has
made more than 601,000 new beneficiaries. Despite the progress made, the clean water
supply coverage is still the lowest of all regions, probably due to the low water supply
coverage of Somali during the base year.
Figure-3.4.3: Number of rural water supply schemes constructed by regions 2006-2008

Number of Rural Water Supply Schemes
16000
14000 Planned
Executed
constructed
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Afar BGRS Gambella Somali Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNNPR
Source: MoWR (2009)

A case study from the region shows the incidence of water shortage and its consequence on
the poor in more detail. The case study focuses on Harshin Wereda and it shows the depth of
the water supply problem (UNDP, 2009). In Harshin Wereda, at the time of assessment, the
people were buying a barrel of water for birr 20-25. Three times a month, people contributed
money towards the cost (500-600 birr) of a truck full of water. The money was given to a
water committee and the committee bought water from the nearest urban centre (Harshin or
Hartishek) by contacting water vendors (owners of water trucks). The high price people were
paying for purchasing water depleted their asset base and it was unpredictable how long they
could continue purchasing water at such an expensive a rate. From such a pressing problem,
the local community suggested that they would contribute in labour and locally available
material if the government wishes to construct water points. Regarding post-construction
utilization and management/care of water points they said that a water management
committee would be established, people would buy water with a reasonable and affordable
price and the revenue would be used for maintenance as well as for incentives and salaries of
those people managing the day-to-day activities of the water schemes, (UNDP 2009; p.19).
This show that even in the non-remote parts of the region such as in Harshi (in Jijiga Zone),
the water supply coverage is at a low level and can cause asset depletion.
1.1.3 3.4.1.3 Service gap in relation to PASDEP, MDG and UAP targets
Both the national and the regional data shows the coverage of water supply in Somali is the
lowest of all the DRSs. A projection based on the MoWR data shows (Figure-3.4.4) at the
current rate of performance, the region will not achieve both the PASDEP and the UAP
targets. The projection also shows that, at current rate of implementation, Somali region may
attain the MDG in water supply, though it is still far behind its neighbouring region Oromiya.
Figure 3.4.4: Comparison of water supply coverage

Total Water Supply Coverage (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15
Fiscal Year
Somali: MoWR Projection UAP Total MDG Total Oromiya:MoWR Projection
Source: Projection based on MoWR data
1.1.4 3.4.1.3 Rehabilitation and maintenance of rural water schemes

At national level it is reported that in the regional states, the rate of malfunctioning rural
water supply facilities declined to 20% by the end of 2006/07 (MoFED, 2007). However, in
some regions the malfunctioning schemes seem to outweigh the newly constructed schemes.
For instance in Gambella, Benishangul and SNNPR coverage has declined, possibly from
lack of maintenance of schemes. A survey shows at national level, only a quarter of water
points are being properly maintained. However, there is no consolidated and verified
information on the proportion of malfunctioning schemes in Somali. Much work is required
to verify the figures. The 17 years performance report of the Somali BoWMERD (Table
3.4.4) indicates 84 of the 231 (36.4%) borehole schemes in 9 zones are not functional. If we
compare this figure with the target of PASDEP of reducing the malfunctioning schemes to
15%, the target of PASDEP is not achievable. Rather it shows maintenance and rehabilitation
are neglected activities in the water sector. For instance, in 2008/09, only 150 water supply
schemes were assessed in Shinile, Jijiga, Dhegahbour, Qorahay, Warder, Afdher and Liban.
This number is very low compared to the large number of schemes in the region.
Table 3.4.4 Summery of the existing schemes in the Somali Region
Zone Scheme Functional Not- Total

functional
Shinile BH 44 15 59
Jijiga BH 44 21 65
D/bur BH 12 4 16
Fiq BH 2 8 10
K/dahar BH 11 12 23
Warder BH 7 10 17
Gode 4RI+2BH 3 3 6
Liban BH 17 7 24
Afder 1HD 2RI 7 4 11
1 S 6BH
Total 147 84 231
Source: Annual Report, BoWMERD, 2008/09
1.1.5 3.4.1.4 Low cost versus high cost technology

In the period 2006-2008 of UAP, as discussed above, the target plan was not achieved in
some regions. One of the major reasons for this is that the technology implemented tended to
be costly and account was not taken of the natural water availability. Costly water schemes
require high drilling technology, qualified employees and considerable financial resource. As
the MoWR 2009a report indicates, at national level, 53% of the beneficiaries of the 3 year
implementation plan received water that was supplied through high cost technology. The
implication is that regions would have served more beneficiaries with the same cost if they
have focused on low cost technologies. Low cost technologies have an average unit cost of 87
birr compared with a unit cost of 252 birr for high technologies. For Somali, the average cost
per capita of the low cost technology is 135 birr (the second most expensive next to
Benishangul-Gumuz) while the average per capita cost of high technology schemes is 634
birr (the most expensive of the regions50 - see Figure-3.4.4). Given the financial constraint, if
the regions continue to focus on the high cost technology it will be unlikely that PASDEP and
UAP targets will be achieved. From the MoWR review, we can observe that generally the
DRSs focused on more on high cost technologies than did the neighbouring regional states
(See Table-3.4.5).
Figure 3.4.5: Summary of cost per capita (birr) of low and high schemes
50
Note that across regional states, the highest average per capita low cost technology is Benishangul (140 birr), while the lowest is that of
Afar (32 birr). This shouldn’t be misleading because the cost assessment is not based on a purposely selected sample. A good estimate
requires well-designed survey based on purposely-selected sample.
700
Low Cost Schemes

600
High Cost Schemes
Cost in Birr
500
400
300
200
100
0
Afar B. Gumuz Gambela Somali Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNNPR National
Source: Data is from MWR (2009)
As can be seen in Figure 3.4.5, on per capita basis, the low cost technologies in the DRS
(excluding Afar) are relatively more expensive compared to the low cost technologies in the
NRS, while the high cost technologies (excluding Somali) are relatively less expensive. This
means that, for the DRS, implementation is difficult due to the cost of the schemes, and it
creates a compelling argument for more financial support for the DRSs. In fact, we should
never forget the natural groundwater availability has to be an enabling condition when we
suggest focus on low cost schemes. For instance, even in DRSs where the cost of low cost
technologies is low (e.g. Afar), evidence shows the implementation does not focus on the low
cost schemes possibly due to this kind of constraint. In NRSs, Amhara Region is largely
served by low cost technologies, while Tigray and Oromiya are served by the two
technologies almost equally (Table 3.4.5).
Table 3.4.5- Technologies implemented in each region
Technology Afa B. Gamb Soma Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNN Tota

r G ela li P l
No. of Low cost 41 12 46 852 1831 8018 3876 1719 1650

schemes 5 8
%age of total 17.2 68. 29.3 18.7 59.6 93.3 79.4 43.8 64.5
7
No. of High cost 19 57 111 3696 1240 576 1006 2202 9086
schemes 8
%age of total 82.8 31. 70.7 81.3 40.4 6.7 20.6 56.2 35.5
3
Total 23 18 157 4548 3071 8594 4882 3921 2559
9 2 4
Source: Computed from MoWR (2009)
1.1.6 3.4.1.5 Financial resource and water supply

At national level, an expenditure of a total of 3.345 billion birr was planned, for the period
2006-2008, to supply the rural population with safe drinking water. The plan was based on
the assumption that the government, donors and NGOs would contribute a total of 1.8, 0.94
and 0.58 billion birr respectively, with a respective share of 54.5%, 28.2% and 17.3%. Within
the period, the total actual expenditure was 2.44 billion (73%), and the government, donors
and NGOs has a respective share of 50.7%, 26.9% and 22.4%; (the share of the government
and donors falls slightly and that of NGOs is slightly more than expected. In case of Somali
Region, for the rural water supply, a 356.7 million birr budget was planned for the period
2006-2008, of which government, donors and NGOs planned to contribute 45.9%, 8.6% and
45% respectively. Out of the total planned 327.5 million (92%) was utilized, at a utilization
rates of 53%, 81% 133% for governments, donors and NGOs respectively. The midterm
review of UAP finance shows (Figure-3.4.5) that 51% of the beneficiaries nationally are
served by the public budget; but Gambela, Benishangul-Gumuz, Harari, and Amhara are
mainly dependent on donors and NGOs. NGOS are a reliable source of finance for the sector.
Figure 3.4.6: Population served by sources of finances 2006-2008
3000000
2500000 Gov’t
Donors
2000000
NGOs
1500000
1000000
500000
0
Afar r B.Gumuz Gambela Somali Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNNPR
The overall capacity of fund utilization at the national level is low (only 73%) and
Benishangul-Gumuz (50%), Afar (55%), Oromiya (57%) and Amhara (62.4%) have
relatively less financial utilization efficiency. As a source of budget for the sector, NGOs
(95%) are more efficient in utilizing budget than both the government (68%) and donors
(70%). Figure 3.4.7 shows that the budget utilization rate of the DRSs is low compared to
that of the NRSs. In case of government budget, Afar, Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella and
Somali have respective rates of 61.7%, 9.8%, 17.4 % and 53.2% over the period. Somali
regional state performs better in its overall budget utilization rate, though it achieves less well
in utilizing the government budget. The major factor constraining the government budget
utilization rate in Somali is lack of capacity (human resources, delays in financing,
infrastructure). Budget underutilization is in fact a problem both at both regional and federal
level (RIPPLE, 2009). The data indicates that utilization and the share of NGOs water supply
budget in the region increased significantly (Figure-3.4.6), for a reason that is not well
discussed in the reports, but could possibly be better incentives to employees.
Figure 3.4.7: Budget utilization rate of rural water supply 2006-08 of DRS and NRSs51
140
120 Total
Government
100 Donors
Budget Utilization Rate (%)
NGOs
80
60
40
20
0
Afar B.Gumuz Gambella Somali Tigray Amhara SNNPR Oromiya Nat. Av.
Source: FMoWR
From water sector economic governance perspective, in absolute figures Somali allocates
almost equal capital budget for the rural water supply in 2006/07 and 2007/08. It is well
known that the water schemes in Somali are expensive; therefore it is important to allocate a
substantial capital budget to enhance implementation, given the current rate of budget
utilization.
51
The NGO utilization rate of Afar is 569%; it is not shown to keep the scaling simple to observe.
Figure-3.4.8: Regional consolidated capital budget of water 1998-2000 EFY (All sources)
‘000,000
300
1998
1999
Capital Expenditure in Million
250
2000
200
150
100
50
Birr
0
Benishangul
Afar Gambella Somali Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNNP
Gumuz
Source: Expenditure Data MoFED
As figure 3.4.8 shows, in almost all NRSs, the capital budget allocated to the water sector is
continuously increasing in consecutive years over the 1998-2000 EFYs, while it is generally
constant (Somali 1999 & 2000 EFY) nil (Gambella in 1998 & 1999 EFYs) or decreasing
(Benishangul Gumuz in 2000 EFY) in the DRSs. Among the DRSs, it is only in Afar that the
capital budget is increasing from year to year. The problem with capital budget in the regions
is not only the small share that is allocated, but also the various sources of finance needed to
sustain the current water supply activities in all regions, and the accounting of these various
financial modalities. The World Bank (2009) has commented on the sources of finances to
sustain the current water supply activities and the accounting systems:
 The first phase of the project supporting the drinking water supply is approaching the
end and though the annual financial targets of the UAP and MDGs seem to have
been met, unless other negotiations are started to secure financial resource, shortage
of finance will be looming over the current water supply endeavours in all DRSs. In
this regard, the national inflationary trend is a challenge added to the secured
resources of the projects;
 At national level, the low budget utilization rate (on average 60%) jeopardizes the
progress towards the MDG and the UAP. Even though the combined budget volume
of the eight financing modalities of the water sector is close to the budget annually
required to meet the MDG and the UAP, the current high inflation rate, the need to
renew the support of the development partners and even if the finance is secured, the
low budget utilization may not guarantee equivalent service delivery;
 The financing modalities centralize control of decentralized service delivery –
particularly as regards to accounting; parallel procedures for monitoring inputs did
not lead to improved quality and sustainability of the water schemes that were built
by the respective modalities; and
 Rural water supply in Ethiopia is a highly decentralized system, which requires
building decentralized service delivery capacity.
From this perspective, the annual report of 2007/08 of the BoWERD Benishangul Gumuz
indicated delays in the disbursement of World Bank and ADB funds; and reported shortage of
funds for some of the projects; for example, Horazab Town Water Supply Project. When we
see the budget utilization rate, the least is that of ADB (12.4%). 100% of World Bank fund
was utilized and more than 100% of IDA fund. However, in general the regional bureaus
state that there is a public budget shortage, demanding special consideration in the national
regional budget share in all the sectors including the water sector. The lagging water sector of
the region requires financial resource that goes beyond the capacity of the region.
1.1.7 3.4.1.6. Organizational structure, human resources, and equipment

