Appendix B

Tensors

B.1 Tensor fields

Scalar and vector fields are often not sufficient to describe the real physical
world, so that we have to introduce what can be thought as an extension of these
tools: the tensor fields. In the simplest form a Cartesian tensor can be defined
as
T = ei τij ej = τij ei ej = τij , i, j = 1, 2, 3.
In vector notation, a tensor will be denoted by uppercase calligraphic characters
and its components with the same characters already used for scalars. In Carte-
sian index notation a tensor is represented directly by its components. Thus, the
expression τij is sufficient to denote a tensor.
Clearly, this is an object characterized by nine components that can be ar-
ranged as a matrix
 τ11 τ12 τ13   τxx τxy τxz 
   

T =  τ21 τ22 τ23  =  τyx τyy τyz  .
τ τ32 τ33   τzx τzy τzz 
31

The tensor is symmetric if τij = τji , and antisymmetric if τij = −τji . The trace
Tr T = τii

vii
viii Franco Mattioli (University of Bologna)

of a tensor, obtained for contraction of the indices, is defined as the sum its
diagonal terms. The determinant of a tensor

Det T = εijk τ1i τ2j τ3k

is the determinant of its representative matrix.

Problem B.1 Which is the matrix notation of the tensors ij and ji ?

A tensor can be multiplied by a scalar constant. The result is a tensor whose

components are multiplied by that constant. The sum of two tensor is the tensor
whose components are the sum of the components of the two tensors.
We can perform a dot product between a vector and this new quantity. We
have two alternatives: the left dot product

a · T = ak ek · ei τij ej = ak δki τij ej = ai τij ej ,

and the right dot product

T · a = ei τij ej · ak ek = ei τij δjk ak = ei τij aj .

In both cases the result is a vector which, however, is different in the two cases,
unless the tensor is symmetric. Writing the tensor in matrix form, the two
products correspond to the multiplication by a row vector on the left and by a
column vector on the right. Thus a tensor can be seen as an operator able to
generate a vector starting from another vector.
An expression of the kind

c=T ·b or c=b·T

can also be interpreted in another way. In vector algebra there is no definition

for the ratio between two vectors. But formally the tensor plays this role. Thus
the tensor T can be seen, roughly speaking, as the ratio between the vectors c
and b. This means that in the definition of a tensor as a physical entity two
vector quantities must appear. Accordingly, we use expressions such as: T is the
value taken by the vector quantity c in relation to the vector quantity b.
For example, if c is a force and b is a surface (defined by its area and the direction
of its normal unit vector), then T can represent the stress, that is, the vector force per
unit vector surface.
 Principles of Fluid Dynamics (www.fluiddynamics.it) ix

As such, a tensor is no longer a simple operator, but a true physical entity.

The importance of the tensors relies on this fact.
We can also perform a double scalar product
s = a · T · b = ai τij bj ,
obtaining a scalar quantity s.
Two tensors can be multiplied scalarly giving rise to a third tensor
C = A · B = aij bjl = cil .

B.2 Tensor properties

The simplest tensor is the unit tensor I defined as

1 0 0 
 

I = ei δij ej =  0 1 0  .
0 0 1
In the same way as the dot product, we can proceed with the definition of
the left and right cross products between a vector and a tensor.

Problem B.2 Show that a · I = I · a = a.

Problem B.3 Write the tensor A = a × I in matrix form.
Answer.  
 0 az −ay 

A = a × I =  −az 0 ax  .
 ay −ax 0 
Solution. We have to compute a×ei δij ej . We may follow the standard way and compute
a × i, a × j and a × k. For example
a × i = az j − ay k.
The multiplication of the row vector | 0 az −ay | by the identity matrix furnishes the
first row of the tensor. The other two rows are provided by the other two cross products.
But it is simpler to use the index notation. We can rewrite A as
A = ijk ai δjl = ilk ai . (B.1)
For l = k this equation states that the diagonal terms are zero. For l = 1 and k = 2
we must have i = 3 in order to have a non-vanishing term. Thus, the value of (B.1)
is a3 = az , because the permutation 312 is even. For k = 3 we have i = 2 and (B.1)
provides −a2 = −ay , because the permutation 213 is odd. And so on for the other terms.
Comment. Any antisymmetric tensor A can always be associated to a vector a.
x Franco Mattioli (University of Bologna)

Problem B.4 Show that A · b = a × b.

Solution. In index notation the previous expression becomes

εijk ai δjl bl = ilk ai bl ,

which is the index notation of the second expression.

Comment. The application of an antisymmetric tensor A to a vector b generates a vector
normal to it and to the associated vector a.

Problem B.5 Show that b · A = −A · b.

Solution. The index form the first expression leads to the index form of the second
expression
εijk bi δjl al = ilk ai bl = −lik al bi
as soon as we realize that the change of the order of two indices in the permutation
symbol implies a change in sign.

A tensor can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and an antisymmetric

part
T = D + A,
where
1
dij = (τij + τji )
2
and
1
aij =(τij − τji ) .
2
In D there are six independent components and in A three, because its diagonal
terms are zero. All together, they correspond to the nine components of T . The
trace and the determinant of an antisymmetric tensor are both zero.

Problem B.6 Show that b · D = D · b if D is symmetric.

Solution. In index notation we have

bi dij = bi dji = dij bj .

In the last step the indices i and j have been interchanged.

Problem B.7 If a and b are arbitrary vectors, under which conditions it is a · T · b =

b·T ·a ?

Problem B.8 If a and b are arbitrary vectors, under which conditions it is a · T · b =

−b · T · a ?
 Principles of Fluid Dynamics (www.fluiddynamics.it) xi

A tensor can be generated by the product of two vectors in the following

manner
 ux   ux vx ux vy ux vz 
   
  
uv = ui ei vj ej =  uy  | vx vy vz | =  uy vx uy vy uy vz  . (B.2)
u  u v uz vy uz vz 
z z x

Here, in the expression uv, the symbols of the two vectors are simply placed near
each other, without any intermediate punctuation mark. This particular tensor
applied to any vector furnishes a vector parallel to u.

B.3 Changing reference frame

So far we have considered scalars, vectors and tensors as entities defined in

a single reference system. Indeed, these quantities must be seen as absolute
quantities, having a certain physical meaning. Thus, they cannot change passing
from a reference system to another. Only their representation may change, in
relation to their nature, following well defined rules.
In other words, scalars, vectors and tensors are not a simple collection of
n terms, where n is 1, 3 or 9 each time. They refer to quantities that have
well-defined geometrical properties.
A scalar quantity does not change passing from one reference system to an-
other. But the three components of a vector quantity do change. Similarly,
the components of a tensor must change accordingly, because a tensor has been
defined as a function of vectors.
First of all, let us consider as the components of a vector change passing from
a Cartesian right-handed reference system to another, rotated with respect to
the former. Let e01 , e02 and e03 be the unit vectors of the new reference system.
Thus, a vector a can be written both as

a = ai ei , and a = a0l e0l ,

so that
a0l e0l = ai ei .
If we multiply scalarly this expression by e0l , we obtain

a0l = ai e0l · ei .

Analogously, multiplying scalarly by ei , we have

ai = a0l ei · e0l .
xii Franco Mattioli (University of Bologna)

Introducing the symmetric matrix

U = e0l · ei = uli = uil ,

we have
a0l = uli ai , and ai = uil a0l .
The information about the change of the system of coordinates is contained
in the matrix U. Since the length of a vector is a scalar quantity, then

a0l a0l = ulk ak ulm am = ak ukl ulm am = ak ak .

It follows that
ukl ulm = δkm .
The matrix U is therefore unitary, i.e., equal to its inverse.
The first property we have discussed about tensors is that a tensor applied
to a vector (i.e., multiplied scalarly by a vector) must result in another vector.
Let T be the tensor. In two systems of reference, rotated with respect to each
other, the initial and final vectors must be the same. If

b0q = ujq bj and c0p = uipci ,

and
ci = τij bj , and c0p = τpq
0 0
bq ,
it follows
0 0
τpq bq = c0p = uipci = uip τij bj = uip τij ujq b0q .
This expression can be rewritten as
 
0
τpq − uipτij ujq b0q = 0.

Since b is an arbitrary vector, we must have

0
τpq = uip ujq τij . (B.3)

This is the rule for the transformation of a tensor under rotations.

Problem B.9 Prove that A = bc is a tensor on the basis of the present definition.
Solution.
a0pq = b0p c0q = uipbi ujq cj = uip ujq bi cj = uip ujq aij .
 Principles of Fluid Dynamics (www.fluiddynamics.it) xiii

Problem B.10 Prove that the identity tensor is the same in any reference system.
Solution.
0
δpq = uip ujq δij = uip uiq = δpq = δij .

Comment. A tensor whose components are the same in all the reference systems is said
to be isotropic.

At this point we can reverse the argument and define the tensor as an ensemble
of nine components arranged as a 3x3 matrix subject to the transformation rule
(B.3). Reversing the above demonstration, we conclude that a tensor is able to
derive a vector from another vector by scalar multiplication. Thus this latter
property becomes the proof that a certain arrangement of nine components are
in effect the components of a tensor. This procedure is called quotient rule and
is the easiest way to detect tensors in the framework of a physical context.

B.4 Principal directions

A tensor, like a matrix, can be put in a diagonal form. Eigenvalues and

eigenvectors can be defined analogously to the definitions adopted for matrices.
Particularly interesting results are obtained for symmetric tensors. In this
case it is possible to find three orthonormal unit vectors a satisfying the equation

D · a = λa = λIa.

for three independent real values of λ. The three normal direction are called
principal directions.
We have to solve the set of equations

(dij − λδij ) ej = 0.

The solution is possible only if the determinant of D vanishes. This leads to an

algebraic equation of the third order in λ

λ3 − Θλ2 + Φλ − Ψ = 0,

where
Θ = d11 + d22 + d33
is the trace of the tensor,

Φ = d22 d33 − d23 d32 + d33 d11 − d31 d13 + d11 d22 − d12 d21
 xiv Franco Mattioli (University of Bologna)

and

Ψ = d11 d22 d33 + d12 d23 d31 + d13 d21 d32 − d13 d22 d31 − d11 d23 d32 − d12 d21 d33

is the determinant of the tensor. The three solutions for λ are real, while the three
correspondent vectors ej , normalized to unity, are called characteristic vectors.
It turns out that such vectors are normal with respect to each other.
Since, the principal directions of a tensor are the same independently of the
reference system, it follows that the coefficients Θ, Φ and Ψ are invariant quan-
tities, i.e., scalar quantities.

Problem B.11 Prove directly that the trace of a tensor is invariant under rotation in
index notation.
Solution. Let d0pq the representation of the tensor dij in the rotated frame. It follows

d0pp = uip ujpdij = δij dij = dii .

But the main result is that any tensor can be diagonalized. In other words we
can always associate to a tensor a reference system in which it can be represented
by a diagonal matrix. Seen from this particular reference system the physical
structure of the tensor is very simple.
All these properties are not intuitive, and appear rather strange in a physical
context. The geometry of the space impose strong constraints to the physical
quantities of our world.

Problem B.12 Find the principal directions of the tensor

 
0 T
T =  .
T 0

Solution. The determinant of the matrix

 
 −λ T 

 T −λ 

is
λ2 − T 2 = 0
and vanishes for λ(1) = T and λ(2) = −T . With respect to the principal directions the
tensor takes the form  
0
T 0 
T = .
0 −T 
 Principles of Fluid Dynamics (www.fluiddynamics.it) xv

In correspondence to the first eigenvalue, we derive the first eigenvector e1 from the
system   
 −T T   e1x 

 T = 0.
−T   e1y 
√ √ √
It follows e1x√
= 1/ 2 and e1y = 1/ 2, after normalization. Analogously, e2x = −1/ 2
and e2y = 1/ 2. Therefore, the principal directions are rotated by 45◦ with respect to
the original axes.
Comment. In a symmetric tensor with a trace equal to zero the diagonal and off-diagonal
terms have the same importance. Changing the reference frame we can have only diagonal
terms or only off-diagonal terms, whose magnitude is of the same order.

Problem B.13 The addition of an isotropic tensor to a given tensor will change its prin-
cipal directions?
Solution. The principal directions of the new tensor remain the same as those of the old
one because an isotropic tensor cannot change the direction of the eigenvectors of the
original tensor. In the reference system of the principal directions the diagonal terms of
the final tensor are given by the sum of the diagonal terms of the two tensors.
Comment. The diagonal terms of the tensor behave differently with respect to the other
off-diagonal terms, because they are made of two components. A component is invariant
under rotations, while the other component mixes with the off-diagonal components as
in a tensor with a vanishing trace.

For an antisymmetric tensor (for which eigenvalues and eigenvector are com-
plex) the three invariant quantities correspond to a zero trace, the square of
the length of the associated vector and to a zero determinant, respectively (see
problem [B.3]).
For comparison, consider that a vector has only one invariant quantity, its
length.

B.5 High order tensors

Besides the second-order Cartesian tensors mentioned above we can introduce

higher order tensors. We can construct nth-order tensors with 3n components
for whatever integer value of n. Thus, the vectors can be considered first-order
tensors and the scalars zeroth-order tensors.
Many properties and definitions for generic-order tensors follow almost di-
rectly in analogy with the properties and definitions so far provided for second-
order tensors. However, tensors with n > 2 are used much less frequently.
xvi Franco Mattioli (University of Bologna)

Certain operations defined between second-order tensor can give rise to higher-
order tensors. For example the fourth-order tensor F can be obtained by the two
second-order tensors B and C on the basis of the following definition
fijpq = bij cpq .
So, while joining two vectors gives rise to a second-order tensor, joining two
second-order tensors gives rise to a fourth-order tensor. In general, by joining
two tensor of order m and n we obtain a tensor of order m + n.
In particular, the application a fourth-order tensor F to a second-order tensor
B gives rise to a second-order tensor C
cij = fijpq bpq ,
similarly to the scalar product between second-order tensors and vectors.
A tensor is said to be isotropic if its components remain unchanged under
a rotation of the reference frame. All the scalars are isotropic. There are no
isotropic vectors. The tensors proportional to the identity tensor δij are the only
second-order isotropic tensors and those proportional to the permutation symbol
ijk are the only third-order isotropic tensors. It is possible to show that there are
many fourth-order isotropic tensors H. They can be identified by the expression
hijpq = c1 δij δpq + c2 δip δjq + c3 δiq δjp , (B.4)
where the ci are arbitrary constants.

Problem B.14 Find the structure of the most general linear and isotropic transformation
between two symmetric tensors.
Solution. The most general linear relation between two symmetric tensors can be written
τij = fijpq dpq , (B.5)
where fijpq is a fourth order tensor. If the medium is isotropic, then F must be isotropic
as well. According to (B.4) we have
lijpq = hijpq = c1 δij δpq + c2 δip δjq + c3 δiq δjp .
Let us rewrite this expression as
lijpq = λδij δpq + µ (δip δjq + δiq δjp ) + ν (δip δjq − δiq δjp ) ,
where λ = c1 , µ = (c2 + c3 )/2 and ν = (c2 − c3 )/2. Then (B.5) becomes
τij = lijpq dij = λδij dpp + µ (dij + dji) = 2µdij + λδij dpp . (B.6)
Observe that the term in ν gives no contribution.
 Principles of Fluid Dynamics (www.fluiddynamics.it) xvii

B.6 Other coordinate systems

Since scalars, vectors and tensors are physical entities, they can be defined in
whatever reference system. So far we have considered only Cartesian systems of
reference, because they are the simplest ones. But for particular problems other
coordinate systems can become more convenient or intrinsically necessary.
For example, the study of motions involving the whole earth’s surface can be effi-
ciently faced using spherical coordinates.
In the present text only right-handed frames of reference are considered, so
that no difference is made between polar or axial vectors.
In some old text of oceanography left-handed frames of references have been used,
because the space of interest was in the sole lower half-space. This complicates the
mathematical expressions that sometimes are the same, but other times are the contrary
of the analogous expressions for right-handed systems.