1541472097met Notes (By Rohan) Phase 1

METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION:
 Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere.

 The atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth.
 Weather refers to the elements that we see daily such as temperature, rain, wind,
atmospheric pressure, etc. These can change every hour and day by day.
 Climate is the more general pattern of the weather established by analyzing, on an
annual basis, the daily weather conditions at a particular point.
STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION:
The atmosphere can be divided into distinctive layers which are defined by the
variation of the air temperature with increase in height. Following are the layers of the
atmosphere in ascending order:
1) Troposphere:
 It extends from the surface of the earth to about 08 km above the poles and
about 16 km above the equator i.e. up to the tropopause.
 Nearly all weather changes occur in this layer and nearly all the water vapour
in the atmosphere is contained in this layer. Hence, this layer is of great
significance to the Mariners.
 Here, atmospheric temperature normally falls steadily as height increases.
 Sometimes, the temperature of air may increase with increase in height
instead of falling. This is called ‘temperature inversion’. Sometimes the
temperature of air remains constant with increase in height. The air is then
said to be an isothermal layer. However, both above conditions are
temporary and will return to normal subsequently.
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2) Stratosphere:
 It extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km above the earth’s surface
i.e. up to the stratopause.
 In the lower stratosphere, air temperature is constant with increasing height,
but in the middle and upper parts of the stratosphere, it increases with
increasing height. This is mainly due to the presence of ozone in this layer.
 This layer does not hold much significance for the mariners.
3) Mesosphere:
 It extends from the stratopause up to about 80 km above the surface of the
earth i.e. up to the mesopause.
 In the mesosphere, the air temperature decreases rapidly with increasing
height.
 Like the stratosphere, this layer too is not of any significance to the mariners.
Composition:
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of the following gases, the composition of

which is nearly constant in all layers:
 Nitrogen – 78%
 Oxygen – 21%
 Rare gases including CO2 – 1%
Also, the density of air decreases with increase in height.
ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE:
A process is said to be adiabatic when there is no heat transfer i.e. heat does not
enter or leave the system.
The change of temperature of air with increase in height is due to increase or

decrease in its volume, without any transfer of heat from or to the surrounding.
As we know, the temperature increases when volume decreases and vice-versa.
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By a law in physics, when a parcel of air is made to rise, its volume increases in
accordance with the rarer air at that height. Therefore, when the volume of this air
increases, its temperature decreases.
The expansion of air has caused it to cool, though no exchange of heat has taken
place with the surrounding. This cooling of air is thus adiabatic.
Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the parcel of air is cooled with increase in
height. It is usually expressed in deg. Celsius per km. It is also called Environmental
lapse rate (ELR) which is of the value of 6.50C per km for standard atmosphere. When
the air temperature decreases with increase in height, the ELR is positive, and when
the air temperature increases with increase in height (temperature inversion), the ELR
is negative.
The ELR in the lower troposphere increases significantly whenever a mass of air is
heated by a land surface during the day or whenever a mass of air is passing over a
relatively warmer land or sea surface (dry air). In contrast, the ELR decreases when air
is cooled by a land surface during the night or whenever a mass of air is passing over a
relatively cooler land or sea surface (wet air).
Wet & Dry Air:
Air is termed as saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapour
possible at a given temperature. In other words, any parcel of air that is fully
saturated with water vapour is called wet air or saturated air.
Any parcel of air that is not fully saturated with water vapour is called dry air.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
It has been observed that the temperature of a dry parcel of air which is made to rise
falls at a steady rate of 100C per km of ascent. In other words, the DALR is 100C per km.
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)
The temperature of a saturated parcel of air which is made to rise falls at a rate of
approximately 50C per km of ascent. In other words, the SALR is about 50C per km. it is
slightly variable – less at the equator and more at the poles.
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Why is SALR less than DALR?
As the saturated air rises, its temperature decreases and its capacity of hold water
vapour also decreases. The excess moisture condenses into water droplets. This
condensation causes the release of latent heat of vaporization that warms up the
parcel of air. Therefore the temperature falls only by 50C per km instead of 100C per
km. More the water vapour in the air; more is the condensation and more is the latent
heat released. In other words, more the water vapour; less is the decrease in
temperature i.e. less is the SALR.
DIURNAL VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE:
The atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about 1400 hrs LT and its
minimum at about half an hour after sunrise. This systematic change in the
atmospheric temperature during an average 24 hour period is termed as diurnal
variation of temperature.
The difference between the maximum and minimum values of the atmospheric
temperatures for any given day is called the diurnal range of atmospheric
temperature for that day.
The diurnal range of air temperature over land is large whereas over sea, it is very
small.
This is because –
LAND SEA
A) Land being a solid has low value of A) Sea being liquid has a higher value of
specific heat and so heats up specific heat and so heats up or cools
quickly. down slowly.
B) Heat received by land is retained B) Heat received by the sea is
only by the top layer as land is distributed over large masses of
poor conductor of heat. water by convection currents.
C) Evaporation causes cooling. But in C) Over the sea, evaporation during the
case of land, evaporation is day causes cooling which balances
negligible. the heat received from the sun.
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Therefore, the temperature of land varies a lot between day and night. Thus, the air in
contact with it has a large diurnal range. Whereas the air in contact with the sea has a
practically negligible diurnal range as the temperature of the sea is not varying much
between day and night.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted against a surface
by the weight of the air above that surface.
The unit of measurement is millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa). (1 mb = 1 hPa)
The atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called the barometer.

Hence it is also known as the barometric pressure.
The formula which defines this pressure is P = ρgh where P is the atmospheric
pressure, ρ is the mean density of the air in the column, g is the value of gravity and h
is the height of the air column.
Lapse Rate of Atmospheric Pressure:
At any height above the surface of the earth, the atmospheric pressure will be less
than that at the surface. This is because of the smaller values of both height of the air
column (h) and the mean density of air in the column (ρ) as air density decreases with
height. The graph of the lapse rate of atmospheric pressure against height above sea
level is a curve. Lapse rate at lower level of atmosphere is about 1 mb or 1 hPa for
every 10 m height above sea level. Lapse rate at higher levels of atmosphere is higher.
Diurnal Variation of Atmospheric Pressure:
It has been observed that the atmospheric pressure reaches it maximum at about
1000 hrs and 2200 hrs LT and its minimum at about 0400 and 1600 hrs LT. This daily
variation in the atmospheric pressure is known as the diurnal variation of atmospheric
pressure and the difference between the maximum and minimum values of the
atmospheric pressure is known as the diurnal range of atmospheric pressure.
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Barometric Tendency:
It is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at the time of observation and
the atmospheric pressure 3 hours earlier. The characteristics of the tendency
observed may be described as rising, falling or steady or a combination of these
terms. It is expressed to the nearest tenth of a hectopascal or millibar. When
observed barometric tendencies are plotted on a chart, the points having the same
tendencies are joined by lines called isallobars. (The points having same values of
atmospheric pressure are joined by lines called isobars)
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE:
Water can exist in the atmosphere in the following states:
1. Vapour – water vapour

2. Liquid – water droplets
3. Solid – ice crystals
Under certain circumstances, it changes from one state to another.
condensation freezing
VAPOUR LIQUID SOLID
evaporation melting
When water changes from solid state to vapour state or vice-versa, the process is
called sublimation.
During evaporation, latent heat is absorbed and during condensation, latent heat is
released.
WATER VAPOUR & HUMIDITY
In general, humidity is the quantity of water vapour present in the atmosphere. The
quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere is variable both in time and space. The
actual water vapour content of a sample of air may be expressed by a number of
terms:
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1. Humidity Mixing Ratio: It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given
sample of air to the mass of dry air (air without water vapour). Units are grams
/ kg.
2. Absolute Humidity: It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given
sample of air to the volume occupied by the mixture of water vapour and air.
Units are grams / m3.
3. Relative Humidity: It is the ratio of the mass of the water vapour present in a
given sample of air to that which could be present if the air was saturated at
the same temperature. It is expressed as a percentage.
Relative Humidity (RH) = x 100
If the temperature of a parcel of air increases, its capacity to hold water

vapour also increases. If no water vapour is allowed to come in or go out of
the sample of air, its relative humidity decreases. In other words, the air
becomes relatively drier. In contrast, when the parcel of air is cooled, its
relative humidity increases. Thus, Relative humidity is inversely proportional to
temperature. (RH α 1/ t)
4. Dew Point: When a sample of air is progressively cooled, its relative humidity
will increase. The temperature at which the relative humidity becomes 100%
i.e. the air becomes fully saturated (wet) is known as the dew point.
NOTES:
A) Atmospheric Sweat: When a cargo hold is ventilated, the air brought in by the
ventilators is very small compared to the air already present in the hold. If the
temperature of the air in the hold is less than the temperature of the air
entering the hold, then it will cool the entering air and if cooled below the dew
point it will give off moisture and condense as sweat on the cargo and on the
steel parts of the hold. This will damage the cargo and the ship. It is therefore
very important to compare the temperature of air in the hold with the dew
point of the outside air. If the hold temperature is less than the dew point of
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the outside air, restrict ventilation. If the hold temperature is greater than the
dew point of outside air, ventilate freely.
(Thumb Rule: Outside HOT, ventilate NOT. Outside COLD, ventilate the HOLD)
B) Cargo Sweat: Some cargoes such as hides, skin, ores, etc. give off large
quantities of water vapour making the relative humidity of air inside the hold
very high. The slightest cooling will cause condensation and sweat will form on
the steel parts and drip on the cargo causing damage to it. This can be only
prevented using large capacity exhaust fans, by using dunnage to keep cargo
off the steel and covering the top of cargo.
C) Ship sweat: When temperature of the sea is much lower than that of the air
above it, the underwater parts of the hold get cooled by contact with the sea.
Hence sweat is formed on steel parts below the waterline which normally
flows into the bilges. To avoid this, dunnage can be used to prevent cargo
coming in contact with the steel parts.
WIND
Wind is defined as the horizontal movement of air across the surface of the Earth. The
direction from which it blows and its speed are its important characteristics.
Isobars: An isobar is a line drawn on a weather map joining all places having equal
atmospheric pressure at the time for which that weather map was drawn. Isobars are
smooth lines that curve gently without any sudden change of direction except at
fronts where it may change direction suddenly by about 90 degrees. Isobars cannot
cross each other or meet as one place cannot have at a same time a different value of
atmospheric pressure. For standardization, isobars are drawn at intervals of 4mb and
pressure denoted by an isobar is divisible by 4. (for eg- 996, 1000, 1004 and so on)
Pressure Gradient:
 It is the change of atmospheric pressure over unit distance at right angles to the
isobars.
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 When isobars are close together, pressure gradient is said to be high and strong
winds are expected to blow. When isobars are far or well-spaced, pressure
gradient is said to be small and winds of lower speed will be expected to blow.
 For a given pressure gradient, stronger winds will blow at the lower latitudes
than in the higher latitudes.
Coriolis Force (or geostrophic force):
 When a horizontal pressure gradient exists, a force called pressure gradient

force acts on the air which moves from high to low pressure at right angles to
the isobars.
 However, the air does not move in this direction as it is deflected by Coriolis
force or the geostrophic force. It is called so as it relates to the rotation of the
earth about its axis and causes the air to be deflected to the right of its line of
motion in the northern hemisphere and to the left of its line of motion in the
southern hemisphere.
 Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction in which the wind is
blowing.
 Mathematically it can be shown that in the horizontal plane, with the xy
coordinates aligned to north and east respectively, the Coriolis force acting per
unit mass of air is 2ΩsinΦv where Ω is the angular velocity of the earth, Φ is the
latitude and v is the speed of the air.
 When at equator Φ = 0, that means, Coriolis force is zero or minimum at the
equator. As latitude increases, the Coriolis force also increases and is maximum
at the pole
Geostrophic Wind:
 When isobars are straight lines parallel to each other, the resultant horizontal
motion due to the action of the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces is termed
as Geostrophic wind.
 Its direction is parallel to the isobars and its speed is constant.
 The Geostrophic wind is used by professional meteorologists in forecasting,
but as it does not exist at the surface, it is of limited practical value to the
seafarer.
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Gradient Wind:
 It is the horizontal air motion parallel to isobars which are curved. It is due
to the action of the pressure gradient, Coriolis force and cyclostrophic force.
 In a low pressure system, the gradient wind blows in an anti-clockwise
fashion in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
 In a high pressure system, it blows clockwise in the Northern hemisphere
and anti-clockwise in the Southern hemisphere. (as shown in the diagram
below)
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Cyclostrophic Force:
 It is the force that acts radially outwards from the centre of rotation of the air
particle following a curved path.
 The value of the force is directly dependent upon the gradient wind speed.
Angle of indraft:
 Air moving across the surface of the earth is affected by friction, and does not
achieve the speed which in theory is directly related to the pressure gradient. As
a result, the Coriolis and the cyclostrophic forces have smaller values and
therefore neither the Geostrophic or gradient winds exist.
 The pressure gradient becomes dominant and the resultant wind blows
diagonally across the isobars from high to low pressure. The angle that the
resultant wind direction makes with the isobars is called angle of indraft.
 This angle depends on friction, gradient force and latitude. (as Coriolis force is
variable at different latitudes)
 Over land the effect of friction is greater and therefore the angle of indraft is
larger.
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Buys Ballot’s Law:
 Buys Ballot formulated a law identifying the relationship between wind and
pressure distribution. The law states that if an observer has his back to the
wind, then low pressure will be to the left in the northern hemisphere and right
in the southern hemisphere.
 It follows that the high pressure will be on the right in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
 In other words, “face the true wind and the Low pressure area will be on your
right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.”
 However this law cannot be applied near the equator as Coriolis force here is
negligible and winds blow directly from high pressure to low pressure across
the isobars.
 This law should not be applied in the vicinity of the land as wind may not be free
unobstructed wind and may be wind deflected by the land.
Geostrophic Wind Scale:
 It is a scale provided on a weather map that is used to predict wind speed at

sea. It is drawn to the scale of the map.
 The distance between two consecutive isobars is taken off the weather map a
divider. The divider is then placed on the Geostrophic wind scale, one leg of the
divider is placed on the margin indicating the present latitude and other leg is
placed horizontally to the right on the curved lines that indicate the Geostrophic
wind speed.
 If the other leg of the divider falls between two curves, interpolation must be
carried out accordingly.
 Because of the friction between the air and the earth’s surface, the wind speed
over land is taken as half of Geostrophic wind speed and over sea since friction
is less, it is taken as 2/3rd of the Geostrophic wind speed.
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Important Definitions:
 Sea (waves): it is the name given to waves on the sea surface, created by wind
that is presently blowing. The height of sea disturbance in open waters is
directly proportional to the wind force.
 Swell: is the name given to waves on the sea surface, formed by wind that has
subsequently stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place quite far away.
Swell travels quickly and can be felt even over 1000 miles away. It travels
radially outward from the centre of the storm and is usually the first indication
of the presence and bearing of the TRS.
 Gust & Lull: A gust in an increase in wind speed about the mean value and a lull
is a decrease in wind speed about the mean value.
 Squall: is a prolonged gust with a duration of more than one minute and an
increase in speed of atleast 16 knots or three steps on the BF scale, its speed
being Force 6 or greater.
 Veering: A clockwise change in the direction from which the wind is blowing is
called veering.
 Backing: An anti-clockwise change in the direction from which the wind is
blowing is called backing.
THUNDERSTORMS:
1. It is a phenomenon where the atmosphere is very unstable throughout for a

considerable depth.
2. There is a large quantity of moisture in the atmosphere and towering
cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
3. There is a release of latent heat which causes the temperature to rise there by
forcing the air to rise violently further up aggravating the violent formation of
cumulonimbus clouds.
4. Release of latent heat creates a situation of violent convection. This leads to
separation of positive and negative charges and build up of potential
difference among the clouds.
5. When two layers of cloud with different charges come close to each other, the
charges move from higher potential to lower potential.
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6. This ionizes the atmospheric gases so that the discharge path becomes visible
as a flash of light. The ionization also creates a shockwave which is heard as
thunder. As a shock wave lasts longer than the flash, the thunder is heard
longer than the lightning.
GLOBAL WIND AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:
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Doldrums / Inter tropical convergence zone:
 It is the term for the zone in the equatorial ocean regions where light and
variable winds occur.
 It is the area of low latitudes in which the trade winds of the two hemispheres
converge. Hence the name inter tropical convergence zone.
 Though the doldrums are known for light and variable winds, sometimes
squalls, heavy rains and thunderstorms may be experienced.
Trade Winds:
 Trade winds are defined as the winds that exist between the subtropical high
and the ITCZ. The term is derived from their reputation for constant direction
and speed, which made them very reliable for trade by sailing vessels.
 These blow constantly throughout the year from about 250 to 300 latitude
towards the equator in both hemispheres over all major sea areas.
 In the northern hemisphere, they blow from subtropical high to ITCZ, being
deflected to the right slightly by Coriolis force and hence blow from NE and are
called NE trade winds.
 In the southern hemisphere, they blow from subtropic high (300 S) to ITCZ and
get deflected slightly to the left by Coriolis force and hence blow from SE and
are called SE trade winds.
 The average trade wind speed is about 12 to 15 knots (Force 4).
 In general, the trade winds blow more strongly towards the end of winter in
each hemisphere.
Subtropical High / Horse Latitudes:
 These are located in latitudes 300 to 350 N/S.

 The winds here are light and variable.
 It is a high pressure belt and in general, the weather here is clear.
 They have earned the name ‘horse latitudes’ because when sail ships were
stuck in these regions due to lack of wind, they had to throw their horses
overboard.
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Westerlies and Polar Easterlies:
 Westerlies are the winds that blow from the subtropical high to the sub-polar
low, in both cases being deflected by Coriolis force and therefore coming from
the west, hence the name westerlies.
 These winds blow from the sub polar high region of the latitudes 300 N/S to the
sub-polar low regions of the latitude 600 N/S.
 Polar Easterlies are the winds that blow from the Polar regions (high pressure)
to the sub-polar low, in both cases being deflected by Coriolis force and
therefore coming from the east, hence the name Polar Easterlies.
 These winds blow from the respective poles to the sub-polar high region of 600
N/S.
LOCAL WINDS:
1. Bora Winds:
 These are katabatic winds which blow from N or NE down the slopes of steep
mountains of the Adriatic, Ural mountains off the North coast of Black Sea.
 Because of the great heights from where these winds come, they attain gale
force in a very short time without the usual warning indicated by barometric
pressure.
 These are very dangerous to the ships at anchor and small crafts in its path.
2. Levanter:
 It is an easterly, light to moderate, moist wind that blows across the Strait of
Gibraltar, mainly in March and also between July and October.
 Its moist nature brings rain, mist or fog, sometimes haze.
 It is the cause of the ‘Banner cloud’ or ‘Levanter cloud’ which stretches a mile
or so to leeward, like a flag, from the top of the Rock.
 If the force of the Levanter exceeds Beaufort scale 7, the banner cloud lifts and
disappears.
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3. Mistral
 It is a strong N or NW katabatic wind blowing over the Gulf of Lions in the NW

part of the Mediterranean Sea.
 Its main features are its frequency of occurrence, its dry, cold nature and the
rapidity with which is can develop into gale force, without any indication by
barometric pressure.
4. Norther
 It is a strong gale, with rain and occurs during the winter in Chile.
 It gives good warning signs of its approach which are the falling barometric
pressure, clouds and overcast sky, swell from northward and water high in the
harbours.
 The term norther is also applicable to the winds which blow over the Gulf of
Mexico and western Caribbean in winter. But these are set off without warning
and occur when there are intense anticyclone over NW America.
 They reach gale force in the Gulf of Mexico but diminish in strength in the
Caribbean.
5. Shamal
 It is the NW wind in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

 It is a warm, dusty, dry wind from the deserts of Arabia.
 The sky is cloudless and the visibility during the Shamal is very bad because of
the huge amount of sand and fine dust from the desert.
 It may change direction due to the trend of the land features and can blow
from W or even SW.
 No indication is given by barometric pressure of the approach of a Shamal,
though the wind force in winter can reach BF 8 or 9, sometimes accompanied
by rainsqualls, thunder and lightning.
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6. Tornadoes and Water-sprout
 A tornado is a violent whirlwind of the cyclonic type – anticlockwise in the NH

and clockwise in the SH.
 Its axis is nearly vertical, extending from the cloud-base downward and often
reaching ground level.
 Its width is anything between 50 and 500 metres but the wind is often of
hurricane force at the centre.
 It generally travels at a speed of about 10-30 knots and lasts for a few minutes
to a few days.
 The hurricane force winds of such a small diameter, cause an intense upward
current at the centre, capable of lifting heavy objects into the air, uprooting
trees, destroying buildings, etc.
 Tornadoes are associated with Cumulonimbus clouds.
 The favorable conditions for the formation of tornado is same as that for
Thunderstorm i.e. great atmospheric instability, high humidity, convergence at
low levels, etc.
 Tornadoes occur very frequently and violently over mid-west-USA and central
plains of the USA.
 When tornadoes are formed and pass over the sea, large quantities of water
are carried up forming a water sprout, which appears as a thin, funnel-shaped,
opaque column, broad at the top and very thin at the sea level.
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METEOROLOGY CLIMATOLOGY
CLIMATOLOGY
TRANSFER OF HEAT
Heat is transferred from one place to another in three ways –
1. Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy between two solid masses which are in
contact with each other, from the mass at higher temperature to the mass at lower
temperature. Metal objects, for example, are very good conductors of heat whereas
wood is not. Land is a poor conductor of heat although different types of soil have
different conductivity. For example, sand is a better conductor of heat than mud.
2. Convection:
Convection is the transfer of energy as a result of movement of parts of a fluid. If one

corner of a bowl of water is heated, the water molecules move about and the heat is
distributed throughout the entire body of the water. On the earth’s surface, heat is
transferred from one place to another by ocean currents and by convection currents.
3. Radiation:
Radiation is the transfer of heat from one place to another through space, without
the necessity of any intervening medium. Heat given off by the sun travels through
space and reaches the earth through radiation.
Insolation:
Insolation is the name given to all forms of energy received by the earth from the
sun, by the process of radiation. Insolation includes light, heat, ultraviolet rays,
infrared rays, etc. Insolation has a very small wavelength. Energy of such small
wavelength can pass through a transparent media without heating the media.
Insolation therefore passes the earth’s atmosphere without heating it.
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Why are cloudy nights warmer?
 Sun’s radiation is subject to scattering, reflection, absorption, etc. Majority of

the heat received from the sun is reflected back to the outer space and very
little is absorbed. If this was not the case, the earth would melt due to the
tremendous heat.
 The energy that is absorbed by the earth is re-radiated by it. This re-radiation is
called terrestrial radiation which is of much longer wavelength. Thus, it cannot
easily penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Terrestrial radiations therefore heat up the atmosphere.
 Insolation can penetrate easily through the clouds but terrestrial radiations
cannot escape. As the terrestrial radiations trying to escape to outer space are
reflected back by the clouds, cloudy nights are warmer.
Why are Polar Regions colder than equatorial regions?
 Since earth is very far from the Sun, the rays of the Sun are assumed to be
coming parallel to each other. The sunrays thus reaching the poles spread over
a larger area as compared to the rays reaching the equator.
 Also, it has been observed that each pole receives sunlight only during its
summer and not during its winter.
 Over the equator, the rays of the sun are never more than 23.50 away from the
vertical. The equatorial regions are therefore warm throughout the year as
compared to the tropics where the angle of incidence may vary between 23.50
and 66.50.
 Hence, Polar Regions and higher latitudes are colder than equatorial regions.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:
 It is the phenomenon that is used to grow tropical plants in cold regions in a

specialized structure called the green house.
 A large room is built with glass roof and glass sides with small glass windows
for air circulation. Sunlight (or insolation) easily enters the room through the
roof and / or the sides.
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 Terrestrial radiations, however, cannot pass easily through the floor of the
room, being of larger wavelength. These terrestrial radiations thus get trapped
inside the room thereby increasing the temperature of the room. This is known
as the Green House Effect.
GLOBAL WARMING:
Global Warming refers to the average increase in the earth’s temperature due to
increase in pollution which results in greenhouse effect which in turn leads to climate
change. It has been determined that a number of human activities are contributing
towards the growth of global warming by releasing excessive amount of greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
accumulate into the atmosphere and trap the heat that would normally exit into the
outer space.
Causes of Global Warming:
 Burning fossil fuels – it changes the stored organic carbon from a liquid (like
oil) or a solid (like coal/wood) and converts it into a gas (carbon dioxide) which
gets released into the atmosphere. It also releases nitrous oxide.
 Deforestation – trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the
process of photosynthesis and release oxygen.
 Decomposing organic matter – when organic matter gets decomposed, the
bacteria involved in the process release methane gas in the atmosphere.
 Natural Gas extraction – during oil or gas extraction operations, methane gas
escapes and gets released into the atmosphere.
 Use of Fertilizers - nitrous oxide is released primarily by fertilizers used in
agriculture.
 Release of CFC’s – these are long-lasting greenhouse gases that are released
into the atmosphere because of the use of aerosols, foaming agents,
refrigerants and other industrial applications.
Effects of Global Warming:
 Rise in the sea level due to the melting of the glaciers.

 Changes in climate (Increasing temperatures)
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 Changes in the rainfall pattern.

 Wide range of impacts on plants and humans.
 Destruction/depletion of the ozone layer.
 Shrinkage of forests.
 As CO2 dissolves in seawater, carbonic acid is formed, acidifying the oceans,
which may impact ocean life.
ACCUMULATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES:
 Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC’s,

water vapour and other gases have heat trapping capacity and are effective in
creating the greenhouse effect that keeps the earth warm which is required to
support plants, animals and humans.
 Some of these gases occur naturally in the atmosphere while others are
released in tons of capacity every year all over the world from human sources.
Their level has risen to a point that is no longer sustainable and the level is still
increasing every day.
 These gases are released when we drive cars, burn wood or coal, large power
plants, etc. Deforestation is also a reason for the greenhouses gases because
fewer trees means less carbon dioxide converted to oxygen.
 Now when the accumulation of these greenhouse gases grows, more heat gets
trapped into the atmosphere and very little is radiated back into the space. This
heats up the earth’s surface, the phenomenon which is known as Global
Warming.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:
 The Earth’s ozone layer protects all life from the sun’s harmful radiation, but
human activities are damaging this shield. Ozone depletion means reduced
ozone levels which means less protection from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays.
 More exposure to UV radiations at Earth’s surface has the following effects-
1. Exposure to UV rays can cause skin cancer and also development of
cataracts i.e. clouding of the eye’s lens. That is why it is important to protect
your skin and eyes from the sun. With the depletion of the ozone, this
exposure will increase to a great extend thus harming human health.
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2. Exposure to UV rays also has a harmful effect on plant’s growth process.

3. Exposure to UV rays also has a harmful effect on marine life as it reduces the
reproductive capacity and thus reduces the population of marine organisms
which will have implications for the whole marine food chain.
 Most of the ozone is present in the stratosphere about 15-30km above the
earth’s surface.
 When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone, the destroy
ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone
molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed
more quickly than it is naturally created.
 Some compounds release chlorine and bromine when they are exposed to
intense UV light in the stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone
depletion and are called ozone depleting substances (ODS). For example,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC’s), carbon
tetrachloride, etc.
 Although these ODS are emitted at the earth’s surface, they are eventually
carried into the stratosphere in a process that can take as long as two to five
years. One example of Ozone layer depletion is the annual ozone ‘hole’ over
Antarctica, which is not really a hole through the ozone layer, but rather a large
area of the stratosphere with extremely low amounts of ozone.
LATENT HEAT:
 Water can be found in its 3 phases viz. liquid, solid (ice) and gas (water vapour).
Heat absorbed or released due to a change in phase is called latent heat.
 We can’t see water when it is in a gaseous state (water vapour). However, if
enough of it is present in the atmosphere we feel it as humidity.
 The conversion of energy from one form to another is the very basic law of
nature. It says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but change
from one form to another.
 When water vapour transforms into water, latent heat is given off. In contrast,
when water gets transformed into vapour, latent heat is absorbed and hence it
contributes to cooling. That is why we get cooling effect after sweating, due to
the evaporation of the sweat.
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 The release of latent heat supplies most of the energy needed for TRS. When
water evaporates, it takes up the latent heat, cooling the local environment. As
water vapour, it carries that heat around and when that water vapour
condenses, it releases that latent heat and thereby heating up the local
environment.
CLOUDS
Clouds are collection of water droplets or ice crystals, or combination of these two
states of water, suspended in the atmosphere. The shapes of cloud within the
troposphere may be stratiform (flattened or layered), cumuliform (heaped), cirriform
(hair or thread-like), or a combination of these. Clouds can be categorized on the
basis of their height above the surface.
Low Clouds: These consist entirely of water droplets. Their base is between sea level
and 2 km height above sea level.
Medium Clouds: These have the prefix ‘Alto’. They mainly consist of water droplets
and some ice particles. Their base is between 2km-6km above sea level.
High Clouds: They have the prefix ‘Cirro’. They consist entirely of ice crystals. Their
base is about 6 km above sea level upto the tropopause.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Stratus (St) Altostratus (As) Cirrus (Ci)
Stratocumulus (Sc) Altocumulus (Ac) Cirrostratus (Cs)
Nimbostratus (Ns) Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Cumulus (Cu)
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Stratus:
 It is an even layer of dark grey cloud.

 It does not cause precipitation and has got a dry look.
 It resembles fog but does not occur at sea level.
 It can obscure the sun totally and weaken day light.
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Stratocumulus:
 It is grey in colour with dark shadows.

 It has patches of globular masses.
 The patches join and form overcast sky obscuring the sun.
 It is distinguishable from stratus by its wavy and linear appearance.
Nimbostratus:
 It is an even layer of dark grey cloud.

 It is uniform and threatening in appearance.
 It has got a wet look and causes precipitation. (continuous, not intermittent)
 It is usually formed by gradual thickening and lowering of altostratus.
 It can completely obscure the sun and weaken day light.
Cumulus:
 It is brilliant white in colour, with clear outline.

 It is a thick cloud with flat base and appears like cauliflower top.
 If it has little vertical accent it is called fracto cumulus.
 If it has high vertical accent then it is called towering cumulus.
 Well-developed cumulus will cause precipitation which is light.
Cumulonimbus:
 It is grey and heavy cloud with great vertical extent.

 The base is in low cloud levels but the top is in high cloud level.
 It has a threatening appearance and also known as a thundercloud.
 The top of a well-developed cumulonimbus with have attached to it , a cap of
white cirrus cloud in the shape of an anvil. It is thus called anvil shaped
cumulonimbus. Its base however resembles a nimbostratus.
 It gives intermittent showers and hence can be distinguished from
nimbostratus which gives continuous precipitation.
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Altostratus:
 it is a thin grayish blue veil of cloud with dark shadow like patches.
 Through them, sun and moon appear dim and their outlines appear hazy.
 It does not give rise to haloes.
Altocumulus:
 It is white grey or both, in patch, layer or sheet form.

 It has dark shadows in between and appears like small flattened globules, rolls
or long bands or almonds.
Cirrus:
 These high clouds are silvery and appear like feathers or fibres.
 Being so high up they always have background of blue light. During twilight,
they appear bright red or yellow.
 On dark nights, they have dimming effects on the stars.
Cirrostratus:
 These high clouds have thin whitish veil.

 Through these sun and moon appear watery. However, the outline of the sun
or moon is sufficiently clear for altitude observations.
 Haloes are often seen.
Cirrocumulus:
 These high clouds are in the form of small flakes or cauliflower.

 They are white in colour and there is no shadow between them.
FORMATION OF CLOUDS:
Clouds are formed in the following 4 main ways:
(1) Turbulence: Strong winds blowing over uneven ground strike against various
obstructions. This causes the air to deflect upwards. As the air rises, it gets cooled
adiabatically. If cooled below the dew point, clouds will be formed. This happens
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when air is moisture laden and passes over cold, uneven ground. Over sea, wind
speed of over 13 knots can produce sea waves of sufficient height to form turbulence
clouds. These clouds are of the stratus type with base generally not more than 600m
high.
(2) Orographic cloud: When a warm, moist wind blows against a mountain range, it
begins to climb up the mountain side. During this ascent, it cools adiabatically and
after cooling below its dew point, orographic clouds are formed. These are also of
the stratus type. If the mountain is too high, then further ascent results in
nimbostratus and continuous precipitation. On the windward side, clouds are
forming steadily and on the leeward side, clouds are dissipating at the same rate as
the descending air gets adiabatically warmed and clouds evaporate.
(3) Convection: When a parcel of air gets heated, due to any local cause, it expands
and becomes less dense than the surrounding air and hence, it rises. This is called
convection current. This local heating can be due to contact with warm sea or
ground. The parcel will rise till it is warmer than the surrounding air. During the
ascent the rising air will get cooled adiabatically and when cooled below dew point,
condensation takes place resulting in formation of convection clouds which are
always of the cumulous type. If the ascent of air is high, it will result in formation of
towering cumulus. If the ascent is very rapid, cumulonimbus clouds may form with its
head well into the high cloud level until its top reaches the tropopause. As the cloud
cannot rise above the tropopause it will spread sideways and look like an anvil. This is
called an anvil shaped cumulonimbus.
(4) Frontal Lifting: When a warm and cold mass of air are in contact, their line of
separation at sea level is called a front. The boundary between them is non-vertical. It
is inclined towards the colder air as it is denser than the warmer air. This inclined
boundary acts like a wedge and lifts up the warm air. In case of a warm front, the
slope is gradual and the upsliding warm air forms stratiform clouds. In case of a cold
front, the slope is very steep and the upsliding warm air forms cumulonimbus and
cumulus clouds.
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Land and Sea Breezes:
They are due to large difference in the diurnal range of atmospheric temperature
over land and over sea. The diurnal range over land may be about 200C whereas over
sea it may be less than 10C. Due to this big difference, land and sea breezes are
experienced, where large expanses of both land and water meet. The sea breeze is
stronger than the land breeze.
Land Breeze:- During night, the land gives off its heat quickly thus cooling the air in
contact with it. This results in high pressure over land. The temperature of sea
surface and thus the air in contact with it remains fairly steady. This creates a
relatively low pressure over sea. Since the distance between land and sea is small, the
pressure gradient is fairly high and winds blow from the land towards the sea. This is
called land breeze and it sets in a couple of hours after sunset and blows until about
half hour after sunrise.
Sea Breeze: During the day, the land gets very hot and the air is contact with it gets
heated. This results in a low pressure over land. The temperature of sea surface and
the air in contact with it remains fairly steady. This results in a relatively high pressure
over sea. Since the distance between the high and low pressure areas (sea & land) is
small, the pressure gradient is fairly high and winds blow directly from the sea
towards the land. This is called sea breeze and it sets in by about 1000 LT and reaches
a maximum force of 3-4 BF by about 1400 LT and dies down at about sunset.
Katabatic Wind: On clear nights, the land surface gives off its heat into space very
quickly resulting in a cold layer of air near the land surface. If the ground is sloping,
the cold air at the land surface will be colder than the adjacent air over the sea. The
air near the land surface being denser will start sliding down the hill due to
gravitational force. This wind is called Katabatic Wind (kata=down). If the mountain is
high and slope is steep, these winds can reach sea level with wind force as much as
BF 7 in a very short while. Because of their sudden onset and great force, they are a
menace to small crafts and vessels at anchor. The onset of katabatic winds cannot be
predicted as they have no relationship with isobars. They are caused due to
gravitational force and not by pressure gradient.
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Anabatic Wind: During day time, the land surface gets heated quickly, resulting in a
layer of warm air next to the land surface. Inside a valley, the air near the land surface
is relatively warmer than the air above it. The relatively colder air thereby displaces
the warmer air out of the valley, sliding it gently up the mountain side. This wind is
called anabatic wind. (Ana=up) These winds are much weaker than katabatic winds
having no much importance to mariners as they occur over land usually in valleys.
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METEOROLOGY FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
Air Masses:
It is defined as a quantity of air with dimensions of about 500 NM or so,
with little or no horizontal variation of any of its properties, especially
temperature.
Air masses are named after the sources from which they originate. Main air
masses on the Earth are Tropical Air Masses and Polar Air Masses.
Factors affecting the properties of an Air Mass:-

1. Source region – if the air mass is of Polar origin, it will be cold and if of
tropical origin, it will be warm.
2. Its track over the Earth’s surface – if it passes over large expanses of
water, it will be moist and if it passes over land, it will be dry.
3. Its extent of convergence or divergence – if it converges at low level (as

in depression) it will cause the air in the centre to ascent. If it diverges at
lower levels (as in anti-cyclone) it will cause the air from above to descend.
4. Its age – the age of the air mass is the number of days it has spent in its
source origin. The longer it has stayed there, the greater it will be
influenced by the climate of that place.
5. Its rate of travel – if it moves quickly, the area over which it moves does
not have sufficient time to influence the properties of the air mass. Hence a
quick moving air mass almost retains its original properties. If it moves
slowly, the area over which it blows has sufficient time to influence its
properties. Hence a slow moving air mass will have somewhat different
characteristics from its original ones.
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Classification of Air Masses:

1. Polar Continental – Polar air mass coming over land. (Cold & dry)
2. Polar Maritime – Polar air mass coming over sea. (Cold & Moist)
3. Tropical Continental – Tropical air mass coming over land. (Warm & dry)
4. Tropical Maritime – Tropical air mass coming over sea. (Warm & Moist)
FRONT
The boundary between two adjacent air masses which are well defined by
their different characteristics is called a front.
The two air masses would have different density, pressure and
temperature and would have originated from different source regions of
different latitudes.
The type of front depends on the following:
1. Direction in which the air mass is moving

2. The characteristics of the air mass.
TYPES OF FRONT
 On the basis of Direction in which the air mass is moving
a) Arctic Front – it is located between the very cold arctic air and less
cold polar air. Temperature difference across the front is small,
contrasts are therefore small. The circulation activity connected with
this front is weak.
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b) Polar Front – it is located between the Polar Air and the Tropical air
and is the most active front with large contrasts in the physical
properties of the air masses. It is very vigorous in behavior.
c) Inter-tropical Front (ITCZ Front) – it is found in the Inter-Tropical

Convergence Zone (ITCZ) between the opposing trade wind belts. It
has a very small contrast in the physical properties of the opposing air
masses. The frontal activity is very weak.
d) Stationary Front – it is a front that does not move or barely moves. It

behaves like warm front, but is less violent. Usually the winds on both
the sides of the stationary front are parallel to the front.
 On the basis of the characteristics of the air mass.
a) Cold Front:
 After a front passes over a

place, if the atmospheric
temperature is lower than
before, the front is called a
cold front.
 They tend to move faster than
all other types of fronts. They
move the farthest while maintaining their intensity.
 They are generally associated with the most violent weather among
all types of fronts. They are associated with strong thunderstorms
along and ahead of the front and a broad area of clouds immediately
behind the front.
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 They are usually associated with squall lines which are a line of strong
thunderstorm parallel to and ahead of the front.
 They usually bring cooler weather, clear skies and sharp changes in
wind direction.
 On weather maps, blue line denotes cold front. In facsimile, conical
symbols (like icicles) are used to denote cold front.
b) Warm Front:
 After a front passes over a

place, if the atmosphere
temperature is higher than
before, the front is said to be a
warm front.
 The warm front has a gentler
slope than the cold fronts.
 Warm fronts tend to move slowly.
 They are generally less violent than cold fronts.
 They are generally associated with large regions of gentle ascent,
stratiform clouds and light to moderate continuous rain.
 Behind the warm front, the skies are relatively clear.
 A warm front if exists on a weather map, it will be to the NE of a cold
front and often, to the East of a surface low pressure area.
 On a weather map, red line denotes warm front. In facsimile, rounded
symbols (like heat boils) are used to denote the warm fronts.
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FRONTAL DEPRESSION
 A frontal depression is a low pressure area formed at the boundary
between two different air masses. It occurs in middle or higher
latitudes. Series of them following one after the other is known as
‘family of frontal depressions’.
 The formation of a frontal depression is called ‘frontogenesis’.
 The warm air must travel faster than the cold air or both must travel in
the opposite directions.
 The front depression starts a small bulge of warm air in the cold air. The
bulge then increases in size and the isobars in the cold air begin to bend
accordingly.
 Since the density of warm air is less than that of the cold air, the bulge is
an area of low pressure surrounded by areas of high pressure on three
sides.
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 The bent isobars take closed shapes and the winds blow spirally inward,
anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
 The isobars inside the bulge remain straight and roughly parallel to the
original boundary between the two air masses.
 On crossing the front, the isobars change direction by 900. Because of
this, when a front passes over a place, wind suddenly veers by 900 in the
NH and backs by 900 in the SH.
 The entire system will move in the same direction as the warm air mass
and with approximately the same speed as the warm air mass.
Weather Associated with Frontal Depression:

A) At Point ‘A’ : Well before the warm front
 Atmospheric pressure falls steadily.
 Wind direction is steady and wind force is increasing.
 Temperature is slowly rising.
 There is continuous heavy rain or snow.
 Visibility is good except during showers.
B) At Point ‘B’ : Just before the Warm Front

 Atmospheric pressure stops falling and becomes steady.
 Wind suddenly veers by 900 (backs in SH)
 Wind force becomes steady.
 Temperature suddenly rises quickly.
 Precipitation stops, but mist or fog is present, because of which,
visibility is poor.
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C) At Point ‘C’ : After the Warm Front, before the Cold Front
 Atmospheric pressure is constant.
 Wind direction, wind force and temperature are all steady.
 Sky is cloudy and there is drizzle, fog or mist, because of which,
visibility is poor.
D) At Point ‘D’ : At the Cold Front / Just after Cold Front passes
 Atmospheric Pressure suddenly rises
 Wind suddenly veers by about 900. (backs in the SH)
 Wind force is significantly high giving rise to squalls.
 Temperature suddenly falls.
 There is heavy rain, thunder and lightning.
 Visibility is poor due to rain squalls.
E) At Point ‘E’ : Well after the Cold Front passes

 Atmospheric pressure rises slowly.
 Wind direction becomes steady again.
 Wind force gradually decreases & temperature becomes steady.
 There are occasional showers, during which the visibility is poor.
Otherwise, visibility is very good.
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AT ‘A’ AT ‘B’ AT ‘C’ AT ‘D’ AT ‘E’

PRESSURE Falls Stops falling Constant Sudden Rise Rises slowly
steadily & is steady
WIND DIR. Steady Suddenly Steady Suddenly Steady
0 0
veers by 90 veers by 90
WIND Increasing Steady Steady Squalls Gradually
FORCE decreases
ATM. TEMP. Slow rise Sudden Steady Sudden fall Steadies
quick rise
WEATHER Cont. heavy Precipitation Cloudy / Heavy rain, Occasional
rains/snow stops, mist, drizzles, thunder, showers.
fog mist, fog lightning.
VISIBILITY Very good Poor due to Poor due Poor due to Very good
(except mist / fog to mist / rains/squalls (except
during fog during
showers) showers)
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FRONTOLYSIS:
 Frontolysis is the decay or weakening and final dissipation of a frontal
depression.
 First step is the formation of ‘occlusions’.
 The cold air in front of and behind the warm sector of a frontal
depression soon manages to undercut the warm air and lift it
completely above the sea level. The depression is then said to be
occluded.
 There are three stages of decay of a frontal depression. These are
shown below:
 On a weather map, occlusions are shown by a purple line or by

alternate red and blue dashes. On facsimile, they are shown as
alternate rounded and conical symbols drawn in the direction in
which the occluded front is moving. If it is a stationary occluded
front, it has same symbol as the stationary front i.e. rounded and
conical symbols on either sides of the front. (see below)
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Occluded Front Stationary Occluded

Front
moving EAST.
 If after the passage of an occlusion, the air temperature is lower than

before, the occlusion is said to be cold occlusion.
 If after the passage of an occlusion, the air temperature is higher
than before, the occlusion is said to be a warm occlusion.
 On the passage of an occlusion, the wind veers more for cold
occlusions than for warm. (backs in SH)
 Weather associated with warm and cold occlusions are similar to that
of warm and cold front but just milder.
 Within a few days of the occlusions, the frontal depression fills up
and is no longer visible on the weather maps.
-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-
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METEOROLOGY OCEAN CURRENTS
OCEAN CURRENTS
INTRODUCTION:
 An ocean current is the general movement of a body of sea-water

on a permanent, semi-permanent or seasonal basis. The direction
towards which it moves is called ‘set’ and its speed is called ‘rate’.
 A current is different from a tidal flow which is subject to hourly
changes and which is caused by the gravitational effects of the
Moon, Sun or planets.
 A tidal-stream is the resultant of a tidal flow and the current in a
particular coastal area. It changes every hour and is described in
tidal-stream atlases.
 The direction of an ocean current is different at various depths
but as navigators, we are only interested in the movement of the
surface of the sea, upto about half the ships draft.
 The strongest currents occur in the upper layer which is shallow
in comparison to the depths of the ocean.
TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS:
Ocean currents can be classified in a number of ways.
(A) On the basis of their cause of formation.
(i) Drift current – caused by winds.
(ii) Upwelling current – caused by upwelling near the coast.
(iii) Gradient current – caused by difference in water level or density.
As mentioned above, there are 3 main causes of the ocean currents:
(i) Drift (ii) Upwelling (iii) Gradient
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DRIFT:
1. Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of

ocean for long periods. The frictional effect of the wind, on the
sea surface, causes the sea surface to move.
2. It drags the water in the same direction in which the wind is
blowing. This creates wind drift currents.
3. However, Coriolis force deflects the drift current to the right in
the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere by about 30 to 45 degrees.
4. The maximum strength of the drift current is only upto about 2
knots. If, however, there are strengthening factors such as
gradient, shape of the coast, etc. the drift current can increase
two or three-fold and is then called a stream.
5. The speed of the current depends upon the wind speed and its
constancy.
6. The drift currents at the surface also transmit the drag to the
successive layers below it which are also influenced by the
Coriolis force.
7. Examples of drift currents are:
a) North Equatorial currents, South Equatorial currents caused by
the trade winds.
b) North Atlantic Current, North Pacific current and Southern
Ocean current caused by the Westerlies.
UPWELLING:
1. Whenever a wind blows away from a long coastline for a

considerable length of time, the outflow of water from the coat is
replaced by an upward movement (upwelling) of sea-water, from
a depth upto about 150 metres or so.
2. Since this upwelling takes place from below, the water that
comes to the surface is colder than the surrounding sea-surface.
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3. Upwelling currents are experienced along the eastern shores of

oceans, in low latitudes. Here the trade winds blow off shore,
resulting in upwelling.
4. Examples of upwelling currents are:
a) Canary current and Benguela current of the east Atlantic.
b) Californian current and Peru Current of the east Pacific.
Note: There is no upwelling off the west coast of Australia as the

coastline is not long enough.
GRADIENT:
1. A gradient current is caused by the differences in level or by

differences in density. Differences in level could be because of
natural slopes or build-up by winds. Differences in density are
because of differing temperature or salinity. The greater the
salinity, the greater the density and vice-versa. The lower the
temperature, the greater the density and vice-versa.
2. When different water masses lie adjacent to each other, gradient
currents are set up between them because of the differences in
temperature and salinity.
3. Best Example of Gradient current is the surface current that flows
from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean due to the difference in
level. The Mediterranean Sea being land-locked, experiences
severe evaporation. Since input by rivers and rain is very small,
its level falls and a gradient current from the Atlantic flows in
through the Strait of Gibraltar.
(B) On the basis of their thermal properties
1. Warm Currents –
 Whenever a current is warmer than the sea through which it

flows, it is called a warm current.
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 When a current from equatorial region passes through higher

latitudes, it will be a warm current.
 Warm currents are generally experienced along the western
shores of large oceans.
 Examples: The Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic drift, the
Norwegian current, the Brazilian Current, the Kuro Shio, the
Mozambique current, the Agulhas current, etc.
2. Cold Currents -
 Whenever a current is colder than the sea through which it flows,

it is called a cold current.
 When a current from higher latitudes passes through lower
latitudes, it will be a cold current.
 If it comes from the Polar Regions, it will be very cold. For
example, the east Greenland current, the Baffin current, etc.
 Cold currents are generally experienced along the eastern shores
of large oceans.
 Examples: Labrador current, the Canary currents, the Benguela
current, the Californian current, Peru current (Humboldt current),
etc.
(C) On the basis of their properties (direction & speed):
 Periodic Current – a current whose direction and speed changes

cyclically at approximate regular intervals.
 Seasonal Current – a current which has large changes in direction

and speed due to seasonal winds.
 Permanent Current – a current which is not affected by the

periodic or seasonal changes.
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(D) On the basis of Depth at which they flow:
 Surface Currents – they are present on the surface and are

restricted to a maximum depth of 400 m below the surface of the
sea. It makes up about 10% of all the water in the ocean.
 Deep Water Currents – they are present below the surface

currents and are also called “Thermohaline circulation” and make
up the remaining 90% of the water in the ocean.
Note: Lines joining the areas of similar density of water are called
isopycnic lines.
MAIN OCEAN CURRENTS:
(A) North Atlantic Current
(i) The North Equatorial Current
(ii) The Gulf Stream
(iii) The North Atlantic Current
(iv) The Canary Current
(B) South Atlantic Current
(i) The South Equatorial Current
(ii) Brazil Current
(iii) The Southern Ocean Current
(iv) The Benguela Current
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(C) North Pacific Ocean Current
(i) The North Equatorial Current
(ii) The Kuro Shio
(iii) The North Pacific Current
(iv) The California Current
(D) South Pacific Ocean Current
(ii) East Australian Coast Current
(iii) Southern Ocean Current
(iv) Peru Current
(E) North Indian Ocean Currents (variable / seasonal)
(F) South Indian Ocean Currents
(i) Equatorial Current
(ii) Mozambique Current
(iii) Agulhas Current
(iv) West Australian Current
(G) Currents in the Mediterranean Sea & Black Sea
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(A) NORTH ATLANTIC CURRENTS:
(i) The North Equatorial Current –
 These currents originate at about 230 North and flow due west at
an average speed of about 0.7 knots.
 Eastward of the Caribbean islands, the North Equatorial currents

are joined by the South Equatorial current which is also flowing
west with average speed of 0.6 knots.
 The speed of the combined Equatorial current gradually increases

and reaches about 2.5 knots or more as they flow westward
through Caribbean Sea and emerge through the Yucatan Channel.
 From here some water curve towards right, flowing some

distance off the shores of Gulf of Mexico, and part of it curves
more sharply towards North-East along the NW Coast of Cuba.
 These two parts reunite in the Straits of Florida. Because of this

configuration, there is an accumulation of water in the Gulf such
that water level on the West coast of Florida is at a higher level
than the East Coast of Florida. This results in an eastward flow of
the water, towards Bahamas, becoming the ‘Gulf Stream’.
(ii) The Gulf Stream
 The currents from the Gulf of Mexico and NW of Cuba flow

