REVIEW

New Kelvin www.ann-phys.org

The Boltzmann Constant for the Definition and Realization

of the Kelvin
Joachim Fischer

determination of the traditional gas ther-

In November 2018, the four base units, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole, of mometer by measuring the speed of
the International System of Units (SI) are redefined in terms of fundamental sound of the gas which is more easily ac-
physical constants. The redefinition comes into force on World Metrology Day, cessible. In polarizing gas thermometry,
20 May 2019. The kelvin, the base unit of thermodynamic temperature, from the density, changing with temperature
at a constant pressure, is determined via
then is to be founded on a fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant. the dielectric constant or the refractive in-
Herein, the change in the definition of the kelvin and the consequences for dex of the gas. One can also consider the
practical temperature measurement are explained. The primary thermometry conducting electrons of a metallic resis-
methods applied to determine the numerical value of the Boltzmann constant tance as a “measuring gas,” and thus the
for the redefinition are reviewed. The prospects for the future application of electrical Johnson noise according to the
Nyquist formula is used for thermome-
these methods are outlined.
try. In laser spectroscopy, the kinetic en-
ergy of the gas particles is derived from
the Doppler broadening of absorption lines of the gas. Eventu-
1. Introduction ally, an isothermal cavity, in which the light quanta are in ther-
mal equilibrium with the walls, emits radiation. This can be used
At the 26th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and with the spectral radiometric thermometer according to Planck’s
Measures (CGPM), in November 2018, the four base units kilo- radiation law. The thermometers introduced in this section are
gram, ampere, kelvin, and mole of the International System of called primary thermometers as they measure temperature from
Units (SI) have been redefined in terms of fundamental physi- first principles and do not need any calibration.
cal constants.[1] The redefinition will come into force on World
Metrology Day, 20 May 2019. The kelvin, base unit of thermody-
namic temperature T, will then be founded on a fixed numerical
2. Present and New Definition of the Kelvin
value of the Boltzmann constant k.
For the meaning of the Boltzmann constant we briefly con- The present definition of the kelvin valid since 1954 bases the
sider the Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution of micro- temperature unit kelvin on a material property of a special sub-
scopic particles. The quantity defining the velocity distribution stance: “The kelvin is the 273.16th part of the thermodynamic
is the mean microscopic thermal energy kT. Boltzmann found temperature of the triple point of water.”[5] The triple point is the
out that for an ideal gas the thermal energy is proportional to the temperature at which the solid, liquid, and vapor phases are in
mean kinetic energy of the gas particles. This energy can be mea- equilibrium. The isotope composition and the purity of the water
sured directly via the macroscopic gas pressure and the number used in the triple point of water cells are of crucial importance for
of particles in a closed volume. The equation of state of the ideal the practical realization. The value 273.16 K was chosen to retain
gas relates the gas pressure p to the thermal energy kT. The spec- the historic temperature interval of 100 degree Celsius between
ification ideal describes that the interaction between the particles the ice and boiling point of water. This choice demonstrates an
is negligible. Thus, the velocity of microscopic particles is used to important strategy when redefining physical units: the preserva-
measure the macroscopic quantity temperature. The thermome- tion of continuity.
ter based on this law is the traditional gas thermometer. The new definition of the kelvin based on the Boltzmann
Before fixing the value of the Boltzmann constant in 2018, constant, taken from ref. [1] is as follows: “The kelvin, symbol
there have been 10 years of intense research[2–4] to achieve a K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by
confirmed value with lowest uncertainty. Here, those thermome- taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to
ters are reviewed which can offer low uncertainties. The variant be 1.380649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1 , which is
acoustic gas thermometer (AGT) replaces the imprecise density equal to kg m2 s−2 K−1 , where the kilogram, meter and second
are defined in terms of h, c, and ν Cs . h is the Planck constant, c
the speed of light, and ν Cs the frequency of the hyperfine split-
Dr. J. Fischer ting of the cesium atom” (explicit definition of a fundamental
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
Abbestrasse 2–12, Berlin 10587, Germany
constant). One kelvin is thus the change of the thermodynamic
E-mail: joachim.fischer@ptb.de temperature T which corresponds to a change of the thermal
energy kT of exactly 1.380649 × 10−23 joule.[1] This formulation
DOI: 10.1002/andp.201800304 represents an explicit definition of the unit itself. However,

Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (1 of 12) 

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
both formulations are equivalent in effect. For more details of
the wording consulting of ref. [6] is recommended. By fixing
the value of the Boltzmann constant k, the kelvin is directly
linked to the unit of energy—the joule. In essence, a unit of
temperature of its own would no longer be necessary; however,
all temperature readings would then be expressed in joules. For
many reasons, this is not feasible and enforceable. For example,
the cost and effort of the modifications of all temperature
readings would be enormous.
Before dealing with the consequences of the new definition in
Section 3 we need to explain the concept of defined temperature
scales. In the past, primary thermometers have been difficult
and time consuming to use. Therefore, thermometrists have
introduced since early last century defined scales where fixed
temperature values have been assigned to reproducible, easy
to operate thermodynamic states of pure substances. These
thermodynamic states are mainly the triple points of gases, and
freezing or melting equilibria in metals for higher temperatures.
The temperature values of these states had to be determined only
once during the lifetime of a defined scale by primary thermom-
etry. They are considered to represent the best approximation to
the thermodynamic temperatures of the states. Then, in every
laboratory these thermodynamic states can be reproduced with
reasonable effort and secondary thermometers can be calibrated
with these so-called fixed points of the scale and interpolating
instruments between them. Presently in use is the International
Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) for temperatures from
0.65 K up the highest temperatures measurable with radiation
thermometry.[5] For lower temperatures down to 1 mK the
Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 (PLTS-2000)[7] is
supplementing the ITS-90.
When redefining the kelvin, the measurement uncertainty of
the value of the Boltzmann constant k should be comparable to
the uncertainty of the realization of the triple point of water in the
ITS-90. Therefore, the Consultative Committee for Thermometry
(CCT) within the Meter Convention recommended that the nu-
merical value of the Boltzmann constant is only fixed when the
following two conditions are met, directly taken from ref. [8]:
1) the relative standard uncertainty of the adjusted (mean) value
of k is less than 1 × 10−6 ;
2) the determination of k is based on at least two fundamentally
different methods, of which at least one result for each shall
have a relative standard uncertainty less than 3 × 10−6 .
The first condition ensures that the best estimate of the triple
point of water (TPW) temperature TTPW remains 273.16 K, in
other words, continuity is maintained. The second condition fol-
lows from considerations that measurements taken with only one
method are no sufficient basis for fixing the numerical value of
the Boltzmann constant. To be able to detect and correct possi-
ble hidden errors inherent in the thermometers these measure-
ments have to be confirmed by other independent methods.[9]
The uncertainties of the values of fundamental constants are
periodically reviewed by The Committee on Data for Science and
Technology (CODATA), task group on fundamental constants.
The task group has performed a special least-squares adjustment
of the values for selected constants to form the foundation of
the revised SI.[10] For the Boltzmann constant the calculations
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (2 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
Joachim Fischer obtained his M.S.
in physics in 1981 from University
Stuttgart, Germany, and his Ph.D. in
physics at the Technical University
Berlin, Germany. Since 1982 he has
been with the Physikalisch-Technische
Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Berlin. His
work has been devoted to radiation
thermometry through the determi-
nation of thermodynamic tempera-
tures. From 2001 to 2017 he headed the
Temperature department of PTB. He represented PTB in the
Consultative Committee for Thermometry and chaired the
working group on contact thermometry and the task group
for the new kelvin definition, and he was a member of the CO-
DATA task group on fundamental constants.
resulted in the value k = 1.38064903 × 10–23 J K−1 with a rel-
ative standard uncertainty of 3.7 × 10–7 . For the redefinition of
the kelvin the value is rounded to k = 1.380649 × 10–23 J K−1 .
3. Impact of the Redefinition
The main effect of the redefinition of the kelvin is the official
endorsement of primary thermometry for practical temperature
measurement. Before, the application of thermodynamic meth-
ods for the realization of the temperature scale was prevented by
complicated and time-consuming procedures. Now, the progress
of primary thermometry achieved during the last 10 years allows
direct thermodynamic temperature measurements. For example,
at high temperatures the radiation thermometer can be used not
only as an interpolation instrument of the ITS-90, but in the fu-
ture also as a primary thermometer based on the Boltzmann con-
stant. The realization uncertainties of the ITS-90 vary consider-
ably with temperature. At the highest fixed points of the ITS-90,
at 1300 K, for example, the uncertainties of radiation thermom-
etry are more than two orders of magnitude larger than the re-
producibility of the triple point of water, which is approximately
30 µK. As outlined in Section 6, for temperatures above 1300 K
the uncertainties can be considerably reduced in the future by
means of primary radiometric thermometers.
Figure 1 shows the variation of the uncertainties with temper-
ature. The squares represent the standard uncertainties by which
the thermodynamic temperatures of the fixed points of the ITS-
90 have been determined by primary thermometry and demon-
strate the state of the art. In contrast, the realization of these fixed
points within the defined scale ITS-90 can be attained with uncer-
tainties roughly one order of magnitude lower (dots). The values
have been taken from the Guide to the realization of the ITS-90,
introduction, Table 1.[11] Between the fixed points, when platinum
resistance thermometers have to be used, the realization uncer-
tainties of the ITS-90 are higher and extremely accurate primary
thermometry can already outperform the ITS-90 nowadays.[12]
From Figure 1, we conclude that the redefinition of the kelvin
in terms of the Boltzmann constant will have significant benefits

