Gray cast iron, the least expensive and

most common variety, is characterized by those features that promote the formation of
graphite. Typical compositions range from 2.5 to 4.0% carbon, 1.0 to 3.0% silicon, and
0.4 to 1.0% manganese. The microstructure consists of three-dimensional graphite
flakes (which form during the eutectic reaction) dispersed in a matrix of ferrite, pearlite,
or other iron-based structure that forms from the cooling of austenite. Figure 4-16
presents a typical section through gray cast iron, showing the graphite flakes dispersed
throughout the metal matrix. Because the graphite flakes have no appreciable strength,
they act essentially as voids in the structure. The pointed edges of the flakes act as
preexisting notches or crack initiation sites, giving the material a characteristic brittle
nature. Since a large portion of any fracture follows the graphite flakes, the freshly
exposed fracture surfaces have a characteristic gray appearance, and a graphite smudge
can usually be obtained if one rubs a finger across the fracture. On a more positive
note, the formation of the lower-density graphite reduces the amount of shrinkage that
occurs when the liquid goes to solid, making possible the production of more complex
iron castings.
Gray cast irons offer excellent compressive strength (compressive forces do not pro-
mote crack propagation, so compressive strength is typically 3–4 times tensile strength),
excellent machinability (graphite acts to break up the chips and lubricate contact sur-
faces),good resistance to adhesive wear and galling (graphite flakes self-lubricate),and out-
standing sound- and vibration-damping characteristics (graphite flakes absorb transmitted
energy) High silicon
contents promote good corrosion resistance and the enhanced fluidity desired for casting
operations. For these reasons, coupled with low cost, high thermal conductivity, low rate
of thermal expansion, good stiffness, resistance to thermal fatigue, and 100% recyclability,
gray cast iron is specified for a number of applications, including automotive engine blocks,
heads, and cylinder liners; transmission housings; machine tool bases; and large equipment
parts that are subjected to compressive loads and vibration
White cast iron has all of its excess carbon in the form of iron carbide and receives
its name from the white surface that appears when the material is fractured.
Because the large amount of iron carbide dominates the microstructure, white cast
iron is very hard and brittle, and finds applications where high abrasion resistance is
the dominant requirement. For these uses it is also common to pursue the hard, wear-
resistant martensite structure as the metal matrix .
In this way, both the metal matrix and the high-carbon second phase con-
tribute to the wear-resistant characteristics of the material
When white cast iron is exposed to an extended heat treatment at temperatures
in the range of 900°C (1650°F), the cementite will dissociate into its component ele-
ments, and some or all of the carbon will be converted into irregularly-shaped nodules
of graphite (also referred to as clump or popcorn graphite).The product, known as mal-
leable cast iron, has significantly greater ductility than that of gray cast iron because the
more favorable graphite shape removes the internal notches.The rapid cooling required
to produce the starting white iron structure restricts the size and thickness of malleable
iron products such that most weigh less than 5 kg.
Various types of malleable iron can be produced, depending on the type of heat
treatment that is employed. If the white iron is heated and held for a prolonged time just
below the melting point, the carbon in the cementite converts to graphite (first-stage
graphitization). Subsequent slow cooling through the eutectoid reaction causes the carbon-
containing austenite to transform to ferrite and more graphite (second-stage graphitiza-
tion).The resulting product, known as ferritic malleable cast iron, has a structure of irregular
particles of graphite dispersed in a ferrite matrix.If the material is cooled more rapidly through the eutectoid transformation,
the car-
bon in the austenite does not form additional graphite but is retained in a pearlite or
martensite matrix. The resulting pearlitic malleable cast iron is characterized by higher
strength and lower ductility than its ferritic counterpart.
The modified graphite structure of malleable iron provided quite an improvement
in properties compared to gray cast iron, but it would be even more attractive if it could
be obtained directly upon solidification rather than through a prolonged heat treatment
at highly elevated temperature. If a high-carbon-equivalent cast iron is sufficiently low
in sulfur (either by original chemistry or by desulfurization), the addition of certain ma-
terials can promote graphite formation and change the morphology (shape) of the
graphite product.
Austempered ductile iron (ADI), ductile iron that has undergone a special austem-
pering heat treatment to modify and enhance its properties,4 has emerged as a significant
engineering material. It combines the ability to cast intricate shapes with strength, fatigue,
and wear-resistance properties that are similar to those of heat-treated steel. Compared
to conventional as-cast ductile iron, it offers nearly double the strength at the same level
of ductility. Compared to steel, it also offers an 8 to 10% reduction in density (so strength-
to-weight ratio is excellent) and enhanced damping capability,both due to the graphite nod-
ules, but generally poorer machinability and with about a 20% lower elastic modulus.
Compacted graphite cast iron Pro-
duced by a method similar to that used to make ductile iron (an Mg–Ce–Ti addition is
made), compacted graphite iron is characterized by a graphite structure that is interme-
diate to the flake graphite of gray iron and the nodular graphite of ductile iron, and it tends
to possess some of the desirable properties and characteristics of each. properties of compacted graphite iron bridge the gap
between gray and ductile.
Strength, stiffness, and ductility are greater than those of gray iron, while castability,
machinability, thermal conductivity, and damping capacity all exceed those of ductile.
Impact and fatigue properties are good.