1.

Introduction
Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or loads; examples
include the aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the
steel in an automobile axle. In such situations it is necessary to know the
characteristics of the material and to design the member from which it is made
such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and fracture will not
occur.
Most of the materials used in engineering are metallic in nature. The prime
reason simply is the versatile nature of their properties those spread over a very
broad range compared with other kinds of materials. Many engineering
materials are subjected to forces both during processing/fabrication and in
service.
Effect of force on the body
When a force is applied on a solid material, it may result in translation, rotation,
or deformation of that material. Aspects of material translation and rotation are
dealt by engineering dynamics. We restrict ourselves here to the subject of
material deformation under forces.

Effect of force on the body

Solid material are defined such that change in their volume under applied forces
in very small, thus deformation is used as synonymous to distortion.
2. Types of deformation
Material deformation can be permanent or temporary. Permanent deformation is
irreversible i.e. stays even after removal of the applied forces, while the
temporary deformation disappears after removal of the applied forces. It is also
a function of time.

Deformation types

3. Concepts of stress and strain

 Forces applied act on a surface of the material, and thus the force intensity,
force per unit area, is used in analysis.
 Analogous to this, deformation is characterized by percentage —change in
length per unit length in three distinct directions.
There are three principal ways in which a load may be applied: namely, tension,
compression, and shear. In engineering practice many loads are torsional rather
than pure shear.
The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing carefully
designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service
conditions.
Tension tests
 Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area Ao subjected to an axial
tensile force F.
 The stress at any section normal to the line of action of the tensile force F is
specifically called tensile stress.
 Since internal resistance R at some plane X-X is equal to the applied force
F, we have,
σ= (internal resistance at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x)
σ = R/A = F/Ao.

 Due to the tensile stress there is an increase in the length of the body and
decrease in the cross section area of the body.
 Tensile stress is a type of normal stress, so it acts at 90 degree to the area.
 The strain which is induced due to tensile stress is called tensile strain. It is
equals to the ratio of increase in the length to the original length.
The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant
rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied
load (with a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer). A
stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive;
that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured.