OUR NATURAL HABITAT

A HABITAT is an ecological or environment area that is inhabited by a particular species. It

is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that
surrounds a species population.

the term “species population” is preferred to “organism” because, while it is possible to

describe the habitat of a single black bear, we may not find any particular or individual bear
but the grouping of bears that comprise a breeding population and occupy a certain
biogeographical area. Further, this habitat could be somewhat different from the habitat of
another group or population of black bears living elsewhere. Thus it is neither the species
nor the individual for which the term habitat is typically used.

The term “habitat” was originally defined as the physical conditions that surrounds a
species, or species population, or assemblage of species, or community. In ecology, the
habitat shared by many species is called a biotope. A biome is the set of flora and fauna
which live in a habitat and occupy a certain geography.

Habitat destruction is a major factor in causing a species population to decrease,

eventually leading to its being endangered, or even to its extinction. Large scale land
clearing usually results in the removal of native vegetation and habitat destruction.
Bushfires and poor fire management, pest and weed invasion, cyclone and storm damage
can also destroy habitat.

Habitat is the environment in which human beings live, work, recreate and move about. It
is not just a dwelling place – “a house” with four walls but it is sum total of all factors which
constitute the total environment where human beings live, work and perform their essential
and day to day obligations.
 POLLUTION

Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects
on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs when only short-term economic gains
are made at the cost of long-term ecological benefits for humanity, no phenomenon has
led to grater ecological changes that has been made by mankind. During the last few
decades we have contaminated our air, water and land on which life itself depends with a
variety of waste products.
Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural
abundance, produced due to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on our
environment. The nature and concentration of a pollutant determine the severity of its
detrimental effects on human health. An average human requires about 12kg of air each
day, which is nearly 12-15 times greater than the amount of food we eat. So, even a small
concentration of pollutants in the air becomes more significant in comparison to similar
levels present in food. Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to distant
places, especially in the marine ecosystem.

From an ecological perspective, pollutants can be classified as follows;

Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: these can be rapidly broken down by natural

processes; e.g., domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.

Slowly-degradable or persistent pollutants: these are pollutants that remain in the

environment for many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to
degrade; e.g., DDT (pesticides) and most plastics.

Non-degradable pollutants: these cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they

are released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to
accumulate; e.g., toxic elements like lead or mercury, and nuclear wastes.
 AIR POLLUTION
The air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in
the air, in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. The air may
become polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur
and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by lightening.

Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural
events( e.g. dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities ( emission from
vehicles, industries, etc.). these are primary pollutants. The pollutants that are produced in
the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants
are called secondary pollutants; e.g., sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.

Air pollution is basically the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common examples include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, CFCs and nitrogen oxides
produced by industry and motor vehicles.

COMES FROM MANY SOURCES

Smog hanging over cities is the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution. But there
are different kinds of pollution – some visible, some invisible – that contribute to global
warming. Generally any substance that people introduce into the atmosphere that has
damaging effects on living things and the environment is considered air pollution.

Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the main pollutant that is warming Earth. Though
things emit carbon dioxide when they breathe, carbon dioxide is widely considered to be a
pollutant when associated with cars, planes, power plants, and other human activities like
the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline and natural gas.
Other greenhouse gases include methane – which comes from such sources as swam
emitted by livestock – and chlorofluorocarbons, which were used in refrigerants aerosol
propellants until they were banned because of their deteriorating effect on the Earth.

Another pollutant associated with climate change is sulfur dioxide, a component of smog.
Sulphur dioxide and closely related chemicals are known primarily as a cause of acid rain.

TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS

Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are those pollutants that are
known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive
effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects. Examples of toxic air pollutants
include benzene, which is found in gasoline; perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some
dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint
stripper by a number of industries.

People exposed to toxic air pollutants at sufficient concentrations and durations may have
an increased chance of getting cancer or experiencing other serious health effects. These
health effects can include damage to the immune system, as well as neurological,
reproductive, developmental, respiratory and other health problems.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HEALTH

 Prolonged smoking or exposure to air pollutants contributes to diseases

such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly people,
infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease, asthma or other
respiratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air pollution.
 Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of carbon monoxide for several
hours can cause collapse , coma and even death. As carbon monoxide remains
attached to the hemoglobin in the blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces
the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows
reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea.
 Sulfur dioxide irritates the respiratory tissues; chronic exposure to it causes
a condition similar to bronchitis. It also reacts with water, oxygen and other material
in the air to form sulfur-containing acids.
 Nitrogen oxides can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic
bronchitis and also increase our susceptibility to respiratory infections, like
influenza or common colds.
 Many volatile organic compounds and toxic particulates can cause
mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. The repeated inhalation of ozone, a
component of photochemical smog, causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness
and irritation of the eye, nose and the throat.
 WATER POLLUTION