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 1. Variation of attainable measurement uncertainties with temperature. Squares: standard uncertainties for the thermodynamic temperatures of
fixed points of the defined temperature scale ITS-90. Dots: realization uncertainties of the fixed points applying the procedures of the scale ITS-90. The
solid lines are guides for the eye only.
in the longer term, particularly for temperature measurements
below ࣈ20 K and above ࣈ1300 K where primary thermometers
will offer a lower thermodynamic uncertainty than is currently
attainable with the defined scales. With the new definition, the
thermodynamic temperature can be realized directly at any
point in the scale without referring to the singular temperature
of the triple point of water. In the future the primary methods
will evolve and achieve lower uncertainties and consequently
they will be used more widely and will gradually substitute the
defined scales as the basis of temperature measurement.[6]
3.1. The Future of the Defined Scales
All defined scales have the special feature that the fixed-point
temperature values are exact with respect to the respective scale
temperature (there is no assigned uncertainty) and fixed (the
value remains unchanged throughout the life of the scale).
Consequently, the redefinition of the kelvin in terms of the
Boltzmann constant does not change the temperature values
or realization uncertainties of the two currently defined scales.
In particular, the status of the triple point of water as a fixed
point, with a defined temperature value on the ITS-90, will
remain unchanged.[13] Thus, the uncertainty of realization of
the triple point of water on the ITS-90 will not acquire any
additional uncertainty due to the change in definition. The broad
temperature range around the triple point of water is most
important for practical temperature measurement. In this range
the ITS-90 will still keep its right to exist as its easily reproducible
fixed points will also be of great importance in future for the
worldwide uniformity of temperature measurement. However,
the triple point of water, which has currently—by definition—an
exact thermodynamic temperature, will lose its outstanding
position. It will then be a temperature fixed point like any other,
whose thermodynamic temperature has exactly the same relative
uncertainty as the Boltzmann constant at the time of its fixing.
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (3 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
Its relative uncertainty of 3.7 × 10–7 corresponds in temperature
to 0.10 mK, low enough for all practical applications.
Initially, the consequences of the redefinition will only be of
importance for precision metrology. They must not even be felt
in everyday use of international metrology in industry and trade.
To manage a smooth transition, the CCT of CIPM (Comité Inter-
national des Poids et Mesures) has prepared a recommendation
for implementation, the mise en pratique (MeP-K) of the realiza-
tion of the kelvin.[13]
3.2. The Mise en Pratique
The MeP-K of the realization of the kelvin (MeP-K)[13] introduces
at first the formal text of the kelvin redefinition. Then, a sec-
tion on nomenclature defines terms related to primary thermom-
etry which is subdivided into two variants: Absolute primary
thermometry measures thermodynamic temperature directly in
terms of the Boltzmann constant with no reference to any fixed
point. In contrast, relative primary thermometry makes reference
to one or more fixed points. Criteria for inclusion of a thermody-
namic method in the MeP-K follow and are reproduced here in
Section 4. The main and most important part of the MeP-K con-
tains recommendations for the direct measurement of the ther-
modynamic temperature T. Presently brief descriptions are given
for the primary thermometry methods: radiometric thermome-
try, acoustic gas thermometry, polarizing gas thermometry, and
Johnson noise thermometry. More detailed descriptions of the
thermometers can be found in appendices or in cited review
papers.
Texts defining the temperature scales ITS-90 and PLTS-2000,
which will remain valid, conclude the main part. The MeP-K
also refers to the differences T − T90 and T − T2000 of these
two defined scales with the respective uncertainties. The tem-
perature values of T90 and T2000 are measured in accordance
with the definitions given in the ITS-90 and the PLTS-2000. The

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.ann-phys.org

differences account for the progress of primary thermometry

achieved during the lifetime of a defined scale. With these differ-
ences users can easily convert temperatures obtained with the de-
fined scales into thermodynamic temperatures T and vice versa.
Consensus estimates of these differences are the essential link
between primary thermometry and the defined scales. As long
as the defined scales exist, it will be the permanent task of the
CCT to monitor the results of measurements of T − T90 and
T − T2000 and to update regularly the consensus estimates. Other-
wise, inconsistencies would arise in temperature metrology not
acceptable by the users in science and industry.

4. Primary Thermometry
In this section, the primary thermometric methods applied and
developed for the determination of the Boltzmann constant will
be reviewed, together with their uncertainties.[2–4] The micro-
scopic thermal energy kT cannot be retrieved directly from the Figure 2. In acoustic gas thermometry the speed of sound of the gas is
experiment, therefore, macroscopic quantities, which are unam- derived from its resonance frequency ν and the diameter d of a spherical
biguously correlated with the thermal energy,[9] are measured for resonator containing the gas.
the determination of k with primary thermometers. The experi-
ments were all carried out at or near the temperature of the triple
4.1. Acoustic Gas Thermometer
point of water realized according to the present definition of the
kelvin. The kelvin was still defined via this fixed point, and con-
In a gas, a number of measurands depend on temperature. Usu-
sequently this temperature can be realized with the greatest pre-
ally, the equations of state have been derived from the ideal gas.
cision. A more detailed overview of all current methods can be
As the interaction between the gas particles is not sufficiently
found in ref. [9].
known for the accurate determination of k, the measurements
Primary thermometers are based on a conceptually simple and
are usually performed using an extrapolation to zero pressure in
well-understood physical system, for which the equation of state
such a way that the approximation of the ideal gas is sufficient. In
describing the relation between thermodynamic temperature T
acoustic gas thermometry the combination of kinetic gas theory
and other independent quantities can be formulated explicitly
and hydrodynamics provides a link between the average speed
without unknown or significantly temperature-dependent con-
of molecules and the speed of sound u of an acoustic signal.[14]
stants. The thermodynamic temperature is derived by measur-
Nowadays, the speed of sound of the noble gases argon or helium
ing accurately the independent quantities. In addition, sufficient
is measured via a spherical resonator (Figure 2) to determine k.[14]
understanding of the system is a prerequisite for a quantitative
The audio frequency sound waves are generated and detected by
evaluation of departures from the ideal model in order to apply
small acoustic transducers mounted in the shell of the resonator.
appropriate corrections. Accordingly, the primary thermometry
Thus, k can be calculated from Equation (1):
methods must fulfil the following criteria, taken from the MeP-
K[13] : γ kT
u2 = (1)
m
r At least one example of a complete uncertainty budget has with gas particles of mass m, and the ratio γ of the heat capacity
been examined and approved by the CCT.
r The uncertainty of the realization of the kelvin is not more
of the gas at constant pressure to its heat capacity at constant
volume. For ideal monatomic gasses the exact relation γ = 5/3
than one order of magnitude larger than the state-of-the-art holds.
uncertainty achieved with primary thermometry or defined In 1988, a group at the US metrology institute NIST (National
temperature scales, or the uncertainty needed by the stake- Institute of Standards and Technology) measured in a pioneer-
holders. ing work the Boltzmann constant with this method.[15] The NIST
r At least two independent realizations applying the method researchers determined the dimensions of their resonator by fill-
with the necessary uncertainty exist.
r A comparison of the realizations with the results of already
ing it with mercury, whose density was very accurately known.
As described above, nowadays the resonator dimension is mea-
accepted methods has been carried out.
r The methods are applicable over temperature ranges that are
sured by means of microwave resonances and is thus traced
to a more accurate frequency measurement. It is in particular
acceptable for the stakeholders in metrology, science, or indus- the French national metrology institute LNE-Cnam (Laboratoire
try.
r The experimental technique necessary for applying the meth-
National de Métrologie et d’Essais), the British NPL (National
Physical Laboratory), the Italian INRiM (Istituto Nazionale di
ods is documented in sufficient detail in the open literature so Ricerca Metrologica), and the Chinese NIM (National Institute
that experts in metrology can realize it independently. of Metrology) which apply this method nowadays.[14] Significant

Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (4 of 12) 

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
uncertainty components result from the determination of the res-
onator dimensions, the dependency of the molar mass on the iso-
topic composition, the purity of the measuring gas, the extrapo-
lation to zero pressure, and the mounting of the acoustic trans-
ducers and receivers. As there was a close cooperation between
the research groups pursuing acoustic gas thermometry[4] cor-
relations of uncertainty contributions had to be considered very
carefully.[16] The lowest uncertainty in the determination of the
Boltzmann constant ever achieved was accomplished by acoustic
gas thermometry in a large 3.1 liter quasi-sphere (90 mm radius)
operated with helium at LNE-Cnam who claimed a relative stan-
dard uncertainty of k of 6 × 10−7 .[17] The two largest uncertainty
contributions come from the temperature measurement of the
sphere and the determination of the speed of sound.
4.2. Dielectric-Constant Gas Thermometer
The measurement of the dielectric constant of helium has been
used at low-temperature thermometry for several decades.[9]
Compared to the determination of the refractive index, the
measurement of the dielectric constant is the more mature
method with considerably smaller achievable uncertainties.
Both methods are summarized in the MeP-K under the name
polarizing gas thermometry.
In the case of an ideal gas, the dielectric constant is obtained
via the electric polarizability of the gas particles and the density
of their number of particles. By combining with the equation of
state, the idealized Equation (2) between the pressure p and the
dielectric constant (permittivity) ε is derived:
(ε − ε0 )
p = kT (2)
α0
The gas particles are characterized by the static electric dipole
polarizability α 0 . The electric constant is denoted by ε0 . Here the
density in the equation of state is substituted by the dielectric
constant.[18]
In the past few years the polarizability of helium could be
calculated ab initio with a relative uncertainty of less than
1 × 10−6 .[19] Only this remarkable progress in reducing signif-
icantly the uncertainty of the theoretical calculations has made
dielectric-constant gas thermometry competitive. Physikalisch-
Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Berlin has therefore devel-
oped this primary method for the determination of the Boltz-
mann constant.[18] For the measurement of ε, the measuring gas
is filled into cylindrical capacitors. However, the very low po-
larizability of helium prevents absolute measurements. Rather,
the measuring capacitor is alternately filled with helium up to a
pressure of 7 MPa—the 70-folden atmospheric pressure of the
earth—and evacuated and ε is retrieved from the relative change
in capacitance (Figure 3).
During the measurement, pairs of values of the pressure p
and of the dielectric constant ε are recorded at a constant tem-
perature (isotherm measurement). From the linear component
of the function of ε(p), k is eventually determined. The applied
high gas pressures cause a deformation of the measuring capaci-
tors. This considerable source of error was taken into account by
careful determination of their effective compressibility. In addi-
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (5 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
Figure 3. In dielectric-constant gas thermometry from the change of the
capacitance C(p) in a capacitor with known gas pressure p the dielectric
constant of the gas is derived.
tion, the pressure and capacitance measurements themselves are
extremely challenging. Recently, significant progress has been
achieved concerning the pressure measurement, the design and
the assembling of the capacitors, the determination of their effec-
tive compressibility, and the sensitivity of the capacitance bridge.
Applying two different capacitors, in 2017 two k values have been
obtained. The combination of these two values with the 2013 one
considering fully correlations yielded the final result of dielectric-
constant gas thermometry with a relative standard uncertainty of
1.94 × 10−6 .[20] The largest uncertainty contributions arise from
the determination of the effective compressibility of the capaci-
tors and the type A estimate.
4.3. Johnson Noise Thermometer
Thermodynamic temperature can also be derived from the statis-
tical movement of electrons in an ohmic resistance, generating
a noise voltage (white noise). Johnson noise thermometry deter-
mines the temperature from the mean square of the noise voltage
U 2  by means of the Nyquist formula, Equation (3):
 2
U = 4kT Rel  f (3)
As independent quantities, the electric resistance value Rel of
the test sample at the triple point of water as well as the band-
width f and amplification of the electronic detection system
have to be precisely determined.
Noise thermometry has been used for a long time at very
low temperatures below 5 K and at very high temperatures. At
high temperatures above approximately 1000 K, it benefits from
the larger voltage signals and is thus less sensitive to electro-
magnetic interference. At low temperatures and as outlined in
Section 6, highly sensitive, superconducting detectors can be ap-
plied and the small signals can be detected with adequate dynam-
ics. In the temperature range around the triple point of water,
the effective noise voltage lies—with the realizable parameters of
the measurement technology—on the order of 1 µV. To measure
these extremely small signals one has to use special electronic cir-
cuits and carry out an in situ comparison with a reference noise