Eastwards and after passing the Bahamas, they become the ‘Gulf
Stream’.
 They turn direction and flow North-ward along the East Coast of
USA flowing around Florida and then turn NE and thereafter
Eastwards into the ocean.
 When the Gulf Stream encounters the cold waters of the Labrador
Current in the vicinity of the Great Banks, the mixing of the two
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 waters does not take place. The junction is marked by a sharp

change in temperature. The line or the surface along which this
occurs is called Cold Wall.
 When the warm Gulf Stream encounters the cold air, the
evaporation is very rapid that gives rise to fog in that area.
 The East-ward moving Gulf Stream later widens and changes

direction to proceed North-East to be called ‘North Atlantic
Current’.
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(iii) The North Atlantic Current
 The eastward moving Gulf Stream widens and changes direction to

NE to form the North Atlantic Current.
 In the eastern part of the Atlantic, the current is divided into “NE
Drift current and “SE drift current”.
 The NE drift current continues in a generally NE direction towards

the Norwegian Sea to become the Norwegian current and as it
continues to widen, its speed decreases.
 South of Iceland, part of this branches to form “Irminger Current”,

which flows NW and curves to meet the East Greenland Current and
flows Southwards. The Norway current continues in a NE direction
along the coast of Norway.
 At the southern tip of Greenland, the East Greenland current curves

sharper to NW and follows the coastline to become the West
Greenland Current. This current continues along the west coast and
through “Davis Strait” into “Baffin Bay”.
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 In “Baffin Bay”, the West Greenland current follows the coast

curving westward off “Cape York” to form southern flowing
“Labrador Current”. This cold current flows southward along the
coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, to the Great Banks carrying
with it large quantity of ice. On encountering warm Gulf Stream,
it creates the cold wall.
(iv) The Canary Current
 The “Southeast Drift current” curves towards the East, southeast

and then South as it is deflected by the European Coast and the
Canary Islands and continues as “Canary Current” in the vicinity
of Cape Verde islands.
 In the vicinity of Cape Verde, the current is influenced by the NE

trade winds and becomes the North Equatorial Current.
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(B) SOUTH ATLANTIC CURRENTS:
 Part of the South Equatorial Current curves South-West and flows

along the Brazilian Coast becoming the “Brazil Current”.
 The Southern Ocean current flows East-wards and part of it

curves towards North on passing the Southern Tip of South
America (Cape Horn). It continues to flow North as “Falkland
current” and meets the “Brazil Current” which is flowing in the
opposite direction.
 The resultant current flows fairly East-ward into the ocean as

South Atlantic current. Part of this joins the Benguela Current at
the SW Coast of Africa and the other part curves NW to form the
South Sub-Tropical Current which flows below the South
Equatorial Current in the same direction i.e. West-ward.
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(C) NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN

CURRENTS
 The North Equatorial Current

that flows West passes Mariana
Islands and thereafter curves
NW and is further deflected
north-ward by Philippines and
Taiwan.
 The current is now called

“Kuroshio Current” which
means ‘black stream’. It is
called so because of the dark
colour of the water.
 It is similar to the Gulf Stream

of the North Atlantic as it
carries large quantities of warm
tropical water to higher
latitudes and then it turns east.
 The Kuroshio currents on

turning East become the North
Pacific Currents that continue to
flow East-ward until they reach
the West Coast of America.
 On reaching the West Coast of

America, the North Pacific
Current gets deflected South-
ward and forms the “California
Current”.
 The California Current flows

south-ward and later curves
clockwise to become a part of
the North Equatorial Current.
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(D) SOUTH PACIFIC CURRENTS
 The South Equatorial

Current and South Sub-
tropic current flow West-
ward and slowly turn SW
and later South along the
East Coast of Australia to
form the East Australian
Coast Current.
 On reaching the Southern

end of the East Coast of
Australia, it flows East-
Ward and later NE after
being deflected by New
Zealand.
 It follows the west coast of

New Zealand and curves at
the Northern tip of New
Zealand again to proceed
East-ward to join the
Southern Ocean Current.
 The Southern Ocean

Current curves towards
North along the SW coast
of South America to form
the “Peru Current”.
 Part of this continues to

proceed North to join the
Panama and the other part
curves towards West to
join South Equatorial and
South sub-tropical Current.
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NOTE:
Equatorial Counter Current: It is a weak current which sets towards

East between the two west flowing North Equatorial Current and South
Equatorial Current in the general vicinity of Doldrums and is fed water
from these currents.
(E) NORTH INDIAN OCEAN CURRENTS:
The currents in the greater part of the North Indian Ocean including
the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are seasonal and as such
reverse directions during monsoons.
(a) NE Monsoon circulation (Nov-Jan)
 In the open waters of both Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, the
current sets in a westerly direction.
 Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea, there is a weak circulation in

the anti-clockwise direction.
 In the northern part of Bay of Bengal, the circulation is clockwise.
(b) Later NE Monsoon circulation (Feb-April)
 In the open waters near the equator, the flow changes to

Easterly.
 Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea, circulation is reversed to

Clockwise direction.
 The flow of water in Bay of Bengal however remains unchanged.
 The currents are much variable in this season than from

November to January.
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(c) SW Monsoon Circulation (May-Sept)
 In the open waters, the current is Easterly.
 The coastal circulation of water in the Arabian Sea and Bay of

Bengal is both clockwise and is strengthened.
 Major part of the current turns eastward and passes south of

Socotra. The current south of Socotra from July to September is
the strongest known current in the world in open waters and
reaches upto 7 knots.
(d) Currents in Red Sea and Gulf of Aden:
 During the NE Monsoon, it sets Westward in the Gulf of Aden and

passes through the Straits of Bab-al-Mandab and then flows along
the Red Sea.
 During the SW Monsoon, it flows Eastward along the Red Sea

towards Bab-al-Mandab and then along the Gulf of Aden and
continues Eastward.
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(F) SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN CURRENTS:
 The west flowing “South Equatorial Current” of the Indian Ocean after
passing the Northern extremity of Madagascar meets the African Coast
south of Tanzania.
 Here it gets divided and some water flows northward up the coast to
join the East African Coast Current but majority of it flows southwards
along the East coast of Africa and is called the Mozambique Current.
 Some water from the South Equatorial Current also flows along the
East Coast of Madagascar and meets the Mozambique Current on
passing the Southern edge of Madagascar. The current now becomes
Agulhas current and continues to flow along the east coast of South
Africa.
 The Agulhas current on passing the Agulhas bank enters the South
Atlantic Ocean to join the Benguela Current.
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(G) CURRENTS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND BLACK SEA:
 The level of the Mediterranean

Sea is lower than that of the
Atlantic. This is because
Mediterranean Sea being land
locked has much higher rate
of evaporation and also
because the input of water
from rains and rivers is very
small.
 A gradient current, therefore,

flows eastwards along the
surface through the Strait of
Gibraltar and on entering the
Mediterranean; it is deflected
to its right by Coriolis force
and flows along the North
coast of Africa.
 The rate of the current is

about 2-3 knots in the SW
part of the sea and generally
weakens as it hugs the coast
forming a complete anti-
clockwise cycle.
 The water of the

Mediterranean Sea is more
saline and hence denser than the water of the Atlantic and also of the
Black Sea. It, therefore, flows as a sub-surface gradient current,
westward through the Strait of Gibraltar.
 In the Black Sea, the circulation is generally anti-clockwise. The denser

Mediterranean water flows in through the Dardenells and Bosporus as a
sub-surface gradient current while the surface current flows continuously
from the Black Sea into the Mediterranean Sea.
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METEOROLOGY ICE AT SEA
ICE AT SEA
Ice at sea mainly refers to the floating ice encountered at sea and is of two types:
1. Sea – ice: formed by the freezing of the sea water

2. Ice-bergs: which are huge masses of floating ice.
(A) Sea-Ice:
 Sea-ice accounts for most of the ice met with at sea.
 Fresh water freezes at 00C whereas salt water freezes at lower temperatures.
The greater the salinity, the lower is the freezing temperature. Average
seawater is of salinity 35% (parts per thousand) and it freezes at about -20C.
 As the surface cools, the surface water becomes denser and sinks, creating
convection currents. Water will not freeze until the entire body of water has
cooled to the freezing temperature. Hence, the surface of deep-sea water does
not freeze, even if the air temperature is extremely low.
 In shallow waters, the convection currents have very little vertical distance to
travel. The entire body of water is easily cooled to freezing temperature and
sea-ice forms over shoal banks, over bays, inlets, straits and estuaries where
there is no appreciable current / tide and where salinity is low.
 Ice first forms on the surface because of the contact with very cold air and
spreads downwards, with the initial ice crystals on the surface acting as nuclei.
 When the air temperature is very low, and a few particles of ice are already
present, these particles can cause more ice to form on the surface, even though
the entire body of water has not yet cooled to freezing temperature.
 Wave action hinders the formation of sea-ice. If sea-ie has already formed, wave
action breaks it up into small pieces (brash-ice). Currents or tides carry away the
ice particles and retard the growth of sea-ice.
 Sea-ice may grow about 7-10 cm think during the first 24 hours and about 5-7 cm
more in the next 24 hours. Thereafter, the growth is slower because the surface
ice insulates the water beneath from the cold air.
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(B) Icebergs
Icebergs are huge masses of floating ice, broken off from either glaciers or ice-
shelves. Though the relative density of pure, solid, FW ice is 0.916, the relative density
of icebergs is only about 0.9 because of pockets of air trapped in them.
(i) Icebergs of Glacier origin:
 When persistent snow falls on a mountainside and freezes into ice, the weight
of the ice makes the entire mass of ice slide down the mountainside. The ice
slides down very slowly, about a few centimeters per day because of
obstructions such as rocks, trees, etc. Such ice is called a glacier.
 When the lower edge of a glacier reaches the sea, large chucks break off and
are carried away as icebergs by ocean currents and winds.
 Icebergs of glacier origin have irregular shapes. Their tops are frequently
pinnacle shaped and their sides are sloping. They are hence not good radar
targets, considering their size. Such icebergs are known to suddenly disappear
from the radar screen due to change of aspect, even when the range has not
increased.
 As per actual observations, the depth below water of an iceberg of glacier
origin may be anything from one to five times its visible its visible height above
the sea surface. This refers to vertical distance not volume. Parts of icebergs
may extend horizontally much further underwater than visible above water.
 Most of the icebergs in the Northern Hemisphere are of the Glacier origin. 90%
of the land ice in the North Polar Region is in Greenland. A huge number of
icebergs break off from Greenland each year but only about 1% of them make it
to the Atlantic ocean.
(ii) Icebergs of Ice-shelf origin:
 These are common in high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.

 They are huge chunks broken off from large ice-shelves. Sometimes, an entire
shallow bay of water freezes and later on breaks off and floats free.
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 Icebergs of ice-shelf origin are generally called tubular bergs because of their
vertical sides and smooth, horizontal tops. They are good radar targets. They
are white in colour with greenish or bluish hue.
 Many have been measured and found to be 20-30 miles long and 10-35 metres
high.
 In the Antarctic, apart from Tubular bergs, black and white berg are weathered
bergs are seen. Black and white bergs give the appearance of rocks and
contain mud and stones. Weathered bergs are those that are in the advanced
stage of disintegration. Period of their survival depends on the rapidity of its
transport to lower latitudes.
Classification of Ice-Bergs
Ice-bergs have been classified by the International Ice Patrol as follows:
Height above SL in mtrs Length in metres

Growler Under 1 Under 6
Bergy Bit 1 to 6 6 to 15
Small berg 6 to 15 15 to 60
Medium berg 15 to 45 60 to 120
Large berg 45 to 80 120 to 215
Very large berg Over 80 Over 215
In case the length of an iceberg and its height fall into different categories, the larger
of the two classes is used.
Diminution of Icebergs
Icebergs become smaller in size due to the following reasons:
1. Calving: when pieces break off disturbing its equilibrium so that it may either
float at a different angle or capsize.
2. Melting: it is caused by warm ocean currents. Such underwater melting will
result in frequent toppling and calving. Melting can also be due to warm air or
sunlight.
3. Erosion: this is caused by the erosive action of wind and waves.
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Visibility of an Iceberg:
(A) Day-Time
 On days with clear sky, about 18 NM off fom the masthead and about 12-15 NM
from the bridge.
 On cloudy days with good visibility, about 2 NM less than that on clear days.
 With light fog or haze, rain or drizzle – 2 to 3 NM
 With dense fog – it is not detectable more than 100 metres.
(B) Night-Time
 On nights with clear skies and good visibility, less than about 0.5 NM.
 Difficult to detect in moderate or rough seas.
 Moonlight has a very strong but variable effect on visual detection range,
depending on the azimuth and altitude of the moon, bearing of the iceberg,
etc.
Probable indication of the proximity of Icebergs

1. Possible detection by radar: It should be borne in mind that sub-refraction
usually exists in the vicinity of icebergs. Icebergs may have smooth sloping
sides making them poor radar targets. The low profile growler is the poorest
form of ice target for radar detection whose range is not more than 4 NM.
2. Thundering noises as growlers calve from icebergs.
3. Ice-blink i.e. whitish glare on the low clouds near the horizon.
4. Presence of smaller pieces of ice which may have calved from the iceberg. The
iceberg would probably be to windward.
5. Noise of sea breaking over edge of the iceberg.
6. Abrupt smoothening of the sea and gradual lessening of ocean swell
accompanied by severe drop of air temperature. These are caused when the
vessel comes into the lee of an iceberg.
Note: Echoes of the ships whistle from an iceberg or Sonar signals are not considered
reliable indications.
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Ice Regions and Ice encounter:

 Ice regions can be those where ice may be encountered.
 Ships during their transit between Europe and East Coast Ports of Canada and
USA, traverse a Great Circle route that brings them into the vicinity of ice and
icebergs near the Grand Banks.
 This ice is carried south by the cold Labrador current and poses substantial risk to
the safe navigation of the ships in these waters.
 An identical difficulty is also experienced in the Southern Hemisphere. However,
comparatively it has minimal sea route transits in areas where ice may be
encountered.
 The ice regions are the Polar waters which include the following:
1. Arctic waters – means those waters which are generally located north of 600 N.
2. Antarctic waters – means those waters which are located south of 600 S.
3. Ice Covered waters – means waters in the polar region where local ice
conditions pose risk to safe passage of the ships.
Formation of Ice in Fresh Water:

 The loss of heat from a body of fresh water takes place mainly from the surface
exposed to the air.
 As the surface water cools, it becomes dense and sinks and is displaced by the
warmer less dense water from below setting in convection currents.
 The warm water having come on top will in turn be cooled, adding to the
convection currents till the entire body fo water attained a temperature of
about 40C.
 At this temperature, the upturning will cease. The cooling of the water below
40C will cause an increase in its volume and consequently decrease in its
density.
 The thin layer of FW staying on top can then rapidly be cooled down to the
freezing point and ice forms on the surface while the underlying water may still
be around 40C.
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Formation of Ice in Salt Water:

 The Arctic Ocean is composed of layers of water with different properties
(salinity and temperature) and different densities.
 The cooling of the ocean surface by a cold atmosphere makes the surface of
the water dense. This densification of water causes the colder water to sink
below setting up convection currents.
 This continues to happen till the water at the top reaches the freezing point
which is about -20C for sea water.
 The convection phenomenon is restricted only to the surface layer to a level of
about 100-150 metres below the surface.
Appearance of Ice / NEW ICE:

 As the ocean water begins to freeze, small needle-like ice crystals begin to
form. These crystals give an appearance like that of a soupy crystalline mixture
in the upper layers and are called as “Frazil Ice”. These ice crystals are also
called ice spicules.
 As the soup thickens; a thin film of ice forms. This film is strong enough to
withstand ripples with the waves passing beneath. When they form in large
quantities, they appear to have thickened sufficiently and the film so formed is
known as “Grease ice”. The grease ice has a matt appearance.
 The snow falling on this surface forms a “Slush” that may induce the sea
surface to thinking further
 The Frazil ice, or the Grease ice, or slush may sometimes break up under the
action of wind and waves to form “Shuga”.
 The Frazil ice, Grease ice, Slush and Shuga are classified as NEW ICE.
Types of Ice / Important Ice Definitions:

1. Brash Ice: Small pieces of floating ice, less than 2 m in length, broken off from
larger pieces.
2. Fast-Ice: A large ice-field which remains stationary, being stuck to the shore,
rock, shoals or other obstruction. It is called fast ice and it is stuck fast.
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3. Field-Ice: or Ice-field is a large area of floating ice, whose boundaries are not
visible even from the masthead. The floes in an ice-field can be of any size.
4. Floe: or Ice-floe is the name given to each single piece of floating sea-ice,
regardless of its size. Small floes may be as small as ten metres long, while a
huge floe may be a few miles across.
5. Hummock: An elevated part or ridge, formed on a floe due to pressure. When a

drifting ice-filed comes across a small obstruction, the rest of the ice-field
continues to drift but the obstructed part experiences the enormous pressure
of the ice from behind and this results in the formation of vertical ridges or
hummocks.
6. Ice-berg: A large mass of floating ice, having a height of atleast 5 metres above
the sea level. It could be of glacier or ice shelf origin.
7. Ice-blink: A whitish glare on low clouds near the horizon caused by the
reflection of light from a distant iceberg or ice-field.
8. Ice-Cake: The name given to a piece of floating sea-ice, which is less than 10
metres in length.
9. Ice-edge: The boundaries of an ice-field, beyond which open sea exists.
10. Ice-limits: The estimated position of the ice-edge during any given month or
period, based on past observations.
11. Land-ice: is the ice of land-origin. It is formed either on land or attached to land.
12. Pack-Ice: or drift ice means an area of any kind of sea-ice except fast ice. It is
usually old sea-ice, frozen sea water that is a year old or more, which froze and
formed elsewhere and later floated off (drifted) with the winds and currents.
13. Pancake-ice: it is newly formed ice of circular pieces of diameters between 0.3
to 3 m. The edges of their pieces may be raised due to collision with adjacent
pieces.
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14. Rotten Ice: Pieces of ice that are in the final state of melting, whereby they
appear riddled with holes.
15. Sludge of slush: The name given to a grey, gummy appearance of the sea,
owing to the presence of freshly formed ice-crystals on the surface.
16. First Year Ice: It is the further development of ice and is further classified as
thin, medium or thick depending on its thickness. Thin ice is upto 70cm,
Medium ice is about 70-120cm thick, and thick ice is of the order of 2m thick.
17. Second Year Ice: Old Ice that has survived only one summers melt, it is
designated as the second year ice at the onset of the next winter. It is upto 2.5
m thick.
18. Multi-year Ice: If the second year ice also survives the summer melting season,
the ice is called multi-year ice and over the years attains a maximum thickness
of 3.5m.
19. Odden Ice: In the Arctic, a key area where pancake ice forms and covers the
entire region is the Greenland Sea. This ice is known as Odden Ice.
20. Sea / River / Lake Ice: All ice originally formed in the sea water is called Sea Ice.
It can be attached to the shore (fast-ice) or drift freely under the action of
current, wind and tidal streams (drift ice or pack ice). River and lake ice is a
fresh water ice generally found in the Northern Hemisphere. It is generally in a
state of decay by the time it reaches the sea and hence is of little significance.
21. Glacier Ice: The ice in, or originating from glacier, whether on land or floating
on the sea as iceberg, bergy bits or growlers.
22. Glacier Tongue: It is the projecting seaward extension of a glacier, usually

afloat.
23. Nilas: A thin, elastic crust of ice easily bending on waves and swell and under
pressure, thrusting in a pattern of interlocking fingers. It has matt surface.
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Movement of Ice:
 The movement and speed of the movement of ice varies with:
1. Wind speed
2. Concentration of ice packs
3. Degree of ridging
4. Current and tides
 The pack ice moves under the influence of wind and current. The “Fast Ice” stays
immobile.
 The wind stress on the pack ice causes the floes to move in the downwind
direction.
 The Coriolis force causes the floes to deflect to right of the surface wind direction
in the NH and to the left in the SH.
 Movement of icebergs in the Northern Hemisphere is as follows:
1. The icebergs born on the East Coast of Greenland are carried South-westwards
by the East Greenland current.
2. After rounding off at the southern tip of Greenland, they join the icebergs born
on the Greenland’s West Coast. They are then carried Northward by the West
Greenland current.
3. From Baffin Bay, they are brought southward by the Labrador current. By the
time they reach the Grand Banks, they are one to two years old.
4. The volume of an average sized iceberg in this region is about 20,000 cubic
meters. Its rate of drift is erratic, being between 10-70 NM per day.
5. The International Ice Patrol advises ships to keep atleast 100 NM off from the
last reported position of an iceberg. This may mean a 8 hour detour for a vessel
bound for New York and a 24 Hour detour for a vessel bound for Canada or
Great Lakes Ports.
6. On meeting the Gulf stream, whose temperature is as high as 160C, the average
sized icebergs melt in one or two weeks. The larger ones may take as long as
two months.
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Ice Accretion on Ships:

The main factors which cause ice accretion on ships are:
1. Spray:
 Spray consists of small water droplets formed by mechanical breaking of water

when the waves hit the ship.
 Spray is then transported into air by the prevailing wind and cooled.
 The rate of cooling depends upon the time in the air, size of the droplets and
the air temperature.
 At low air temperatures (below 00C) the spray freezes into ice and settles on
the windward side of the ship.
2. Overflow of Water:
 The overflow of water occurs during rough seas.

 If the scuppers are free of ice, the entire amount of water will drain before it
has sufficient time to freeze on the ship’s deck.
 If for some reason, the water stayed on the deck, a whitish porous slush is
formed on deck which then grows rather rapidly with each over flow of water
on deck.
3. Super Cooled Fog and Rain Drops:
 At times, super cooled fog or rain drops deposit on the ship as snow.
 This kind of icing makes the work area, ladders, passages, etc very slippery
causing unsafe situation onboard the ship. However, it is not of great
significance.
4. Snow Fall:
 Snow falls and deposits on the ship causing ice to accrete on the ship.
 However, as long as the snow is dry it gets blown away by the wind. If the
snow becomes wet by spray, it quickly settles down on the ship and
contributes to very large increase in the weight of the ship.
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International Ice Patrol (IIP) :

The International Ice Patrol is recognized under Chapter V / Regulation 6 of SOLAS
titled ‘Ice Patrol Service’. This is what the regulation states:
1. “The Ice Patrol contributes to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and
protection of the marine environment in the North Atlantic. Ships transiting the region of
icebergs guarded by the Ice Patrol during the ice season are required to make use of the
services provided by the Ice Patrol.
2. The Contracting Governments undertake to continue an ice patrol and a service for study
and observation of ice conditions in the North Atlantic. During the whole of the ice season,
i.e. for the period from February 15th through July 1st of each year, the south-eastern,
southern and south-western limits of the region of icebergs in the vicinity of the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland shall be guarded for the purpose of informing passing ships of the
extent of this dangerous region; for the study of ice conditions in general; and for the
purpose of affording assistance to ships and crews requiring aid within the limits of
operation of the patrol ships and aircraft. During the rest of the year the study and
observation of ice conditions shall be maintained as advisable.
3. Ships and aircraft used for the ice patrol service and the study and observation of ice
conditions may be assigned other duties provided that such other duties do not interfere
with the primary purpose or increase the cost of this service.
4. The Government of the United States of America agrees to continue the overall
management of the ice patrol service and the study and observation of ice conditions,
including the distribution of information there from.
5. The terms and conditions governing the management, operation and financing of the Ice
Patrol are set forth in the Rules for the management, operation and financing of the North
Atlantic Ice Patrol appended to this chapter which shall form an integral part of this
chapter.
6. If, at any time, the United States and/or Canadian Governments should desire, to
discontinue providing these services, it may do so and the Contracting Governments shall
settle the question of continuing these services in accordance with their mutual interests.
The United States and/or Canadian Governments shall provide 18 months written notice to
all Contracting Governments whose ships entitled to fly their flag and whose ships
registered in territories to which those Contracting Governments have extended this
regulation benefit from these services before discontinuing providing these services.”
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Objective of International Ice Patrol service:

 In general, to contribute to safety of life at sea, safety of navigation and
protection of the marine environment.
 To monitor the extent of the iceberg danger near the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland.
 To provide limits of all known ice (LAKI) to the maritime community.
Necessity of the International Ice Patrol service

 The cold Labrador Current carries some icebergs south to the vicinity of the
Grand Banks and into the great circle shipping lanes between Europe and
major ports of the East Coast of US and Canada.
 In this area, the Labrador Current meets the warm Gulf Stream and the
temperature differences between the two water masses is about 200C, which
results in dense fog.
 The combination of icebergs, fog, severe storms, fishing vessels and busy
transatlantic shipping lanes makes this area most dangerous.
 While traversing this area, ships try to make their voyage as short and as
economical as possible. Therefore, ships in the vicinity of the ‘limits of all
known ice’ normally will pass just to south of this boundary.
 For vessels crossing the North Atlantic, the farther south the ice limits are, the
father the ship must travel to avoid the icebergs. A vessel passing through the
Ice patrol’s published ice limits, runs the risk of a collision with an iceberg.
Area of Coverage:
The area of coverage of the International Ice Patrol is clearly defined in the Appendix
to Chapter V of SOLAS. It does not extend North of 480N in the North Atlantic Ocean.
The total area of coverage is about 500,000 square nautical miles.
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Working of the International Ice Patrol:

 During the ice season i.e. between 15th Feb to 1st July each year, an ice
reconnaissance (survey) detachment (RECDET) is deployed usually comprising
of 11 air crew and 4 ice observers. It is deployed at St John’s, Newfoundland so
as to be closer to the ice area.
 A fixed wing Coast Guard aircraft conducts the primary reconnaissance work
for the Ice Patrol on the average of five days every other week during the ice
season.
 A normal reconnaissance flight is about 1700 miles long, lasts about 7 hours and
covers an area of about 30,000 square nautical miles.
 The flights are at about 2km height with a track spacing of 30 NM.
 They use Forward Looking Airborne Radar and Side Looking Airborne Radar
which allows good coverage and covers the ‘LAKI’ in about 4 flight days.
 Information concerning ice conditions is collected primarily from air
surveillance flights and ships operating in or passing through the ice area.
 Ships are requested to report the position and time of all ice sighted and make
sea surface temperature and weather reports to the IIP Operations Centre
every 6 hours when in the vicinity of Grand Banks.
 All the iceberg data is fed into a computer model at the IIP Operations Centre
along with the Ocean Current and wind data. Using this information, the model
predicts the drift of the icebergs.
 Every 12 hours, the predicted iceberg locations are used to estimate the limit of
all known ice (LAKI). This limit, along with a few of the more critical predicted
iceberg locations, is broadcast as an “Ice Bulletin” from radio stations around
the US, Canada, Europe and over the World Wide Web. This is for the benefit
for all vessels transiting the North Atlantic.
 In addition to the Ice Bulletin, a radio facsimile chart of the area, depicting the
limits of all known ice, is also broadcast twice daily.
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Success Rate of the International Ice Patrol service

 Except for the years of the two World Wars, the IIP has operated every ice
season since 1913.
 Since 1913, the IIP has amassed an unbelievable safety record with not a single
reported ship-iceberg collision, or loss of life or property due to collision with
an iceberg, outside the advertised limits of all known ice in the vicinity of the
Grand Banks. However, the potential for a catastrophe still exists.
Tracking Icebergs by marking them:

 It is not practical to track icebergs with special location markets. The IIP has
done experiments with marking icebergs and placing electronic position
beacons on them.
 These markers either got washed away or got dislodged from the iceberg.
 Other difficulties in placing markers on icebergs is because their shape and
orientation keeps changing as the icebergs breaks apart or part of it melts.
 As a result, the IIP sues the aerial reconnaissance as its primary method of
monitoring icebergs in order to provide the mariner with iceberg limit
information in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Other Ice Patrols:

1. Canadian Ice Services: They focus on the waters of the Canadian Economic Zone.
2. Danish Meteorological Institute: They report on ice conditions around Greenland.
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METEOROLOGY STABILITY OF AIR
STABILITY OF AIR
Stability or Equilibrium of a fluid (gas or liquid) is its tendency to return to

its original position, when slightly displaced by an external force.
We can describe the stability of the air using the following terms:-
 Absolute stability
 Absolute instability
 Conditional stability
 Neutral equilibrium of air
Let us consider a point P at sea level, having an atmospheric temperature

of 150C. If a parcel of air at P was made to rise slightly by some disturbance,
its temperature would fall by 100C per km height (DALR) if the parcel was
dry and by about 50C per km height (SALR) if the parcel was saturated.
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ABSOLUTE STABILITY:
If the environment is such that the actual lapse rate existent is less than
DALR and SALR, absolute stability is said to exist. This is shown by ELR 1 in
the figure.
In other words,
 If dry, temperature of parcel at 1 km height is 50C,

 If wet, temperature of parcel at 1 km height is 100C,
 Present temperature of surrounding air at 1 km height is more than
100C.
This means that the parcel of air is colder (and hence denser) than the
surrounding air at that level and would thus try to return below to its
original position. Because this happens regardless of whether the parcel
was originally saturated or not, this condition is referred to as absolute
stability.
ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
If the environment is such that the actual lapse rate existent is more than
SALR and DALR, absolute instability is said to exist. This is shown by the
ELR 2 in the figure.
In other words,
 If dry, the temperature of the parcel at 1 km height is 50C.

 If wet, temperature of parcel at 1 km height is 100C,
 Present temperature of surrounding air at 1 km height is less than
50C.
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This means that the parcel of air is warmer (and hence less dense) than the
surrounding air at the same level and would thus try to continue upwards
in the direction of the original disturbance. Because this happens
regardless of whether the parcel was originally saturated or not, this
condition is referred to as absolute instability.
CONDITIONAL STABILITY
If the environment is such that the actual lapse rate existent is less than
DALR but more than SALR, conditional stability is said to exist. This is
shown by the ELR 3 in the figure.
In other words,
 If dry, the temperature of the parcel at 1 km height is 50C,

 If wet, the temperature of the parcel at 1 km height is 100C,
 Present temperature of surrounding at 1 km height is between 50C
and 100C.
This means that if the parcel of air is dry, it is colder (and hence denser)
than the surrounding air at the same level and would try to return below to
its original position i.e. stable equilibrium.
If the parcel of air was saturated, it is warmer (and hence less dense) than
the surrounding air at the same level, and would try to continue upwards in
the direction of the original disturbance i.e. unstable equilibrium.
Because stability or instability in this case depends on whether the parcel is

dry or saturated, this condition is known as conditional stability.
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NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM OF AIR
If the ELR coincides with the DALR when the parcel of air is dry or with
SALR when the parcel is saturated, then the parcel of air which is displaced
upwards, is at the same temperature as that of the surrounding air at the
same level and would have no tendency to return to its original position or
to continue upwards in the direction of the original disturbance. This
condition is known as indifferent or neutral equilibrium.
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METEOROLOGY Q’s & A’s TRS
What is a TRS? With suitable sketch descrive its structure, formation,

development and decay. Describe the weather associated with a TRS.
A Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) is a small area of very low pressure, around which
winds of gale force (force 8 or more) blow spirally inwards, anticlockwise in the NH
and clockwise in the SH. They are intense depressions that develop in tropical
latitudes. They are often the cause of very high winds and heavy seas.
Structure of a TRS:
A well developed TRS has three distinct parts:
1. The eye or vortex:

 It is a calm central area of lowest pressure.
 It has a diameter between 4 miles and 30 miles, average being about 10 miles.
2. The eye-wall:
 It is an inner ring of hurricane force winds, having a width usually between 4 -
30 miles.
 The winds in the eye-wall blow in a perfectly circular path with a speed as high
as 130 knots with occasional gusts up to 150 knots.
 The pressure gradient is usually very steep in the eye-wall and hence, the
barograph would register a near vertical trend, downward before the eye and
upward behind it.
3. The Outer storm area:

 The area surrounding the eye-wall is called the outer storm area.
 It has a diameter between 50 - 800 miles, average being about 500 miles.
 Winds in this region are strong, about force 6 or 7, and the pressure gradient is
much less than in the eye-wall.
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Formation, development and movement of a TRS:
 TRS typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their
energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which
ultimately re-condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools
to saturation. This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic
storms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts.
 The strong rotating winds of a TRS are a result of the conservation of angular
momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the
axis of rotation. As a result, they rarely form within 5° of the equator. TRS
originate in latitudes between 50 and 200 and travel between W and WNW in
the NH and between W and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots.
 Somewhere along their track, they curve away from the equator – curve to N
and then re-curve to NE in the NH and curve to S and then re-curve to SE in the
SH. The re-curving is such that the storm travels around the oceanic high (300 N
and S in the middle of the large oceans). After re-curving, the speed of travel
increases to about 15 to 20 knots. At times, a TRS does not re-curve at all but
continues on its original path, crosses the coast & dissipates quickly thereafter
due to friction & lack of moisture.
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Decay of a TRS:
 A TRS can decay i.e. cease to have tropical characteristics in several different
ways. One such way is if it moves over land, thus depriving it of the warm
water and moisture that it needs to power itself, and thereby quickly losing
strength. The landfall of a TRS occurs when a storm's surface center moves
over a coastline. Most strong storms lose their strength very rapidly after
landfall and become disorganized areas of low pressure within a day or two. If
it remains over mountains for even a short time, weakening will accelerate.
 A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly below
26.5 °C. This will cause the storm to lose its tropical characteristics, such as a
warm core with thunderstorms near the center, and just remain a low pressure
area. These low pressure systems may persist for up to several days before
losing their identity.
Weather associated with a TRS:
1. Atmospheric Pressure: In the outer storm area, the fall of pressure ahead of the
trough, and the rise of pressure behind it, is slow. In the eye wall, the fall of pressure
ahead of the trough and the fall of pressure behind it, is very sharp. In the eye, the
lowest pressure is reached. This may be as low as 60mb below normal.
2. Wind direction: For a stationary observer in the RHSC, wind will veer steadily and if
he is in the LHSC, wind will back steadily. This holds good for both NH and SH. If he is
in the direct path of the storm, the wind direction will remain fairly steady. The angle
of indraft in the outer fringes of the storm is about 450, and this gradually decreases
until it reaches 00 in the eye wall.
3. Wind force: The wind force will increase as the atmospheric pressure falls. After
the trough or the eye has passed, the wind force will decrease as atmospheric
pressure will increase. The wind force in the outer storm area may be force 6 or 7,
whereas in the eye wall, it may be force 12 or more. In the eye wall, the wind dies
down into light airs, but the swell is mountainous and confused. Once the observer
passes the eye and into the eye-wall behind the trough, the hurricane force winds
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from the opposite direction as before, will strike the vessel and cause it to heel as
much as 800 or more and may result in the vessel capsizing.
4. Atmospheric Temperature: Since a TRS exists in one air mass only, there is no
drastic change of atmospheric temperature. However, atmospheric temperature
would decrease during rain.
5. Clouds and precipitation: In the outer fringes of the storm, cirrus in the form of
strands or filaments generally are so aligned that they may be said to point towards
the storm centre. Then cirrostratus followed by altostratus. Around the eye wall,
thick nimbostratus gives continuous rain. At the eye wall, towering anvil shaped
cumulonimbus gives torrential rain. Directly above the eye, a small circular patch of
blue sky may be seen, indicating absence of cloud therein.
6. Visibility: In the outer fringes, visibility is usually excellent. In the middle of the
outer storm area, it is good except in case of occasional showers. Around the eye
wall, it becomes poor due to continuous rain from nimbostratus. In the eye wall, it
becomes poor due to driving rain and spray. In the eye, it becomes poor due to mist
or fog.
What are the conditions associated with the formation of TRS and factors
affecting the movement of TRS?
Conditions associated with formation of TRS:
1) High relative humidity: (open sea) This is very important since most of the
energy required by the TRS is received by latent heat that is given off when the
water vapour is transformed into water. Open seas ensure a large quantity of
water vapour in the air and thus offer high relative humidity.
2) High Temperature: (tropics) For the development of TRS, high temperature is
needed. For this reason, it occurs only in the Tropical regions, which ensure
high relative humidity and a good rate of evaporation of the sea water.
3) LP area surrounded by areas of HP: (daytime over large islands) - This ensures
that the winds will blow from areas of HP to areas of LP inwards.
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4) Convection currents: (daytime over large islands) – this will ensure that the air
rises continuously so that adiabatic cooling results in condensation that
liberates latent heat. This latent heat provides energy for the TRS.
5) Fair amount of Coriolis force: (latitude more than 50 N or S) – this will ensure
that the wind which is blowing inwards from HP to LP will get sufficiently
deflected so as to blow spirally inwards.
6) Weak prevailing winds: This is important, because if the prevailing winds were
strong, the air would not rise vertically. It will rather be carried off horizontally
thereby not allowing a TRS to form.
Factors affecting the movement of TRS:
 Trade Winds: TRS are steered by Global winds. In the tropics, easterly winds
called the trade winds steer the TRS from East to the west. When the trade
winds are strong it is easier to predict where the storm will travel. When they
are weak, it's more difficult
 Coriolis Force: After a TRS crosses an ocean and reaches a continent, the trade
winds weaken. This means that the Coriolis Effect has more of an impact on
where the storm goes. In the Northern Hemisphere the Coriolis Effect
(implying the rotation of the Earth) can cause a tropical storm to curve
northward. (southward in the SH)
 Westerlies: When a TRS starts to move northward, it leaves the trade winds
and moves into the westerlies. Because the westerlies move in the opposite
direction from trade winds, the TRS can reverse direction and move east as it
travels north. This is called re-curving of the TRS.
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List the areas of the world, there TRS frequently occur, together with
local names for the storm. Why is the tropical region of S. Atlantic Ocean
free from TRS?
AREAS LOCAL NAMES
North Atlantic (Western side) Hurricane
North Pacific (Western side) Typhoon or Baguios
North Pacific (Eastern side) Hurricane
South Pacific (Western side) Hurricane
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal Cyclone
South Indian Ocean (Western side) Cyclone
South Indian Ocean (Eastern side) Willy-Willy
Tropical regions of S. Atlantic Ocean are free from TRS because of the following
reasons:
1. Large vertical wind shear which does not allow the storm to make much use of
the latent heat and get developed.
2. Lack of weather disturbances that are favorable for the development of TRS.
3. Sea water temperatures in the tropics of South Atlantic are cooler than those
in the tropics of North Atlantic and not very favourable for formation of TRS.
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METEOROLOGY Q’s & A’s WAVES & WEATHER FORECASTING
Distinguish between swell and seas. Describe also how each of them is
formed. State also the characteristics of a wave and a swell.
‘Seas’ ‘Swell’
‘Seas’ is a name given to waves, on the ‘Swell’ is a name given to waves, on the
sea-surface, created by wind that is sea-surface, formed by wind that has
presently blowing. The height of sea subsequently stopped blowing or is
disturbance in open waters is directly blowing at some other place quite far
related to the wind speed at that time. away. Swell travels quickly and has
known to be felt over 1000 miles away
The waves move in the direction the wind Swell travels radially outwards from the
is blowing, with wave crests and centre of a storm and is usually the first
troughs perpendicular to the wind indication of the presence and bearing
direction. (direction) of a TRS.
Swell waves may or may not be moving in
the direction the wind is blowing, or may
be confused and changing directions.
The sea direction is usually not recorded The swell direction is usually recorded or
or reported, since it is assumed that the reported, since it is not always the same
sea direction is nearly the same as the as the recorded wind direction.
recorded wind direction.
Sea usually described as the ‘State of sea’ Swell is described on the basis of the
as per the wave height using terms such height and length of the swell. The terms
as Calm, Slight, Moderate, Rough, etc. used are low, moderate and heavy swell
(for height) and short, average or long
(for length)
Formation of sea waves:
 Sea waves, often referred to as "seas," are waves generated by the wind in the
local area. Light winds usually produce seas with small wave heights, small
wave lengths, and short periods; strong winds usually produce waves with
higher heights, longer wavelengths, and longer periods.
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Formation of swell waves:
 Swell waves are seas that have moved out and away from the area in which
they were formed. Because of their different wave lengths and wave speeds,
waves move outward from the windy areas where they formed, and separate
into groups of waves with distinct wave periods.
Characteristics of a Wave and a Swell:
 Wave height - the vertical distance between the crest and the trough of the
wave.
 Wave length - the horizontal distance between two adjacent crests or troughs.
 Wave velocity – the speed of the wave i.e. the wavelength divided by the wave
period or the product of its wavelength and frequency.
 Wave frequency – the number of crests of the wave that move past a stationary
point in a given unit of time.
 Wave period - the time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed
point or the time taken for one full wavelength to pass a stationary point. In
other words, it is the time taken to complete one cycle. It is the reciprocal of the
wave frequency.
 Wave amplitude – is the height of the wave above the still water line, usually it
is half of the wave height.
Define significant wave height and the factors which influence it.
 Wave height is the vertical difference between the wave trough & wave crest.
 The wave field is a combination of waves of different height, length and
directions and the significant wave height is a useful way to describe the sea
state.
 It has been defined to approximate the wave heights visually estimated by
experienced mariners.
 Significant wave height (Hs) is defined as the average height of the highest
one-third waves in a wave spectrum.
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 This is measured because the larger waves are usually more significant than the
smaller waves. The larger waves can cause navigation problems for mariners.
Since the Significant Wave Height (Seas) is an average of the largest waves,
one should be aware that many individual waves will probably be higher. The
highest individual wave in a wave field can be nearly two times higher than the
significant wave height.
Factors affecting significant wave height:
1. Wind speed
2. Fetch
3. Duration of time the wind blows consistently over the fetch.
4. Depth of water
5. Direction and speed of tide.
 Wind ‘fetch’ is the distance the wind blows over water with similar speed and
direction. High wind speeds blowing for long periods of time over long
stretches of water result in the highest waves.
 As waves enter shallow water their speed decreases, wavelength decreases,
and height increases. Waves therefore tend to break in shallow water, for
example over a bar at the entrance to a harbour.
 If the tide direction is against the wind, this will also increase wave height and
decrease wavelength.
Define speed, length and period of simple waves. Describe relationship

between them.
1. Wave speed is the speed or velocity at which a wave travels. For normal ocean
waves, the speed is about 90 km/hr, but Tsunami’s may go up to about 950 km/
hr. It is equal to the product of its wavelength and frequency.
2. Wave length is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs. Larger
the wave length, greater is the wave speed and the wave travels faster.
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3. Wave period is the time taken for one full wavelength to pass a stationary
point. In other words, the wave period is the time it takes to complete one
cycle. It is the reciprocal of the wave frequency.
Relation Between the Three:
Wave speed = wavelength ÷ wave period
 Thus by the above formula, we see, wave speed is directly proportional to the
wave length. Therefore, the greater the wavelength, greater is the wave
velocity.
 Also, wave speed and wave period are inversely proportional. It other words,
smaller the wave period, greater is the wave velocity.
Describe how the wave structure is modified and it undergoes refraction

when approaching shallow water.
If the water depth is less than half the wave length, then the wave is considered to
be in shallow water. When wave is approaching shallow waters, it is affected by 3
phenomenon.
1. Shoaling and breaking
 Shoaling occurs as the waves enter shallower water. The wave speed and wave
length decrease in shallow water, and since the wave period remains the same,
the wave height increases.
 When the wave crest becomes too steep, it becomes unstable, curling forward
and breaking. This usually happens when the height of the wave becomes
about the same size as the local water depth
2. Refraction
 Refraction is the bending of waves because of varying water depths
underneath. It occurs usually along the coastline or around a circular island.
 The part of a wave in shallower water moves slower than the part of a wave in
deeper water. Because of this, the wave bends.
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3. Diffraction
 Diffraction usually happens when waves encounter surface-piercing obstacle,

such as a breakwater or an island.
 It would seem that on the lee side of the island, the water would be perfectly
calm; however it is not. The waves, after passing the island, turn into the region
behind the island and carry wave energy and the wave crest into this so-called
'shadow zone.' The turning of the waves into the sheltered region is due to the
changes in wave height.
Briefly explain the method of estimating wave height and wave periods.
The wave height is the vertical difference between a wave crest and a wave trough.
The wave period is the time interval between two consecutive wave crests.
Estimating wave height :
1. Sea reports give the significant wave height. This is calculated from the height
of all the waves during a 20 minute period. The significant wave height is the
average height of the highest one third of these waves.
2. The Beaufort wind scale indicates the height of the sea expected with each
value of wind force. As we have anemometer that provides us the apparent
wind speed, we can calculate the True Wind speed and refer the Beaufort wind
scale to know the wind force and approximate wave height. However, that
height is for open sea with a good fetch. Also, sea state photos can be a good
reference.
3. Height of eye or freeboard – With the boat in the trough and on a level and
even keel, any wave that obscures the horizon is greater than the height of a
person’s eye. One can also compare a wave to the deck edge or a structure
such as the handrail
4. Comparison with a fixed structure - Observation of waves as they pass a fixed
structure, such as a break-wall, jetty, or pier, can be very accurate and can also
provide wave period.
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5. Depth Sounder - Using a digital finder with a fast update speed can be very
accurate for determining wave height. By comparing the depth in the trough
on even keel with the depth at the crest on even keel, an accurate
measurement can be obtained.
6. Local Weather Service buoy report
Estimating wave period:
 Observe a small object in water or a patch of foam on the sea surface and note
the time taken for it to pass from one crest to another crest using a stop
watch. Take many observations and find the average wave period.
 Observe the rolling and pitching of another ship’s bow and note time taken by
the ship to move between extreme positions during rolling or pitching.
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Describe a synoptic chart. What information can a mariner obtain from it?
How would you find the pressure gradient from it?
 A synoptic chart is the scientific term for a weather map. It summarizes
atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction,
atmospheric pressure and cloud coverage) over a wide area at a given time.
This information is conveyed using symbols, which are explained in a legend.
 Synoptic charts display an overview of the weather conditions observed from
many different weather stations, aeroplanes, balloons and satellites.
 By collating the information over a wide area, meteorologists can observe the
behavior and movement of weather formations that might affect their local
area in the future. This allows meteorologists to make more accurate weather
forecasts. Charts are usually updated at least every six hours.
 There are many different types of weather map, all drawn using internationally
agreed standards and using accepted symbols.
Information obtained from Synoptic chart:
 Isobaric Patterns such as Anti-cyclones (HP), Depressions (LP), Fronts (Cold

front, warm fronts and occluded fronts), Ridges, etc.
 Cloud cover: Clear sky to complete cloud cover (eight oktas)
 Wind speed and direction
 Temperature, dew point, etc.
 Precipitation: Rain, heavy rain, drizzle, snow, thunderstorm, mist fog, etc.
Pressure Gradient:
 Pressure gradient is the fall of pressure with distance, as shown on a weather

map. If the distance between consecutive isobars is small, the pressure
gradient is said to be high and strong winds are expected to blow. If the
distance between consecutive isobars is large, the pressure gradient is said to
be small and winds of lower speed will be expected.
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 Pressure gradient can be estimated using the geostrophic wind scale that is
provided on the weather map, drawn to scale of the map. The procedure is a
follows:
(1) The distance between two consecutive isobars is taken off the weather map by
a divider.
(2) The divider is then placed on the geostrophic wind scale, both legs on the
horizontal line corresponding to the latitude in which the measurement is
being made.
(3) The left leg of the divider is placed on the margin and the position of the other
leg gives the geostrophic wind speed, interpolating between the curves as
necessary.
(4) Due to friction between the air and the surface of the earth, the wind speed
over land would be half of the geostrophic wind speed and over sea, about
two-third.
Note: This holds good only for straight or gently curving isobars.
Describe the method of weather routeing using forecast data.