Comprising over 70% of the Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious
natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound
comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on Earth would be non-existent. Although we as
humans recognize this fact, we disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes and oceans.
Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where organisms
are dying at a very alarming rate. In addition to innocent organisms dying off, our drinking
water has become greatly affected as is our ability to use water for recreational purposes.

Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of
large amounts of materials to the water. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is
considered polluted.

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

Many causes of pollution including sewage and fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates. In excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and
algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs our waterways,
use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters. This, in
turn, proves very harmful to aquatic organisms as it affects he respiration ability or fish and
other invertebrates that reside in water.

Pollution is also caused when silt and other suspended solids, such as soil, washoff
plowed fields, construction and logging sites, urban areas, and eroded river banks when it
rains. Under natural conditions, lakes, rivers and other water bodies undergo
Eutrophication, an aging process that slowly fills in the water body with sediments and
organic matter. When these sediments enter various bodies of water, fish respiration
becomes impaired, plant productivity and water depth becomes reduced, and aquatic
organisms and their environments become suffocated.
Many types of fish and bottom-dwelling animals cannot survive when levels of dissolved
oxygen drop below two to five parts per million. When this occurs, it kills aquatic organisms
in large numbers which leads to disruptions in the food chain.

Pathogens are another type of pollution that prove very harmful. They can cause many
illnesses that range from typhoid and dysentery to minor respiratory and skin diseases.
Pathogens include such organisms as bacteria, viruses, and protozoan. These pollutants
enter waterways through untreated sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, runoff from farms,
and particularly boats that dump sewage.

FORMS OF WATER POLLUTION

There are three forms of water pollution namely petroleum, radioactive substances, and
heat. Petroleum often pollutes water bodies in the form of oil, resulting from oil spills.
These large-scale accidental discharges of petroleum are an important cause of pollution
of pollution along shore lines. Radioactive substances are produced in the form of waste
from nuclear power plants, and from the industrial, medical, and scientific use of
radioactive materials. Specific forms of waste are uranium and thorium mining and refining.
The last form of water pollution is heat. Heat is a pollutant because increased
temperatures result in the deaths of many aquatic organisms. These decreases in
temperatures are caused when a discharge of cooling water by factories and power plant
occurs.
GLOBAL WATER POLLUTION

Estimates suggest that nearly 1.5 billion people lack safe drinking water and that at least 5
million deaths per year can be attributed to waterborne diseases. With over 70 percent of
the plant covered by oceans, people have long acted as if these very bodies of water could
serve as a limitless dumping ground for wastes. Raw sewage, garbage, garbage, and oil
spills have begun to overwhelm the diluting capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal
waters are now polluted. Beaches around the world are closed regularly, often because of
high amounts of bacteria from sewage disposal, and marine wildlife is beginning to suffer.

Clearly, the problems associated with water pollution have the capabilities to disrupt life on
our planet to a great extent. But the government alone cannot solve the entire problem. It
is ultimately up to us, to be informed, responsible and involved when it comes to the
problems we face with our water.
 NOISE POLLUTION
Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water, but it is a pollution
problem that affects human health and can contribute to a general deterioration of
environmental quality.

Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. What may be
considered as music to one person may be noise t another! It is not a substance that can
accumulate in the environment like most other pollutants. Sound is measured in a unit
called the ‘decibel’.

There are several sounds of noise pollution that contribute to both indoor and outdoor
noise pollution. Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, and playing of loudspeakers
during various festivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollution, while loudly played radio
or music systems, and other electronic gadgets can contribute to indoor noise pollution.

The difference between sound and noise is often subjective and a matter of personal
opinion. There are, however, some very harmful effects caused by exposure to high sound
levels. These effects can range in severity from being annoying to being extremely painful
and hazardous.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON PHYSICAL HEALTH

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and the
temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a ‘temporary threshold shifts’ (TTS).
People suffering from the condition are unable to detect weak sounds. Permanent loss,
usually called ‘noise-induced permanent threshold shift’ (NIPTS) represents a loss of
hearing ability from which there is no recovery.

Temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130 db. About 50% of the
people exposed to 95 db sound levels at work will develop NIPTS and most people
.exposed to more than 105 db will experience permanent hearing loss to some degree. A
sound level of 150 db or more can physically rupture the human eardrum.
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON MENTAL HEALTH

 Noise can cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability,

anxiety and stress.
 Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effects of
noise.
 As noise interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask
auditory warning signals and hence increases the rate of accidents especially in
industries.
 Noise can lead to lowered worker efficiency and productivity and higher
accident rates on the job.
 LAND POLLUTION
Land pollution basically is about contaminating the land surface of the Earth through
dumping urban waste matter indiscriminately, dumping of industrial waste, mineral
exploitation, and misusing the soil by harmful agricultural practices. Land pollution
includes visible litter and waste along with the soil.

Land pollution comprises of: Solid waste and Soil pollution

Solid waste : solid matter that are created by human or animal activities, and which
are disposed because they are hazardous or useless are known as solid waste. Most
of the solid wastes, like paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars
and electronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not get broken
down through inorganic or organic processes. Thus, when they accumulate they pose
a health threat to people, plus, decaying wastes also attract household pests and
result in urban areas becoming unhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to reside in.

Soil pollution : soil pollution is chiefly caused by chemicals in pesticides, such as

poisons that are used to kill agricultural pests like insects and herbicides that are used
to get rid of weeds. Hence, soil pollution results from:

• Unhealthy methods of soil management

• Harmful practices of irrigation methods
Land pollution is caused by farms because they allow manure to collect, which
Leaches into the nearby land area. Chemicals that are used for purposes like sheep
dipping also cause serious land pollution as do diesel oil spillages.

Land pollution can affect wildlife, plants and humans in a number of ways, such as:

• Cause problems in the respiratory system

• Cause problems on the skin
• Lead to birth defects
• Cause various kinds of cancers

The toxic materials that pollute the soil can get into the human body directly by:

• Coming into contact with the skin

• Being washed into water sources like reservoirs and rivers
• Eating fruits and vegetables that have been grown in polluted soil
• Breathing in polluted dust or particles
 GRASSLANDS
Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is
poor. The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is
sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during the monsoon.

A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds and mammals have
evolved so that they are adopted to these wide-open grass-covered areas. These animals
are able to live in conditions where food is plentiful after the rains, so that they can store
this as fat that they use during the dry period when there is very little to eat. Man began to
use these grasslands as pastures to fed livestock when animals were domesticated and,
thus, became a pastoralist in ancient times.

In India, grasslands form a variety of ecosystems that are located in different climatic
conditions ranging from near-desert conditions, to patches of shola grasslands that occur
on hill-slopes alongside the extremely moist evergreen forests in south. In the Himalayan
mountains, there are the high cold Himalayan pastures. There are tracts of tall elephant
grass in the low-lying terrain belt south of the Himalayan foothills. There are semi-arid
grasslands in western India, parts of central India, and in Deccan Plateau.

Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall areas. Certain grasslands types form
when clearings are made in different forest types. Some are located on the higher, steep
hill-slopes with patches of forest that occur along the stream and in depressions.

The grasses are the major producers of biomass. Each grassland ecosystem has a wide
variety of species of grasses and herbs. Some grass and herbs species are more sensitive
to excessive grazing and are suppressed if the area is over-grazed. Others are destroyed
by repeated fires and cannot regenerate. Thus over-used or frequently burnt grasslands
are degraded and are poor in plants species diversity.

On the basis of a visit to a local site, I have observed various aspects of our natural habitat
that are discussed in the following pages.
GUIDELINES TO LOOK FOR ON GRASSLAND:-
Utilization pattern of the grassland : ----

The grassland that I visited was spread in a vast area and was used for a
variety of purposes. A patch of it was used as a nursery by the farmer while
another patch was used for farming. Cattle grazing was also conducted since
the grass-cover was quite thick and good. Burning of grass is done periodically.

Grassland carrying capacity : ----

The carrying capacity of the grassland was quite enormous as the grass
was very good, fresh and in ample quantity that can easily feed a large
cattle.

Documenting grassland degradation : ----

The feedback from the localities indicate that there has been no definite
change in the landuse of the site. Though a patch of the area was
degraded a few years ago and has remained in the same condition till
now, it has no effect on the rest of the area. The grazing, farming, etc.
continues as before.

Products of use that come from that grassland : ----

Flowers
Cotton
Fodder
Hay
Fruits
Vegetables
Herbs
OBSEVATIONS ON THE SITE THAT SHOULD BE
RECORDED:-

Identify the type of grassland : ----

The grassland visited was a SEMI-ARID region.

Qualitative aspects : ----

A variety of living organisms as well as non-living things were discovered at the

site. Trees like neem, jatropa, eucalyptus, peepal, seesam, rubber, etc. were found
along with shrubs like zyzipus, challotropist, etc. Animals like rats, dogs, squirrels,
cats, rabbits, cows, buffalos, sheep, chickens, etc. were seen. A wide variety of
insects was also seen like mosquitoes, flies, bees, etc.

What changes occur seasonally : ----

Seasonal changes are inevitable. During the summers though the humidity is on a
high, the farm is benefited. Rainfall also helps in a good harvest and productivity. In
winters the chill affects the plants as well as the animals. They prefer being cozy in
their sheds or holes. The kind of crops, the harvest, the output, the animal life, the
soil texture and many more aspects depend solely on the season weather.
FINDINGS ON THE SITE THAT SHOULD BE RECORDED
THROUGH INTERVIEWS

Who uses it and to what extent : ----

Mostly the farmers and localities use the grassland for their own sustainence.
Farmers use it for a variety of purposes like for fuelwood, cattle grazing, crop
production, fodder, source of income, etc.

Estimate the extent of free grazing by cattle, sheep, goats, and their
proportion : -----

The extent of grazing can be estimated from the fact that a very large flock of dairy
animals graze on the field regularly and still a considerable amount is left for sale.

What is the productivity of the grassland : -----

According to the local people the fodder collection is more than enough for their
own livestock. They get quite a large portion to sell in the market. The sale of
fodder adds to the revenue of the farm and helps in making more developments.

Is the utilization sustainable or unsustainable : ----

The utilization is very much sustainable as the soil is of excellent texture and the
fodder collection is being done since a very long time. The flora and fauna has
been in a very good shape and the shepherd says the cattle is also happy.
 LOCAL POLLUTED SITE

Pollution occurs from a variety of sources and affects different aspects of our environment
and thus our lives and our health. I visited a local SEMI ARID DOMESTIC AREA and
observed the following aspects : ----

The type of land or water used in the area : -----

The type of soil used is quite fertile and productive. But the water is used from a very
small lake that is polluted. The colour of the water is blackish brown with weeds grown
at the corners and a large amount of waste dumped. The water being used is certainly
of poor quality and may affect the locals.

Identify what is being polluted : ----

AIR : - The air around the site is being ruined to no bounds as poisonous gases
are being emited from a nearby factory. These gases contain chemicals that
contaminates the air and causes serious air pollution affecting the lives and
health of the local people.

WATER : - A small pond like water body that is ½ m deep on the site is being
polluted because a lot of waste is being dumped into it. All sorts of garbage like
plastic bottles, aluminium cans, pieces of cloth, dried plants, thermacol, sticks,
chemicals, polythene bags, paper, etc. is lying in it. All in all the pond is a horrible
sight to look at and gives an unbearable odour create water pollution.

SOIL : - the soil though in a considerably good shape is being polluted. The farmer
at times uses low quality pestcides and fertilizers thus damaging the fertility of the
soil. Often the grass is burnt which further destroys the nutrients in it. Hence, soil
erosion in traces can also be seen.

PLANTS : - the plants that grow at the outskirts of the field are regularly watered
by the water from that sulking pond and the poisonous chemicals from the factory
also play their role in affecting them. The polluted air does the most of destruction
work for the flora of the site since it consists of gases not suitable for the health of
the plants.
The health aspect associated with the pollutants : ----

The health of all, the localities, people living on the site, plants, animals and soil is
being detorieted. The impurities in the environment affect the well-being of one and all.
Chemicals in the air and water, garbage dump, wrong elements in soil, weeds,
bacteria, etc. all help in destroying the natural habitat of the site.

Effects of the pollution on their lives : ----

The effects of pollution on the lives of local people are adverse. On drinking
water from the dirty pond many children have taken ill and are serious. The fruits
and vegetables grown for the sustanence of the farmer also contain a hint of
harmful chemical sand fatal poisonous elements. The people inhale the air that
contains huge quantity of poison and endangering substances. Even a lot of
noise pollution is created by the factory which disturbs the daily life of the local
people.
 SOLID WASTE
Pollution caused due to solid waste can be seen at various places like:

 Garbage dumps : - Garbage is a source of various diseases. The improper

handling of organic waste leads to a large population of flies, cockroaches and
rats that are responsible for the spread of diseases. Products like plastics are
not degraded in nature and hence remain for a long time in the environment,
thus adding to the ned for more dumps. For many years, waste has also been
dumped into oceans, rivers or on land.

