Translation Practice

ПРЕВЕДУВАЊЕ ОД АНГЛИСКИ НА МАКЕДОНСКИ ЈАЗИК
2 Преведување од англиски на македонски и од македонски на англиски јазик

ЗИМСКИ СЕМЕСТАР
по избор на лект. С. Босилковска

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-
language text by means of an equivalent target-language
[1]
text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began
only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations
of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest
Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-
language idiom andusage into the target-language translation. On the other
hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-
language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages.
Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into
which they have translated.
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to
the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some
translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and
professional associations.
Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers
have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically
aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of
the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has
facilitated language localization.
Translation studies deal with the systematic study of the theory, the
description and the application of translation.
Преведување од англиски на македонски и од македонски на англиски јазик 3
Etymology
The word translation derives from the Latin translatio meaning "to
carry across" or "to bring across”. The modern Romance languages use
words for translation derived from that source or from the alternative
Latin traduco ("to lead across"). The Germanic (except Dutch)
and Slavic languages likewise use calques1 of these Latin sources.
The Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a
speaking across"), has supplied English with metaphrase (a "literal," or
"word-for-word," translation) — as contrasted with paraphrase ("a saying in
other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis). Metaphrase corresponds, in
one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence";
and paraphrase, to "dynamic equivalence."
A competent translator shows the following attributes:
 a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from

which he is translating (the source language - SL);
 an excellent command of the language into which he is translating
(the target language - TL);
 familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;
 a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic
correlates between the two languages; and
 a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and
when to paraphrase, so as to assure true rather than
spurious equivalents between the source- and target-language texts. A
1
In linguistics, a calque (pron.: /ˈkælk/) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-
word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation.
competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not

merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for
generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system
of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario
Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."
Fidelity (or faithfulness) and transparency, are the dual ideals in
translation, but often at odds. A 17th-century French critic coined the phrase
"les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations, like women, can
be either faithful or beautiful, but not both.
Faithfulness is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the
meaning of the source text, without distortion.
Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native
speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that
language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom.
A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be "faithful"; a
translation that meets the second, "idiomatic". The two qualities are not
necessarily mutually exclusive.
The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to
the subject, type and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or
historical context, etc.
The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more
straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong"; and, in the
extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine-
translation systems, often results in patent nonsense.
Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to
produce a literal translation. Translators of literary, religious or historic texts
often adhere as closely as possible to the source text, stretching the limits of
the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. A translator may adopt
expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color".
Current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual

concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency". This has not always been the case,
however; there have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in
the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of
translation proper into the realm of adaptation.
Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions.
The Indian epic, the Ramayana, appears in many versions in the
various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. Similar
examples are to be found in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the
text to local customs and mores.
The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in
terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and " functional [or dynamic ]
equivalence". The latter expressions are associated with the
translator Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of
translating the Bible, but the two approaches are applicable to any
translation.
"Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic
equivalence" to "paraphrase".
"Functional equivalence" (or " dynamic equivalence") conveys the
essential thoughts expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense
of literality, original sememe2 and word order, the source text's active vs.
passive voice, etc.
By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation)
attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression
being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro
verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target
language.
2
A sememe (from the Greek: σημαίνω (sēmaino), "mean, signify") is a semantic language unit of meaning, correlative to a morpheme.
The concept is also meaningful insemiotics
There is, however, no sharp boundary between functional and formal

equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation
approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the
same translator and at various points within the same text — sometimes
simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of
functional and formal equivalents.
Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by
inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "false friends"
and false cognates3.
3
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus (blood
relative).[1] Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are not considered cognates.
MAHMOUD ORDUDARI
TRANSLATION PROCEDURES, STRATEGIES AND METHODS
1. Introduction
Тranslation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL
texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of
translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts—including religious,
literary, scientific, and philosophical texts—in another language and thus
making them available to wider readers.
If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal
concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore,
under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier
than it actually is. In this regard, Culler (1976) believes that languages are
not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically
from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world
differently, and languages do not simply name categories; they articulate

their own (p.21-2). The conclusion likely to be drawn from what Culler
(1976) writes is that one of the troublesome problems of translation is the
disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and the TL,
the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will
be.
The difference between an SL and a TL and the variation in their

cultures make the process of translating a real challenge. Among the
problematic factors involved in translation such as form, meaning, style,
proverbs, idioms, etc., the present paper is going to concentrate mainly on the
procedures of translating CSCs in general and on the strategies of rendering
allusions in particular.
2. Translation procedures, strategies and methods
The translating procedures, as depicted by Nida (1964) are as follow:
I. Technical procedures:
a. analysis of the source and target languages;
b. a through study of the source language text before making
attempts translate it;
c. Making judgments of the semantic and syntactic
approximations. (pp. 241-45)
II. Organizational procedures:
a. constant reevaluation of the attempt made;

b. contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text
done by other translators,
c. checking the text's communicative effectiveness by asking the target
language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and
studying their reactions (pp. 246-47).
Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as "translator's
potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the
framework of a concrete translation task," and Seguinot (1989) believes that
there are at least three global strategies employed by the translators: (i)
translating without interruption for as long as possible; (ii) correcting surface
errors immediately; (iii) leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic
errors in the text to the revision stage.
Moreover, Loescher (1991:8) defines translation strategy as "a
potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a
text, or any segment of it." As it is stated in this definition, the notion of
consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the

learners or translators. In this regard, Cohen (1998:4) asserts that "the
element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these
processes that are not strategic."
Furthermore, Bell (1998:188) differentiates between global (those
dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments)
strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of
translation problems.
Venuti (1998:240) indicates that translation strategies "involve the
basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a
method to translate it." He employs the concepts of domesticating and
foreignizing to refer to translation strategies.
Jaaskelainen (1999:71) considers strategy as, "a series of
competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage,
and/or utilization of information." He maintains that strategies are "heuristic
and flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a decision influenced by
amendments in the translator's objectives."

Taking into account the process and product of translation,
Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into two major categories: some
strategies relate to what happens to texts, while other strategies relate to what
happens in the process.
Product-related strategies, as Jaaskelainen (2005:15) writes, involves
the basic tasks of choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate
it. However, she maintains that process-related strategies "are a set of
(loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to reach the
goals determined by the translating situation" (p.16). Moreover, Jaaskelainen
(2005:16) divides this into two types, namely global strategies and local
strategies: "global strategies refer to general principles and modes of action
and local strategies refer to specific activities in relation to the translator's
problem-solving and decision-making."
Newmark (1988b) mentions the difference between translation
methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "[w]hile translation
methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences
and the smaller units of language" (p.81). He goes on to refer to the
following methods of translation:
 Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved

and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out
of context.
 Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical constructions are
converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are
again translated singly, out of context.
 Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual
meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical
structures.
 Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in
as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL
text.
 Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly
for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are
usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and
the text is rewritten.
 Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or
content of the original.
 Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but
tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and
idioms where these do not exist in the original.
 Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual
meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language
are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership (1988b:
45-47).
Newmark (1991:10-12) writes of a continuum existing between
"semantic" and "communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more,
or less semantic—more, or less, communicative—even a particular section or
sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically." Both
seek an "equivalent effect." Zhongying (1994: 97), who prefers literal
translation to free translation, writes that, "[i]n China, it is agreed by many
that one should translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation."
In order to clarify the distinction between procedure and strategy, the
forthcoming section is allotted to discussing the procedures of translating
culture-specific terms, and strategies for rendering allusions will be
explained in detail.
2.1. Procedures of translating culture-specific concepts (CSCs)
Graedler (2000:3) puts forth some procedures of translating CSCs:
1. Making up a new word.

2. Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it.
3. Preserving the SL term intact.
4. Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same
"relevance" as the SL term.
Defining culture-bound terms (CBTs) as the terms which "refer to concepts,
institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture" (p.2), Harvey
(2000:2-6) puts forward the following four major techniques for translating
CBTs:
1. Functional Equivalence: It means using a referent in the TL culture

whose function is similar to that of the source language (SL) referent.
As Harvey (2000:2) writes, authors are divided over the merits of this
technique: Weston (1991:23) describes it as "the ideal method of
translation," while Sarcevic (1985:131) asserts that it is "misleading
and should be avoided."
2. Formal Equivalence or 'linguistic equivalence': It means a 'word-for-
word' translation.
3. Transcription or 'borrowing' (i.e. reproducing or, where necessary,
transliterating the original term): It stands at the far end of SL-
oriented strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained
in the context, it may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where
no knowledge of the SL by the reader is presumed, transcription is
accompanied by an explanation or a translator's note.
4. Descriptive or self-explanatory translation: It uses generic terms (not
CBTs) to convey the meaning. It is appropriate in a wide variety of
contexts where formal equivalence is considered insufficiently clear.
In a text aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the
original SL term to avoid ambiguity.
The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b)
proposes:
 Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL

text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey
(2000:5) named "transcription."
 Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal
pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark,
1988b:82)
 Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with
a TL one. however, "they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988b:83)
 Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word.
(Newmark, 1988b:83)
 Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is
explained in several words. (Newmark, 1988b:83)
 Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL
word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one
equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their
differing sense components." (Newmark, 1988b:114)
 Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps
accuracy. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
 Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common
collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds.
It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
 Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL
to TL, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change
required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii)
change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a
TL noun and so forth. (Newmark, 1988b:86)
 Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message

of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current
norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar
in terms of perspective. (Newmark, 1988b:88)
 Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally
uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any
institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89)
 Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a
sentence is compensated in another part. (Newmark, 1988b:90)
 Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is
explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that
of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark, 1988b:91)
 Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different
procedures. (Newmark, 1988b:91)
 Notes: notes are additional information in a translation.
(Newmark, 1988b:91)
Notes can appear in the form of 'footnotes.' Although some stylists
consider a translation sprinkled with footnotes terrible with regard to
appearance, nonetheless, their use can assist the TT readers to make better
judgments of the ST contents. Nida (1964:237-39) advocates the use of
footnotes to fulfill at least the two following functions: (i) to provide
supplementary information, and (ii) to call attention to the original's
discrepancies.
2.2. Strategies of translating allusions
Proper names, which are defined by Richards (1985:68) as "names of a
particular person, place or thing" and are spelled "with a capital letter," play
an essential role in a literary work. For instance let us consider personal PNs.
They may refer to the setting, social status and nationality of characters, and
really demand attention when rendered into a foreign language.
There are some models for rendering PNs in translations. One of these
models is presented by Hervey and Higgins (1986) who believe that there
exist two strategies for translating PNs. They point out: "either the name can
be taken over unchanged from the ST to the TT, or it can be adopted to
conform to the phonic/graphic conventions of the TL" (p.29).
Hervey and Higgins (1986) refer to the former as exotism which "is
tantamount to literal translation, and involves no cultural transposition"
(p.29), and the latter as transliteration. However, they propose another
procedure or alternative, as they put it, namely cultural transplantation.
Being considered as "the extreme degree of cultural transposition," cultural

transplantation is considered to be a procedure in which "SL names are
replaced by indigenous TL names that are not their literal equivalents, but
have similar cultural connotations" (Hervey & Higgins, 1986:29).
Regarding the translation of PNs, Newmark (1988a:214) asserts that,
"normally, people's first and sure names are transferred, thus preserving
nationality and assuming that their names have no connotations in the text."
The procedure of transference cannot be asserted to be effective where
connotations and implied meanings are significant. Indeed, there are some
names in the Persian poet Sa'di's work Gulestan, which bear connotations
and require a specific strategy for being translated. Newmark's (1988a:215)
solution of the mentioned problem is as follows: "first translate the word that
underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then naturalize the translated
word back into a new SL proper name." However, there is a shortcoming in
the strategy in question. As it seems it is only useful for personal PNs, since
as Newmark (1988a:215), ignoring the right of not educated readers to enjoy
a translated text, states, it can be utilized merely "when the character's name
is not yet current amongst an educated TL readership."
Leppihalme (1997:79) proposes another set of strategies for translating

the proper name allusions:
i. Retention of the name:

a. using the name as such.
b. using the name, adding some guidance.
c. using the name, adding a detailed explanation, for instance, a
footnote.
ii. Replacement of the name by another:
a. replacing the name by another SL name.
b. replacing the name by a TL name
iii. Omission of the name:
a. omitting the name, but transferring the sense by other means,
for instance by a common noun.
b. omitting the name and the allusion together.
Moreover, nine strategies for the translation of key-phrase allusions are

proposed by Leppihalme (1997: 82) as follows:
i. Use of a standard translation,

ii. Minimum change, that is, a literal translation, without regard to
connotative or contextual meaning,
iii. Extra allusive guidance added in the text,
iv. The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator's notes and other explicit
explanations not supplied in the text but explicitly given as additional
information,
v. Stimulated familiarity or internal marking, that is, the addition of
intra-allusive allusion ,
vi. Replacement by a TL item,
vii. Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing,
viii. Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques: creative construction of a
passage which hints at the connotations of the allusion or other
special effects created by it,
ix. Omission of the allusion.
Source: http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/41culture.htm
AMARTYA SEN
INEQUALITY REEXAMINED
Oxford, 1992
The well-being of a person can be seen in terms of the quality (the
wellness, as it were) of the person’s being. Living may be seen as consisting
of a set of interrelated functionings, consisting of beings and doings. A
person’s achievement in this respect can be seen as the vector of his or her
functionings. The relevant functionings can vary from such elementary
things as beings adequately nourished, being in good health, avoiding
escapable morbidity and premature mortality, etc., to more complex
achievements such as being happy, having self-respect, taking part in the life
of the community, and so on. The claim is that functionings are constitutive
of a person’s being, and an evaluation of well-being has to take the form of
an assessment of these constituent elements.
Closely related to the notion of functionings is that of the capability
to function. It represents the various combinations of functionings (beings
and doings) that the person can achieve. Capability is, thus, a set of vectors
of functionings, reflecting the person’s freedom to lead on type of life or

another. Just as the so-called budget set in the commodity space represents a
person’s freedom to buy commodity bundles, the capability set in the
functioning space reflects the person’s freedom to choose from possible
livings.
It is easy to see that the well-being of a person must be thoroughly
dependent on the nature of his or her being, i.e. on the functionings achieved.
Wether a person is well-nourished, in good health, etc., must be intrinsically
important for the wellness of that person’s being. But, it may be asked, how
do capabilities – as opposed to achieved functionings – relate to well-being?
The relevance of a person’s capability to his or her well-being arises
from two distinct but interrelated considerations. First, if the achieved
functionings constitute a person’s well-being, then the capability to achieve
functionings (i.e. all the alternative combinations of functionings a person
can choose to have) will constitute the person’s freedom – the real
opportunities – to have well-being. This well-being freedom may have direct
relevance in ethical and political analysis. For example, in forming a view of
the goodness of the social state, importance may be attached to the freedoms
that different people respectively enjoy to achieve well-being.

JACQUES DELORS
LEARNING:THE TREASURE WITHIN
UNESCO
Report to UNESCO of the International Commission
оn Education for the Twenty-first Century
In confronting the many challenges that the future holds in store,
humankind sees in education an indispensable asset in its attempt to attain
the ideals of peace, freedom and social justice. As it concludes its work, the
Commission affirms its belief that education has a fundamental role to play
in personal and social development. The Commission does not see education
as a miracle cure or a magic formula opening the door to a world in which all
ideals will be attained, but as one of the principal means available to foster a
deeper and more harmonious form of human development and thereby to
raduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression and war.
At a time when educational policies are being sharply criticized or
pushed – for economic and financial reasons – down to the bottom of the
agenda, the Commission wishes to share this conviction with the widest
possible audience through its analyses, discussions and recommendations.

Does the point need to be emphasized? The Commission was
thinking principally about the children and young people who will take over
from today’s generations of adults, the latter being all too inclined to
concentrate on their own problems. Education is also an expression of
affection for children and young people, whom we need to welcome into
society, unreservedly offering them the place that is theirs by right therein – a
place in the education system, to be sure, but also in the family, the local
community and the nation. This elementary duty needs to be constantly
brought to mind, so that greater attention is paid to it, even when choosing
between political, economic and financial options. In the words of a poet:
The Child is father of the Man.
Our century has been as much one of sound and fury as of economic
and social progress – progress that in any case has not been equally shared.
At the dawn of a new century the prospect of which evokes both anguish and
hope, it is essential that all people with a sense of responsibility turn their
attention to both the aims and the means of education.

Daniel Muijs and David Reynolds

Effective Teaching
Evidence and Practice
Interactive teaching
How does questioning help pupil learning?
Questioning is an effective and important part of the lesson for a
variety of reasons. First of all, questioning allows the teacher to check her/his
pupils understandings/he needs to decide whether or not certain topics need
to be retaught , and at what level to pitch the lesson. This immediate
feedback to the teacher of how well pupils have grasped the topic is one of
the advantages of whole-class interactive teaching over more individual
methods, where feedback on pupils understanding to the teacher is slower
(Brophy and Good, 1986).
Questioning allows pupils to practice and master the topic taught before
having to go to the next topic. Being able to correctly answer questions also
enhances a pupil’s feelig of mastery , which will in turn enhance the pupils
self-esteem and make her/him more receptive to learning in future (Gagne et

al., 1993)
Answering questions allows pupils to clarify their own thinking and
understanding of the concept taught, and makes them verbalize their
thinking, especially if they are asked to explain the method or knowledge
they used to work out a particular answer This will help them develop verbal
skills they will need not only in school but the workspace as well.
What does Effective Interaction Entail ?
Due to importance, questioning is one of the most widely studied
elements in teaching research. Therefore we know quite a bit what effective
questioning entails. This evidence, taken from the research discussed earlier
(Brophy and Good, 1986; Bennett et al., 1981; Rosenshine; Cooper et al.,
1987; Rosenshine and Stevens, 1986) will be discussed here.
When and how often to use questioning
As one of the most important elements of effective instruction, questioning
should take up a large part of the lesson. In the previous chapter we
mentioned that a lot of researches believe the lesson should start with a
review of what was learnt previously. This is the first part of teaching where
interaction and questioning are crucial as they are the best way of checking
pupil’s retention of material taught earlier.
Classroom discussion and its relationship to questioning
While questioning is the most widely used form of teacher-pupil
interaction, it is not the only form of interaction possible, and indeed in some
cases is not the most desirable form. Questioning is inevitably teacher-led
which in some cases may not be appropriate to the goal of the lesson.
Discussion can occur in the classroom in two settings: between pupils
in small groups during co-operative small-group work, or with the teacher
and other pupils in a whole-class discussion.
Classroom discussion can help fulfill three major learning goals:
promoting pupil involvement and engagement in the lesson by allowing them
to voice their own ideas; helping pupils to develop better understanding by
allowing them to think things through and verbalize their thinking; and
lastly, helping pupils to obtain communication skills (not least the self-
confidence to voice their own opinions in public and the ability to do so in
clear and concise way).

Discussion needs to be carefully prepared and usually needs to follow on
from some prior activity such as previous lesson on a certain topic.
Alternatively the teacher can get pupils to read up a particular topic before the
lesson. Discussion can also follow brief presentations on a topic by the teacher
or pupils.
In order for a discussion to be effective it is important to keep it focused
and to the point. As with direct instruction, teachers need to set out clearly the
purpose of the discussion from the start. It can be useful to provide pupils with
a couple of ‘pointer’ questions in order t focus the discussion, and to link the
discussion to pupils’ prior knowledge. During the discussion the teacher needs
to keep pupils firmly on task, and avoid them wandering off the different
subjects. Writing down the main points to emerge from the discussion on the
board or a flipchart can help focus pupils and also emphasize the fact that the
discussion is a learning activity and not just a way of filling time.
During the discussion, the teacher needs to respond to pupil ideas in such
a way as to encourage them to clarify and be more conscious of their thought
processes. This can be done by seeking clarification (‘Could you clarify that
for me…’), by reflecting on pupil ideas (‘That’s a novel idea, what I think
you’re trying to say is…’), and by getting pupils to consider other points of
view.
At the end of the discussion, it is once again useful for the teacher to
briefly summarize the main points to have come out of the discussion,
followed by a debriefing focusing on the process and how well the discussion
did or did not proceed. Both can be done by the teacher or (often more
appropriately) by asking for the pupils’ comments.
Whether or not to use class discussion once again depends on the
subject of the lesson, and also on the maturity of the pupils as well as their
communication skills. A classroom climate in which mutual respect exits and
in which the views of all pupils are valued is essential. All these factors will
also determine the amount of teacher direction and structure given to the
discussion.
One of the tensions that have been found to exist in lessons is that
between questioning and discussion. Research has found that in some cases
teacher questions can function in such a way that they abort classroom
discussion, by imposing the teacher’s views on the pupils (Askew et al.,
1997).
Gender, shyness, and interactive teaching
A criticism of direct instruction, and particularly the interactive part of
the whole-class lesson, has been that it may be advantage boys and
disadvantageous to girls and to shyer pupils. The reason for this is seen to lie
in the more assertive nature of boys, and the (obviously) less assertive nature
of shy pupils in the classroom. This means that boys will be more likely to
volunteer to answer questions and to dominate lessons, and also for shier
pupils to avoid doing so. In this way the more assertive boys may start to
dominate the lesson at the expense of other pupils. A further potential
problem in whole-class interactive teaching is deliberate non-involvement by
certain pupils, the so called ‘free rider effect’. This refers to the fact that
certain pupils may choose to avoid actively taking part in the lesson and let
others do all the work, either because they are unsure or unwilling.
These problems can easily be avoided by judicious teacher action,
however. Thus, when questioning, teachers need to make sure that all pupils
get to answer questions, not just the pupils who volunteer or are the most
persistent. A way to make sure that this is done is to round the class in a
certain (varying) order, or to have a list of pupils on the teacher’s desk on
which names can quickly be ticked off. Teachers also need to make sure that
girls get as much chance to answer questions as boys. Among younger pupils
it is important to stop pupils shouting out answers, as it will usually be the
most assertive pupils who will do this.
Another thing the teacher must avoid is the temptation to target mainly
those pupils who s/he thinks are most likely to answer the question correctly.
In order to avoid weaker pupils getting answer wrong too often, which will
not help them to attain a feeling of mastery, it may be necessary to vary the
difficulty of questions according to the pupil they are directed at. It is
important to involve all pupils in the lesson.

За изработка на овој превод, користете го понудениот линк
The stuff that memes are made of
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-14896985
Tech Know's L J Rich finds out whether her holiday video of a squirrel that chirps
like a Star Trek communicator will be "memed".
Two men stand on a small stage in the cellar of a Soho bar. One is
dressed as a cat and the other as a dog.
Doubtless other stages in Soho have hosted stranger sights, given the
number of vice dens, cabaret joints and nightclubs that line the streets of this
famously bohemian area of central London.
But the reason for them being on stage has more to do with the other
industries Soho is famous for - media, advertising and movies.
The event being held in this cellar is Kitten Camp, a monthly meeting
at which the most widely shared memes from the last few weeks are
watched, laughed at and voted on.

Combat kitten
Made of pop tarts, poops rainbows - it's Nyan cat
The memes are presented in an adversarial style with the cat and dog
backing different ones. It is trend-to-trend combat, a kind of 8 out of 10 cats
for the net set.
This month's memes include, among other things, a cat made out of a
pop tart, cats firing machine-guns, armed apes running amok, and the follow-
on to planking - leisure diving.
The man in the cat costume is Kitten Camp organiser Chris Quigley.
During the day he works at Rubber Republic, an ad agency that specialises in
making viral content for the web. But once a month he dresses up as Jess The
Cat to talk about memes.
Why a cat?
"Because the kitten is the king of memes," he said.
source: BBC NEWS Technology: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-14896985
CHAPTER 5: The Universe, Earth, Natural Spheres, and Gaia
(a). Evolution of the Universe
About 11 to 15 billion years ago all of the matter and energy in the
Universe was concentrated into an area the size of an atom. At this instant,
matter, energy, space and time did not exist. Then suddenly, the Universe
began to expand at an incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time
came into being (the Big Bang). As the Universe expanded, matter began to
coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets. Our solar system formed
about 5 billion years ago when the Universe was about 65 % of its present
size (Figure 5a-2). Today, the Universe continues to expand.
Figure 5a-1: Hubble Space Telescope view of a distant cluster of

galaxies near the beginning of time. (Source: AURA/STScI).
Figure 5a-2: Our solar system began forming about 5 billion years
ago as gas clouds coalesce into planets and a star. Today, the solar system
contains nine commonly recognized planets and the sun. (Source: NASA).
Why do Most Scientists Accept the Big Bang Theory?
The acceptance of this theory by the scientific community is based on
a number of observations. These observations confirm specific predictions of
the Big Bang theory. In a previous section, we learned that scientists test
their theories through deduction and falsification. Predictions associated with
the Big Bang theory that have been tested by this process are:
1. If the Big Bang did occur, all of the objects within the Universe
should be moving away from each other. In 1929, Edwin Hubble
documented that the galaxies in our Universe are indeed moving away from
each other.
2. The Big Bang should have left an "afterglow" from the
explosion. In the 1960s, scientists discovered the existence of cosmic
background radiation, the so-called "afterglow" after the Big Bang
explosion. Our most accurate measurements of this cosmic radiation came in
November 1989, by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite. The
measurements from this satellite tested an important prediction of the Big
Bang theory. This prediction suggests that the initial explosion that gave
birth to the Universe should have created radiation with a spectrum that
follows a blackbody curve. The COBE measurements indicated that the
spectrum of the cosmic radiation varied from a blackbody curve by only 1 %.
This level of error is considered insignificant.
3. If the Universe began with a Big Bang, extreme temperatures
should have caused 25 percent of the mass of the Universe to become
helium. This is exactly what is observed.
4. Matter in the Universe should be distributed homogeneously.
Astronomical observations from the Hubble Space Telescope do indicate that
matter in the Universe generally has a homogeneous distribution.

How will the Universe End?
Cosmologists have postulated two endings to the Universe. If the Universe is
infinite or has no edge, it should continue to expand forever. A Universe that
is finite or closed is theorized to collapse when expansion stops because of
gravity. The collapse of the Universe ends when all matter and energy is
compressed into the high energy, high-density state from which it began.
This scenario is of course called the Big Crunch. Some theorists have
suggested that the Big Crunch will produce a new Big Bang and the process
of an expanding Universe will begin again. This idea is called the oscillating
Universe theory.
Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/5a.html
Created by Dr. Michael Pidwirny & Scott Jones University of British Columbia Okanagan
PYRAMIDS
The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and
their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of many different shapes
and sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the
Middle Kingdom.
There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt.
The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza at the
beginning of the Old Kingdom. The most well-known of these pyramids was
built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
Story
The pharaoh Khufu, like the pharaohs before him, began planning his
'house of eternity' as soon as he took the throne. A spot was chosen for
building on the west bank of the Nile. Cemeteries were usually built on the
west bank because the sun 'died' on the western horizon every night.
Khufu's architects were wise and experienced men. They knew the
importance of building the pharaoh's final resting place so that its sides faced
directly north, south, east and west. They planned a large pyramid - the
largest one ever built in ancient Egypt. The outlines of the pyramid were
measured and marked in the desert sand.
Then the building began. Large blocks of stone were cut from
quarries nearby. They were dragged by groups of men across the desert to
the site of the pyramid and set in place. Most of the workers were farmers
who worked on building the pyramid during the flood season when their
fields were under water.
After the first level of blocks was in place, the workers built ramps of
mudbrick, limestone chips and clay. The workers dragged the large stones up
the ramps to build the next level of the pyramid.
For about 20 years, hundreds of men worked on building the
pyramid. As they built each level, they also built up the ramps around the.
pyramid
Picture 1. Outside the Pyramid

When the pyramid was almost finished, a special block covered in
shining metal (either gold or electrum) was placed on the top of the pyramid.
Then, blocks of white limestone from quarries across the Nile were used to
cover the pyramid. The blocks were trimmed to make the outside of the
pyramid smooth.
Picture 2. Finished Pyramid
Outside the pyramid
The Great Pyramid was part of a complex that included a special
walkway, two temples, other pyramids, boat pits and the mastabas of nobles.
Picture 3. Inside Khufu pyramid
Source: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/pyramids/home.html
THE SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO VOWELS
STOP THE CRUELTY

How many vowels have you used today? 10? 15? Try thousands.
But when was the last time you stopped to think about how those
vowels live? These vowels have friends, family, and natural classes, but yet
they never hesitate to resonate for you in your time of need.
Yet every day, vowels are bought and sold on national television,
subjected to reduction (or even deletion) in unstressed environments and
worst of all, in elementary and middle schools, students are systematically
taught to deny the existence of more than two thirds of their ranks, focusing
instead on five (sometimes six) lies spread by the million-dollar-a-year
spelling bee industry.
But you have a choice. You can fall in line, ignore their plight, and
carry on the abuse, five (sometimes six) letters at the time, or you can take a
stand. You can refuse to lump together the high and the low, the front and the
back, the rounded and the unrounded, in one massive cloud of orthographic
lies. You can refuse to participate in game shows which treat vowels as
commodities to be bought and used. You can resist frequency effects, fight
elision, and perceive all vowels equally, be they tense or lax. No phonemes
should face denial, sale on national television, reduction or deletion. Ever.
You have the power to make a change. Act now, bfr ts t lte...
Source: http://savethevowels.org/
Paracompactness and Metrization
Introduction
The problem of metrization of topological spaces has had an enormous
influence on the development of general topology. Singling out the basic
topological components of metrizability has determined the main reference
points in the construction of the classification of topological spaces. These
are (primarily) paracompactness, collectionwise normality, monotonic
normality and perfect normality, the concepts of a stratifiable space, Moore
space and ơ-space, point-countable base, and uniform base. The method of
covers has taken up a leading role in this classification. Of paramount
significance in the applications of this method have been the properties of
covers relating to the character of their elements (open covers, closed
covers), the mutual disposition of these elements (star finite, point finite,
locally finite covers, etc.), as well as the relations of refinement between

covers (simple refinement, refinement with closure, combinatorial
refinement, star and strong star refinement). On this basis a hierarchy of
properties of paracompactness type has been singled out, together with the
classes of spaces corresponding to them, the most important of which is the
class of paracompacta.
The behavior of families of covers with respect to the topology of a
space has important significance. