The Motherboard

The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. It contains the

central processing unit (CPU), the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS),
memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots,
and all the controllers for standard peripheral devices like the keyboard, disk
drive and display screen.
The chipset and other motherboard circuitry are the "smarts" of the
motherboard. Their job is to direct traffic and control the flow of information
inside the computer.
The chipset is a critical part of any computer, because it plays a big role in
determining what sorts of features the computer can support.

ROM: Read Only Memory

 ROM is nonvolatile. ROM chips contain permanently written data, called
firmware (your BIOS lives here).
 ROM contains the programs that direct the computer to load the operating
system and related files when the computer is powered on.
 ROM chips are usually recorded when they are manufactured.
PROM -Programmable Read Only memory chip cannot be changed to update
or revise the program inside
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only memory Data can be erased and
chip can be reused Can be erased by shining high intensity UV light through
the window
EEPROM Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only memory under high
voltage
FROM -Flash ROM is reprogrammable memory using normal voltage inside
the PC- You can upgrade the logic capabilities by simply downloading new
software. This saves the expense of replacing circuit boards and chips.

Cache
Pronounced cash.
It is a small, high-speed memory area that is placed between the processor
and the system memory.
The value of the cache is that it is much faster than normal system memory.
The most frequently used instructions are kept in cache memory so that the
CPU can look in there first - allows the CPU to run faster because it doesn't
have to take time to swap instructions in and out of main memory.
Large, complex programs such as complex spreadsheets or database
management programs benefit the most from having a cache memory
available. Pentium II processors generally come with at least 512 KB of
cache memory.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM is Primary Storage, also called internal storage.
 Serves as computers workspace, storing all or part of the program that
is being executed, as well as data being used by the program.
 RAM provides instructions and data to the CPU.
 These instructions/data are coded in bytes.
 Each byte is placed in a precise location in memory, called an address.
 To access data or instructions in memory, the computer references the
addresses containing the bytes.
 The amount of memory available is therefore measured in bytes

 RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes

in electric current.
 RAM chips are typically packaged on small circuit boards called
memory modules, which are inserted into special slots on the motherboard.
 RAM is Volatile storage: Power goes, data goes!
 Data/instructions are copied into memory as needed.
 Not enough memory or corruption of data/instructions in memory can
cause crash.
 On booting, operating system files are loaded from a storage device
(the hard disk, usually) into RAM, and they remain there as long as your
computer is running.
 RAM contents changes as programs are executed.
 RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes
in electric current.
 RAM chips are typically packaged on small circuit boards called
memory modules, which are inserted into special slots on the motherboard.
 On booting, operating system files are loaded from a storage device
(the hard disk, usually) into RAM, and they remain there as long as your
computer is running.
 RAM contents changes as programs are executed.
 The amount of RAM needed depends on the types of applications you
intend to run on the computer. S/w indicate the minimum amount of RAM
required to run.
Two basic types of RAM are Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and Static RAM (SRAM).
Most computers today use DRAM, which are also of two types:
 SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic RAM runs at the same pace as the
system clock runs
 DDR SDRAM DDR stands for Double Data Rate - runs at double the
pace the system clock runs - available in speeds from 266 MHZ upto 600MHZ
 DDR2 SDRAM runs at four times the pace the system clock runs -
available in speeds from 400 MHZ upto 800MHZ
Most desktops and notebooks use one of the three most popular types of
synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM) for the main system
memory. Single data rate (SDR) SDRAM is the older type of memory,
commonly used in computers prior to 2002. Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM
hit the mainstream computer market around 2002, and DDR2-based
systems hit the market in mid-2004.
DDR SDRAM is a straightforward evolution from SDR SDRAM. The big
difference between DDR SDRAM and SDR SDRAM is that DDR reads data on
both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal, so the DDR module can
transfer data twice as fast as SDR SDRAM.
While DDR has a limited clock rate, the evolutionary changes to DDR
architecture enable DDR2 to achieve speeds beyond of DDR, delivering
bandwidth of 5.3 GB per second and beyond! Because DDR2 is able to
operate with faster bus speeds, your memory doesn't hold back the
performance of your processor.
Generally speaking, motherboards are built to support only one type of
memory. You cannot mix and match SDRAM, DDR, or DDR2 memory on the
same motherboard in any system. They will not function and will not even fit
in the same.
Why is RAM so important?
Aside from the processor, the two most important factors affecting a PC's
performance are RAM and hard disk capacity.
Hard disks are typically huge, so the primary limiting factor is the amount of
installed RAM.
Without enough RAM, the operating system must swap out storage space
with the hard disk. The OS creates a Paging File (swap file) to supplement
RAM (workspace). This is Virtual Memory.
Virtual memory is inherently slow! RAM speed can typically be 120,000
times FASTER than the hard disk so the less you must rely on virtual
 memory (swapping files between RAM and hard disk), the faster your
system will perform.
Microprocessor
 Heart and brain of the PC
 One electrical circuit in control of another
 Successive generation of processors
 80286,80386,80486 -32 bit interface
 Pentium family P1, P2, P3, P4 64 bit interface
 Dual-core technology is like having two processors - A dual core
processor is a CPU with two separate cores residing on the same chip

Basic Hardware Components

 Arithmetic/logic unit

o Contains the electronic circuitry necessary to perform arithmetic and logical operations
on data.

 Communications Devices

o Enable a computer to connect to other computers. Devices that enable a computer to

connect to other components; includes modems and network interface cards.

 Control Unit

o The component in any computing system that works in coordinatin with the central
processing unit to instruct, maintain and control the flow of information.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

o The component in any computing system that represents the circuitry necessary to
interpret and execute program instructions, it consists of the Control Unit, arithmetic/logic unit and
the controller.. It is the corollary to the brain in organic systems.

 Hardware

o Equipment that inputs, processes, outputs, and stores data. It consists of input
devices, a system unit, output devices, storage devices, and communication devices.
 Input Devices

o Any computer peripheral used to enter data and/or control signals into a computer
system. Some devices, such as modems, are capabile of both input as well as output.

o Examples of Input Devices

o Biofeedback Input Devices—special equipment like gloves, body suits, and

eyeglasses to translate movements, temperature, or skin-based electrical signals

o Digital Camera—record photographs in the form of digital data that can be

stored on a computer.

o Digitizer—converts points, lines, and curves from a sketch, drawing, or

photograph to digital impulses and transmits them to a computer

o Electronic Whiteboard—captures anything drawn on special whiteboard

o Joystick—uses the movement of a vertical stem to direct the pointer. These

are often used with computer games and have buttons you can press to activate events, depending
upon the software.

o Graphics Tablet—similar to a digitizer, but it also contains unique characters

and commands that can be generated automatically by the person using the tablet

o Image Scanner (page scanner)– an input device that can electronically capture
an entire page of text or images such as photographs or art work.

o Keyboard—most commonly used input device. You enter data by pressing

keys on the keyboard

o Light Pen—used by touching it on the display to create or modify graphics

o Microphone—used to record sound.

o Modem—a device that converts data into a form suitable for both receipt and
transmission by wire or radio such that it can be reconstructed at the destination point.

o Mouse—a small palm-sized input device that you move across a flat surface to
control the movement of the pointer on the screen
o Pen Input—used to (1) input data using hand-written characters and shapes
that the computer can recognize (2) as a pointing device like a mouse to select items on the screen,
and (3) to gesture (special symbols made with the pen that issue a command)

o Optical Recognition Devices—use a light source to read codes, marks, and

characters and convert them into digital data that can be processed by a computer

o Pointing Stick (trackpoint or isometric pointing device)—a small device shaped

like a pencil eraser that moves the insertion point as pressure is applied to the device

o Terminals—consist of a keyboard and a screen - commonly used for special

purpose input such as POS (Point-of Sale) information entry.

o Touchpad (trackpad)—a flat rectangular surface that senses the movement of

a finger on its surface to control the movement of the insertion point

o Touch Screen—allows you to touch areas of the screen with your fingers to
enter data.

o Trackball—A pointing device like a mouse only with the ball on the top of the
device instead of the bottom

 Laptop or Notebook or Netbook

o A portable, integrated device in which the central processing unit (CPU), storage (hard
disk and/or memory), input system (keyboard, trackpad, etc.), display and various data input and
output channels (USB, Firewire, Ethernet, WiFi, etc.) are combined in a self-contained unit. Laptop or
Notebook or Netbook computers are generally smaller than desktop computers, lending to their
portability.

 Machine cycle

o Machine Cycle or Processor Cycle or Instruction Cycle: the most basic logical mode of
operation in a central processing unit (CPU). It consists of four steps that are "executed" continuously
at a very high rate of speed: fetch, decode, execute and store. Only one execution cycle per machine
cycle may be performed.

 Memory

o Integrated circuits that temporarily store program instructions and data that can be
retrieved. Basic unit of memory is a byte.
o RAM (Random Access Memory) – a volatile form of memory, RAM generally functions
as a computers "desktop" - the space in which data that is actively under review and/or manipulation
can be processed. As a result and as a general rule, the more RAM with which a computer is fitted,
the more and faster data can be viewed and manipulated. RAM needs to be cyclically "refreshed" from
an outside power source in order to maintain the information contained therein. When external power
is removed, the data contents held in RAM disappears. For this reason, RAM is sometimes referred to
as short term memory.

o ROM (Read Only Memory) – a non-volatile form of memory, ROM stores data that
does not commonly change, like startup instructions and data used when a computer if first turned on.

o CMOS –used to store information about the computer system, such as the amount of
memory, the type of keyboard and monitors, and the type and capacity of disk drives.

 Output Devices

o Devices that convert the results of processed data into a form that can be used and
understood by the user. A computer display is an example of an output device, as is a printer.
Whereas a computer display uses a screen to present visual information in virtual form, a printer
produces hardcopy - a tangible form of the data or information. Audio speakers are another form of
output device, converting electronic programming into human-audible sound. Some devices are
capable of being output as well as input devices.

o Examples of Output Devices

o Computer display or monitor

o Plotter- Designed for line drawing; often used for computer-aided design;
some units can handle large paper sizes

o Modem—a device that converts data into a form suitable for both receipt and
transmission by wire or radio such that it can be reconstructed at the destination point.

o Multifunction Devices—Combines printer, fax, scanner, and copier

o Printers

o Projectors

 Palmtop, PDA or PIM

o Commonly the smallest of computing platforms, these are highly portable computing
devices used primarily to organize task, contact, communications and other personally oriented
information and data. These systems often have many of the same resources as a Laptop or Netbook
computer: a CPU, storage, input system, display and one or more data input/output (I/O) channels.
These devices can be purpose-built, or can have other primary functions, with smartphones being a
good example of such a multifunction device.

 Peripheral Devices

o A general term for any device connected to the system unit .

 Storage Devices

o Store instructions and data when they are not being used by the system unit.

o Examples of Storage Devices

o CD-ROM (compact disk read-only) — a smaller optical disk that can store
about 450 times the data on a floppy

o Data Cartridges—removable hard disk drives that provide both the storage
capacity and fast access

o Floppy disk/drive—a flexible platter coated with material that allows data to be
recorded magnetically on the surface of the platters.

o Hard Disk—one or more rigid platters coated with material that allows data to
be recorded magnetically on the surface of the platters.

o Smart Cards—size of credit card and contain a thin microprocessor capable of

storing data. They are used as attendance tracking cards, identification cards, telephone cards, etc

o Tape Cartidges—containing a long ribbon of plastic, one side of which is coated

with a material that can be magnetized to record the binary codes that represent data.

 System Unit

o Box-like case that contains the electronic circuits that cause the processing of data to
occur. Part of the computer system where the computing is done. This is where the computer
programs are executed and the data is manipulated. It consists of the Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory (Random Access Memory-RAM), and other electronics.