This section will discuss first organizational structure and then human resources and
equipment. From the organizational structure perspective, the MoWR coordinates UAP
implementation. At regional and zonal level, the Regional Water Resources Development
Bureau through Regional Program Coordination Unit and Zonal Water Office through the
zonal Program Coordination Unit coordinate the implementation respectively. At wereda
level, UAP implementation is coordinated by the Wereda Council through the Wereda Water
Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Team (WaSH Team) established from Water, Health,
Education, Women’s affairs, Finance and Economy offices and NGOs. However, the Wereda
Water office role as a major responsible body for the implementation of the program is not
emphasized. At kebele level, kebele WaSHCOs coordinate the implementation and at
community level, community WaSHCOs do the same. As MoWR (2009) shows, in the
structure it is not clear whether UAP implementation is coordinated at all levels by the same
Program Coordination Unit established for coordination of WaSH programs. This should be
clearly stated, as this program coordination unit is not engaged in the UAP implementation as
a whole (it is engaged in coordinating WaSH programs being implemented in specific
weredas only). At community level also, similar to the regional, zonal and wereda levels, it is
not clear how the community level committee will be established and what its role and
responsibilities will be. Furthermore, UAP is implemented in an integrated way (water,
sanitation and hygiene); but the structure doesn’t show joint coordination of the program
implementation by the relevant offices at Federal, Regional and Zonal levels.
Though the lag in the WASH structure no doubt has an affect on the water supply services,
there is no evidence to indicate the depth of the problem in Somali Region. The regional
annual report of 2008/09 shows some good starts in the management of the completed
schemes. For instance in 2008/09 EFY alone, water users’ associations were established for
100 water schemes and permanent supervisors were assigned in most of the project sites;
Moreover, 71 community water users’ association members were given training.
The UAP document indicates, at the national level, 21,062 locally trained community
members (artisans, local mechanics) and 28,112 medium professionals of 49,174 and 18,835
water supply and electromechanical technicians will be required for implementation of UAP,
along with other alternatives (E.g. TEVT graduates). It is planned to train and deploy these
workers within three years (2005- 2007).
Figure 3.4.9: Demand for human resource to implement UAP
20000
18000
Number of professionals
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Afar Somali BenishangulG Gambella Amhara Tigray Oromiya SNNPR
umuz
Source: Computed from UAP, MoWR (2006)
From the tabulated human resources requirement for each region, 96.4% of the water supply
technicians trained belong to five regions, namely Amhara, Oromiya, SNNPR, Tigray and
Somali regions, while the proportion of human resource available for the DRSs is only 6%
(excluding Somali Region). It seems the UAP plan gave little consideration for the DRSs, and
doesn’t take into account the special nature of the regions. In the case of Somali, there were
312 artisans in 52 weredas trained in construction and maintenance of hand-dug-wells in EFY
2001, but this number is still small compared to many weredas and kebeles of the wide
region.
From the perspective of the regional bureau’s organization and human resources, at the
regional bureau level there are 183 civil servants of which only 55(30%) are female. The
region has conducted short-term training activities but has concentrated on Jijiga, Shinile,
Liban and Warder Zones. There is a lack of information on the distribution and the level of
those professionals in weredas and the number of skilled workers at local level. An
assessment of the existing human resources and a training plan for the coming PASDEP is
needed.
Human resources for the implementation of water supply services need to be complemented
with the necessary equipment. The regional bureau has reported (BoWER 2001 Ethiopian
year) that the capacity of both the government and the private sector in terms of drilling
equipment is very low, though details of the types of equipment required for the
implementation are not documented. In Somali and other DRSs, lack of equipment is a
concern for the implementation of water supply schemes.
1.1.8 3.4.1.7 Governance in the water supply and sanitation sector

The federal system has set sector specific assignments of service delivery functions at
different levels Table 3.4.6 shows the service delivery functions for the water and sanitation
sector.
Table 3.4.6: Expenditure assignments/service delivery functions at various Levels
Basic Service delivery functions at different government tier

sector
Function Communit Wereda Region Federal
s y
Water administer drinking water, Regional governmental setting

and water providing water development and standards for
sanitatio schemes support to protection policy and water and
n by communities to strategy; setting standards sanitation,
communit administer for schemes; drinking administering
y water schemes, water/deep well & tap, use of water,
springs, hand- evaluation of bore holes lakes and
dug wells, and town water supplies; rivers
minor providing training on crossing
maintenance operations national
boundaries
Adopted from MCB (2005/6)

The wereda governance can be evaluated first in the share of the pro-poor budget allocation.
Furthermore, it can be evaluated based on the indicators in the sector governance plan such as
share of capital budget in the total capital budget of the region. The pro-poor sectors of the
regional government’s spending are discussed in the governance section of this document.
From the perspective of the water sector, Table-3.4.7 shows that despite decentralization
most of the water supply budget of 2005/06-2007/08 is concentrated at the Regional Bureau
level. The trend is that the water sector capital budget at the bureau level increased from
38.2% in 2005/06 to 100% in 2007/08 and that of the wereda level declined from 61% to
zero. Second, the share of the water sector capital budget outturn has declined compared to
the capital budget of other sectors. In absolute figures, the level of capital budget of the sector
has increased from 10 to 30 million. However, all of the budget is concentrated at regional
level. In addition, the water sector share of the total regional capital budget has declined.
From the governance perspective, the rise in the total financial resource allocated to the water
sector in absolute terms shows the attention given to this pro-poor sector, but the decline of
the share of the water sector in the regional budget along with the concentration at bureau
level is not so encouraging.
Table 3.4.7: Water sector capital expenditure outturn from treasury % share (Million
Birr)
Capital budget 2007/08 % 2006/07 % 2005/06 %
Bureau level 30.05 100 15.5 53.4 10.0 38.2
Wereda level 0.00 0 13.5 46.6 16.2 61.8
Region total 30.05 100 29.0 100.0 26.1 100.0
Total capital 2007/08 % 2006/07 % 2005/06 %

budget
Bureau 326.2 79.8 192.7 80.0 145.4 71.7
Wereda 82.8 20.2 48.1 20.0 57.5 28.3
Region 408.9 100.0 240.8 100.0 202.9 100.0
Share of water % % %
sector
Bureau 9.2 8.0 6.9
Wereda 0.0 28.1 28.1
Region 7.3 12.0 12.9
Source: Computed from the Expenditure Report