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 4. In Johnson noise thermometry the thermal noise in an electrical
resistor Rel is compared with a reference noise source Vr that is traced to
the quantum standard of the voltage. The switching unit S connects the
amplifiers A1 and A2 alternately with both noise sources.
source that is traced to the quantum standard of the voltage[21]
(Figure 4).
In this way, the bandwidth and the amplification are kept
stable and the influence of drifts is minimized. To eliminate the
amplifier and line noise, the cross correlation of two measure-
ment channels is evaluated. Thereby, only the time-correlated
signal of the noise sources which is measured in both channels is
detected. Related projects to determine the Boltzmann constant
were carried out by NIST[22] and NIM.[23] The main challenge is
the long measuring time that is required for low uncertainties.
To achieve for a usual detection bandwidth of 20 kHz a relative
uncertainty in the range of 1 × 10−5 , a measuring time of about
5 weeks is necessary. In addition, due to mismatch between the
transmission lines of the thermal resistor and of the reference
noise source, the experimental ratio spectrum varies with
frequency. Therefore, the ratio of the power spectral densities
of resistor noise and quantum voltage noise has to be modeled,
causing another significant source of error.[4] Because of these
challenges noise thermometry has a high potential for further
improvements as outlined in Section 6.
In 2017, the NIM-NIST consortium published the final value
for the Boltzmann constant with a relative standard uncertainty
of 2.71 × 10−6 .[23] The dominating component of 2.68 × 10−6
comes from the ratio of thermal and quantum voltage noise
powers comprising a 2.37 × 10−6 statistical uncertainty. In to-
tal 120 measurements each having an integration period of
20 h contributed, such that 100 days of integration time were
accumulated.
Figure 5. In Doppler broadening thermometry the absorption line profile of a gas is probed by a tunable laser system.
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304
www.ann-phys.org
4.4. Doppler Broadening Thermometer
In ref. [24] a further method has been proposed to measure ther-
modynamic temperature by means of laser spectroscopy. When
the mean free path of the absorbing gas particles is much larger
than the optical wavelength the width of the absorption line is
nearly proportional to the thermal motion of the gas particles.
From the Doppler broadening of an absorption line in a gas cell
at a homogeneous temperature the mean movement of the gas
particles is retrieved (Figure 5). Thereby, the absorption profile is
sampled by means of tunable laser radiation. The temperature is
obtained from the Doppler width ν D of the line by Equation (4):

2kT
νD = ν0 (4)
mc 2
with the absorption frequency ν 0 , the atomic mass m of the gas
particles, and the speed of light c. The advantage of this method
is that no complicated absolute radiometric thermometry is re-
quired as the radiant power—if it is clearly below the saturation
intensity—does not influence the full width at half maximum,
except by means of heating-up effects.
At the Université Paris 13 Nord, Doppler broadening determi-
nations have been carried out with a CO2 laser at an ammonia
line at 30 THz. They evaluated 2000 individual absorption pro-
files resulting in a relative standard uncertainty for k of approxi-
mately 50 × 10−6 .[25] In an Italian project, the Second University
of Naples, the Polytechnic of Milan, and INRiM cooperated. They
used high-resolution spectroscopy of water vapor with a diode
laser in the near infrared spectral range. They achieved the lowest
relative uncertainty of this method of 24 × 10−6 .[26] However, dis-
tinguishing Doppler broadening from other line shape modifica-
tions generated by the interaction of the particles, causes enor-
mous difficulties. A reduction of the uncertainty to below 1 ×
10–5 is improbable.[9]
4.5. Radiometric Thermometer
Compared to the other primary thermometers introduced here
the radiometric thermometer has at the temperature of the triple
point of water due to signal-to-noise problems limited accuracy.
Thus, this method could not contribute to the determination of
the Boltzmann constant. However, it will play a seminal role in
the dissemination of the redefined kelvin at high temperatures
and should be explained with some detail in this paper.
The radiometric thermometer is based on the emitted radiant
power of a blackbody cavity with an absorptivity of 1, approxi-
mated by an isothermal cavity in which the light quanta are in
thermal equilibrium with the walls.[27] The radiant power is in-
dependent of material and form of the cavity and only depends
1800304 (6 of 12) 
C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 6. In radiometric thermometry the radiant power of a blackbody
cavity is fed by two precision apertures with known distance d into a cali-
brated detector.
on the temperature (and the wavelength) and on fundamental
constants. Primary thermometry assumes an absolute determi-
nation of the radiant power. For spectral-band radiometric ther-
mometry, Planck´s radiation law gives the spectral radiance, Lb,λ
(the subscript λ on Lb,λ in this case indicates that the value is per
unit wavelength), of an ideal blackbody cavity as a function of
thermodynamic temperature T, Equation (5):
 
2hc 2 1 CODATA acceptance criteria.
L b,λ (λ, T ) =
λ5 exp (hc/λkT ) − 1
with the Planck constant h, the speed of light c, and the wave-
length λ. Spectral radiance denotes the power emitted per unit
area per unit solid angle per unit wavelength and is often ex-
pressed with the units W m–2 sr–1 nm–1 .[27]
The responsivity of the detector used in Figure 6 is determined
by an electrical substitution radiometer. A cavity receiver thereby
absorbs radiation which increases the temperature of the cavity.
In a second measurement, the same temperature increase
is generated—with the input aperture closed—by means of
electrical heating power, which can be determined very precisely.
To attain the required detection sensitivity, the thermal capacity
of the cavity must be as small as possible. This can be achieved
by cooling down to temperatures near the boiling point of liquid
helium (4.2 K). These absolute detectors are therefore called
“cryogenic radiometers.” It is only by using them that the—
currently—low uncertainties can be achieved. Furthermore, the
precise values of the areas of the apertures and their distance
d must be experimentally determined (Figure 6), as well as the
emissivity (equal to absorptivity) of the blackbody cavity.
The spectral-band radiometric thermometer has the advantage
that one can choose a suitable spectral range via a filter. In this
spectral range, the optical characteristics of the detector can be
determined very precisely. However, as only part of the emitted
spectrum is measured, the radiation power at the detector is low.
Besides, the transmission curve of the filter must be measured
with extreme precision. Therefore, it was not possible to reduce
the relative uncertainty further down than to some 10−5 , not even
by bestowing greatest care on the experiment.[9]
Radiometric thermometry is the only primary method where
the temperature sensor is not in direct thermal contact with the
material whose temperature is to be measured. The radiation de-
tector is often kept at room temperature and can be placed at
a convenient distance from the (hot) material. Thus, the radio-
metric thermometer is a noncontact thermometer. In contrast,
the sensing resonators or capacitors containing the measuring
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (7 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
gas, or the electrical noise resistors of the other primary ther-
mometers are required to assume exactly the same temperature
as the material under investigation. Otherwise measurement er-
rors cannot be avoided. This imposes special requirements on the
temperature durability of all parts of the sensor, thus limiting the
attainable upper temperature. The latter thermometers are called
contact thermometers.
5. Experimental Values for the Boltzmann Constant
The development of the primary thermometers in the last decade
made considerable progress.[2–4] In 2017 the CODATA task group
on fundamental constants could present an adjusted value for
the Boltzmann constant k with a relative standard uncertainty
of only 3.7 × 10–7 .[10] This result is based on a large number
of experiments applying three different methods: the acoustic
gas thermometer (AGT), the dielectric-constant gas thermometer
(DCGT), and the Johnson noise thermometer (JNT). The Doppler
broadening thermometer (DBT) was able to provide an additional
confirmation, though with larger uncertainties not meeting the
(5)
Table 1 lists an overview of high-accurate determinations of
the Boltzmann constant achieved in the last decade including
the earlier pioneering work.[15,28] As shown in Table 1, up to 2013
there are already several determinations of k by AGT[15,38,42] with
relative standard uncertainties around 1 × 10−6 . Mainly because
of these measurements, the relative standard uncertainty of the
adjusted value of k was already in the 2014 calculation of the
CODATA task group only 5.7 × 10–7 .[54] This uncertainty is well
below 1.0 × 10−6 and fulfills the first CCT condition for the new
definition of the kelvin. For a complete list of determinations as
of the 2016 state see ref. [3].
The breakthrough in achieving lowest uncertainties was ac-
complished by the measurements published between 2015 and
2017.[4] All measurements considered in the final 2017 CODATA
adjustment are written in Table 1 in bold. Among them are
the recent low-uncertainty determinations of Gavioso et al. at
INRiM,[46] of Gaiser et al. at PTB,[20] of Qu et al. at NIM/NIST,[23]
of Pitre et al. at LNE-Cnam,[17] of Feng et al. at NIM,[50]
and of de Podesta et al. at NPL.[51] The uncertainties of the
determinations[22,47,52] did not fulfil the CODATA acceptance cri-
teria and are given in Table 1 in italics. With the results achieved
by DCGT at PTB[20] and by JNT at NIM/NIST[23] the second con-
dition of CCT, demanding a method independent from AGT with
a relative standard uncertainty below 3 × 10−6 , is fulfilled. Thus,
the way for the new definition of the kelvin is paved. In Figure 7
all determinations finally contributing to the 2017 CODATA ad-
justment and also the CODATA adjusted values of 2014[54] and
2017[10] are indicated for comparison.
6. The Realization of the New Kelvin
There are many activities of the national metrology institutes
seeking to turn the new definition of the kelvin as described in the
MeP-K into a reality in the near future. From a fundamental pri-
mary thermometry point of view several institutes, among them
NPL, LNE-Cnam, and PTB, are planning scale realization and

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.ann-phys.org

Table 1. Determinations of the Boltzmann constant achieved in the last decade including earlier pioneering work in chronological order. Listed are the
first author of the relevant publication, the reference, the method applied, year of publication, the published value (partly as reevaluated by CODATA),
the relative standard uncertainty (partly as reevaluated by CODATA), the relative difference from the 2017 adjusted value, and the rounded, approximate
weight in the 2017 adjustment. The measurements shown in bold have been considered in the final 2017 CODATA adjustment.

First author Ref. Methoda) Year of publication k [× 10−23 J K−1 ] u(k)/k [× 10−6 ] k/kCODATA − 1 [× 10−6 ] Weight
[28]
Colclough c-AGT 1979 1.380656 8.5 5.4
Moldover [15] AGT 1988 1.3806502 1.8 1.3 0.04
[29]
Schmidt RIGT 2007 1.380653 9.1 3.3
Gaiser [30]
DCGT 2007 1.3806472 30 −0.90
[31]
Daussy DBT 2007 1.38065 190 1.1
Casa [32]
DBT 2008 1.38058 159 −50
Pitre [33] AGT 2009 1.3806497 2.68 0.71 0.02
[34]
Djerroud DBT 2009 1.380669 – 15
Gavioso [35]
AGT 2010 1.3806404 7.49 −6.2
Sutton [36] AGT 2010 1.3806498 3.2 0.78 0.01
[37]
Lemarchand DBT 2010 1.380716 50 49
Pitre [38] AGT 2011 1.3806477 1.42 −0.56 0.06
[39]
Benz JNT 2011 1.380652 12.1 2.5
[40]
Zhang c-AGT 2011 1.3806506 7.9 1.5
[41]
Fellmuth DCGT 2011 1.380655 7.93 4.7
[25]
Lemarchand DBT 2011 1.380704 50 40
de Podesta [42]
AGT 2013 1.38064753 0.91 −0.72
Lin [43]
c-AGT 2013 1.3806476 3.7 −0.67
[44]
Gaiser DCGT 2013 1.3806509 4.3 1.7
Moretti [26]
DBT 2013 1.380631 24 −13
[18]
Gaiser DCGT 2015 1.3806509 4.0 1.7
Pitre [45] AGT 2015 1.3806487 1.02 0.13 0.12
Gavioso [46] AGT 2015 1.3806509 1.06 1.6 0.11
Qu [47] JNT 2015 1.3806516 3.9 2.0 –
[48]
Pérez-Sanz AGT 2015 1.380656 20 5.4
Truong [49]
JNT 2015 1.380545 71 −75
Gaiser [20] DCGT 2017 1.3806482 1.94 −0.6 0.03
Qu [23] JNT 2017 1.3806497 2.71 0.5 0.02
Pitre [17] AGT 2017 1.38064880 0.60 −0.2 0.33
Feng [50] c-AGT 2017 1.3806484 2.0 −0.5 0.03
de Podesta [51] AGT 2017 1.38064862 0.70 −0.3 0.24
Segovia [52] AGT 2017 1.3806467 6.7 −1.7 –
Flowers-Jacobs [22] JNT 2017 1.3806430 5.0 −4.4 –
[66]
Egan RIGT 2017 1.380652 12.5 2.2
Urano [53]
JNT 2017 1.3806436 10.2 −3.9

a)
RIGT denotes refractive-index gas thermometry, one of the variants of polarizing gas thermometry. c-AGT used cylindrical resonators instead of spherical ones. All other
abbreviations are given in Section 5.

dissemination of thermodynamic temperature above the silver
point (1235 K) through the recently developed high-temperature
fixed points.[55,56] These points will have thermodynamic temper-
atures assigned by primary radiometric thermometry and then,
using a specified interpolation function, thermodynamic temper-
ature will be realized and disseminated with uncertainties com-
petitive with ITS-90.[27] PTB is in addition developing two alter-
native primary thermometry methods.[57] They measure ratios of
irradiances to determine the thermodynamic temperature trace-
able to blackbody radiation and synchrotron radiation. At PTB,
a project is under way in cooperation with the All Russian Re-
search Institute for Optical and Physical Measurements (VNI-
IOFI) to apply, for the first time, all three methods simultane-
ously for the determination of the phase transition temperatures
of high-temperature fixed points.
For temperatures below 1235 K, INRiM, LNE-Cnam, NIM, and
NPL are developing acoustic gas thermometry with combined
microwave and acoustic resonators.[58] NPL is investigating ways
to make the use of spherical resonators more practical. This in-
volves streamlining the manufacture of the resonators, allow-
ing for the use of long-stem platinum resistance thermometers.
On the other hand, they are investigating ways to use cylindrical

Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (8 of 12) 

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 7. Black dots: All determinations of the Boltzmann constant contributing to the final CODATA adjusted value of 2017. For clarity, all four results
of Pitre et al. have been combined to a mean value according to ref. [17]. Open circles: The CODATA adjusted values of 2014 and 2017. The bars denote
standard uncertainties and the blue band represents that of the 2017 CODATA value showing the excellent consistency of all determinations.
resonators at high temperatures. Here the work is focused on the
challenge of optimizing the coupling of acoustic transducers to
the resonators, ensuring mechanical stability, and developing af-
fordable precision manufacturing techniques. In both activities,
a specific focus is on reducing the measurement time to make
thermodynamic calibrations truly practical. NPL hopes to be able
to provide systems which can realize the kelvin directly over the
range from approximately 120 to 600 K, with an aim to eventually
reach 1000 K.
LNE-Cnam developed in the last 20 years for the range 4–
400 K three different cryostats to measure the Boltzmann con-
stant by acoustic gas thermometry. Those will be used now to
disseminate the new kelvin by calibration of practical platinum
resistance thermometers. The first cryostat, containing a copper
quasi-sphere of volume 0.5 liter with a diamond-turned surface,
is a dry system based on a pulse tube, operating mainly in the
range 4–70 K. The second cryostat, again containing a 0.5-liter
diamond-turned quasi-sphere, has also been used for acoustic
gas thermometry but this time the cooling uses a liquid helium
and liquid nitrogen bath. Finally LNE-Cnam’s most advanced
cryostat houses a 3 liter quasi-sphere[17] and can calibrate with
respect to the new kelvin in the range 77–350 K.
NIM is also further developing the technologies of acoustic
gas thermometry used for the determination of the Boltzmann
constant and wants to apply them in some cutting-edge tech-
nical fields. Currently, they are studying primary thermometry
at harsh environments of high temperatures. Conductors were
used to transfer the exciting and detection signals from the hot
resonator. The highest attainable temperatures are expected to be
1400 K.
INRiM aims at extending the operation range of acoustic gas
thermometry and refractive-index gas thermometry to cover the
full temperature range between 5 and 1000 K and to contribute to
improved uncertainties of T − T90 values. Additional research ef-
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304
www.ann-phys.org
forts are directed to increasing the robustness and the simplicity
of the operation. A number of issues, like the undesired vibration
of the resonator shell currently limiting acoustic gas thermome-
try, or the need for accurate determination of the compressibility
of the resonator limiting refractive-index gas thermometry, still
needs to be successfully addressed. Assessing and maintaining
the purity of thermometric gases at the level needed to exploit
the accuracy of primary thermometry also represent another chal-
lenge. A more complete overview of recent activities to develop
primary thermometry, including temperature ranges and an ex-
planation of refractive-index gas thermometry can be found in
ref. [58].
Especially promising for a future realization of the kelvin is
Johnson noise thermometry as it is a purely electronic approach
with high potential for improvements due to the rapidly devel-
oping microelectronic circuit technology. In addition, the mi-
croelectronic circuit technology is advantageous for miniatur-
ized low cost sensors and readout systems. The sensors made
in principle only of metallic resistors can easily withstand high
temperatures. Accordingly, the activities of the Johnson noise
thermometry project at NIST were reoriented toward a practi-
cal system for thermodynamic temperature measurements over
a wide temperature range. The basic principle for the measure-
ment system remains the same: compare the noise power spec-
trum of a resistive sensor to that of a reference source with
exactly known spectral density using a quantum voltage noise
source. In contrast to the system used for the determination of
the Boltzmann constant, the superconducting part of the quan-
tum voltage system is fabricated from high-Tc material and will
be operated in a small cryocooler. Also, the readout system will
be modified for a much more compact design. One of the fu-
ture applications will be the measurement of the thermody-
namic temperature of certain fixed points of the defined scale
ITS-90.
1800304 (9 of 12) 
C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
NPL is developing practical temperature sensing methods
which will deliver in situ traceability over long time periods and
require no calibration. They are currently working with a small
company to develop practical noise thermometry. A prototype has
been demonstrated[59] and work is under way to turn this into a
commercial product.
PTB has more than two decades of experience in low-
temperature noise thermometry. The development culminated
in the primary magnetic field fluctuation thermometer (pMFFT),
which is a noise thermometer based on a superconducting quan-
tum interference device (SQUID). It measures the thermal mag-
netic flux noise of a metallic temperature sensor. The thermal
motion of electrons in the temperature sensor causes fluctuating
magnetic fields above its surface, which are coupled into the in-
put coils of a highly sensitive SQUID. Via Equation (3), the ther-
mal magnetic flux noise is directly related to the thermodynamic
temperature.[60] The thermometer employs two SQUID channels
and a cross-correlation technique for the thermal magnetic flux
noise measurement to minimize uncorrelated nonthermal noise
contributions. Each channel is connected to an independent pla-
nar thin-film detection coil. The layout of the detection coils en-
ables analytical electromagnetic modeling and an easy determi-
nation of the dimensions of the coils and their distances to the
noise resistor necessary for the calibration of the SQUID chan-
nels. The pMFFT has a separate calibration coil, which is used
to determine the transfer functions of the two SQUID channels
and the electrical conductivity of the noise resistor. By this way
no complicated quantum voltage noise source as laid out in Fig-
ure 4 is required for calibration. The pMFFT is not only used
to investigate discrepancies of the thermodynamic input data of
the PLTS-2000 at its lower end[61] but also as a practical primary
thermometer from 5 K down to below 1 mK.[60] Recently the res-
olution limit of the pMFFT was determined to 2.5 µK, a factor of
400 under the lower end of the defined scale PLTS-2000. In ref.
[61] other promising low-temperature primary thermometers not
yet included in the MeP-K can be found. A simpler commercial
version of the magnetic field fluctuation thermometer requiring
an one-point calibration is already available for the temperature
range from some millikelvin to 4.2 K.[62] For higher temperatures
PTB has started a project to turn Johnson noise thermometry into
a practical thermometer as well.
NIM, having delivered in the cooperation project with NIST
the lowest uncertainty for the Boltzmann constant using Johnson
noise thermometry,[23] wants to extend the measurement range
from the triple point of water to higher temperatures for future
applications. As a first step, a new probe was designed for mea-
suring the thermodynamic temperature of the indium fixed point
(430 K). The preliminary result achieved with an integrating pe-
riod of 100 h a relative standard uncertainty of 12 × 10–6 .[63]
Also, polarizing gas thermometry, with its variants dielectric-
constant gas thermometry and refractive-index gas thermometry,
is offering new perspectives. PTB is routinely using dielectric-
constant gas thermometry from 2 to 140 K.[64] Besides for the re-
alization of the new kelvin in this temperature range, dielectric-
constant gas thermometry is an important alternative method to
improve the uncertainty of T − T90 to prepare the ground for
a possible future revised temperature scale.[58] A spin-off of the
kelvin redefinition is a possible new realization of the pascal by
optical methods.[29,65] With a fixed value of the Boltzmann con-
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (10 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
stant a new type of primary standard for gas pressure p is moti-
vated, Equation (6):
p = ρ N kT (6)
which is the equation of state of the ideal gas with the number of
molecules per volume substituted by the number density ρ N . As
outlined in Section 2, after redefinition the kelvin will be equal
to the change of thermodynamic temperature that results in a
change of thermal energy kT. Inspecting Equation (6) it is evident
that the definition and realization of pressure p by this equation
is a promising way to provide traceability for this quantity. For
pressures in the vacuum regime and slightly above, the accuracy
of this proposed realization is comparable to or better than the
traditional methods applying the force per area principle.
The number density ρ N can be measured by optical meth-
ods, for example by determining the refractive index n of the gas
which is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed
of light in the gas at a given pressure.[66] However, for precision
metrology, even in the vacuum range, the equation of state of the
ideal gas needs to be expanded by the introduction of intermolec-
ular forces. It turns out that the determination of capacitances
with and without gas for dielectric-constant gas thermometry,
and the determination of the resonance frequency of an optical
cavity with and without gas for determining the refractive index
n are completely analogous procedures. At present, the required
property of the gas, the polarizability, can be calculated ab ini-
tio with sufficient accuracy for helium only. For neon and argon,
more suitable for a new pressure standard, recent experimental
determinations of the polarizability with dielectric-constant gas
thermometry at PTB obtained uncertainties almost three orders
of magnitude lower than those from theory.[67] This is a major
step toward a new realization of the pascal. NIST, PTB, and oth-
ers are pursuing corresponding experiments based on refractive-
index gas thermometry.
7. Conclusions
The redefinition of the kelvin in terms of the Boltzmann constant
in the revised International System of Units will allow the accu-
racy of temperature measurements to gradually improve without
the limitations associated with the manufacture and use of water
triple point cells, nor with the limitations of the present temper-
ature scales. A fundamental constant will be taken as scale in-
stead of an embodied standard (water sample). Laboratories can
realize a temperature standard by choosing, within a variety of al-
ternatives, the experimental method which is best suited to their
available facilities, experience, and knowledge. For some temper-
ature ranges at least, thermometry methods that directly realize
thermodynamic temperature are expected to eventually substi-
tute the defined temperature scales as practical temperature re-
alization and dissemination methods.
This redefinition will endorse continuous technical develop-
ments toward ever-decreasing uncertainties in the realization
of the kelvin, without the need for further redefinition. New
primary methods are already emerging for direct realization and
dissemination of thermodynamic temperature. For example,
at high temperatures, absolute radiometric thermometers have

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.ann-phys.org

been developed that could measure thermodynamic temperature
without the need to refer to the triple point of water, the exclusive
defining point in the present definition.[68]
The redefinition of the kelvin creates more opportunities for
improvements to technology and technique. In particular, this re-
definition does not require the replacement of the ITS-90 or of the
PLTS-2000 with an improved temperature scale nor does it pre-
vent such a replacement. Rather, the guidelines on the realization
of the kelvin, the MeP-K, describe recognized primary methods
for reliable measurement of thermodynamic temperature, as well
as the approved approximations to thermodynamic temperature:
currently the ITS-90 and PLTS-2000 defined scales. The MeP-K
will be updated periodically as methods improve. This ensures a
metrological system for temperature measurement perfectly ad-
equate to the requirements of the users in trade, industry, and
science.
Acknowledgements
This article is part of the Special Issue on The Revised SI: Fundamental
Constants, Basic Physics and Units, highlighting the revision and redefi-
nition of the International System of Units (SI) to come into effect in
May 2019.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords
base units, Boltzmann constant, kelvin, redefinition, temperature
Received: August 14, 2018
Revised: October 19, 2018
Published online: December 27, 2018
[1] BIPM, Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), The International
Systems of Units, 9th Brochure, 2018, https://www.bipm.org/utils/
en/pdf/si-revised-brochure/Draft-SIBrochure-2018.pdf (accessed:
October 2018).
[2] J. Fischer, Metrologia 2015, 52, S364.
[3] J. Fischer, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150038.
[4] J. Fischer, B. Fellmuth, C. Gaiser, T. Zandt, L. Pitre, F. Sparasci, M. D.
Plimmer, M. de Podesta, R. Underwood, G. Sutton, G. Machin, R. M.
Gavioso, D. Madonna Ripa, P. P. M. Steur, J. Qu, X. J. Feng, J. Zhang,
M. R. Moldover, S. P. Benz, D. R. White, L. Gianfrani, A. Castrillo, L.
Moretti, B. Darquié, E. Moufarej, C. Daussy, S. Briaudeau, O. Kozlova,
L. Risegari, J. J. Segovia et al. Metrologia 2018, 55, R1.
[5] H. Preston-Thomas, Metrologia 1990, 27, 3.
[6] J. Fischer, S. Gerasimov, K. Hill, G. Machin, M. Moldover, L. Pitre, P.
Steur, M. Stock, O. Tamura, H. Ugur, D. R. White, I. Yang, J. Zhang,
Int. J. Thermophys. 2007, 28, 1753.
[7] R. L. Rusby, M Durieux, A. L. Reesink, R. P. Hudson, G. Schuster, M.
Kühne, W. E. Fogle, R. J. Soulen E. D. Adams, J. Low Temp. Phys. 2002,
126, 633.
[8] BIPM, Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT), Report of the
27th meeting, Recommendation CCT T1, 2014, http://www.bipm.
org/utils/common/pdf/CC/CCT/CCT27.pdf (accessed: October
2018).
[9] B. Fellmuth, Ch. Gaiser, J. Fischer, Meas. Sci. Technol. 2006, 17, R145.
[10] D. B. Newell, F. Cabiati, J. Fischer, K. Fujii, S. G. Karshenboim, H. S.
Margolis, E. de Mirandés, P. J. Mohr, F. Nez, K. Pachucki, T. J. Quinn,
B. N. Taylor, M. Wang, B. M. Wood, Z. Zhang, Metrologia 2017, 54,
L13.
[11] BIPM, Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT),
Guide to the realization of the ITS-90, Introduction, 2018,
http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/cct/guide-its90.html
(accessed: October 2018).
[12] R. Underwood, M. de Podesta, G. Sutton, L. Stanger, R. Rusby, P. Har-
ris, P. Morantz, G. Machin, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150048.
[13] B. Fellmuth, J. Fischer, G. Machin, S. Picard, P. Steur, O. Tamura, R.
White, H. Yoon, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150037.
[14] M. R. Moldover, R. M. Gavioso, J. B. Mehl, L. Pitre, M. de Podesta, J.
T. Zhang, Metrologia 2014, 51, R1.
[15] M. R. Moldover, J. P. M. Trusler, T. J. Edwards, J. B. Mehl, R. S. Davis,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 1988, 60, 249.
[16] M. R. Moldover, R. M. Gavioso, D. B. Newell, Metrologia 2015, 52,
S376.
[17] L. Pitre, F. Sparasci, L. Risegari, C. Guianvarc’h, C. Martin, M. E. Him-
bert, M. D. Plimmer, A. Allard, B. Marty, P. A. Giuliano Albo, B. Gao,
M. R. Moldover, J. B. Mehl, Metrologia 2017, 54, 856.
[18] C. Gaiser, T. Zandt, B. Fellmuth, Metrologia 2015, 52, S217.
[19] M. Puchalski, K. Piszczatowski, J. Komasa, B. Jeziorski, K. Szalewicz,
Phys. Rev. A 2016, 93, 032515.
[20] C. Gaiser, B. Fellmuth, N. Haft, A. Kuhn, B. Thiele-Krivoi, T. Zandt, J.
Fischer, O. Jusko, W. Sabuga, Metrologia 2017, 54, 280.
[21] S. P. Benz, P. D. Dresselhaus, J. Martinis, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas.
2003, IM-52, 545.
[22] N. E. Flowers-Jacobs, A. Pollarolo, K. J. Coakley, A. E. Fox, H. Rogalla,
W. L. Tew, S. P. Benz, Metrologia 2017, 54, 730.
[23] J. Qu, S. P. Benz, K. Coakley, H. Rogalla, W. L. Tew, D. R. White, K.
Zhou, Z. Zhou, Metrologia 2017, 54, 549.
[24] C. J. Bordé, Metrologia 2002, 39, 435.
[25] C. Lemarchand, M. Triki, B. Darquié, Ch. J. Bordé, C. Chardonnet, C.
Daussy, New J. Phys. 2011, 13, 073028.
[26] L. Moretti, A. Castrillo, E. Fasci, M. D. De Vizia, G. Casa, G. Galzer-
ano, A. Merlone, P. Laporta, L. Gianfrani, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2013, 111,
060803.
[27] K. Anhalt, G. Machin, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150041.
[28] A. R. Colclough, T. J. Quinn, T. R. D. Chandler, Proc. R. Soc. A 1979,
368, 125.
[29] J. W. Schmidt, R. M. Gavioso, E. F. May, M. R. Moldover, Phys. Rev.
Lett. 2007, 98, 254504.
[30] C. Gaiser, B. Fellmuth, N. Haft, in Workshop on Progress in Determin-
ing the Boltzmann Constant (Eds: B. Fellmuth, J. Fischer), Berlin, Ger-
many, October 2006, PTB report PTB-Th-3, pp. 17–25.
[31] C. Daussy, M. Guinet, A. Amy-Klein, K. Djerroud, Y. Hermier, S.
Briaudeau, Ch. J. Bordé, C. Chardonnet, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 98,
250801.
[32] G. Casa, A. Castrillo, G. Galzerano, R. Wehr, A. Merlone, D. Di Ser-
afino, P. Laporta, L. Gianfrani, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2008, 100, 200801.
[33] L. Pitre, C. Guianvarc’h, F. Sparasci, A. Guillou, D. Truong, Y. Hermier,
M. E. Himbert, C. R. Phys. 2009, 10, 835.
[34] K. Djerroud, C. Lemarchand, A. Gauguet, C. Daussy, S. Briaudeau,
B. Darquié, O. Lopez, A. Amy-Klein, C. Chardonnet, C. J. Bordé, C. R.
Phys. 2009, 10, 883.
[35] R. M. Gavioso, G. Benedetto, P. A. Giuliano Albo, D. Madonna Ripa,
A. Merlone, C. Guianvarc’h, F. Moro, R. Cuccaro, Metrologia 2010, 47,
387.
[36] G. Sutton, R. Underwood, L. Pitre, M. de Podesta, S. Valkiers, Int. J.
Thermophys. 2010, 31, 1310.

Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (11 of 12) 

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
[37] C. Lemarchand, K. Djerroud, B. Darquié, O. Lopez, A. Amy-Klein, C.
Chardonnet, Ch. J. Bordé, S. Briaudeau, C. Daussy, Int. J. Thermophys.
2010, 31, 1347.
[38] L. Pitre, F. Sparasci, D. Truong, A. Guillou, L. Risegari, M. E. Himbert,
Int. J. Thermophys. 2011, 32, 1825.
[39] S. P. Benz, A. Pollarolo, J. Qu, H. Rogalla, C. Urano, W. L. Tew, P. D.
Dresselhaus, D. R. White, Metrologia 2011, 48, 142.
[40] J. T. Zhang, H. Lin, X. J. Feng, J. P. Sun, K. A. Gillis, M. R. Moldover,
Y. Y. Duan, Int. J. Thermophys. 2011, 32, 1297.
[41] B. Fellmuth, J. Fischer, C. Gaiser, O. Jusko, T. Priruenrom, W. Sabuga,
T. Zandt, Metrologia 2011, 48, 382.
[42] M. de Podesta, R. Underwood, G. Sutton, P. Morantz, P. Harris, D.
F. Mark, F. M. Stuart, G. Vargha, G. Machin, Metrologia 2013, 50,
354.
[43] H. Lin, X. J. Feng, K. A. Gillis, M. R. Moldover, J. T. Zhang, J. P. Sun,
Y. Y. Duan, Metrologia 2013, 50, 417.
[44] C. Gaiser, T. Zandt, B. Fellmuth, J. Fischer, O. Jusko, W. Sabuga,
Metrologia 2013, 50, L7.
[45] L. Pitre, L. Risegari, F. Sparasci, M. D. Plimmer, M. E. Himbert,
Metrologia 2015, 52, S263.
[46] R. M. Gavioso, D. Madonna Ripa, P. P. M. Steur, C. Gaiser, D. Truong,
C. Guianvarc’h, P. Tarizzo, F. M. Stuart, R. Dematteis, Metrologia
2015, 52, S274.
[47] J. Qu, S. P. Benz, A. Pollarolo, H. Rogalla, W. L. Tew, D. R. White, K.
Zhou, Metrologia 2015, 52, S242.
[48] F. J. Pérez-Sanz, J. J. Segovia, M. C. Martı́n, M. A. Villamañán, D. del
Campo, C. Garcı́a, Metrologia 2015, 52, S257.
[49] G.-W. Truong, D. Stuart, J. D. Anstie, E. F. May, T. M. Stace, A. N.
Luiten, Metrologia 2015, 52, S324.
[50] X. J. Feng, J. T. Zhang, H. Lin, K. A. Gillis, J. B. Mehl, M. R. Moldover,
K. Zhang, Y. Y. Duan, Metrologia 2017, 54, 748.
[51] M. de Podesta, D. F. Mark, R. C. Dymock, R. Underwood, T. Bac-
quart, G. Sutton, S. Davidson, G. Machin, Metrologia 2017, 54,
683.
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2019, 531, 1800304 1800304 (12 of 12)
www.ann-phys.org
[52] J. J. Segovia, D. Lozano-Martı́n, M. C. Martı́n, C. R. Chamorro, M. A.
Villamañán, E. Pérez, C. Garcı́a Izquierdo, D. del Campo, Metrologia
2017, 54, 663.
[53] C. Urano, K. Yamazawa, N.-H. Kaneko, Metrologia 2017, 54, 847.
[54] P. J. Mohr, D. B. Newell, B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 2016, 88, 035009.
[55] G. Machin, in Temperature: Its Measurement and Control in Science and
Industry, Vol. 8, AIP Proceedings 1552 (Ed: C. W. Meyer), AIP Publish-
ing, New York 2013, pp. 305–316.
[56] G. Machin, Meas. Sci. Technol. 2018, 29, 022001.
[57] M. Wähmer, K. Anhalt, J. Hollandt, R. Klein, R. D. Taubert, R. Thor-
nagel, G. Ulm, V. Gavrilov, I. Grigoryeva, B. Khlevnoy, V. Sapritsky, Int.
J. Thermophys. 2017, 38, 144.
[58] R. M. Gavioso, D. Madonna Ripa, P. P. M. Steur, C. Gaiser, T. Zandt,
B. Fellmuth, M. de Podesta, R. Underwood, G. Sutton, L. Pitre, F.
Sparasci, L. Risegari, L. Gianfrani, A. Castrillo, G. Machin, Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150046.
[59] P. Bramley, D. Cruickshank, J. Pearce, Int. J. Thermophys. 2017, 38, 25.
[60] A. Kirste, J. Engert, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2016, 374, 20150050.
[61] J. Engert, A. Kirste, A. Shibahara, A. Casey, L. V. Levitin, J. Saunders, O.
Hahtela, A. Kemppinen, E. Mykkänen, M. Prunnila, D. Gunnarsson,
L. Roschier, M. Meschke, J. Pekola, Int. J. Thermophys. 2016, 37, 125.
[62] J. Engert, J. Beyer, M. Schmidt, S. Ali Valiollahi, H.-J. Barthelmess, Th.
Schurig, IEEE/CSC & ESAS Superconductivity News Forum (global
edition), January 2014.
[63] J. Qu, personal communication, June 6, 2018.
[64] C. Gaiser, B. Fellmuth, N. Haft, Metrologia 2017, 54, 141.
[65] K. Jousten, J. Hendricks, D. Barker, K. Douglas, S. Eckel, P. Egan, J.
Fedchak, J. Flügge, C. Gaiser, D. Olson, J. Ricker, T. Rubin, W. Sabuga,
J. Scherschligt, R. Schödel, U. Sterr, J. Stone, G. Strouse, Metrologia
2017, 54, 146.
[66] P. F. Egan, J. A. Stone, J. E. Ricker, J. H. Hendricks, G. F. Strouse, Opt.
Lett. 2017, 42, 2944.
[67] C. Gaiser, B. Fellmuth, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2018, 120, 123203.
[68] J. Fischer, J. Ullrich, Nat. Phys. 2016, 12, 4.

C 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim