CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom

A Tom (Greek word)

Not Divisible

Not divisible (According to Dalton)

Atom is a Greek word

and its meaning is Indivisible i.e. an ultimate particle which cannot be further subdivided.
John Dalton (1803 - 1808) considered that " all matter was composed of small particles called atoms.
Daltons Atomic Theory :-
This theory is based on law of mass conservation and law of definite proportions.
T he salient feature's of t h is t heor y are :-
(1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
(2) Atoms of a particular element are like but differ from atom's of other element.
(3) Atom of each element is an ultimate particle and it has a characteristic mass but is structureless
(4) Atom's are indestructible i.e. they can neither be created nor be destroyed.
(5) Atom of element's take part in chemical reaction to form molecule.
Fundamental particle's :- Atom has many types of particles i.e. electron, proton, neutron, positron, antiproton,
neutrino, meson, antineutrino etc. The main fundamental particles are electron, proton, neutron.

Prop er t ie s of cat ho de rays :-

(1) Like ordinary light, cathode rays come out at right angles to the surface of cathode and travel in a straight
line normal to the cathode. It casts sharp shadows, if any opaque solid object is placed in their path.
(2) They rotate a light paddle wheel if placed in their path and thus shows mechanical effect i.e. they have momentum
and energy and therefore, mass. The cathode rays are material particles
(3) They are deflected in magnetic and electrical fields. The direction of deflection shows that they are negatively
charged.
(4) Their velocities change with the applied voltage.
(5) They penetrate through the metals and other substances and also produce flourescence.
(6) An obstacle placed in the path of cathode rays is heated up and thus cathode rays possess heating effect.
(7) Cathode rays on striking solid objects of high melting point produce X-rays.
(8) They affect the photographic plate.
(9) They can ionise gases.
(10) Their e/m is constant.
(11) No cathode rays were produced when tube was completely evacuated.

Prop er t ie s of a no de rays :-
(1) They travel in straight line in a direction opposite to the cathode rays however, their speed is much less
as compared to cathode rays.
(2) They are deflected by electric and magnetic field in a way indicating that they are positively charged. Magnitude
of deflection is smaller than cathode rays.

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(3) The specific charge of anode rays particles varies with the nature of gas.
(4) They consist of material particles and their mass is many times the mass of an electron.
(5) They produce flourescence on striking over zinc sulphide screen.
(6) Unlike cathode rays, the properties of positive rays are characteristic of the gas in the tube
(1) T he Electron :-
(i) Electron was discovered in cathode ray experiment by J.J. Thomson in 1887.
(ii) The name electron was proposed by stoney for the fundamental unit of electricity.
(iii) The charge on an electron (–1.602 × 10–19 coulombs or –4.803 × 10-10 esu) was determined by Mullikan
in his oil drop experiment.
(iv) Actual mass of an electron 9.1×10 -31 kg (9.11 × 10 –28g) was calculated by J.J Thomson.
(v) T he specific charge (e/m rat io) of electrons (cathode rays) was determi ned by T homson as
1.76 × 10 8 coulombs/gram.The specific charge of electron decreases with increase i n it s velocit y
because i ncrease i n velocit y increase s the mass of electron. Howe ver the sp ecific charge of
electron was found to be independent of the nature of gas and electrode used which points
out that electrons are present in all atoms.

m0
m
v2 ,
1
c2

where m 0 = rest mass of electron,

v = velocity of electron

c = velocity of light

(vi) Density of electron is found to be 2.17 × 10 17 g/c.c

(vii) Mass of one mole of electrons (6.023 × 10 23 electron) is nearly 0.55 mg.

(viii) Charge on one mole of electrons is  96500 coulombs or 1 Faraday

1
(ix) Mass of electron is times that of proton.
1837

(2) T he Proton :-
(i) Proton was discovered in the anode ray experiment.
(ii) Anode rays, also called as canal rays or positive rays, were discovered by E.Goldstein in 1896.
(iii) Mass of a proton is found to be 1.672 × 10 –24g or 1.672 × 10 -27 kg. or 1.00782 amu.
(iv) Charge on a proton is + 1.602 × 10 –19 coulombs.
(v) The specific charge of a proton is 9.58 × 104 coulombs/g. However, the specific charge of the anode
rays is not constant but changes with the gas in the tube. It is maximum when gas present in the
discharge tube is hydrogen.
(vi) Mass of 1 mole of protons is nearly 1.007 g
(vii) Charge on 1mole of protons is  96500 coulombs
(viii) The volume of a proton (given by 4/3  r 3 ) is nearly 1.5 × 10 –38 cm 3 .
(ix) Proton is ionised hydrogen atom.

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(3) T he Neutron :-
(i) Neutron was discovered by James chadwick in 1932.
(ii) The reason for the late discovery of neutron was its neutral nature.
(iii) Neutron is slightly heavier (0.18%) then proton. Mass of neutron is 1.675 × 10 –24 g or
1.675 × 10 -27 kg or 1.00866 amu.
(iv) Density of a neutron is 1.5 × 10 14 g/c.c.
(v) Specific charge of a neutron is zero.
(vi) Mass of 1mole of neutrons is nearly 1.008g.
(vii) Of all the elementary particles present in an atom, neutron is the heaviest and least stable particle.
Actually, isolated neutron is unstable and distintegrates into electron, proton and neutrino.
Other Fundamental Particles
(i) Neutrino and Antineutrino :-
(1) Postulated by Fermi (1934), (2) Mass  0, (3) Charge 0
(ii) Positron (Posit ive electron 1 e°) :-
(1) It is represented by 1e0 and charge on it is 1.6 × 10–19 Cb.
(2) It was discovered by Anderson in 1932.
(3) Mass = same as electron.
(iii) Mesons :-
(1) Charge can be +, – or 0. (2) Mass  200 times that of electron.
(3) Discovered by Yukawa in 1935. (4) There are two types of meson,  and  meson.
Ant i Proton :
(1) It is represeted by –1p1 and charge on it is –1.6 × 10–19Cb.
(2) It was discovered by Sugri in 1959.
(3) Mass is same as that of proton.
Some important definations
1. Atomic Number :
It is represented by Z. The number of protons present in the nucleus is called atomic number.of an element. It
is also known as nuclear charge.
For neutral atom : Number of proton = Number of electron
For charged atom : Number of e– = Z – (charge on atom)
Z= number of protons only
2. Mass Number :
It is represented by capital A The sum of number of Neutrons and protons is called the mass number. of the
element. It is also known as number of nucleons becuase neutron & proton are present in nucleus.
A = number of protons + number of Neutrons
Note : It is always a whole number.

Atom

Inside the nucleus Outside the nucleus

[n, p+] [e–]

An atom of the element is represented by ZXA

Where, X = Symbol of element
Z = Atomic number = no. of proton = no. of e– (If atom is neutral)
A = Mass number = no.of neutron + Atomic no.

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eg. 11
Na + 9
F– 6
C 12 8
O 16
(p+  11) (p+  9) (p+  6) (p+ 8)
(e  10)
–
(e –
 9 + 1 = 10) (e  6)
–
(e  8)
–

eg. 6
C 12 8
O 16
p+  6 p+  8
n  12 – 6 = 6
0
n  16 – 8 = 8
0

e–  6 e–  8

Mass no. [A] and atomic weight (a.m.u.= atomic mass unit)

Mass of Proton (m p ) Mass of Neutron (m n ) Mass of electron (m e )

1.673 × 10–27 kg 1.675 × 10–27 kg. 9.1 × 10–31 kg.

1.673 × 10 –24 grams 1.675 × 10 –24 g. 9.1 × 10–28 kg.
1.00750 a.m.u. 1.00850 a.m.u. 0.000549 a.m.u.

[mp ~ mn]
 [m n > m p]

Method for Analysis of atomic weight 

eg. 6
C 12
p+  6 Weight of Proton = 6 × 1.00750

n0  6 Weight of Neutron = 6 × 1.00850

Weight of electron  6  0.000549

e–  6
Weight of C atom  12.011 a.m.u.
Mass no. of C atom = 12 [p+ and n]

Note : Mass no. of atom is always a whole no. but atomic weight may be in decimal.

Q. If no. of protons in X–2 is 16. then no. of e– in X+2 will be–

(1) 14 (2) 16 (3) 18 (4) None
S o l .  No. of proton in X–2 is = 16
 No. of electron in X+2 is = 14
Q. In C12 atom if mass of e– is doubled and mass of proton is halved, then calculate the percentage change in mass
no. of C 12.

Sol. 6
C 12

e– p+ n°
6 6 6 A  12
12 3 6 A 9
3
% change = × 100 = 25%
12

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Q. Assuming that atomic weight of C 12 is 150 unit from atomic table, then according to this assumption, the
weight of O16 will be :-
Sol.  12 amu = 150
150
 1 amu =
12
150
 16 amu =
12
× 16 = 200 Unit

3. Isotopes : (Given by Soddy) They are atoms of a given element which have the same atomic no. but differ in
their mass no.
eg. 6
C12, 6C13, 6C14
8
O16, 18O17, 18O18
1 2 3
1
H , 1
H , 1H

6
C12 6
C 13 6
C 14
p+  6 6 6
e–  6 6 6
n°  6 7 8
Note : Isotopes have the same nuclear charge but differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
1 2 3
1
H 1
H 1
H Radioactive element

Protium (H) Deuterium (D) Tritium (T)

p+ 1 1 1
e– 1 1 1
n° 0 1 2

* Neutron is not available in Protium

* No. of Neucleon = No. of Neutron + No. of Proton
= n + p+
Que.– There are 3 Neucleons in which Isotopes of the Hydrogen.
Sol. – Neucleons = n + p+ = 3, so Isotope will be Tritium

Atomic Weight : The atomic weight of an element is the average of weights of all the isotopes of that element.
* An element have there isotopes y1, y2 and y3 and their isotopic weights are w1, w2, w3 and their percentage/
possibility/probability/ratio of occurance in nature are x1, x2, x3 respectively, then the ave. atomic weight of
element is –
w 1 x1  w 2 x 2  w 3 x 3
ave. wt =
x1  x 2  x 3

eg. Cl 35 Cl 37
Probability ratio 75% 25%
3 : 1
35  3  37  1 142
= = 35.5
3 1 4

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Q. 35
Br 79 : 35
Br 81
1 : 1 (Ratio of occurance)
79  1  81  1 160
= = 80
1 1 2

Probability ratio of Hydrogen 1

H1 1
H2 1
H3

99 .9 9% : 0.001 : 1 0 –15%
Q. An element have three isotopes and their isotopic weight are 11, 12 , 13 unit and their percentage of occurance
in nature is 85, 10, 5 respectively then calculate the ave. atomic weight of element.

11  85  12  10  13  5
S o l . Average Atomic weight =
85  10  5

935  120  65
=
100

1120
Avg. wt. = = 11.2
100

Q. Ave. atomic weight of an element M is 51.7. If two isotopes of M, M50 and M52 are present then calculate the
percentage of occurance of M50 in nature.
Sol. M50 M52
x1 + x 2 = 100%
x2 = (100 – x1)

w1x1  w 2 x 2
wt =
x1  x 2

50  x 1  52  x 2
51.7 =
x1  x 2

50 x 1  52 (100  x 1 )
51.7 =
x 1  (100  x 1 )

5170 = 50 x1 + 5200 – 52x1

5170 = – 2x1 + 5200
2x 1 = 30
x1 = 15
M 50 = 15% M 52 = 85%

Q. Calculate the precentage of Deuterium in heavy water.

Sol. D 2O
(1H2)2 O 16
4 + 16 = 20 (Moleculer weight)

4
× 100
20

Ans = 20%

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4. Isobar's :
They are atoms with the same mass number but different atomic numbers.

eg. 6
C 14 , 7
N 14

18
Ar 40 , 20
Ca 40

14
Si 30 , 15
P 30

5. Isotone s/Isoneutronic /Isotonic :

They are atoms of different element which have the same number of neutrons
Ex.1 6
C 13 7
N 14
n0  7 7
Ex.2 14
Si 30 15
P 31 16
S 32
n0  16 16 16
6. Isodiaphers :
They are the atoms of different element which have the same difference of the number of Neutrons & protons.
Ex.1 5
B 11 6
C 13
p = 5 p = 6
n = 6 n – p =1 n=7 n – p =1
e = 5
–
e= 6–

Ex.2 7
N 15 9
F 19
p = 7 p = 9
n = 8 n – p =1 n = 10 n – p =1
e = 7
–
e= 9–

7. Isosters :
They are the molecules which have the same number of atoms & electrons.
Ex.1 CO 2 N 2O
Atoms = 1 + 2 = 2 + 1
= 3 = 3
Electrons =6+8 × 2 =7× 2+8
= 22 e – = 22e –
Ex.2 C aO KF
Atoms 2 2
Electrons 20 + 8 19 + 9
28 e –
28 e–
Ex.3 OF 2 HClO
Atoms = 3 3
Electrons = 8 + 18 1 + 17 + 8
= 26 e– 26 e–
8. Isoelectronic :
They are the atoms/molecules/ions possesing the same no. of electrons, called iso electronic.
Ex.1 10
Ne 11
Na +
e– 10 10

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Ex.2 NH 4 + CH 4 Mg + 2 H2O
e –
7 +4 – 1 6 + 4 12 – 2 2 + 8
= 10e – = 10e – = 10 e– = 10 e–

Ex.3 Ne NH 3 NH 2 –
10e – 10e – 1 + 7 + 2 = 10e–

MOLE CONCEPT :

Weight of element in gm.

Mole =
Atomic weight of element

* No. of atom in 1 mole atoms = NA (Avogadro's no.) = 6.023 × 1023 atom

1
* 1 amu = [Weight of 1 atom of C12 ]
12
* Weight of 1 mole C12 atoms = 12 gm.
* Weight of NA atoms of C 12 = 12 gm.
12
* Weight of 1 atoms of C12 = N gm.
A

1  12  1
1 a.m.u =  gm.  = gm.
12  N A  N A

1 a.m.u. = 1.67 × 10–24 gram  1.67 × 10–27 kg.

DISCOVERY & THEIR DISCOVERERS
Name of Particles Scienteist Mass Charge

1. Electron J.J. Thomson 9.1 × 10–31 kg –1.6 × 10–19 cb

2. Proton Goldstein 1.673 × 10 –27 kg + 1.6 × 10–19 cb
3. Neutron Chadwick 1.675 × 10 –27 kg Zero
4. Positron C.D. Anderson (same as electron) same as proton
5. Anti Proton Sugri (same as proton) electron
6. Neutrino Pauling Negligible Zero
7. Meson Yukawa (200 times than (+ , –, zero)
electron
8. Isotopes Soddy
9. Isobar Aston
10. Cathode Ray William Crooke's
11. Anode Ray GoldStein
12. Neucleus Rutherford
13. Atomic No. Moseley

14. Nomenclature of e – Stoney

15. Charge of e– Millikan

16. Specific charge on J.J. Thomson
e – (e/m)

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THOMSON'S MODEL OF ATOM [1904]

* Thomson was the first to propose a detailed model of the atom.

* Thomson proposed that an atom consists of a uniform sphere of e

positive charge in which the electrons are present at some places.
* This model of atom is known as "Plum-Pudding model" or "Raisin
Pudding Model" or "Water Melon Model". sphere of
+ve charge
Drawbacks :
* An important drawback of this model is that the mass of the atoms is considered to be evenly spread over that atom.

* It is a static model. It does not reflect the movement of electron.

RUTHERFORD's - SCAT TERING EXPERIMENT

 -scattering experiment

thin gold foil (.00001 cm)

most of particles
strike here

Zns Screen
source (Ra) of slit system
rays (lead plate)
=[2He4]+2 circular
[doubly ionised He atom] fluorescent screen

Rut her ford obser ved t hat -

(i) Most of the -particles (nearly 99.9%) went straight without suffering any deflection.
(ii) A few of them got deflected through small
Nucleus
angles.

(iii) A very few -particles (about one in particles

Un deflected
20,000) did not pass through the foil at all
-particles
but suffered large deflections (more than
90°) or even come back in the direction
from which they have come i.e. a deflection largely deflected Slightly deflected
of 180°. particles particles
Following conclusions were drawn from the above observations -
(1) Since few of the -particles were deflected from their original path through moderate angles; it was concluded
that whole of the +ve charge is concentrated and the space occupied by this positive charge is very small in the
atom.
* Whenever -particles come closer to this point, they suffer a force of repulsion and deviate from their paths.
* The positively charged heavy mass which occupies only a small volume in an atom is called nucleus. It is
supposed to be present at the centre of the atom.
(2) Since most of the -particle went straight through the metal foil undeflected, it means that there must be very
large empty space within the atom.

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(3) A very few of the -particles suffered strong deflections or even returned on their path indicating that the nucleus is rigid
and -particles recoil due to direct collision with the heavy positively charged mass.
(4) The relation between number of deflected particles and deflection angle  is
1
 [ increases, decreases]

sin 4
2
where = deflected particles = deflection angle
* As atomic number increases, the number of protons increases which increases the repulsion and so deflection angle
increases.

APPLICATIONS OF RUTHERFORD MODEL

On the basis of scattering experiments, Rutherford proposed the model of an atom, which is known as nuclear
atomic model. According to this model -

(i) An atom consists of a heavy positively charged nucleus where all the protons are present.
(ii) The volume of the nucleus is very small and is only a minute fraction of the total volume of the atom. Nucleus
has a radius of the order of 10-13 cm and the atom has a radius of the order of 10-8 cm

rA radius of the atom 10 8

  = 105 , rA = 105 rN
rN radius of the nucleus 10 13

Thus radius (size) of the atom is 105 times the radius of the nucleus.

* The radius of a nucleus is proportional to the cube root of the no. of nucleons within it.
R  A1/3  R = R0A1/3 cm
Where R0 = 1.33  10-13(a constant) an, A = mass number (p + n)
R = radius of the nucleus.
R = 1.33 × 10–13 A1/3 cm
(iii) There is an empty space around the nucleus called extra nuclear part. In this part electrons are present. The no.
of electrons in an atom is always equal to no. of protons present in the nucleus. As the nuclear part of atom is
responsible for the mass of the atom, the extra nuclear part is responsible for its volume. The volume of the
atom is about 1015 times the volume of the nucleus.
FG 4 r IJ
K  e10 j
3 3
vol. of the atom

H3 A 8

 1015
vol. of the nucleus F 4 IJ e10 j 3
GH 3 r3
N
K
13

(iv) Electrons revolve round the nucleus in closed orbits with high speeds and the elctrostatic force of attraction
between electrons and nucleus is balanced by centrifugal force acting on electrons.

* This model was similar to the solar system, the nucleus representing the sun and revolving electrons as planets and
so also known as Rutherford planetary model of atom.
Drawbacks of Rut her ford mo del -
Nucleus
(1) This theory could not explain the stability of an atom. According to Maxwell electron loses
it's energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic radiations. As a result of this, the e- e
should loss energy at every turn and move closer and closer to the nucleus following a spiral
path. The ultimate result will be that it will fall into the nucleus, thereby making the atom
unstable.

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(2) If the electrons loss energy continuously, the observed spectrum should be continuous but the actual observed
spectrum consists of well defined lines of definite frequencies (discontinuous). Hence, the loss of energy by
electron is not continuous in an atom.

ELECTROM AGNETIC WAVES (EM WAVES) OR

RA DIANT ENERGY/ELECTROM AGNETIC R A DIATION

* It is the energy transmitted from one body to another in the form of waves and these waves travel in the space
with the same speed as light ( 3 × 108 m/s) and these waves are known as Electromagnetic waves or radiant
energy.

* The radiant Energy do not need any medium for propagation.

Ex : Radio waves, micro waves, Infra red rays, visible rays, ultraviolet rays, x–rays, gama rays and cosmic rays.

* The electro magnetic radiations have electric and magnetic field perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of propagation of light.

Vibrating source
Crest Crest
A wave is characterized by following six characterstics 
a
The upper most point of the wave is called crest and the lower a Direction
most point is called trough. Some of the terms employed in of propogation

dealing with the waves are described below. Trough Trough

1. Wavelengt h  (L ambda) :
It is defined as the distance between two nearest crest or nearest trough.
It is measured in terms of a A° (Angstrom), pm (Picometre), nm (nanometer), cm(centimetre), m (metre)
1Å = 10–10 m, 1 pm = 10–12 m, 1nm = 10 –9 m, 1cm = 10 –2 m
2. Frequenc y () (nu)
Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves which pass through a point in 1 sec.
* It is measured in terms of Hertz (Hz ), sec–1 , or cycle per second (cps)
1 Hertz = 1 sec –1
3. Time period (T) : Time taken by a wave to pass through one point.

1
T sec.


4. Velocit y  (c)
Velocity of a wave is defined as distance covered by a wave in 1 sec.
c =   = c/ c =  (sec–1) ×  (m) c =  (m sec–1)
Since c is constants
 i.e. frequency is inversely propotional to 
5. Wave number  (  ) ( nu bar)  It is the reciprocal of the wave length that is number of waves present inn
1c m

1
 (1cm –1 = 100 m -1 )


* It is measured in terms of cm–1, m–1 etc,

6. Amplitude  (a)
The amplitude of a wave is defined as the height of crest or depth of trough.

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THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

In Å 10–4 0.01 0.1 150 3800 7600 6 × 106 3 × 109 3 × 1014

Cosmic –rays x–rays Ultra Visible Infra red Micro Radio

ray's violet wave waves

V I B G Y O R

Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

3800 4300 4500 4900 5500 5900 6500 7600

(In Å)

PL ANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY

Accordi ng to pla nck's qua ntum t heor y :

1. The radiant energy is emitted or absorbed by a body not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
discrete packets of energy and these packets are called quantum.
2. In case of light, the smallest packet of energy is called as 'photon' but in general case the smallest packet of
energy called as quantum.
3. The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to frequency of the radiation i.e.

hc  c
E   E = h or E =    
  

Proportionality constant or Plank's constant (h)

h = 6.626 × 10–37 kJ sec.
or 6.626 × 10–34 J sec (1erg = 10 –7 J)
or 6.626 × 10–27 erg sec.
4. Total amount of energy transmited from one body to another will be some integral multiple of energy of a
quantum.
E = nh
Where n is an integer and n = number of quantum

hc
E  h   hc 

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Bohr's Atomic Model
Some Impor ta nt formulae :
kq 1 q 2
Coulombic force =
r2
mv 2
Centrifugal force =
r
Angular momentum = mvr
This model was based on quantum theory of radiation and Classical laws of physics.
Bohr model is applicable only for single electron species like H, He+, Li2+ etc.
Bohr model is based on particle nature of electron.
T he impor ta nt postulate s on wh ich Bohr's Mo del is based are t he fol low i ng :
1 st Postulate :
Atom has a nucleus where all protons and neutrons are present.
The size of nucleus is very small and it is present at the centre of the atom.
2 nd Postulate :
Negatively charged electron revolve around the nucleus in the same way as the planets revolve around the sun.
The path of electron is circular.
The attraction force (Coulombic or electrostatic force) between nucleus and electron is equal to the centrifugal
force on electron.
i.e. Attraction force towards nucleus = centrifugal force away from nucleus.
3 rd Postulate :
h
Electrons can revolve only in those orbits in which angular momentum (mvr) of electron is integral multiple of
2
nh h
i.e. mvr   n   hash 
2 2
where : n = Whole number
h = Planck's constant,
 = Constant
h h h h h
Angular momentum can have values such as , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ........but can not have fractional
2 2 2 2 2
h
values such as 1.5 , 1.2 h , .5 h .......
2 2 2
4 th Postulate :
The orbits in which electron can revolve are known as stationar y Orbits because in these orbits energy of
electron is always constant.
5 Postulate :
th

Each stationary orbit is associated with definite amount of energy therefore these orbits are also called as
energy levels and are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... or K, L, M, N, O, ..... from the nucleus outwards.

6 th Postulate
Shell O E5
The emission or absorbtion of energy in the form of photon can only Shell N
E4
Shell M
occur when electron jumps from one stationary state to another & it is Shell L E3
 E = E final state
– E init ial state
= Energy of a quantum Shell K E2
Energy is absorbed when electron Jumps from inner to outer orbit E1
Nucleus +
and is emitted when electron moves from outer to inner orbit.
Shell 1
Important Definations :-
Shell 2
(i) Ionization energy : Minimum the energy required to liberate an Shell 3
electron from the ground state of an isolated atom is called the Shell 4
Shell 5
ionization energy.

E 13
 PRE-MEDICAL
(ii) Separation energy : Minimum energy required to remove an electron from its excited state is called as separation
energy.
(iii) Excitation energy : Amount of energy required to shift an electron from ground state to any excited state.
Note : Al l t he se ki nds of energy are always posit ive.

APPLICATION OF BOHR'S MODEL

when electron revolves in fixed circular orbit than electrostatic force of attraction and centrifugal force are
equal.

Kq 1q 2 K. Ze. e KZe 2
Electrostat ic force = 2 = 2 =
r r r2
e– mass =m
velocity = v
Where, constant K = 9 × 109 Nm2 /C2 (MKS) = 1 (CGS)

mv 2 r
Centrifugal force =
r
Ze
In balanced condition
Electrostatic force = Centrifugal force

KZe 2 mv 2 KZe 2 Ze 2
 or  mv 2 or  mv 2 (CGS) .......(1)
r2 r r r
1. RA DIUS OF VARIOUS ORBITS (SHELL) :

nh
According to Bohr model mvr =
2

nh
v= ........(2)
2mr

Now putting the value of v from eq.(2) into eq.(1)

2
KZe 2  nh 
 m 
r  2 mr 

KZe 2 mn 2 h 2

r 4 2 m 2 r 2

n2h2 n2h2
r or r (CGS  K = 1) .......(3)
4 2 mKZe 2 4 2 mZe 2

Putting the value of , h, m, K, & e (Constants) in the above eq (3)

n2
r = 0.529 × 10–10 × m {Å = 10–10m = 10–8 cm}
Z

n2
or r n = 0 .5 2 9 × Å
Z

This formula is only applicable for hydrogen and hydrogen like species i.e. species containing single electron.

14 E
 CHEMISTRY
2. VELOCITY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR ORBIT :
A/c to Bohr postulate
nh
mvr 
2
nh nh
v 
2 mr 2 m  n 2 h 2
4 2 mKZe 2
2 KZe 2
v (MKS) .......(4)
nh
2 Ze 2
v (CGS)
nh
Putting the value of , h, K, & e (Constants) in the above eq (4)
Z
v = 2.18 × 10 6 m /s
n
Z
v = 2.18 × 10 8 cm /s
n
3. TOTAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR ORBIT :
Total energy of an electron is the sum of kinetic and potential Energy.
i.e. T.E. = K.E.+ P.E.
Kq 1 q 2
(i) Potential energy : P.E. = –
r
KZe 2 Ze 2
P.E.   = 
r r
1
(ii) Kinetic energy : K.E. = mv 2
2
KZe 2
But  mv 2 (By eq. 1)
r
KZe 2
K.E. =
2r
(iii) Total energy : T.E. = K.E.+ P.E.
KZe 2 KZe 2
T.E. = 
2r r
KZe 2
T.E. = 
2r
now putting the value of r from eq. (3)
KZe 2  4 2 mKZe 2
T.E. = 
2n 2 h 2

2 2 m  K 2 Z 2 e 4
T.E. = 
n2h2
now putting the value of , K, e, m, h, we get :

18 Z2 Z2
T.E. = 2.18  10  J / atom = –1312 × kJ/mol
n2 n2

Z2 Z2
= 2.18  10 11  erg/atom = –313.6 × Kcal/mol
n2 n2
Z2
= – 13.6 × eV/atom
n2

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 PRE-MEDICAL
Some extra points :

KZe 2 1
(i) K.E = i.e. K.E.  On increasing radius, K.E. decreases.
2r r

KZe 2 1
(ii) P. E. = – i.e. P.E. – On increasing radius, P.E. increases.
r r

KZe 2 1
(iii) T.E. = – i.e. E. – On increasing radius, total energry increases.
2r r
(iv) Relation between T.E., P.E. and K.E.
P.E = –2 KE
KE = –T.E.
P.E = 2 T.E.
Hy drogen li ne sp ectr um or Hy drogen sp ectr um :
When an electric excitation is applied on atomic hydrogen gas at Low pressure,a bluish light is emitted. when
a ray of this light is passed through a prism, a spectrum of several isolated sharp lines is obtained.The wavelength
of various lines show that spectrum lines lie in visible, Ultraviolet and Infra red region. These lines are grouped
into different series.

6 lines 5 lines 4 lines 3 lines 2 lines 1 line

7
{
Q

{
6
Far I.R. region P
Humphery series
5 O
I.R. region 0.31 eV
Pfund series
4 N
I.R. region 0.66 eV
Brackett series
Energy 3 M
Levels
Infra Red region 1.89 eV
or
Paschen series
L
2
Visible region 10.2 eV
or
Balmer series
1 K
Ultra violet region
or
Lyman series

Series Discovered by regi ons n 2  n 1 Number of lines

Lyman Lyman U.V. region n2 = 2,3,4 ... / n1=1 n2 – 1

Balmer Balmer Visible region n2 = 3,4,5 ... / n1=2 n2 – 2

Paschen Paschen Infra red (I.R.) n2 = 4,5,6 ... / n1=3 n2 – 3

Brackett Brackett I.R. region n2 = 5,6,7 ... / n1=4 n2 – 4

Pfund Pfund I.R. region n2 = 6,7,8 ... /n 1=5 n2 – 5

Humphery Humphery Far I.R. region n2 = 7,8,9 ... / n1=6 n2 – 6

16 E
 CHEMISTRY
SIMILAR WORDS
First line / Starting line / Initial line (  max . and  min )
Last line / limiting line / marginal line (  min and  max . )
First line of any series =  line
Second line of any series =  line
Third line of any series =  line
(n 2  n 1 )(n 2  n 1  1)
Total no. of lines =
2
n(n  1)
For transition from n = any orbit to n = 1 , total no. of lines 
2
RYDBERG FORMULA
It an electron shows transition from n2 to n1 energy level then energy change E will be.
E = En2 – En1

2 2 mK 2 Z 2 e 4  2 2 mK 2 Z 2 e 4  2 2 mK 2 Z 2 e 4 2 2 mK 2 Z 2 e 4
E =   = 
2 2
n2h 
2 2
n1 h  n 12 h 2 n 22 h 2
But E h
hc



hc 2  2 mK 2 Z 2 e 4  1 1
  2  2  2
 h  n 1 n 2 

1 2  2 mK 2 e 4 Z 2 1 1
  2  2
 ch 3 n
 1 n 
2

2  2 mK 2 e 4
where is a constant called Rydberg constant (R).
ch 3

1 2 1 1
So,  = RZ  2  2 
  n1 n 2 

value of R = 109678 cm–1 = 10967800m–1

 109700 cm–1  10970000 m–1

1
 912Å
R

Limitation of the Bohr's model

 Bohr's theory does not explain the spectrum of multi electron atom.

nh
2. Why the Angular momentum of the revolving electron is equal to , has not been explained by Bohr's theory.
2

3. Bohr inter-related quantum theory of radiation and classical law of physics without any theoretical explaination.This
was the biggest drawback of this model.
4. Bohr's theory does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines. Fine structure of the spectral line is obtained
when spectrum is viewed by a spectroscope of high resolving power.
5. Bohr's theory does not explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field (Zeeman effect)
or electric field (Stark effect)

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Sommer feld Extension of the Bohr's Mo del

According to sommerfeld electron revolve around the nucleus in the Elliptical Orbits.

Sommerfeld gave the idea of sub orbits or sub levels

For any particular orbit n

Total number of path = n
Number of elliptical path = (n – 1)
Number of circular path = 1
Note : In every atom, 1st orbit is always circular.

According to sommerfeld, number of fine lines in a spectral line resulting from a transition between n2 to n1
energy level = n2 × n1
Ex. If electron shows transition from n2 = 4 to n1 = 2
Then, number of fine lines in the spectral line = n2 × n1 = 4 × 2 =8

de Broglie concept (Dual nature of mat ter)

1. In 1923, a French physicist, Louis de Broglie suggested that, like light, matter also has dual character. It exhibits
wave as well as particle nature.
2. According to de Broglie, the wavelength  of an electron is inversely proportional to its momentum p.

1 1
 or 
p mv

h
 Here h = Planck's constant
p

p = momentum of electron
 Momentum (p) = Mass (m) × Velocity (c)
3. Derivat ion of de-Broglie Relat ion
The above relation can be derived as follows by using Einstein's equation, Planck's quantum theory and wave
theory of light.
E = mc2 (Einstein's equation) .......(i)
Where E is energy, m is mass of a body and c is its velocity.

c c
E = h = h × (Planck's equation) (  ) .......(ii)
 
combining (i) and (ii)

c h h
E = mc2 = h × or mc = or 
  mc

h h
= or  =
mv p

4. It is clear from the above equation that the value of  decreases on increasing either m or v or both. The
wavelength of many fast-moving objects like an aeroplane or a cricket ball, is very low because of their high
mass.

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 CHEMISTRY
Impor ta nt point s concerned w ith de-Broglie concept

de-Broglie wavelengt h i n terms of ki net ic energy.

1
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = mv 2
2

1 2 2
or m × K.E. = mv
2
or m2v 2 = 2m K.E.

or mv = 2m K.E.

h
 
h 
But  =  mv  2m K.E.
mv 2m K.E.

W hen a charged par ticle car r ying Q coulomb is accelerated by applyi ng potential difference V then

K.E. = Q × V Joule

h h  150 
  For electron    Å  = 12.25 Å
But
2m K.E.  2m QV  V 
  V

The wave nature of electron was verified experimentally by Davisson and Germer.
It is significant only for sub microscopic particles like electron, proton, neutron etc.
nh
We know that according to Bohr theory, mvr =
2
nh nh  h 
or 2 r  ( mv = p momentum) or 2 r     de-Broglie equation 
mv p  p 
 2r = n (where n = total number of waves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ..... and  = Wavelength

When an electron revolves in a particular Bohr orbit then number of waves

made by electron = orbit number.
For ex. If electron revolves in fifth Bohr orbit then number of waves
made by electron = 5

Frequency of matter waves n= 5

Waves made = 5
v



v vp mv 2 2K.E.
   
h/p h h h

Matter waves differ from electromagnetic waves in having :

(i) Lower velocity
(ii) No electric and magnetic feilds.
(iii) Matter waves are not emitted by the particle under consideration.

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Heisenberg unce r tai nit y pri nciple
Bohr's theory considers an electron as a material particle. Its position and momentum can be determined with
accuracy. But, when an electron is considered in the form of wave as suggested by de-Broglie, it is not possible
to ascertain simultaneously the exact position and velocity of the electon more precisely at a given instant since
the wave extends throghout a region of space.
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg presented a principle known as Heisenberg uncertainity principle which states
that : "It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum of a body as small as
an electron."
The uncertainity in measurement of position, x, and the uncertainity in momentum p or mv, are related by
Heisenberg's relationship as : ( p = mv, p = mv)

h h h
x.p  or x . mv > or x . v 
4 4 4 m

where h is Planck's constant.

h
(i) When x = 0, v =  Re member  0.527  10 –34 J sec
4

(ii) When v = 0, x = 
So, if the position is known quite accurately, i.e., x is very small, v becomes large and vice-versa.

QUANTUM NUM BER

Each orbital in an atom is designated by a set of three quantum numbers and each electron is designated by a
set of four quantum numbers.

1. Pri ncipal qua ntum number : Repre sented by "n"

Given By    Bohr
It represents the name, size and energy of the shell to which electron belongs
It indicates the distance of electron from the nucleus.
The value of n lies between 1 to 
i.e n = 1,2,3,4 – – – – – 
= K, L, M, N – – – – –
Greater the value of n greater is the distance from the nucleus.

n2
r = 0.529 × Å
Z
r1 < r 2 < r 3 < r 4 < r 5 – – – – – – – –
Greater the value of n greater is the energy of shell

Z2
E = – 13.6 × eV/atom
n2

E1 < E2 < E3 < E4 – – – – – – – –

nh
The angular momentum of a revolving electron is mvr =
2

Where n = Principal quantum number.

The number of electrons in a particular shell is equal to 2n2
Ex. For K shell (n = 1)  number of electrons = 2 (1)2 = 2

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 CHEMISTRY
For L shell (n = 2)  number of electrons = 2 (2)2 = 8

For M shell (n = 3)  number of electrons = 2 (3)2 = 18

For N shell (n = 4)  number of electrons = 2 (4)2 = 32
For O shell (n = 5)  number of electrons = 2 (5)2 = 50
2. Azimuthal quantum number / Angular quantum number / Secondary quantum number /Subsidiary
qua ntum number : Repre sented by ""
Given by – Sommerfeld
It represents the shape of the subshell and orbital.
It is used for calculating orbital angular momentum.
Value of  is between 0 to (n – 1)
i.e.  = 0,1,2 – – – – – – – – – (n–1)
 = 0(s Subshell)
 = 1(p Subshell)
 = 2(d Subshell)
 = 3(f Subshell)
Ex. If n = 1 then  = 0  1s i.e. in n =1 shell, only one subshell 's' is present.
If n = 2 then  = 0,1  2s,2p i.e. in n =2 shell, two subshells 's' & 'p' are present.
If n = 3 then   = 0,1,2 3s, 3p, 3d i.e. in n =3 shell, three subshells 's' , 'p' & 'd' are present.
If n = 4 then  = 0,1,2,3  4s,4p, 4d, 4f i.e. in n = 4 shell, four subshells 's' , 'p' , 'd' & 'f' are present.

If the value of n is same then the order of energy of the various subshells will be
s < p < d < f
Ex. 4s < 4p < 4d < 4 f
3s < 3p< 3d
2s < 2p

If Value of  is same but value of n is different then the order of energy will be.
Ex. 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s < 5s < 6s
3d < 4d < 5d < 6d
4p < 5p <6p

The orbital angular momentum is equal to

h  h 
= (   1) or    1     
2  2 
Ex. Orbital angular momentum for s subshell = 0
h
Orbital angular momentum for p Subshell = 2
2
The number of electron in a particular subshell is equal to 2(2 +1)
for s Subshell = 2 e—
for p subshell = 6 e—
for d subshell = 10 e—
for f subshell = 14 e—

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3. Magnetic quantum number /Orientation quantum number (m) :
Given by  linde
It represents the orientation of electron cloud (orbital) i.e. direction of electron density.
Value of m = All integral values from –  to + , including zero.
i.e. Value of m = –  0 + 
Case-I If  = 0 ( s - subshell)

Number of radial node / Nodal surface / Spherical node = n –  – 1

Number of angular node / Nodal plane = 
Total nodes = n – 1

Shapes of s-orbitals :
The s-orbitals are spherically symmetrical about the nucleus. The size of the orbital depends on the value of
principal quantum number. The 1s orbital is smaller than 2s-orbital and 2s-orbital is smaller than 3s, but all are
spherical in shape as shown in fig.

1s 2s Node 3s Node
The intermediate region (a spherical shell) where the probability of finding electron is zero is called a nodal
surface or simply node. Thus, 2s-orbital differs from 1s-orbital in having one node within it. Similarly, 3s orbital
has two nodes. Generally ns orbital has (n – 1) nodes.
Case-II

–1 0 +1
If  = 1 ( p - subshell) then m=
px pz py
It implies that, p subshell have three orbitals called as px, py and pz.
Shape of p-orbitals :
There are three p-orbitals commonly referred to as p x, p y and p z . These three p-orbitals possess equivalent
energy but differ in their direction & distribution of the charge. These three p-orbitals are situated at right angle
to another and are directed along x, y and z axes (fig.)

y
y
y

x
x z x

z px pz
z
py

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 CHEMISTRY
Each p orbital has dumb bell shape ( 2 lobes which are separated from each other by a point of zero probality
called nodal point or node or nucleus).
The two lobes of each orbital are separated by a plane of zero electron density called nodal plane.
Case-III
If  = 2 ( d - subshell)
then m = –2 –1 0 +1 +2

–2 –1 0 +1 +2
dxy dyz dz2 dxz dx2–y2

It implies that, d subshell have five orbitals called as dxy, dyz, dxz, d x 2  y 2 and d z 2

All the five orbitals are not identical in shape. Geometry of these orbitals is called Double Dumb bell.

y z z y z
x

y x x y

x
x
2 2
dx –y
dxy dyz dxz dz 2

4. Spin Quantam number (s)

Given by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit.
It represents the direction of electron spin around its own axis.
1
Value of s = 
2
h
Spin angular momentum of an e –– = s  s  1 . or s  s  1 
2
Total spin = no. of unpaired electron × +1/2

Rules for filling of orbitals

1. Aufbau Principle :
Aufbau is a German word and its meaning is 'Building up'
Aufbau principle gives a sequence in which various subshell are filled up depending on the relative order of the
energies of various subshells.
Principle :  The electrons are filled up in increasing order of the energy of the subshells. The subshell with
minimum energy is filled up first and when this subshell obtains maximum quota of electrons then the next
subshell of higher energy starts filling.
The sequence in which various subshell are filled is the following.

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s
Starting
point 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

3d 4d 5d 6d

4f 5f

1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6, 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6

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 PRE-MEDICAL
2. ( n+) rule :
According to it the sequence in which various subshell are filled up can also be determined with the help of
( n +) value for a given subshell.
Principle of ( n+) rule :
The subshell with lowest( n+) value is filled up first, but when two or more subshells have same (n+) value then
the subshell with lowest value of n is filled up first.

Sub Shell n  n +

1s 1 0 1
2s 2 0 2
2p 2 1 3 (1)
3s 3 0 3 (2)
3p 3 1 4 (1)
4s 4 0 4 (2)
3d 3 2 5 (1)
4p 4 1 5 (2)
5s 5 0 5 (3)
4d 4 2 6 (1)
5p 5 1 6 (2)
6s 6 0 6 (3)

3. Pauli's Exclusion principle :

In 1925, Pauli stated that no two electrons in an atom can have same values of all four quantum numbers.

  × ×
An orbital can accomodate maximum 2 electrons and that too with opposite spin.
4. Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity :
(Multiplicity : Many of the same kind)
According to Hund's rule electrons are distributed among the Orbitals of subshell in such a way as to give
maximum number of unpaired electron with parallel spin. i.e. in a subshell pairing of electron will not start until
and unless all the orbitals of that subshell will get one electron each with same spin.
Exceptions of Aufbau principal
In some cases it is observed that the actual electornic configuration of an element is slightly different from the
arrangement given by aufbau principal. A simple resion behind this is that the half filled and full filled subshell
have got extra stability due to symmetry and exchange energy.
Example
Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Au, Ag, Pt,
La, Ce, Pm, Gd, Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Cm, Bk

24 E
 CHEMISTRY
Electronic Configurat ion

1
H  1s 1

2
He  1s 2

3
Li  1s2 , 2s1

4
Be  1s2, 2s 2

5
B  1s2, 2s2, 2p1

6
C  1s 2 , 2s 2,2p 2

7
N  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p3

8
O  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p4

9
F  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p5

10
Ne  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6

11
Na  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s1

12
Mg  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2

13
A  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p1

14
Si  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p2

15
p  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p3

16
S  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p4

17
Cl  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p5

18
Ar  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6

19
K  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s1

20
Ca  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2

21
Sc  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d1

22
Ti  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d2

23
V  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d3

24
Cr  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s1, 3d5 [Exception]

25
Mn  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d5

26
Fe  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d6

27
Co  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d7

28
Ni  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d8

29
Cu  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s1, 3d10 [Exception]

30
Zn  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10

31
Ga  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p1

32
Ge  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p2

33
As  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p3

34
Se  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p4

35
Br  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p5

36
Kr  1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6, 4s2, 3d10 ,4p6

E 25