However, not all the finance at wereda level comes though the regional budget. Finance can
also emerge from the block grant or from NGO funds and therefore, unless we know the
capital budget at wereda level it can be misleading to say the overall capital budgets and the
sector capital budgets have declined at the wereda level. Of course the decline of wereda
treasury can arise from lack of capacity to use the budget at the wereda level, and therefore it
would be prudent to ask if the service delivery has improved as a result of budget
concentration at the bureau level. Table 3.4.7 shows: 1) in absolute terms the total capital
budget outturn of the water sector at regional level is continuously increasing and similarly
the wereda level budget is also increasing, though still very small; 2) The share of wereda
level capital budget outlay of the total regional budget is declining from 8% in 2005/06 to 5%
in 2006/07. For comparison, in Oromiya the share of the water sector in the total regional
capital budget increased from nearly 23% in 2006/07 to 28% in 2007/08. This shows a
tendency of concentrating the water sector capital budget at regional bureau level; in this
regard, Somali is similar to the case of Oromiya; while in terms of the share of the water
sector in the total capital outlay of the Oromiya region is better than Somali, showing more
attention is paid to the water sector in Oromiya than Somali, whereas the water scarcity
problem seems more serious in Somali than in Oromiya. Another point is that the
concentration of the budget at the regional bureau level might have constrained the
implementation of low cost schemes, but there is insufficient evidence to prove this point.
From equity perspective, the report of BoWMERD (2008/09) indicates that most of the
existing water schemes in the region are under a control of one or a few unrepresentative
individuals of the community. This can create an obstacle to other members of the
community to access this most important resource. From the perspective of transparency, the
good start and best experiences include (BoWMERD, 2008/09): 1) Results of bid evaluation
are officially notified if there is any complaint from invited competitive bidders; 2) NGO
performance reports are prepared and compiled. These kinds of measures are encouraging.
1.1.9 3.4.1.9 Challenges and solutions
Challenges Solutions
 Expense of drilling and water supply  Revise the target plan for rural water
construction works and lack of capacity supply based on the year 2006-2008
of private and governmental performance
organizations (water works enterprises);  Focus on low cost water schemes. More
high cost of drilling in the lowlands due guidance is needed on how the revised
to deeper groundwater level UAP targets can be integrated into
regional and wereda level sector planning
and budgeting.
 The scattered settlement pattern of the  Focus on low cost technologies
population and geological complexity: complemented by bringing in community
this is observed mainly in regions such participation
as Gambella and Benishangul
 Lack of adequate trained personnel at  Enhancing the capacity of the Weredas
different levels, low community by employing, training and giving better
participation. The proposed training of incentives to workers taking in to
low profile skill technicians and artisans consideration the unique nature of the
is not implemented well and is one of region (low educated manpower, little
the constraints that hamper interest in civil service jobs)
implementation of low cost  Training of water professionals at an
technologies. institution established by the MoWR for
 Lack of equipment and drilling a short period (3-6 months).
machines.
 The region lacks institutional and human
capacity at the local/wereda level though
it is relatively better at regional level
 Shortage of finance allocation and delay  The region is one of the highly water
in disbursement: scarce regions and there is asset depletion
 Financial constrains due to inflation, low and poverty due to water shortage. The
budget utilization rate, delay in performance in the water sector affects
financing (due to the centralized other development activities, because
accounting of modalities for a water is an input to development
decentralized service delivery), projects, and a cause of conflict. The
 The fact that underground water is not regional government should pay attention
sufficiently available everywhere affects and give commitment to the water sector
the type of water supply schemes to enhance implementation.
implemented and this has a big cost  Secure sufficient financial resource,
implication. especially from the donors and NGOS to
 In urban water supply schemes, implement the high cost water schemes;
disbursement delay (due to delay of  Exhaust the implementation possibilities
Government Capital budget, food of low cost technologies, similar to the
security, UNICEF, WB/DFID and ADB experience during 2006-2008.
funds allocated to the water supply of  Consider increasing the share of capital
the region). budget in the water sector,
 Existing drilling technologies are  Improve budget utilization rates through
outdated and high cost, in a high cost capacity building; improve operational
schemes implementation area; budget of the water staff at wereda level
in order to bring about the capacity
building
 Generate more income to pay for the
relatively high cost schemes that are
inevitable in the region due to
environmental factors
 Low maintenance and rehabilitation of  The need to give sufficient attention to
schemes (about 36.3% of the borehole maintenance and rehabilitation of old
schemes in the region are schemes, not only to the new water
malfunctioning): supply schemes;
 Lack of outreach mobile team for  Improve human resource capacity at
continuous assessment and maintenance; wereda level
 Shortage of budget for maintenance;
 Lack of effective scheme management
& operation at wereda level
 Lack of spare parts for water drilling Updating the drilling technologies by
machines: importing new machines and encouraging
 The use of very old drilling machines; the private sector from this perspective.
 Shortage of electro mechanical Encouraging high capacity contractors to
equipments (Pumps and Generators); engage in drilling because the region
 Low capacity of contractors: requires relatively high cost technology
Infrastructure problems; thousands of km Infrastructure needs to be improved; but
need to be covered to coordinate and even in non-remote highland weredas the
facilitate the process of water supply coverage of water supply is very low
Problems of security in some of the  Encourage the private sector to engage in
weredas of the region: Conflicts of water supply investment. In this regard,
different kinds increase the private sector one problem is the fact that the drilling
risk premium and decrease the potential technologies are outdated.
for investments. Insecurity makes it  Consider tax incentives for importing low
difficult to contract out service delivery to cost and modern drilling technologies
the private sector because of the additional  Create incentives for the private sector to
risks involved. However, even in the invest in DRS water sector
closest weredas where there is better  Solve conflicts to decrease risks.
security, implementation is very low.
Experts remark that if there is  For the region, the availability of water
commitment, the region has better human for both human and livestock is a key
resource, and this would improve the factor of livelihood.
current low coverage of water supply  The need for new initiatives to coordinate
stakeholders to enhance the water supply
coverage of the region within short
period;
 Put a maximum effort to the water supply
activity at least in the non-remote
weredas and gradually to expand this
activity to the remote weredas. This helps
the region to gradually build the capacity
required for the sector.
Little geological and hydrological Use the existing hydro-geological studies
information to understand the spatial and temporal
distribution of groundwater for domestic
water supply and for irrigation
development. The importance of these
studies for explorations is indicated in the
WRMP
Most of the existing water schemes are Take good governance measure such as
under a control of one or a few strong monitoring and evaluation of
unrepresentative individuals of the wereda scheme management and NGOs
community
 Lack of information on:  Clearly define capacity constraint and
 Human resource distribution and vacant deliver a detail report on it
positions at regional and Wereda levels;  Compare reports in comparison to the
 Financial resource of the midterm major strategies and midterm evaluations
strategy of the water sector  Consider the best experience of the
 No comprehensive annual report Gambela BoWMERD report format and
consolidated for regions contents
 Reconcile regional report and the report  Summarized audit reports (how many
of MoWR on coverage (rural, urban and how many times audited? regional and
total) wereda level? what is good and bad
 no data on inventory of schemes and the about the financial management? etc)
extent of malfunctioning schemes would be helpful to show the level of
 no data showing the extent of corruption and financial extravagancies
corruption: at least no summarized audit
report of the region
1.1.10 3.4.2 Sanitation and Hygiene3

3.4.2.1 Background
The GoE has articulated its strategic direction toward hygiene and sanitation. Hygiene and
Sanitation in terms of protecting the environment and safeguarding human health is given
importance in the environmental policy, the health policy and the public health proclamation.
The National Hygiene and Sanitation Strategy (emphasizing a no subsidy approach to
household hardware) and the National Protocol for Hygiene and “On-Site” Sanitation
(defining a step by step minimum intervention package to be followed by all stakeholders),
are key policies and strategies guiding interventions in the sector.
Environmental pollution control, public health, water resource management proclamations

and regulations for waste management (collection and disposal) at different levels provide the
regulatory framework for excreta disposal, municipal waste collection and disposal, waste
water and solid waste collection and treatment.
Inter-sector collaboration policies regarding the disposal of excreta are clearly laid out in a
memorandum of understanding in regard to rural sanitation signed by the Ministries of
Health, Water Resources and Education and these policies are now being adapted at regional
level. WaSH structures are being developed from village (kebele) level to federal level to
provide the institutional framework for this inter-sector collaboration. Hence, there are
policies and strategies to guide the H&SA interventions at the federal level, however the
regions have to develop their own regulations appropriate within their regional context, but in
line with in the national policy and strategy framework. In rural areas, the health extension
worker has responsibility to promote safe solid and liquid waste management by all
households within her area or operation. This is part of the 16 public health packages within
the health extension worker’s mandate and a key element of the preventive primary health
3“Sanitation” is used in this report to refer to the infrastructure and service provision required for the safe management of human excreta,
for example latrines, sewers, and wastewater treatment. Hygiene” is used to refer to the set of behaviours related to safe management of
excreta, such as washing hands with soap, safe disposal of children faeces, etc.
care program (Health Services Extension Program).
1.1.10.1 3.4.2.2 Sanitation service coverage
There is no adequate and reliable information measuring the status of sanitation and hygiene
in Ethiopia. While there are many dimensions of hygiene and sanitation, often access to toilet
is used as an indicator for improved sanitation. However, the levels of toilet coverage
reported by MoWR, MoH and CSA are not consistent with one another. Despite its
inconsistencies with the levels reported by MoWR and CSA, this report uses the most recent
official information issued by MoH in EFY 2000 to establish the gap and analyze the
situation.
According to MoH’s recently published health and health related indicators for EFY 2000 the
sanitation situation as measured by access to excreta disposal is very low in all the
developing regions including Somali region. Out of the 666.5 thousand households estimated
to reside in Somali region in EFY 2000, only 67.97 thousand households (10.7%) had access
to toilet facilities, a proportion which is among the lowest in the country. This situation
slightly improved in EFY 2001. When the proportion of households with access to toilet
facilities in the region is compared with the national average, which is 35.6% and with the
coverage in the neighbouring regions of Oromiya (35.4%), Dire Dawa (33.8) and SNNPR
(55%), the coverage in Somali region is very low.4 The sanitation coverage varies across the
weredas in the region ranging from 51% in Mustahil to less than 0.5% in Gursum, Aware,
Babile and Danot. In the region, 26 weredas, out of a total of 52 weredas, have a less than 5%
proportion of households with toilet access.
According to the wereda health sector planning for EFY 2001, the regional Health Bureau
has planned that 141 thousand additional households will construct new latrines, increasing
households with latrine facilities to 31.2%. However, during EFY 2001 only 14.1 thousand
households (10% of the plan) have constructed new latrines. As shown in the following table
even if we assume that the physical performance for EFY 2001 is 100%, the sanitation
coverage for the region remains very low. According to this assumption, by the end of EFY
2001, 461 thousand households in the region (68.8% of the total households) will be without
sanitation facilities. This means that Somali region has the second highest the proportion of
households without toilet facilities in the country following Afar (72.3%).
The gap in access to sanitation between urban and rural areas is another point of interest.
According to MoWR (UAP- 2006) while in 2004, while about 55.6% of urban households in
the region had access to sanitation, only 7% of rural households were covered. The wide gap
between rural and urban areas in sanitation coverage is a common phenomenon throughout
the country, while the magnitude of the gap may vary from region to region.
Another concern in the sector is that a situation where latrines are constructed but not used.
Households may construct latrines to ease the pressure exerted on them from various
directions including local government, politicians, HEWs etc. If households construct latrines
without being convinced of the advantages and importance of latrines it is unlikely that they
will use the latrines they construct. Figure 3.4.10 constructed from the information obtained
at the wereda planning for EFY 2001 illustrates this situation. In Somali region while the
households having access to latrine facility is 10.2% the households using latrine is only
3.3%.
4
Figures vary. According to the WMS 26% of households were reported to use pit latrine and flush toilet for defecation in the region in the
year 2004/05. According to MoWR (UAP- 2006) 7% of rural and 55.6% of urban households have access to sanitation facilities in 2005
As regard to schools in the country and in Somali region, according to the Ministry of
Education’s Annual abstract for EFY 1999 out of 20,660 primary schools in the country
6,823 (33%) of them have reported that they have water facilities and 18,688 (90.5%) of them
have reported they have latrines. The situation in the primary schools of Somali is slightly
worse than the national average in terms of water supply and far behind in terms of latrines.
Out of 713 primary schools in Somali region only 23 (3.2%) of them have reported that they
have water supply and 66 (9.3%) of them have reported that they have latrines. The
availability of water and sanitation facilities in the primary schools in Somali is also lower
than that of the neighbouring regions Oromiya (35% for access to water and 100% for latrine)
and SNNPR (31% for access to water and 94.5% for latrine facility).
Figure 3.4.10: Access to latrine and utilization for EFY 2000

60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
R y l ia a ri ra uz al
i ar lla
NP
ra na aw ra ha Af
Ti
g io ro
m ar um
m be
SN at O D H Am So am
N ire u lG G
D
ng
s ha
ni
Be
Percentage of households with latrine Percentage of households using latrine
Source: FMoWR
The lack of sanitation coverage implies that over 95% of the households in Somali region use
open fields for defecation. This practice is the major cause of diarrhoea and waterborne
diseases, which in turn are the major causes of morbidity and mortality in the Somali region5.
This signals that improving sanitation conditions in the region should be considered as an
emergency that cannot be overlooked or traded off with other priorities.
5 According to Nutrition and Mortality Surveys conducted in Seven Mega Livelihood Zones in Somali, lack of safe water and sanitation combined with high levels of
morbidity are key factors contributing to the relatively high levels of global acute malnutrition reported in all seven weredas. In Kelafo, ..... 41% of all child deaths (12 of
29) reported in the 90 days prior to the survey were attributed to diarrhoeal disease. In Degahbur ...... diarrhoea related illness accounted for 31% of all morbidity and
43% of deaths (6 out of 13).
Table 3.4.8: access to latrine for EFY 2001
Indicator Uni Gambella Afar Soma B. Tigra Amhar Oromiya SNNPR Hara Dire National
t li Gumuz y a ri Dawa
Baseline (EFY 2000)
Total number of HHs in '00 69.63 359.7 666.5 159.77 1,008. 4,615. 6,355.62 3,237.37
'000 0 5 4 05 34 49.95 94.68 16,616.7
HHs with latrine (end '00 1.85 12.13 67.97 25.72 407.3 1,326. 2,250.72 1,780.54
of EFY 2000) 0 1 46 15.08 31.96 5,919.7
Proportion of HH with in 2.7% 3.4% 10.2 16.1% 40.4% 28.7% 35.4% 55.0% 30.2 33.8% 35.6%
access to latrine % % %
Target for EFY 2001
Total number of HHs in '00 70.04 361.8 670.4 160.70 1,013. 4,642. 6,392.48 3,256.14
EFY 2001 0 4 0 89 11 50.24 95.23 16,713.1
HHs constructing new '00 55.74 87.98 141.4 98.39 455.0 2,417. 3,855.37 1,001.48
latrine (EFY 2001) 0 3 7 34 27.08 16.50 8,156.4
HHs with latrine (EFY '00 57.59 100.1 209.4 124.11 862.3 3,743. 6,106.09 2,782.02
2001) 0 0 0 9 79 42.16 48.46 14,076.1
HHs with access to in 82.2% 27.7 31.2 77.2% 85.1% 80.6% 95.5% 85.4% 83.9 50.9% 84.2%
latrine (end of % % % %
EFY2001)
Service gap
HHs without latrine at '00 12.44 261.7 461.0 36.59 151.5 898.31 286.40 474.13
the end of EFY 2001 0 4 0 1 8.08 46.77 2,637.0
HH without latrine(end % 17.8% 72.3 68.8 22.8% 14.9% 19.4% 4.5% 14.6% 16.1 49.1% 15.8%
of EFY2001) % % %
Source: FMoWR
27
Somalia Region Water Supply Vulnerability mapping
Table 3.4.9: Distribution of Schools by Availability of Water supply and Latrine Facilities
No. Regions Total Schools with Schools with

number of water supply latrine facilities
schools Number % Number %
1. Primary Schools (1 – 8th grade)
Somali 713 23 3.2 66 9.3
Oromiya 7,952 2,837 35.7 10,632 133.7
SNNPR 3,715 1,156 31.1 3,512 94.5
Harrari 56 31 55.4 68 121.4
Dire Dawa 92 58 63.0 149 162.0
National 20,660 6,836 33.1 18,688 90.5
2. Secondary Schools (9th –12th
grade)
Somali 26 0.0 0.0
Oromiya 334 202 60.5 1,388 415.6
SNNPR 145 104 71.7 193 133.1
Harrari 4 4 100.0 8 200.0
Dire Dawa 10 9 90.0 33 330.0
National 952 621 65.2 2,492 261.8
3. Primary and Secondary Schools
(1 – 8th grade)
Somali 739 23 3.1 66 8.9
Oromiya 8,286 3,039 36.7 12,020 145.1
SNNPR 3,260 1,260 32.6 3,705 96.0
Harrari 60 35 58.3 76 126.7
Dire Dawa 102 67 65.7 182 178.4
National 21,612 7,457 34.5 21,180 98.0
Source MoE EFY 2008
1.1.10.2 3.4.2.3 Waste disposal
The usual practices to dispose of waste include use of waste disposal vehicles/container, dugouts,
throwing it away on open fields and using the waste as manure. According to the 2004/05 WMS
56.7% of urban households and 76.8% of rural households residing in Somali region dispose
their waste by simply throwing it away. This figure is far higher than the national average
(31.2%) and the neighbouring regions of Oromiya (39.7%) and SNNPR (17%). The fact that
majority of households in the region are pastoralists, has made using waste as manure
inappropriate as a means of waste disposal unlike the mainly agricultural regions. Although
simply throwing away waste may not pose serious problem due to the low population density
and large open areas for disposing of wastes, it is a future challenge that the regional government
has to address.
1.1.10.3 3.4.2.4 Hygiene education and promotion
According to the national H&S strategy, hygiene promotion should mainly address the following
three key behaviours: toilet use, hand washing and keeping safe water safe. Until recently the
emphasis has been on hygiene education through health workers in health facilities. However in
recent years there has been a policy shift towards intensive hygiene promotion and community
28
mobilization and away from subsiding communal latrine construction efforts. The major
instrument for achieving these massive promotional activities is the health extension program.
Out of the 16 packages of HESP, seven of them are related with Hygiene and Environmental
Sanitation, i.e., excreta disposal; solid and liquid waste disposal; water supply and safety
measures; food hygiene and safety measures; healthy home environment; control of insects and
rodents; and personal hygiene. The HEWs are expected to provide health education on personal
hygiene and environmental sanitation to residents, to mobilize communities to construct and
maintain pit latrines, monitor utilization of the latrines and promote the use of safe water.
Out of the 2,642 HEWs needed in the Somali region to cover all the rural kebeles, 1,553 or 59%
are trained and deployed. The training and deployment of HEWs in the region is very slow
compared to the performance in other regions. According to the regional health bureau the
design of the HEP does not consider their regional context. According to the plan, HEWs should
be female, should have completed grade 12 and should live in the rural kebeles. However, this is
not suitable for Somali and Afar regions where education coverage, particularly for girls, is very
low. Even after relaxing the education criteria to grade 8 completion and lifting the gender
restriction, the region is unable to find adequate candidates and is still struggling to train and
deploy HEWs to all the rural kebeles.
In general, in Somali region access to toilet facilities is very low and is changing very slowly. If
the current level of progress is maintained it is very unlikely that the sanitation coverage in the
region will change in decades let alone achieving the ambitious government program of UAP
2012. Even achieving the MDG target of 56% sanitation coverage by 2015 requires very rapid
acceleration plan and consorted effort from all actors in the sector. As we are three years away
from 2012 (the UAP target year) and as the current level of sanitation coverage in Somali is very
low, achieving universal access to improved sanitation in this region seems very far from reality.
1.1.10.4 3.4.2.6 Financing
The Hygiene and Sanitation Strategy is aimed at providing promotional and capacity building
support for behaviour change and at encouraging households to build and use household
sanitation facilities. Institutional sanitation facilities for schools and health establishments are
eligible for full subsidies. Hence, public spending will focus on; promotion at all levels with a
particular emphasis on awareness creation work done mainly by the Health Extension Workers
(HEWs) deployed at kebele levels; providing sanitation and hand washing facilities primarily to
schools and health institutions and where inevitable to the vulnerable groups in the society; and
building the capacity of all the actors at all levels. Households are expected to construct their
own latrines with hand washing facilities from their own individual pocket and develop their
hygienic practice as a result of the promotion. The weredas, with regional support, will provide
most of the funds for institutional latrine construction (primarily health centres and schools),
while communities will be expected to contribute between 5-10%, mainly in the form of labour
and materials. School management committees will be encouraged to manage construction
contracts and organize community contributions.
Based on these assumptions UAP has estimated the resource requirement to achieve universal
access for improved sanitation in each region (Table 3.4.10). The financing needs assessment to
achieve universal access to improve hygiene and sanitation by 2012 estimated at 625 Million
USD. However, the currently secured funding for Hygiene and Sanitation is 65 Million USD
29
which is only slightly more than 10% of the overall financing needs.
30
Table 3.4.10-Estimated cost for achieving UAP Somali and national (in million $)
Region Software Hardware Water Capacity M&E Total

Quality Building
Somali
Rural 2.11 11.59 0.65 4.17 0.31 18.82
Urban 0.10 10.35 0.17 0.14 0.01 10.76
Total 2.2 21.94 0.82 4.31 0.31 29.58
National
Rural 10.33 213.94 7.59 15.92 0.39 248.17
Urban 29.2 297.95 8.34 56.3 4.17 395.95
Total 39.52 511.89 15.94 72.22 4.56 644.12
Source: UAP revised cost
1.1.10.5 3.4.2.7 Constraints and solutions
Many studies and surveys have attempted to identify the major reasons behind the low coverage
of hygiene and sanitation in Ethiopia. The MDG Need Assessment, UAP, PASDEP, WSDP are
some of the documents which highlight the major problems in the sector. Among the problems
often mentioned are; inadequate budget, shortage of trained staff, low awareness at community
level, low level of priority given and lack of commitment on the part of the concerned authorities
at various levels, poor inter-sector collaboration at all levels, lack of clear demarcation of the
jurisdiction and responsibilities of certain line ministries working in the area of water and
sanitation and low community participation.
31
Constraints Solutions
 At current rate of implementation it is Revision of UAP Plan: Regional WaSH
unlikely that the region can achieve the Program has to be revised with the active
targets; involvement of the weredas/towns in the
 Lack of proper planning of H&S context of accelerating WaSH interventions
activities with the objective of achieving UAP by
2012. The accelerated plan has to ensure
that the revised plan is feasible, efficient
and workable.
 Building effective partnerships among Strengthen Coordination Structure: The
the health, water and education sector is success of the WaSH program is contingent
a major challenge. While a MOU is upon strong coordination and collaboration
signed among health, water and among Water, Health and Education
education sector its application is sectors. While the sectors are aware of the
nonexistent. importance of integration, they are not
 Lack of integration of sanitation with the taking proactive actions (sharing
provision of water: Despite the ongoing information and consultation) to
discussion of integrating water and materialize joint planning, implementation
sanitation at a higher level very little is and monitoring of water supply, sanitation
done in integration of the same at the and hygiene activities. To realize
community level. In fact most of the coordination/integration in planning,
water projects are given the name water implementation, and supervision of WaSH
and sanitation and are designed with the program interventions it is very important
aim of bringing a health impact. During that the responsibility for the coordination
implementation however most of these structure is placed at the regional council
projects fail to address the sanitation level with the chairmanship of the chief
issue. administrator.
 Prevalence of unclear institutional Work on clarifying the institutional
frameworks, roles and responsibilities of framework; clearly define roles and
sector ministries: Policies, responsibilities of sector ministries and
proclamations and regulations are departments
already in place, but they lack clarity.
 Roles and responsibilities of concerned
bodies have not been well defined.
MoWR is tasked with the elimination of
liquid waste, which consists of
transportation of wastewater away from
human population and treatment of
wastewater until safe discharge into the
environment can be made.
 MoH’s Hygiene & Environmental
Health Department is responsible mainly
for the promotion of hygiene and
sanitation and for quality control.
32
 Limitation of resources in terms of Enhance Funding: Considering that

finance and skilled personnel to promote sanitation and personal and environmental
hygienic practice; communities need to hygiene are at a very low level, a
see role models who demonstrate before coordinated and efficient fund flow
them the beauty of a hygienic practice. mechanism should be established.
 Limited technology choice Accordingly, the government should
 Due to the harsh environment and establish a UAP fund to provide special
difficulty of accessing pastoral attention in resource allocation to emerging
communities, interventions by regions, including Somali, to realize the
development actors and flow of resource UAP targets in these regions.
are very limited compared to the other
regions. Hence there is a very severe
shortage of financial and human
resources in the region. Very few
governmental, non-governmental and bi-
lateral donor agencies are involved in
the provision of water supply and
sanitation to the urban and rural
population
Settlement: Most Somalis raise cattle for Develop Emergency Hygiene &
their living and move from place to place in Sanitation Guidelines: There is frequent
search of water and pasture. Open field and major catastrophic loss of livestock
defecation and the practice of disposing of due to drought and drought induced
waste by throwing it away is significantly diseases. Unless the carcasses of the dead
higher in Somali region compared to other animals are properly disposed of, they pose
regions. This could be attributed to the serious human and livestock health risks
nature of pastoral livelihoods, in addition to
particularly at water points. Animals that
the communities’ lack of awareness of the have died of disease will disseminate those
hazards of wastes. diseases to animals grazing locally.
Awareness creation campaigns and
institutional arrangements should be made
to avoid all the human and livestock health
threats emanating from livestock health.
Remoteness and lack of infrastructure as Infrastructure investment in the region
well as the inadequate severance allowance
have resulted in an unwillingness of
professionals to work in the region, making
it difficult for the regional government to
hire and maintain qualified staff in any
field. As a result shortage of human
resource, in particular qualified personnel,
is severe
 Low awareness of linkages between Accelerate the training and deployment of
sanitation and health: Many people are the remaining HEWs to ensure full
unaware of the health impact that safe coverage of all rural kebeles.
disposal of excreta brings about.
 Less priority given for sanitation by the
33
community because of the other pressing

needs
Lack of safe and adequate water coupled Develop a functional MIS system for
with a low level of education in the Monitoring Water Supply Sanitation and
community in general and in women and Hygiene Activities in the region. The MIS
girls in particular has made hygiene and should provide better and up-to-date
sanitation activities difficult to teach information about the level of sanitation
coverage, about the served and unnerved
population, about the type and cost of
specific interventions etc. This will enable
policy makers and donors to provide
evidence based interventions in the sector
Poor funding for demonstration and  A strong advocacy campaign involving
promotional activities professionals, environmentalists,
government officials and the media
should be launched.
 The government and others should
promote sanitation so that the demand
for it is created. The promotion work
should include recommended methods
for each locality.
34
2 .OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Water supply situation in many parts of the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia is known to be
exceptionally severe and this is due to its very low effective rainfall as well as lack of proper
hydrogeological understanding of the region. Hence, several deep well drilling projects were
undertaken, however, due to lack of prior hydrogeological knowledge, the success rate of
groundwater development or drilling of successful wells has been very low. Similarly, the
conditions of most of the existing water supply sources have deteriorated due to poor
management, and lack of operation and maintenance of water supply systems. The region is very
huge and is about one third of the country. About three hundred boreholes were drilled in the
region and only two hundred borehole logs that were obtained and several geological maps
collected do not allow a reliable hydrogeological mapping.
Therefore, this study shall have limited objectives and can be considered as reconnaissance study
for hydrogeological mapping, but it maybe nevertheless used as a base for future detailed
hydrogeological mapping of the region.
2.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

Primary data collected from the field and secondary data acquired from different sources were
integrated. All information of geological, hydrological and geophysical inventory gathered in the
fields as well as from different sources has been used to produce preliminary hydrogeogical map
of the Somali Region. Based on the present knowledge of the geology of Somali region,
preliminary conceptual model of litho-stratigraphic setting was developed for good interpretation
of the lithology and Stratigraphy of the region.
This technical report consists of thematic maps such as Isopach analysis of each stratigraphic
unit in order to approximate the expected thickness of each unit and geological cross sections
from the interpreted observed lithology
3 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE AREA
The Somali Regional State cover about one third of the country covering an area of about
370,590 km2. Somali Region, one of the Regional States of Ethiopia, is situated in the eastern
part of the country. It has boundaries with Oromia Region in the West, Djibouti in the North,
Somalia in the South and in the East and Afar Region in the North East.
The Region is situated in the low lands of the Eastern part of the country which is divided in to
nine zones and Sixty eight woreda.
35
The table below shows area covered by each zone
Table 1. Area of Somali Region of Ethiopia

S/No Name of Zone Area in km2 % of the total Area
1 Afder 56,700 15.30
2 Dhagahbur 37,130 10.02
3 Fik 43,320 11.69
4 Gode 40,610 10.96
5 Jijiga 17,900 4.83
6 Korahe 35,600 9.61
7 Liban 47,860 12.91
8 Shinile 46,400 12.52
9 Warder 45,070 12.16
Total area 370,590 100
According to the 2004 Regional Bureau of housing and population census, the total population of
the Region was estimated to be 4.2 million, of which about 85% are living in rural areas and are
pastoralist traveling from place to place in order to fetch water supply and pasture. The regional
economy is mainly based on animal husbandry. Somali region is one of those relatively low
developed and emerging regions in terms of availability of infrastructures as little attention was
given to development activities in previous times. As a result of this, access to adequate and safe
water supply both for human consumption and cattle watering in the region is rigorously limited
including sanitation facilities and the coverage is presently far below the national average. Due
to this chronic and severe water supply problem in the region, the residents are forced to stick to
a pastoralist way of life. Moreover, the scarcity of water supply in the region is highly
aggravated by arid agro-climatic condition of the area, occurrence of erratic and unreliable
rainfall, and the poor hydro-geologic condition of the region, both in terms of the water resources
quality and quantity. Accessibility is relatively good during dry seasons, along the existing tracks
with four wheel drive vehicles. However, during the wet seasons, due to muddy nature of the
4 GENERAL GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

4.1 GENERAL
Different geologists and different oil companies have studied the geology of Somali Region of
Ethiopia. Several geological maps were published including the one published by V.Kazmin in
1975 at a scale of 1:2,000,000.
Others include geological map of Ogaden at a scale of 1:1,000,000 published by Ministry of

Mines and Energy.
36
There is also unpublished geological map of Ethiopia compiled by he Regional Geology

Department, Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey in 1990.
The hydrogeology of Ogaden basin has also been reported in a generalized form by P. Hadwin &
Girma Mengesha (1969); Girum lissanu & Mezmure Hailemeskale (1979).
In addition, D. Baudin and P.Durrenib (1973) have described the water bearing capacities of the
various rock types in Wabi Shabele river basin. The classification of different geological
formations that do exist in Somali Region will follow the above mention reports. The oldest unit
outcropping is the Precambrian basement rocks.
The basement upon which all the younger formations were deposited contains the oldest rocks in
the country, the Precambrian, with ages of over 600 million years.
They are exposed in areas where the younger cover rocks have been eroded away, namely in
parts of Jijiga and Liban Zone. The Precambrian contains a wide variety of sedimentary, volcanic
and intrusive rocks which have been metamorphosed to varying degrees.
The geological history of the region can be followed from the Precambrian Era which is
represented metamorphic and igneous rocks of the basement system. The regional
metamorphism was followed by various cycles of regression and transgression, and localized
volcanism.
During the Precambrian era, vast sediments accumulated and at the end of the era, a period of
regional folding and metamorphism has occurred. As a consequence of this large scale tectonic
activity, the original sediments were subjected to high temperature and pressure, which caused
partial melting and subsequent re-crystallization and growth of new minerals.
Depending on the parent material and the prevailing temperature and pressure, different types of
gneisses, schists and granites were formed.
The Precambrian Basement complex outcrops extensively along the Liban Zone especially along
Moyale district and Hudet district, and in Jijiga zone.
At the end of Precambrian times uplift occurred, which was followed by a long period of erosion.
Any sediments which were deposited during the Paleozoic interval, which lasted some 375
million years, have been largely removed by erosion.
Therefore, Paleozoic sediments can not be observed in Somali Region. Subsidence occurred in
the Mesozoic, which began some 225 million years ago, and a shallow sea spread initially over
37
the eastern part of Somali region and then extended farther north and west of the country as the
land continued to subside. Sand, now sandstone, was deposited on the old land surface.
Deposition of mudstone and limestone followed as the depth of water increased. Marine
sediments were deposited during the Middle Jurassic over the regions. These sediments are
predominantly fossiliferous limestone, marl, shale and Gypsum.
The Mesozoic sediments outcropping in the region are, Adigat sandstone, Hamanlei Series,
Urandab formation, Gabredarre formation, the Main Gypsum (Korahe) Formation, Mustahil
limestone formation, Ferfer Gypsum formation and Beletweyn limestone formation.
Towards the end of the Jurassic, gradual uplift of the shield resulted in sea regression and
subsequent erosion of part of the Jurassic sediments. With the formation of tectonic scarps and
grabens caused by faulting, the Jurassic sediments were preserved from erosion in some areas.
This retreat of the sea was followed by the deposition of sandstone, sand and sandy clay of the
Sandstone formation.
From west to east the Cretaceous sediments range from continental through lagoonal to marine.
The continental deposits dated as Upper Cretaceous to Lower Paleocene are known as the
Jessoma Sandstone.
The exposed land covered by the Nubian Sandstone was flooded by a deep sea incursion during
the Lower Eocene when the Auradu limestone was deposited.
The sea gradually retreated during the Middle Eocene and an evaporitic environment prevailed
with anhydrite, gypsum and marls of the Taleex Formation being deposited. Further marine
ingression during the Upper Eocene resulted in the Karkar Formation of shales topped by
calcarenites, marine cherty limestone with intercalations of marls.
This Karkar formation was deposited in a shallow sea. Extensive fracturing occurred early in the
Cenozoic, the earliest rocks of which are dated at 65 million years, although major displacement
along the fault systems which approximate to the alignment of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and
East African rift systems did not occur until later in the Tertiary.
Faulting was accompanied by widespread volcanic activity and the two processes, which are
partly related, have largely determined the form of the landscape in the western half of Ethiopia
and in the Afar Depression. The outpouring of vast quantities of basaltic lava predominate the
Shinile zone which is adjacent to Afar depression.
38
4.2 STRATIGRAPHY OF SOMALI REGION.

Most of the formational names used in this report were established by the previous geologists
who assigned the name of the nearest town to the type section for that formation (Fig. 4.
Simplified Geological map of Somali Region of Ethiopia).
Most of these towns are either in southern and eastern Ethiopia. According to the geological and
hydrogeological maps of Ethiopia, in Somali region, the following stratigraphic units were
mapped and from bottom to top are as follows:
4.2.1 Basement
Basement outcrops are present in two major areas in Somali Region of Ethiopia—in Jijiga zone
in the north, and in the far south Liban zone near the Kenya border (Fig. 4). In both the north and
the south, basement consists of metamorphic rocks intruded by granite or granodiorite. The
metamorphic rocks are gneiss, schist, quartzite, and marble.
4.2.2 Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks are absent in Somali region of Ethiopia, however, tillites and glacial
sandstone of Ordovician in age were mapped in Oromiya region.
4.2.3 Jurassic
Extensive Jurassic deposits, both in outcrop and in the subsurface, are present throughout Somali
Region and are divided into four units (Figs. 4; Table 1). The thickness of these deposits ranges
from less than several meters in Jijiga area to more than 2000 m in the Sinclair oil company
wells in Warder zone both in Galadi and in Gunburo wells and other oil and gas wells in Korahe
(Shilabo, El Abred, Calub, and Magan oil wells) and other oil wells in Afder Zone (Bodle and
Hilo Quran oil wells).
4.2.4 Js. Adigrat Formation

This is the basal sandstone in Somali Region is present throughout East Africa, and was named
by W. T. Blanford in 1870. In southern Somalia it is composed of varicoloured quartz sands with
intercalations of gypsum and dark-red shale with a maximum thickness of 130 m.
In northern Somalia, the Adigrat consists of fine to coarse-grained, varicolored quartzitic,

micaceous, cross-bedded, un-fossiliferous sandstones, locally grading upward into sandy
Limestones.
In Ethiopia, the Adigrat is described as a fine to medium-grained sandstone, as much as 60 m

thick, commonly poorly cemented, but locally quartzitic, unfossiliferous.
39
Drilling data in in Ethiopia, the Sinclair XEF-1 drilled 24 m of Adigrat composed of 12 m of

sandstone, 9 m of shale, and 3 m of basal conglomerate. Oil well drilled in Bodle Afder Zone,
the largest thickness of 253 m of Adigrat Sandstone was encountered.
3.2.3.2. Jh. Hamanlei Formation

The type section for this formation is near the village of Hamanlei in Ethiopia and there it is d
lower part is Callovian and the upper is Oxfordian in age; total thickness is 210 m.
In Somali Region, the Hamanlei outcrops in Jijiga zone along Jerar and Fafan streams and Filtu
district of Liban Zone.
Drilling data for oil well in Warder Zone by Sinclair Oil Company has penetrated a limestone-
dolomite-anhydrite facies as much as 1,067 m thick in one well, the 1 Galadi. Other oil wells log
profiles also revealed existence of huge thickness of Hamanlei Limestone Formation.
On the basis of foraminiferal evidence, Quinqueloculina inconstans, Epistomina mosquensi,

Cristellaria contrails, Lentlcullnapolonlca, the Hamanlei includes the Callovian Stage of Ae
Jurassic, whereas the lower limit varies because the Jurassic seas reached different parts of East
Africa at different times, but it may include Toarcian Stage deposits in some areas.
4.2.5 Ju. Uarandab Formation

composed of 55 m of gray, brown, and greenish gypsum-bearing shale intercalated with gray
argillaceous limestone in the middle part, and similar shale in the lower 15 m. Fossils are
common with abundant Belemnites and many ammonites.
This formation outcrops in large area of Fik zone such as Sagag and Gasangas areas. The
formation also is present in most of the oil wells in Somali Region of Ethiopia and there it is
mostly shale with a maximum thickness of 300 m.
4.2.6 Jo Gabredarre Formation

The type section for this formation is near the Town of Kabredarre in Korahe Zone (Fig. 4) and
there it consists of flaggy limestone, fossiferous in the upper 40 m, underlain by 20 m of thin-
bedded alternating Oolitic and marly limestone with gypsum bearing shale, overlying 30m of
earthy ocher-colored limestone, and finally 60 m of gypsum. Below the gypsum is 130 of finely
crystalline, yellowish, partly oolitic limestone grading downward into 40 m of yellowish and
gray marl containing flattened ammonite impressions.
Most of the oil wells in Ethiopia were drilled through the Gabredarre, and a maximum thickness
was present in the Gumburo oil well 629 m where the Gabredarre is a limestone with shale
members.
40
4.2.7 3.2.4. Kjg- Lower Cretaceous (Main Gypsum or Korahe Formation)

Near the end of Jurassic time the sea began to withdraw from East Africa, probably as a result of
epeirogenic movement, and it left behind a large evaporite trough.
In Somalia and southern Ethiopia this phase is represented by the formation known as the "Main
Gypsum" or Korahe Formation. In outcrop the Early Cretaceous is represented by the Main
Gypsum and the type section is near Gabredarre town. This formation consists of 200 m of
gypsum with calcareous, marly, and shaly intercalations. The age of the Main Gypsum at the
type locality is determined by the ages of the rocks beneath and above it and is placed between
Portlandian and Barremian Stages.
However, local limestone and shaly zones have revealed an Early Cretaceous fauna consisting of
Orbitolina discoidea and Choffatella decipiens. The Main Gypsum merges by intercalation with
the overlying Mustahil limestone formation, but thickens from its outcrop in Somali Region
toward the east and southeast of Gode and Afder Zone at the expense of the underlying
Gabredarre. In Somali Region, the Lower Cretaceous is represented by most of oil wells. Based
on the Stratigraphy of the oil wells the thickness of Main Gypsum formation increases from east
southwest (from Warder zone to Afder zone).
The following thickness of the Main Gypsum Formation was observed from the oil wells:
(1) 98 m of gypsum in the Sinclair 1 Gumburo in Warder Zone
(2) 166 m of anhydrite from an oil well in Warder Zone
(3) 300 m of gypsum from an oil well in Korahe Zone
(4) 588 m of gypsum in El Habred oil well Korahe Zone
(5) 932 m of gypsum in Magan oil well in Korahe zone
(6) 1175 m of gypsum in Elele oil well in Gode Zone
(7) 1668 m of gypsum in Bodle oil well in Afder Zone
Based on the thickness of the Main gypsum formation the selected oil wells in Somali Region,
the thickness of this formation increases toward Gode and Warder Zone in which this unit
outcrops.
4.2.8 3.2.5. Upper Cretaceous

Upper Cretaceous rocks are made up of four formations which are Mustahil, Ferfer, Beletwein
and Jessoma Sandstone Formations.
4.2.8.1 Km- Mustahil Formation
The type section for this formation is near the town of Mustahil town, and consists of alternating
white to yellow limestone, marly limestone and marl, light-colored marl and clay, lenticular
rudist reefs, and at the top, gypsum. The Mustahil ranges in age from Barremian into
41
Cenomanian. It merges by intercalation with the overlying Ferfer Gypsum and the underlying
Main Gypsum; consequently its thickness is varied but is estimated to be about 200 m.
4.2.8.2 Kg- Ferfer Gypsum Formation
The type section for this formation is at the town of Ferfer near the Somali border. It is very
similar to the Main Gypsum, but no fossils have been found in it. However, it overlies and is
overlain by Limestones of Cenomanian age and is intercalated with both units. At the type
locality the Ferfer is approximately 200 m thick.
4.2.8.3 Kb- Beletwein Formation
The type section for this formation is near the village of Beletwein in southern Somalia. It is
composed of 145 m of mainly limestone.
The formation consists of, in descending order, 35 m of alternating white and yellowish bearing
limestone, shale, and sandstone with some gypsum beds passing upward into the Jessoma
sandstone; 25 m of similar limestone with some shale; 15 m of siliceous limestone; 20 m of
alternating brown, calcareous, locally quartzitic sandstone and arenaceous limestone; and 28 m
of pseudonodular Limestone with abundant mollusks and echinoids with two Orbitolina zones at
the top; 11 m of compact fine-grained whitish limestone in beds 0.2 to 1.0 m thick; 3.5 m of
brown calcareous sandstone abundantly fossiferous; and at the base 7.5 m of alternating gypsum
and cream to buff fossiliferous limestone. The lower part of the formation is late Cenomanian
and the upper part is early Turonian.
4.2.9 3.2.6. Kj- Jessoma Formation

The type section for this formation is near the village of Jessoma in southern Somalia. The
Jessoma is composed of red, brown, purple, and yellow; loosely cemented to quartzitic; fine to
very coarse-grained sandstone with local gypsiferous beds at the base.
Cross-bedding is prevalent. It is unfossiliferous but, from the ages of the rocks beneath and
above, it isbelieved to include deposits of the Turonian and most of the Senonian. Its thickness at
the type section is about 350 to 400 m. Jessoma Sandstone formation outcrops in are east of
Jijiga all the way to Warder Zone.
The Jessoma Formation is typical only in the Sinclair wells in Wader zone and Shilabo district of
Korahe Zone. The following Jessoma thicknesses were encountered Sinclair Oil wells in Somali
Regional State:
(1) 430 m of Jessoma sandstone were found in the XF-5 well located close Gorgor
village of Gashamo district.
(2) 396 m of Jessoma in XE-5 located close to Daratole village of Danot district.
(3) 374 m of Jessoma was found in XEF-1 oil well located close to Koratunje village in
Danot district.
42
Based on the above illustrated thickness, the Jessoma sandstone its thickness increases from east
to west and northwest.
4.2.10 Ea- Paleocene (Auradu Formation)

In outcrop the Paleocene is represented by the Auradu limestone, and the type section is in
northern Somalia in the Nogal Valley where the Auradu attains a thickness of up to 550 m. It is a
finely crystalline, compact, hard, usually tan to light-brown limestone with local thin gray shales.
It contains shallow-water Foraminifera such as Lockhartias, Sakesarias, Alveolinas, and
Nummulites. The age of the Auradu limestone in outcrop includes the Paleocene and the
Ypresian and part of the Cuisian Stage of lower Eocene as indicated by the presence of
Lockhartia tipperi, Nummulites somaliensis, and Daviesina danieli. In Somali Region of
Ethiopia, the Auradu limestone outcrops eastern part of Warder Zone and the Sinclair wells in
Warder Zone, has penetrated a maximum thickness of 399 m of Auradu limestone was found in
the XE-3A well located Close to Bokh town.
3.2.8. Upper Oligocene-Quaternary
4.2.10.1 Qb-Volcanic Flows

Finally, the litho-stratigraphic sequences outcropping in the region are those of Upper
Oligocene-Quaternary. Undifferentiated volcanic rocks are outcropping in Shinile zone. The
basalt flows have been dated as Oligocene to Miocene (Mohr, 1963), although basalt flows in the
great rift valleys have been dated as Late Cretaceous into Oligocene (Swartz and Arden, 1960).
According to the previous study, the thickness of the volcanic flows in Shinile zone is 50-200 m.
4.2.10.2 Qa and Qc (Alluvial and Colluvial Deposit)

Streambeds. Alluvial deposit in the dry stream courses yields water for domestic use. The
alluvial deposits can yield good quality and quantity of water that can be used both for domestic
and livestock use. All the hand-dug wells in the region are located within this unit.
4.2.11 Hydrogeology and Water points and abstraction

There are hand-dug wells and water holes along river courses (mostly dry stream courses), ponds
(private & public) which are usually dry due to siltation or poor condition of construction
resulting in high linkage and exposed to evaporation etc, these sources of water are found where
there is no possibility of fresh groundwater at reasonable depth. Other sources of water are in the
natural depression storage that is used for short periods of time after rainy seasons.
43
4.2.11.1 Dug wells

These are found in the dry stream courses and in the natural depressions. These wells are dug
along dry streambeds where thick sand is accumulated and along the banks of some streams.
Dug wells are used in most of the Somali Region, especially along the rivers and the streams.
4.2.11.2 Deep wells

The sedimentary sequence outcropping in Somali Region is prominently formed of carbonate
rocks which correspond to sedimentation of a shallow sea in which the deposition of detritus and
skeletal limestone has been intercalated with evaporate deposits of lagoon and transitional
environment. Hence, the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer and the possibilities of their
exploitation for domestic and livestock use strictly depend on the lithology and condition of
deposition. Based on this, the Quaternary deposits, Hamanlei, Gabredarre, Jessoma Sandstone,
Beletwein limestone and Mustahil formation can be considered as potentially exploitable
aquifers.
The remaining formations such as the Main Gypsum Formation and Ferfer Gypsum can be
considered as aquicludes or aquifers, which contain high salinity water not suitable for domestic
and livestock use.
4.2.12 Hamanlei series

The rocks in this series are predominantly limestone and dolomite having gradational contact
with the Adigrat sandstone and with the overlaying Urandab formation. It is divided into 5 units.
Abundant fresh water has been met in many boreholes in outcrop areas.
4.2.13 Urandab formation

The Urandab formation conformably overlies the Hamanlei formation and is composed of well
bedded, fine grained shaly limestone with alternating marl, gypsiferous clays and massive
gypsum. Boreholes drilled in this unit mostly were abandoned because of being dry.
The lack of groundwater in this unit is due to presence of Shale and this prevents vertical and
lateral recharge of this formation.
4.2.14 Kabridahar formation

It is a thick succession of limestone beds inter bedded with marl, shale and thin layer of gypsum
that covers a large area of the project area. The formation with near horizontal beds of limestone
generally has very low primary porosity and permeability that are insignificant for groundwater
conduit occurrence. Secondary permeability due to fractures and solution openings along
bedding planes is more important for groundwater occurrence and movement. Water that enters
along fractures causes dissolution in fracture zones that result in higher hydraulic conductivity
than the un-fractured rocks, which create higher possibility for groundwater occurrence. Vertical
44
movement of groundwater in fracture zones can also result in solution openings along bedding
planes for lateral movement of groundwater in the formation.
4.3 MAIN GYPSUM FORMATION

It seems in areas that the main gypsum formation outcrops, fresh groundwater exploitation
through tube wells is impossible due to the bad quality of the groundwater. Therefore, any
borehole drilled in those areas should be drilled till reached the under laying limestone formation
so as to obtain fresh water. Most of the boreholes drilled in this formation especially in Afder
and Gode zones are abandoned due to high salinity content.
4.4 JESSOMA SANDSTONE

The Jessoma Sandstone Formations consists of gray and variegated sandstone with intercalations
of variegated shales and lateritic horizons. Although our knowledge of vertical extent of this
formation is limited due to lack of more well log data, however based on the available data
suggest that the grain size and the thickness progressively increase from west to east. The
lithological properties of the formation tend to suggest that the water bearing characteristic of the
sandstone could be very considerable in space both vertically and horizontally. In the eastern part
of the region especially in Danot area, due to the absence of retaining layer at shallow depth,
whatever recharge available for the formation tend to percolate to greater depth until retained by
the underlying impervious limestone or clay horizons of the Upper Cetaceous Formations.
Several wells were drilled in this formation on the other side of the border in Somalia, such as
Buhodle town and Salahley village. According the information from these wells, the aquifer was
struck between 330 to350 m below ground level. It seams that the shape of the aquiclude beneath
the Jessoma Sandstone is a bowl shape in which the maximum depth is located about the area of
Danot and the depth of the aquifer becomes shallower as you go on other direction.
4.5 AURADU SERIES – LOWER EOCENE

The Auradu series consists of grey to white, hard and massive limestone which is often
unbedded. The Auradu limestone maintains a fair lithological uniformity throughout the eastern
Warder Zone. It is widely exposed in Galadi and Bokh area. The measured thickness of this
formation varies from place to place. The infiltration occurs along the faults and fractures.
5 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAPPING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Somali Region, the regional aquifers consist of Precambrian basement rocks outcropping in
the north of the region (Jijiga Zone) and Moyale and Hudat districts of Liban Zone which is
located at southwest of the region.
45
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks do not outcropping in the region, however, huge sedimentary covers
ranging from Triassic Adigrat sandstone to recent Quaternary cover are outcropping in the region
which makes the largest sedimentary basin in eastern part of Ethiopia.
Hydrogeological mapping is a method of gathering and evaluating geological information to

create three-dimensional depiction of the subsurface material in which groundwater occurs. By
mapping the spatial distribution of geologic material with distinctive permeability, the
hydrogeologist can understand which geologic units will allow movement of groundwater and
which units will restrict groundwater movement.
Since the subsurface cannot be directly observed, hydro-geologists employ various tools and
techniques to make "observations" or inferences at specific sites, and to extrapolate that
information to create a continuous three-dimensional picture of the underground material.
Hydrogeological mapping, like any other scientific endeavor, involves collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data. Common data collection techniques include compilation and collection of
surface geologic data, surface and subsurface geophysical data, and well-drilling data.
The most abundant data available for an area of interest usually are surface geologic maps and
geologic cross-sections. This work is important because the identification of rock units at the
surface with distinctive physical or hydrologic properties may be important to understand the
likely permeability of similar units in the subsurface.
Also, certain rock units or contacts between rock units may control groundwater flow and be
associated with significant surface water features such as large springs. Geophysical data is
another commonly used source of information in hydrogeological mapping. Geophysical data
comes from a number of surface and subsurface techniques that measure physical properties of
rocks such as electrical conductance and resistivity.
Surface techniques are carried out on or above the land surface; subsurface techniques involve
lowering instruments into wells. Geophysical data are often used to detect the general character
of a rock unit, but some geophysical data can actually be used as an indirect measurement of
void spaces and permeability.
There are more than 300 wells drilled in the region. Existing wells represent a potentially large
source of valuable subsurface hydrogeological information. In addition, unused wells within an
area represent a source of potential wells for subsurface geophysical surveys.
Data on a well report that are of particular interest in hydrogeological mapping are the geologic
material descriptions, the identity of the water-bearing material, and results of pumping tests.
Geologic material descriptions from well logs are useful in identifying rock types in the
46
subsurface. Huge data were collected and because of uneven quality of data collected from
various sources were first subjected to rigorous screening and quality control procedures it
consisted first of all, in the verification of the borehole location coordinates (UTM Coordinates,
elevation, address, etc.) and of intercepted lithology.
Lithological data base was created from the available borehole logs, and attempt was made the
interpretation of the lithology data into Stratigraphy so as to create a preliminary conceptual
model of the Stratigraphy of the region.
5.2 OBJECTIVE
Somali Regional State is one of the largest regions of the country covering about 1/3rd of the
Ethiopian Federation. Due to lack of proper understanding of the subsurface geology of the
region, large number of boreholes drilled in the region has failed to supply water either due to
being salty of being dry. Therefore, the major objectives of this hydrogeological mapping were
to elucidate and to facilitate general understanding of the subsurface geology of the region.
(1) To answer the reasons that most of the borehole drilled in the region are failing.
(2) Based on the subsurface lithological mapping to recommend appropriate drilling
methods and
(3) To prepare standardized common water supply system designs focusing on
different livelihoods. According to the TOR for the hydrogeological mapping in
the region, the following activities were required:
(4) Collect lithological logs drilled in the region, correlate and prepare detail hydro
geological report of the region.
(5) Gathering of literature about the existing bore hole from regional water bureau,
local and international NGOs based in Jijiga as well as from the ministry of water
resource and Ethiopian geological survey and NGOs based in Addis Ababa.
(6) Digitalize the hard copies of the well logs and from the gathered literatures by
using different software.
(7) Field work to collect coordinates and other relevant information on the available
wells that were collected from literatures and field work.
(8) Create lithological and stratigraphic data base for those bore holes.
(9) Correlate the available borehole logs to prepare hydrological map of the region.
315 boreholes were identified to exist in the region; however, the consultant was
able to obtain the well logs of 203 boreholes. The remaining boreholes was drilled
either by not professionals or the data was lost in the past. Database of existing
boreholes was prepared and the hardcopy of the well logs were converted into
digital format.
(10) Based on the interpreted Stratigraphic of Somali Region oil wells, the following
conclusions were made.
47
(11) Identification of major stratigraphic units that might be encountered during

drilling for particular site.
The following stratigraphic units could be encountered:

a. Quaternary alluvial sediment that are outcropping in the valleys and structural
depressions.
b. Recent undifferentiated basalt outcropping mostly in Shinile Zone.
c. Auradu Limestone Formation outcropping only in eastern part of Warder Zone.
d. Basalt of unknown age outcropping in isolated areas such as Walwal- Warder-Yucub
area, Fik town area, and area surrounding Barey town of Afder zone.
e. Jessoma Sandstone outcropping northeastern part of Jijiga zone extending along the
Somaliland boundary and all the way to western part of Warder Zone.
f. Balatwein, Ferfer and Mustahil Formations outcropping Dobawein- Shilabo-Ferfer
districts.
g. Korahe Gypsum formation outcropping south of Kabridahar town extending all the
way to Gode and Afder Zones.
h. Kabridahar Formation outcropping northern part of Korahe zone and covers large
portion of Fik zone.
i. Uarandab Series outcropping along Fafan, Sulul, Dakhato streams and western side of
Fik town. In Liban Zone it outcrops Dolo Ado and Filtu districts.
j. Hamanlei Series outcrops along Jerar-Fafan Streams and in Dolo Ado and filtu
districts of Liban zone.
a. Understanding the maximum and average thickness of expected stratigraphic
unit that might be encountered at particular site.
48
UNICEF
ToR for Water Resource Mapping and Vulnerability Assessment

30/04/2012
Background:
Ethiopia like many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa has low levels of water, sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) facilities and practices. The national coverage figures for access to safe rural
water supply within 1.5km are quoted to be 41% and access to safe urban water supply within
0.5 km to be 78%.
Somali Region, with a population of 5.15 million people (the majority of which follow a pastoralist or
agro pastoralist livelihood) and a total land area of 279,252 square kilometres, is unique in Ethiopia. As a
whole, the region lacks adequate fresh water resources, and this one characteristic shapes every aspect of
Somali society, culture and the Region’s development.
Somali Region receives less than 600 mm of rainfall a year, with most rain associated with the light
(Deyr) rains from October to December, and the more significant Gu rains in April to June. In general, the
northern Zones of Shinile and Jijiga receive most rain by virtue of their elevation. Significantly less
rainfall falls in the rest of the region, least of all in Warder, Korahay, Gode, Afder and Liben Zones in the
South. Whilst drought is relatively common, there is increasing evidence, mostly anecdotal, that climate
change may be resulting in less predictable rain fall, severely compromising the livelihoods of nomadic
pastoralists who follow their cattle in search of good pasture.
There are about 290 viable drilled water wells in the Region – ranging from 45 to over 350 metres deep
(Shaac 2009). In times of severe drought, most of the Region’s rural population, as well as some urban
centres including the regional capital, Jijiga, depends on these water sources. Inventory of this water
sources depends where lastly updated in 2009 by Shaac Consulting Company and lot of effort in has
happened since then.
For those living in areas without drilled well, water is trucked in from the nearest water point. This can be
incredibly expensive – over 350 USD for one truck of water, delivered to communities that may be 180
kms or more from the nearest water source. Whilst Development Partners see this as a last resort and balk
at the costs involved, it should be noted that the majority of water trucking operations are financed
privately, by the pastoralist themselves, or by donations from the Somali Diaspora. For many, there is no
alternative. Little is known about what triggers what trucking, what is the coping mechanism of the
people and what are associated beneficiaries in water trucking. This concept notes systematically answer
the above questions by conducting vulnerability analysis and inventory of existing water supply system.
Justification:
49
The situation described above requires proper planning and preparation for emergency response
in areas with no reliable water source. For this to be effective, a database of all potential water
sources that can be used as pick up points, the condition of roads and distances between pick up
and drop off points, existing local coping mechanisms and susceptibility of the various water
sources to potential threas need to be assessed and mapped.
Whilst the country often gets to acute emergency phase, the impact of drought in SRS continues
to affect many communities. Many believe that coping strategies have been exhausted leaving
communities vulnerable to further shock yet this coping mechanisms have not been studied and
documented for learning purposes. Furthermore, the existing water sources are often broken
down leading to increased distances for water trucking.
In light with this situation, and as enlisted in the joint action plan, UNICEF wishes to procure the
services of a consultant to map existing sustainable water sources, collect data on coping
strategies as well as evaluate susceptibility of the various water sources to potential breakdown
threats and identify mitigation measures.
Objective;
The mapping and vulnerability assessment will provide a framework for developing risk reduction
options and associated costs.
The overall goal of the mapping and vulnerability assessment is twofold; to safeguard public
health and safety, and to reduce the potential for disruption of a reliable supply of water.
Specific tasks:
1. Collect agreed data for all water sources including GPS location, functionality, average
yield, depth/size, type, frequency of breakdown, month/year of construction, population
served and for how long, etc.
2. Develop an excel based inventory of all water sources (surface and ground) in the region
including categorization of birka, Haffir, deep well, HDW dependant Woredas..
3. Map all the water sources above using an-easy-to-edit mapping software.
4. Train DPPB and RWB staff on the use of mapping software for easy updating of data on
the map and inventory.
5. Collect and analyse data on local coping mechanisms together with livelihood and water
budget.
6. Map areas with chronic water trucking needs as well as assess and map water trucking
routes including condition and distances.
7. Assess the vulnerability of selected water supply (both ground and surface water),
transmission, treatment and distribution systems. Information gathered should be
categorized under threat, critical assets, water utility, operations, consequences and
existing countermeasures to determine level of risk.
8. Recommend risk reduction measures to reduce vulnerabilities.
50
9. Relationship between rainwater performance and water availability within the region.
Expected deliverables:
 Database of all water sources

 Map showing location of all water sources
 Map showing Woreda/kebeles with chronic water trucking need
 Map detailing water trucking routes in each of above Woreda/kebeles
 Training report on inventory and map updating
 Detailed local coping strategy document
 Water supply vulnerability assessment report including recommendations
Methodology:
The consultant will work very closely with the SRS government (DPPB, RHB, RWB), NGOs, UNICEF
and the local community, he/she will submit a work approach paper detailing how the exercise will be
conducted and completed as far as practicable. His/her submission will be discussed and approved by
UNICEF/DPPB before engagement.
Timeline:
The exercise is expected to be completed within 6 months and shall include preparation, field visits
during data collection, data analysis and report drafting.
Consultants profile:
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Table of Contents

1 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 3

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

Access to water & pastoralist livelihoods

Sand & sub-surface dams:

1 TRAINING THE WATER COMMITTEES ON TOPICS SUCH AS BOOK-KEEPING AND

1.1 3.4 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

1.1.1 3.4.1 Water Supply

Table 3.4.1: Comparison of water supply coverage targets

Major Water-Supply Related PASDE UAP MDG Current

1.1.2 Water Supply Coverage in Somali Regional State

Table-3.4.2 Rural water supply coverage compared to regional plan and

Source: Ministry of Water Resources/ MoWR (2007/08 PASDEP Report)

Table-3.4.3: Coverage of rural water supply of DRS and neighbouring regions

Source: 2005/06 and 2006/07 (MoFED) PASDEP Progress Report;

Coverage of Rural Water Supply (%)

Source: Data from Ministry of Water Resource (2009)

Figure-3.4.3: Number of rural water supply schemes constructed by regions 2006-2008

Source: MoWR (2009)

Figure 3.4.4: Comparison of water supply coverage

Somali: MoWR Projection UAP Total MDG Total Oromiya:MoWR Projection

Source: Projection based on MoWR data

1.1.4 3.4.1.3 Rehabilitation and maintenance of rural water schemes

Zone Scheme Functional Not- Total

1.1.5 3.4.1.4 Low cost versus high cost technology

Low Cost Schemes

Source: Data is from MWR (2009)

Table 3.4.5- Technologies implemented in each region

Technology Afa B. Gamb Soma Tigray Amhara Oromiya SNN Tota

No. of Low cost 41 12 46 852 1831 8018 3876 1719 1650

Source: Computed from MoWR (2009)

1.1.6 3.4.1.5 Financial resource and water supply

Figure 3.4.6: Population served by sources of finances 2006-2008

Source: Expenditure Data MoFED

1.1.7 3.4.1.6. Organizational structure, human resources, and equipment

Figure 3.4.9: Demand for human resource to implement UAP

Source: Computed from UAP, MoWR (2006)

1.1.8 3.4.1.7 Governance in the water supply and sanitation sector

Table 3.4.6: Expenditure assignments/service delivery functions at various Levels

Basic Service delivery functions at different government tier

Water administer drinking water, Regional governmental setting

Adopted from MCB (2005/6)

Capital budget 2007/08 % 2006/07 % 2005/06 %

Bureau level 30.05 100 15.5 53.4 10.0 38.2

Wereda level 0.00 0 13.5 46.6 16.2 61.8

Region total 30.05 100 29.0 100.0 26.1 100.0

Total capital 2007/08 % 2006/07 % 2005/06 %

Bureau 326.2 79.8 192.7 80.0 145.4 71.7

Wereda 82.8 20.2 48.1 20.0 57.5 28.3

Region 408.9 100.0 240.8 100.0 202.9 100.0

Bureau 9.2 8.0 6.9

Wereda 0.0 28.1 28.1

Region 7.3 12.0 12.9

Source: Computed from the Expenditure Report

1.1.9 3.4.1.9 Challenges and solutions

1.1.10 3.4.2 Sanitation and Hygiene3

Environmental pollution control, public health, water resource management proclamations

Figure 3.4.10: Access to latrine and utilization for EFY 2000

Percentage of households with latrine Percentage of households using latrine

Baseline (EFY 2000)

Target for EFY 2001

No. Regions Total Schools with Schools with

Region Software Hardware Water Capacity M&E Total

 Limitation of resources in terms of Enhance Funding: Considering that