 Weather routing is a method within ship routing that is used to avoid rough
weather and to decide upon the shortest and most economical route, without
disregarding safety.
 In today’s time, several methods and different software’s exist and are available
to the ship owner or vessel. These products utilize not only weather and
oceanographic data but also the hydrodynamic details of the vessel to provide
the ship’s crew with real-time ship-specific routing advice.
 Modern weather routeing techniques have become possible only because of
international cooperation, through the World Meteorological Organization,
resulting in standardization of methods and systems, world-wide gathering of
meteorological data and extremely quick methods of distribution of the data so
gathered.
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 When a vessel is preparing the passage, the navigating officer collects all the
available weather forecasts from the various available sources. After careful
study of these forecast, the Master decides the most suitable route to be taken,
keeping in mind factors such as Distance, currents, wind and waves, ice at sea,
limiting latitudes in case of Great Circle tracks, load-line restrictions, etc.
 Even after the route is made and during the voyage if the forecast data involves
a development or existence of a TRS or a depression, the Master may again
access the situation using all available means and select the safer route to avoid
bad weather.
 Weather Forecasts should be obtained throughout the voyage by means of the
Weather Facsimile, Inmarsat-C, weather forecast software, etc and weather
routeing must be carried out accordingly.
Write short notes on weather routeing services available to shipping.

Weather routeing services available to shipping can be ship-based or shore-based.
1. Ship-based routeing can be implemented using all the available weather

forecasts and sources of information and routeing the vessel to have the most
economical passage.
2. Shore based routeing can be also adopted. There are shore based
organizations that do weather routeing of ships across the North Atlantic and
North Pacific. They employ meteorological experts and experienced Master
Mariners and give routeing instructions to a ship taking their service. It is more
accurate and helpful that ship routeing as the shore based meteorologists have
advanced technologies and more reliable information.
Optimum Ship Routing (Weather Routing)
Optimum ship routing is the art and science of developing the “best route” for a ship
based on the existing weather forecasts, ship characteristics, ocean currents and
special cargo requirements. For most transits this will mean the minimum transit time
that avoids significant risk to the vessel, crew and cargo. Other routing
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considerations might include passenger comfort, fuel savings or schedule keeping.

The goal is not to avoid all adverse weather but to find the best balance to minimize
time of transit and fuel consumption without placing the vessel at risk to weather
damage or crew injury.
A preliminary routing message is transmitted to the master of a vessel prior to

departure with a detailed forecast of expected storm tracks, an initial route proposal
with reasoning behind the recommendation and also the expected weather
conditions to be encountered along that route or any alternate routes. This allows
the master to better plan his route and offers an opportunity to communicate with
the routing service any special concerns that he or she might have due to special
cargo requirements or ship condition. Once the vessel departs, the vessel’s progress
is monitored closely with weather and route updates sent as needed.
Vessel Performance Analysis (Performance Monitoring)
Vessel performance monitoring services allow a ship operator, owner or charterer to

get a daily performance analysis regarding a vessel’s speed and fuel consumption
based on the charter-party specifications and the actual weather and currents
encountered. Although no weather or routing advice is offered, alerts can be
generated to the vessel owner, operator or charterer whenever a performance issue
is discovered enroute so that the charterer or vessel operator/owner has a “heads-
up” on performance issues prior to the ship’s arrival.
At the end of the voyage, a full “Voyage Performance Evaluation Report” is

generated to offer a more detailed look at the actual performance or non-
performance of the vessel. This report will look at several factors, including the
charter party terms, the actual speed and consumption, whether the vessel was in
ballast or in a laden condition and the actual wind, sea, swell and ocean currents
encountered.
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Write notes on: (a) Weather routeing organizations (b) Contents of a routeing chart
Weather routeing organizations
 Routeing is the art of achieving a safe, economic passage across an ocean,

taking into consideration all available meteorological and oceanographical
factors.
 The advantages of weather routeing are:
1. Greater safety, more economy in ship operation.
2. Less chances of heavy weather damage or shift of cargo.
3. More comfort for people onboard.
4. Faster passage, means reduction in time and fuel savings.
 Many weather routeing organizations are available in present times that offer
weather routeing services to the ship. Most of these are based on software
that provide the forecasts of weather on a real-time basis. They also employ
meteorological experts and experienced Master Mariners and give routeing
instructions to a ship. These shore based services are however expensive.
 Modern weather routeing techniques have become possible only because of
international cooperation, through the World Meteorological Organisation,
resulting in standardization of methods and systems, worldwide gathering of
meteorological data and extremely quick methods of distribution of the data
so gathered.
 Weather routeing is more for economic reasons than for safety reasons. At all
times, the Master retains full command of the ship and may disregard the
advice of the shore based weather routeing organizations if he feels justified in
doing so for safety reasons.
 When using the services of a weather routeing organization, the Master may
keep watching the facsimile prognosis charts and check for himself the reasons
why each alteration of course is recommended by the routeing organization.
Contents of a routeing chart
(1) Monthly Wind direction, strength and probability using wind roses.
(2) Direction and strength of sea currents
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(3) Iceberg and ice limits
(4) Percentage frequency of fog occurrence, low visibility and winds of BF 7 & more.
(5) Recommended routes and distances between major ports.
(6) Mean air pressure, Mean air temperature, Mean sea water temperature,
(7) International Load Line Zone
(8) Expected meteorological and oceanographically conditions for each month.
Describe the information which can be used from Routeing charts, sailing
directions and Mariner’s Handbook for weather routeing.
Routeing Charts:
These charts are essential for use in passage planning for ocean voyages. Following
information can be used from Routeing charts for weather routeing of ships:
1. Monthly Wind direction, strength and probability using wind roses.

2. Direction and strength of sea currents
3. Iceberg and ice limits
4. Percentage frequency of fog occurrence, low visibility, winds of force 7 & more.
5. Recommended routes and distance.
6. Mean air pressure, Mean air temperature, Mean sea water temperature,
Apart from the above, it also defines the International Load Line Zones and acts as a
useful source of information on the expected meteorological and oceanographic
conditions for each month of the year.
Sailing Directions
These are also known as Pilot Books. It mainly provides details on approach, dangers,
local rules, no go areas, reporting procedures, etc. In terms of weather routeing, it
provides the following information:
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1. Local weather conditions such a winds, swell, wave height, etc.

2. Area tidal information and currents experienced in the area.
Sailing directions mainly provide a climatic data and recommend specific routes
especially for approaching various ports or anchorages.
Mariner’s Handbook
The Mariner’s Handbook contains following information which would be useful for
weather routeing of ship:
1. General Information on tides, ocean currents, waves, local magnetic anomalies,

etc.
2. General meteorological information on Weather routeing, clouds, sea ice,
icebergs, etc.
3. Climatologically information on Tropical storms, areas and months in which
they are likely to occur. (in the form of a table)
Define surface analysis and prognosis chart. Explain how you would use
these charts for (i) Determination of surface winds (ii) Forecasting
movements of fronts (iii) Forecasting of sea fog.
Surface Analysis charts: ‘Analysis’ means the actual situation existent, at a given
time, based on actual reports received. ‘Surface analysis charts’ are the charts that
give the actual weather situation, at a preceding synoptic hour, over the entire area,
showing all pressure systems, isobars, wind direction, fronts, frontal depressions, etc.
Surface Prognosis charts: ‘Prognosis’ is the predicted situation at a specified future

time, based on the present indications, as deduced by an expert on the subject, using
his knowledge and skill. ‘Surface prognosis charts’ are the charts that contain the
same type of information as contained in surface analysis charts but predicted for a
specified future time. They may be made 12 hours, 18 hours, 1, 2, 3 or 5 days before
the specified time, so that the ships Master may route his vessel accordingly.
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These charts are used by the Mariner in understanding the weather situation and
routeing the vessel according to the weather if required.
Determination of surface winds:
The weather maps show HP and LP areas and atmospheric pressure at various
locations on the map. We know that surface winds blow from an area of HP to an
area of LP, being deflected by Coriolis force. The map also shows Cold front, warm
front, occluded front, depressions, etc which will help us to estimate the surface
winds that will blow when vessel passes through such a system.
Forecasting movements of fronts:
With the help of the prognosis charts for different times, we can predict the
movements of the fronts and use this information to our advantage and avoid the
areas of bad weather.
Forecasting of sea fog:
The surface analysis and prognosis charts provide information on air temperature by
using isotherms which are lines joining areas of same atmospheric temperature.
Making use of this information, along with information on sea water temperature
and dew point / relative humidity, we can forecast sea fog.
State the objectives of weather routeing. Explain how you will carry out
weather routeing onboard your vessel.
Objectives of weather routeing:
 To achieve a safe, economic passage across an ocean, taking into consideration

all available meteorological and oceanographical factors, thereby saving time
and fuel.
 To prevent or minimize the chances of heavy weather damage.
 To prevent or minimize the chances of cargo shifting.
 To provide more comfort of crew and passengers.
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Weather routeing can be carried out by four methods onboard ships:
(1) Weather routeing by use of weather maps.
 In this method, the shortest possible track is first drawn on a gnomonic chart
or polar stereographic chart of that ocean. This track is then transferred to a
transparent plastic sheet placed over the 24 hour prognostic facsimile chart.
 Radial lines are then drawn from the starting position 10 degrees apart, on
either side of the shortest track. Each such line is a likely course to steer.
 On each of these likely courses, the relative bearing and wave height is read off
from the 24 hour prognostic chart. The performance curves are scrutinized
and the ships likely position at the end of the 24 hours on each course is
plotted. Set and drift is also applied to get the estimated positions. A line
joining all the estimated positions is then drawn which is known as the locus.
 The transparent sheet is then placed over a 48 hour prognostic chart, and again
the earlier steps are repeated. The lines which are too far from the original
shortest route are omitted and a second locus is obtained.
 The same procedure is repeated on a 72 hour prognostic chart. A line drawn
from the concave part of each locus when viewed from the starting position
gives the optimum route to be followed.
 For this method, a facsimile onboard is a must.
(2) Climatological routeing and use of Routeing charts and Nautical Publications.
 This involves traditional ways of using Pilot Books, seasonal charts such as
Routeing charts, other Nautical publications such as Ocean Passages of the
World for reference.
(3) Using Ships Performance Curves
 Other than ocean currents, waves are the biggest factors that cause reduction
in vessels speed. The waves can be sea, swell or a combination of both. It is
therefore important that the vessel’s performance in various wave conditions
be known before attempting to weather route a particular vessel.
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 For this purpose, the performance curves should be constructed by inspecting

the records of previous voyages and, if they are not readily available, the
curves of a somewhat similar vessel may be used in the meantime.
 There are usually 3 curves – (a) ‘head’ curve that denotes direction between
right ahead and 600 on either bow. (b) ‘following’ curve that denotes direction
between right astern and 600 on either quarter. (c) ‘beam’ curve that denotes
any direction within 300 of athwartships. Each curve is usually drawn, assuming
full engine RPM, even for very high head waves.
 The graph has wave height (in mtrs) on the X-axis and ships speed (in knots) on
the Y-axis. Separate performance curves must be drawn for loaded and light
conditions.
(4) Using Shore based weather routeing services
 There are shore based organizations that do weather routeing of ships, for
which the owner has to pay a service fee. They employ meteorological experts
and experienced Master mariners and give routeing instructions to a ship.
 It is more reliable method of routeing as the shore based experts have better
access to information and advanced technology for forecasting.
 It is usually adopted for a long trans-ocean passage, especially when bad
weather is likely to be encountered, where punctuality and cargo care is
topmost priority. In all other cases, owners and operators avoid it because of
the high costs involved.
Explain the purpose of Maritime Forecast (MARFOR) Code.

 MARFOR Code is a North American code used in the transmission of marine
weather forecasts to compress a volume of meteorological and marine
information into shorter code for convenience during radio broadcasting.
 The MARFOR forecast usually supplies the period of validity for the forecast,
future wind speed and direction, weather, visibility and 'state of sea.'
 It is mainly used by countries that experience difficulty in sending out weather
bulletins in plain English.
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 Detailed explanation of each of the letters used in the coding are given in the
ALRS 3. The information given by a MARFOR Code bulletin should be treated as
approximate only.
 Each MAFOR broadcast is followed by a brief technical synopsis of the current
weather map in plain language. The synopsis gives the location of the centers
of significant high and low pressure areas, and their forecast motion (direction
and speed).
Describe Wind Rose.

 Wind Roses are found on Climatological charts. They give a pictorial view of the
average occurrence of winds at a particular location, showing their direction,
strength and frequency for a particular period (For eg. Monthly).
 It is prepared based on atleast 15 years of records. It is very useful for ship
officers as it helps to anticipate the weather ahead throughout the voyage.
 The wind direction shown is the direction from which the wind blows.
 Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at
the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles.
 A thin line represents wind force 1-3, a double line represents wind force 4-7
and a dark broad line represents force 8 and upwards. Some may have wind
speed instead of wind force and the units may vary, which will be indicated on
the wind rose.
 There may be two or three figures in the centre. The first figure indicates the
number of observations, the middle figure shows the % frequency of variables
and the bottom figure shows the % frequency of calms.
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Describe wave charts and list out various information given in those
charts.
Wave chart is a chart of an ocean area on which synoptic wave reports from vessels,
along with computed wave heights for areas where reports are lacking, are plotted;
Apart from the wave heights, following other information is given in these charts:
1. Atmospheric fronts
2. Highs and lows
3. Isolines or isopleths of wave height (lines joining areas of equal wave heights)
4. Boundaries of areas having the same dominant wave direction.
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METEOROLOGY Q’s & A’s ICE & CURRENTS
Explain with the help of suitable diagram, the sequential formation of sea
ice.
Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on
the ocean's surface.
Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very
dynamic, leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be
contrasted with icebergs, which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into
the ocean.
For the formation of sea-ice, only the top layer of water needs to cool to the freezing
point. This cooling of the ocean surface by a cold atmosphere makes the surface of
the water dense. This densification of water causes the colder water to sink below
setting up convection currents. This continues to happen till the water at the top
reaches the freezing point which is about -20C for sea water. The convection
phenomenon is restricted only to the surface layer to a level of about 100-150 metres
below the surface.
As the ocean water begins to freeze, the first sea ice to form on the surface is called
Frazil Ice. It is initially in the form of tiny discs, floating flat on the surface and of
diameter less than 0.3 cm. Each disc grows outwards laterally and at a certain point
the disc shape becomes unstable, and the ice grows to have long fragile arms
stretching out over the surface. The arms are very fragile, and soon break off, leaving
a mixture of discs and arm fragments. With any kind of turbulence in the water, these
fragments break up further into random-shaped small crystals floating on the
surface. These ice crystals are also called ice-spicules.
As the soupy layer of Frazil ice thickens; a thin film of ice forms. This film is strong
enough to withstand ripples with the waves passing beneath. When they form in
large quantities, they appear to have thickened sufficiently and this mushy layer so
formed is known as “Grease ice”. The grease ice has a matt appearance.
In quiet conditions, the frazil crystals soon freeze together to form a continuous thin
sheet of young ice. In its early stages, when it is still transparent — this ice is called
Nilas.
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Once nilas has formed, a quite different growth process occurs, in which water
freezes on to the bottom of the existing ice sheet, a process called congelation
growth. This growth process yields first-year ice.
Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall, rather than super-cooling.
Waves and wind then act to compress these ice particles into larger plates, of several
meters in diameter, called pancake ice. These float on the ocean surface, and collide
with one another, forming upturned edges. In time, the pancake ice plates may
themselves be rafted over one another or frozen together into a more solid ice cover,
known as consolidated pancake ice. Such ice has a very rough appearance on top and
bottom.
Write Short Note on “Arctic Icebergs”

 An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off
a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water.
 Arctic region contains a basin about 3000 m deep, which is covered by a thin
shell of ice about 4m thick.
 The Arctic Ocean remains almost completely covered by drift ice throughout
the year, whereas the greater part of drift ice surrounding Antarctica melts
each summer.
 The Arctic icebergs are mainly confined to the sea areas off the E and W coast
of Greenland and off the E seaboard of Canada.
 In the Arctic, icebergs originate mainly in the glaciers of the Greenland ice cap
which contains approximately 90% of the land ice of the Northern Hemisphere.
 In the Arctic, the icebergs are of irregular shapes and varying characteristics
such as height, length, submerged-exposed proportions, etc.
 Ice islands may also be found in Arctic, which is a rare form of tubular iceberg,
which is formed by breaking off from the ice shelves.
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Discuss with the aid of suitable sketches the normal season and probable
tracks of North Atlantic icebergs from origin to decay.
Normal season of North Atlantic icebergs: 15th February to 1st July of every year.
Movement or probable track of icebergs in the North Atlantic Region:
1. The icebergs born on the East Coast of Greenland are carried South-westwards
by the East Greenland current.
2. After rounding off at the southern tip of Greenland, they join the icebergs born
on the Greenland’s West Coast. They are then carried Northward by the West
Greenland current.
3. From Baffin Bay, they are brought southward by the Labrador current. By the
time they reach the Grand Banks, they are one to two years old.
4. The volume of an average sized iceberg in this region is about 20,000 cubic
meters. Its rate of drift is erratic, being between 10-70 NM per day.
5. On meeting the Gulf stream, whose temperature is as high as 160C, the average
sized icebergs melt in one or two weeks. The larger ones may take as long as
two months.
Describe the factors which may give rise to ice accretion and methods of
reducing ice accretion.
The main factors which cause ice accretion on ships are:
1. Spray:
 Spray consists of small water droplets formed by mechanical breaking of water

when the waves hit the ship.
 Spray is then transported into air by the prevailing wind and cooled.
 The rate of cooling depends upon the time in the air, size of the droplets and
the air temperature. At low air temperatures (below 00C) the spray freezes into
ice and settles on the windward side of the ship.
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2. Overflow of Water:
 The overflow of water occurs during rough seas.

 If the scuppers are free of ice, the entire amount of water will drain before it
has sufficient time to freeze on the ship’s deck.
 If for some reason, the water stayed on the deck, a whitish porous slush is
formed on deck which then grows rather rapidly with each over flow of water
on deck.
3. Super Cooled Fog and Rain Drops:
 At times, super cooled fog or rain drops deposit on the ship as snow.
 This kind of icing makes the work area, ladders, passages, etc very slippery
causing unsafe situation onboard the ship. However, it is not of great
significance.
4. Snow Fall:
 Snow falls and deposits on the ship causing ice to accrete on the ship.
 However, as long as the snow is dry it gets blown away by the wind. If the
snow becomes wet by spray, it quickly settles down on the ship and
contributes to very large increase in the weight of the ship.
Methods of reducing ice accretion:
 Icing due to freezing spray can be clearly avoided by keeping away from sea
areas with critical air temperature and wind speed. This can be done with the
help of proper weather routeing techniques. This is however not always
possible.
 Other options available are:
 Seek shelter in the lee of land until the conditions have changed.
 Reduce the speed of the ship or stop the ship entirely.
 Choose a course exactly against the waves and if possible, run with the waves
in order to reduce the amount of icing.
 It might also be possible to avoid extreme waves by navigating near the
leeward shores or in the fairways if possible.
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 Other methods to avoid or reduce ice accretion could be the use of anti-icing
mats, tarpaulins, etc that help in prevention of icing and ice removal very easy.
 Electrical heating of certain vital parts of the ship such as the Radar antenna,
radio masts, etc.
What are the differences between a drift current and a stream current?
Mention a good example of each. Name the prominent currents of the
South Pacific Ocean.
Drift Current: Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean
for long periods. The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea
surface to move. It drags the water in the same direction in which the wind is
blowing. This creates wind drift currents. However, Coriolis force deflects the drift
current to the right in the NH and to the left in the SH by about 30 to 45 degrees. The
maximum strength of the drift current is only upto about 2 knots, depending on the
wind speed and its constancy. The drift currents at the surface also transmit the drag
to the successive layers below it which are also influenced by the Coriolis force.
Stream current is due to the tidal stream that is a resultant of the tidal flow and
current in a particular coastal area. The tidal flow is subject to hourly changes and is
caused by gravitational effects of the Moon and Sun. Therefore, the stream currents
are a phenomenon near the coast and change every hour. They are described in the
tidal stream atlases. They are of much higher speed than the drift currents because of
strengthening factors such as gradient, shape of the coast, etc.
Examples of drift currents are:
 North Equatorial currents or South Equatorial currents caused by Trade winds.

 North Atlantic Current, North Pacific current & Southern Ocean current caused
by the Westerlies.
Examples of Stream Currents are:
Gulf Stream - which is the drift current but with increased velocity due to the
strengthening factors such as gradient, shape of the coast, etc. It is one of the fastest
ocean current.
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Prominent Currents of the South Pacific Ocean:

(ii) East Australian Coast Current
(iii) Southern Ocean Current
(iv) Peru Current (Humboldt current)
Why is surface water current circulation in Arabian Sea varying?

 The surface water current circulation in Arabian Sea is seasonally varying,
which is mainly due to the changes in the wind stress associated with the
Indian monsoon. This is also because the Indian Ocean is blocked by the
continental masses in the north.
 During winter, the flow of the upper ocean is directed westward from near the
Indonesian Archipelago to the Arabian Sea.
 During the summer, the direction reverses, with eastward flow extending from
Somalia into the Bay of Bengal.
A surface current flows in one direction and an undercurrent flows in the

opposite direction through the Gibraltar straits. Explain this fully.
The level of the Mediterranean Sea is lower than that of the Atlantic. This is because
Mediterranean Sea is land-locked which results in a much higher rate of evaporation
and also because the input of water from rains and rivers is very small. A gradient
surface current therefore flows eastward from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean
through the Straits of Gibraltar.
Because of the high rate of evaporation, the water in the Mediterranean Sea is more
saline and hence denser than the water in the Atlantic. Because of this, a sub-surface
current flows westward from Mediterranean to the Atlantic through the Straits of
Gibraltar. (Also, surface current flows from Black Sea to Mediterranean sea and sub-
surface current flows from Mediterranean Sea to Black sea through Dardanells and
Bosporus – because of the same reasons)
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METEOROLOGY Q’s & A’s ATMOSPHERE & CLIMATOLOGY
What is sea fog? List the areas and seasons in which sea fog is to be
expected. Explain how the occurrence of sea fog can be predicted
onboard ship.
Sea fog
 Sea fog is a type of advection fog which is formed when a moist wind blows
over a relatively cold surface of sea.
 When the moist air is cooled below its dew point, the excess water vapour
condenses into small droplets of water on dust or minute particles of salt,
resulting in advection fog.
 Wind causes advection fog to form and also to spread. If the wind is quite
strong, turbulence causes advection fog to form to considerable depth.
However, very strong winds carry the moisture too high, resulting in low clouds
and no fog.
Areas and Seasons of sea fog:
Best example of sea fog is the advection fog on the Grand Banks of New Foundland
where the warm, moist Westerlies blowing over the warm Gulf Stream, cross over
the cold Labrador current.
Also, off the East coast of Japan where the warm, moist Westerlies blowing over the
warm Kuro Shio, cross over the cold Oya Shio.
Different areas may have different seasons of sea fog, depending on the sea water
temperature, dew point and relative humidity at that place at that particular time.
Prediction of sea fog onboard ships:
The possible time of occurrence of sea fog can sometimes be predicted onboard by
plotting the temperature of the sea surface and the dew point of the air as two
separate curves against ship’s time.
If the two curves appear to converge, then we can extend the curves using dotted
lines and estimate the time when sea fog would be experienced.
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Explain how advection and radiation fogs are formed. Which one does
not form over the sea and why?
Advection fog
 Advection fog is also termed as sea fog because is mainly occurs at sea (can
also occur on land). It is formed when a moist wind blows over a relatively cold
surface of sea.
 When the moist air is cooled below its dew point, the excess water vapour
condenses into small droplets of water on dust or minute particles of salt,
resulting in advection fog.
 Wind causes advection fog to form and also to spread. If the wind is quite
strong, turbulence causes advection fog to form to considerable depth.
However, very strong winds carry the moisture too high, resulting in low clouds
and no fog.
Radiation Fog:
 During the night, the land gives off its heat very quickly. On clear nights, the
radiation of heat from the land surface into space is quicker as it is
unobstructed by clouds.
 The air in contact with the ground thus gets cooled and if cooled below its dew
point, a large quantity of dew is deposited. If, however, a light breeze is
blowing, turbulence causes the cold from the land surface to be communicated
to the air a couple of metres above the ground and shallow fog called ‘ground
fog’ results.
 If the wind is a bit stronger, radiation fog may extend upto a height of about
150 metres or so, above the ground. Strong winds cause too much turbulence,
resulting in low clouds and no fog.
Radiation fog forms ONLY over land and not over sea. Hence, it is also called land
fog. Radiation fog forms over land because of the large diurnal range of air
temperature over land. Over sea, the diurnal range of air temperature is very small.
Hence, radiation fog does not form over sea.
2
ROHAN D’SOUZA
What are the causes for Monsoons in India? With a diagram, explain the
SW and NE monsoons.
Causes for Monsoons in India:
Over large landmasses, the atmospheric pressure is low during summer and high
during winter. This seasonal change of atmospheric pressure over large landmasses,
results in seasonal winds. The monsoons of the Indian Ocean are a classic example of
such seasonal winds which are caused due to the pressure gradient between the
large landmasses and the sea.
SW Monsoon:
 During northern summer, the continent of Asia gets very warm and the
resultant low pressure over it centers over the Thar Desert (NW part of the
Indian sub-continent). The pressure here is lower than the equatorial low and
hence a pressure gradient exists from the equator towards the NW India.
 The SE trade winds blowing from the oceanic high of 300S towards the
equatorial low, cross over the equator and blow as a strong SW wind called the
SW Monsoon, towards the low over NW India.
 The SW Monsoon blows from June to October and brings heavy rain to the
West Coast of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
NE Monsoon:
 During northern winter, the continent of Asia gets cold and resultant high
pressure over it centres over Siberia. This pressure is much higher than the
pressure of the equatorial low which remains unaffected by the change in
season.
 The anti-cyclonic winds blow from the Siberian high to reach the Bay of Bengal
and Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon with a force of 3 to 4.
 They blow from December to April and bring heavy rainfall on the East Coast of
India.
3
ROHAN D’SOUZA
Define adiabatic changes and environment lapse rate. Describe how lapse
rate and condensation level determines the formation of different types
of clouds.
ADIABATIC CHANGES OR LAPSE RATE:
 A process is said to be adiabatic when there is no heat transfer i.e. heat does
not enter or leave the system.
 As we know, the temperature increases when volume decreases and vice-
versa. By a law in physics, when a parcel of air is made to rise, its volume
increases in accordance with the rarer air at that height. Therefore, when the
volume of this air increases, its temperature decreases.
 The change of temperature of air with increase in height is due to increase or
decrease in its volume, without any transfer of heat from or to the
surrounding. This change of air temperature is therefore said to be Adiabatic
change.
ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE:
 Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the parcel of air is cooled with increase
in height. It is usually expressed in deg. Celsius per km. It is also called
Environmental lapse rate (ELR) which is of the value of 6.50C per km for
standard atmosphere.
 When the air temperature decreases with increase in height, the ELR is
positive, and when the air temperature increases with increase in height
(temperature inversion), the ELR is negative.
 ELR for dry air (DALR) is about 100 per km ascent. ELR for wet air (SALR) is
about 50 per km ascent.
Formation of Clouds due to lapse rate and condensation levels:
(1) By Turbulence: Strong winds blowing over uneven ground strike against various
obstructions. This causes the air to deflect upwards. As the air rises, it gets cooled
adiabatically. If cooled below the dew point, clouds will be formed.
4
ROHAN D’SOUZA
(2) Orographic cloud: When a warm, moist wind blows against a mountain range, it
begins to climb up the mountain side. During this ascent, it cools adiabatically and
after cooling below its dew point, orographic clouds are formed. These are of
the stratus type. If the mountain is too high, then further ascent results in
nimbostratus and continuous precipitation.
(3) Convection: When a parcel of air gets heated, due to any local cause, it expands
and becomes less dense than the surrounding air and hence, it rises. This is called
convection current. The parcel will rise till it is warmer than the surrounding air.
During the ascent the rising air will get cooled adiabatically and when cooled below
dew point, condensation takes place resulting in formation of convection clouds
which are always of the cumulous type. If the ascent of air is high, it will result in
formation of towering cumulus. If the ascent is very rapid, cumulonimbus clouds may
form with its head well into the high cloud level until its top reaches the tropopause.
As the cloud cannot rise above the tropopause it will spread sideways and look like
an anvil. This is called an anvil shaped cumulonimbus.
(4) Frontal Lifting: When a warm and cold mass of air are in contact, their line of
separation at sea level is called a front. The boundary between them is non-vertical. It
is inclined towards the colder air as it is denser than the warmer air. This inclined
boundary acts like a wedge and lifts up the warm air. In case of a warm front, the
slope is gradual and the upsliding warm air forms stratiform clouds. In case of a cold
front, the slope is very steep and the upsliding warm air forms cumulonimbus and
cumulus clouds.
What are isallobars?

 Barometric Tendency is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at
the time of observation and the atmospheric pressure 3 hours earlier.
 The characteristics of the tendency observed may be described as rising, falling
or steady or a combination of these terms.
 When observed barometric tendencies are plotted on a chart, the points
having the same tendencies are joined by lines called isallobars.
5
ROHAN D’SOUZA
Write short notes on Roaring Forties.

 The Roaring Forties are strong westerly winds found in the Southern
Hemisphere, generally between the latitudes of 40 and 50 degrees.
 The Roaring Forties were a major aid to sail ships sailing from Europe to the
East Indies or Australasia during the Age of Sail.
 The boundaries of the Roaring Forties are not consistent, and shift north or
south depending on the season.
Describe the effects of accumulation of greenhouse gas in the

atmosphere.
Effects of accumulation of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere:
 More heat gets trapped into the atmosphere and very little gets radiated back
into the space. This heats up the earth’s surface, the phenomenon which is
known as Global Warming.
 This heating up of the Earth’s surface will result in the melting of the glaciers
which will lead to rise in the sea level.
 There will be climatic changes especially increasing temperatures.
 There will also be changes in the rainfall patterns.
 It will also have an impact plants and humans, and cause shrinkage of forests.
 It will lead to destruction/depletion of the ozone layer. This will result in more
exposure to UV radiations that can cause skin cancer, development of
cataracts, affect plant’s growth, affect marine life and marine food chain.
6
ROHAN D’SOUZA

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METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE

 Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere.

STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION:

The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of the following gases, the composition of

Also, the density of air decreases with increase in height.

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE:

The change of temperature of air with increase in height is due to increase or

As we know, the temperature increases when volume decreases and vice-versa.

Wet & Dry Air:

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

Why is SALR less than DALR?

DIURNAL VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE:

The unit of measurement is millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa). (1 mb = 1 hPa)

The atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called the barometer.

Lapse Rate of Atmospheric Pressure:

Diurnal Variation of Atmospheric Pressure:

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE:

Water can exist in the atmosphere in the following states:

1. Vapour – water vapour

Under certain circumstances, it changes from one state to another.

WATER VAPOUR & HUMIDITY

Relative Humidity (RH) = x 100

If the temperature of a parcel of air increases, its capacity to hold water

Coriolis Force (or geostrophic force):

 When a horizontal pressure gradient exists, a force called pressure gradient

Buys Ballot’s Law:

Geostrophic Wind Scale:

 It is a scale provided on a weather map that is used to predict wind speed at

1. It is a phenomenon where the atmosphere is very unstable throughout for a

GLOBAL WIND AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:

Doldrums / Inter tropical convergence zone:

Subtropical High / Horse Latitudes:

 These are located in latitudes 300 to 350 N/S.

Westerlies and Polar Easterlies:

 It is a strong N or NW katabatic wind blowing over the Gulf of Lions in the NW

 It is the NW wind in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

6. Tornadoes and Water-sprout

 A tornado is a violent whirlwind of the cyclonic type – anticlockwise in the NH

Heat is transferred from one place to another in three ways –

Convection is the transfer of energy as a result of movement of parts of a fluid. If one

Why are cloudy nights warmer?

 Sun’s radiation is subject to scattering, reflection, absorption, etc. Majority of

Why are Polar Regions colder than equatorial regions?

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

 It is the phenomenon that is used to grow tropical plants in cold regions in a

Causes of Global Warming:

Effects of Global Warming:

 Rise in the sea level due to the melting of the glaciers.

 Changes in the rainfall pattern.

ACCUMULATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES:

 Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC’s,

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

2. Exposure to UV rays also has a harmful effect on plant’s growth process.

LOW MEDIUM HIGH

 It is an even layer of dark grey cloud.

 It is grey in colour with dark shadows.

 It is an even layer of dark grey cloud.

 It is brilliant white in colour, with clear outline.

 It is grey and heavy cloud with great vertical extent.

 It is white grey or both, in patch, layer or sheet form.

 These high clouds have thin whitish veil.

 These high clouds are in the form of small flakes or cauliflower.