 Households : - The garbage generated in our homes is termed as

'domestic waste'. Domestic waste is further classified as kitchen waste, which is
degradable, wet waste and non-biodegradable recyclable home waste, which
consists of plastics, glass and metal.

 Agriculture : - Agricultural waste consists of biomass, including farm

residues such as rice husk, straw, bagasse, etc. this biomass could be
effectively used for generating power or producing paper. Waste material from
fields includes fertilizers and pesticides that are a serious hazard.

 Industries : - Industrial solid waste includes material from various industries

or mines. Industries produce solid waste during the manufacturing processes.
Some of these are chemicals that have serious environmental ill-effects, as
they are toxic.
The waste generated during mining is non-biodegradable; it remains in the
environment nearly indefinitely.

 Hospitals : - The waste generated from hospitals contains cotton dressings

and bandages with blood or other tissue fluids and pus, all of which can contain
pathogens. It can spread bacteria, fungi and viruses. Used needles, syringes,
bottles, plastic bags, operation theatre waste, such as tissues, blood and plastic
disposable equipment all need very careful disposal.
While visiting a local garbage dump site, following was observed:--

The area covered : ----

The area covered is a small patch of land that has a bit of dairy farming
being conducted on it. At the far end is a land used for dumping garbage
and waste. That part becomes a lot stinky and unhygienic.

Hours spent on collecting the waste : ----

On alternate days the sweepers from municipal corporation collect the

waste from the land. A total of six or seven hours approximately are spent
on the waste collection.

The types of waste collected : ----

The waste collected from there mostly consists of plastic bottles, jute bags,
dry weeds, sticks, cattle waste, etc.

The problems faced while collecting waste : ----

Since the waste collected on alternate days, the amount of waste is quite
large and at times becomes unmanageable. The odour of the garbage also
acts as a disturbing factor for the sweepers. The localities face a lot of
problems because with the garbage come a lot of flies and diseases that
affect their daily lives.

What is done with the waste collected : ----

The garbage so collected is segregated and sent for recycling. But the rest
that cannot be recycled is dumped in the city garbage yard. There are
various types of treatments that can be conducted to recycle the waste like :

 API oil-water separators

 Sedimentation (water treatment)
 Dissolved air flotation
 Activated sludge biotreaters
 Biofilters
LIST OF GARBAGE DUMP MOSTLY FOUND

• Polybags
• Thermacol
• Water reed
• Polysterene cups
• Packets of chips
• Cloth
• Plastic
• Notebooks
• Sticks
• Holi colours
• Pet bottles
• Jute bags
• Cardboard
• Leather
• Fruit and vegetable peels
• Cans
• Stones
Observations found while examining the polluted water body on the site : ----

 Industrial units near the site : ----

There are three factories just adjacent to the lake. One of them is a
chemical manufacturer, another a textile factory and the third a bath-fitting
manufacturer.

 Is the industrial wastewater discharged in the site : ----

All the units use the water body as their dump yard and dispose all the waste.
The waste from the chemical factory affects the water adversely.

 The colour and odour : ----

The colour and odour of the water is not in a good shape. A blackish grayish
tinge in the water is visible and the smell is unbearable because of the
chemicals and garbage dumped.

 Sources of water contamination from the agricultural land on which

fertilizers are used : ----

The agricultural site also plays its role in the contamination of the water. All the
dried weeds and sticks are dumped into the lake which contain large amount if
pesticides and fertilizers. This contaminates the water very badly.

 Plants, birds and animals found nearby : ----

The plants mostly found near the water body are small weeds and shrubs that
grew automatically. Rats, mosquitoes, chamelions, ladybirds, bees, flies, grass-
hoppers, lizards, vasps, snakes, dogs, cats, buffalloos, cows, rabbits, etc. are
found on the site. Birds like eagles, sparrows, butterflies, crows, etc. can be
seen.
 SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS
A limited space within which living beings interact with nonliving matter at a
interdependence to form an environment unit is called an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an
area functioning together with all of the non-living physical factors of the environment.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged
in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which
they exist. The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the
human/nature dichotomy, and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically
integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.
A system as small as a household or university, or as large as a nation state, may then be
suitable discussed as a human ecosystem.

Introduction of new elements, whether biotic or abiotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a
disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse or “trophic cascading”
and the death of many species belonging to the ecosystem in question. Under this
deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the
robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem.

Often, however, ecosystems have the ability to rebound from a disruptive agent. The
difference between collapse or a gentle rebound is determined by two factors – the toxicity
of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem.

An ecosystem results from the sum of myriad individual responses of organisms to stimuli
from non-living and living elements in the environment. The presence or absence of
populations merely depends on reproductive and dispersal success, and population levels
fluctuate in response to stochastic events. As the number of species in an ecosystem is
higher, the number of stimuli is also higher. Given the great diversity among organisms on
earth, most of the time, ecosystems only changed very gradually, as some species would
disappear while others would move in.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

From an anthropological point of view many people see ecosystems as production units
that of goods and services. Among some of the most common goods produced by
ecosystems, is wood by forest ecosystems and grass for cattle by natural grasslands.
Meat from wild animals has proved to be extremely successful under well-controlled
management schemes. Much less successful has been the discovery and
commercialization of substances of wild organisms for pharmaceutical purposes. Services
derived from ecosystems are referred to as ecosystem services. They may include (1)
facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which may generate many forms of income and
employment in the tourism sector, often referred to as ecotourism, (2), water retention,
thus facilitating a more evenly distributed release of wart, (3) soil protection, open air
laboratory for scientific research, etc.

A greater degree of species diversity or biological diversity – popularly referred to as

Biodiversity – of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem,
because there are more species present at a location to respond to a factor of change and
thus “absorb” or reduce its effects, thus reducing the effect before its structure is
fundamentally changed to a different state.

The ecosystem concept fits into an ordered view of nature that was developed by
scientists to simplify the study of the relationships between organisms and their physical
environment, a field known as ecology.

Any given place may have several different ecosystems that vary in size and complexity. A
tropical island may have a rain forest ecosystem that covers hundreds of square miles, a
mangrove swamp ecosystem along the coast, and an underwater coral reef ecosystem.
Ecosystem components are so interconnected that a change in anyone component of an
ecosystem will cause subsequent changes throughout the system.

HOW ECOSYSTEM WORK

The living portion of an ecosystem s best described in terms of feeding levels known as
trophic levels known as trophic levels. Green plants make up the first trophic level and are
known as primary producers. Plants are able to convert energy from the sun into food in a
process known as photosynthesis. In the second trophic level, the primary consumers –
known as herbivores – are animals and insects that obtain their energy solely by eating the
green plants.
The third trophic level is composed of the secondary consumers, flesh – eating or
carnivores animals that feed on herbivores. At the fourth level are the tertiary consumers,
carnivores that feed on other carnivores. Finally, the fifth trophic level consists of the
decomposers, organisms such as fungi and bacteria that break down dead or dying matter
into nutrients that can be used again.

Some or all of these trophic levels combine to form what is known as a food web, the
ecosystem’s mechanism for circulating and recycling energy and materials.

In addition to the exchange of energy, ecosystems are characterized by several other

cycles. Elements such as carbon and nitrogen travel throughout the biotic and biotic
components or an ecosystem in processes known as nutrient cycles. For example,
nitrogen traveling in the air may be snatched by a tree-dwelling, or epiphytic, lichen hat
converts it to a form useful to plants. When rain drips through the lichen and falls to the
ground, or the lichen itself falls to the forest floor, the nitrogen from the raindrops or the
lichen is leached into the soil to be used by plants and trees.

And nitrogen travel throughout the biotic and biotic components or an ecosystem in
processes known as nutrient cycles.

Another process important to ecosystems is the water cycle, the movement of water from
ocean to atmosphere to land and eventually back to the ocean. An ecosystem such as a
forest or wetland plays a significant role in this cycle by storing, releasing, or filtering the
water as it passes through the system.

Every ecosystem is also characterized by a disturbance cycle, a regular cycle of events

such as fires, storms, floods and landslides that keeps the ecosystem in a constant state of
change and adaptation. Some species even depend on the disturbance cycle for survival
or reproduction. For example, longleaf pine forests depend on frequent low intensity fires
for reproduction. The cones of the trees, which contain the reproductive structures, are
sealed shut with a resin that melts away to release the seeds only under high heat.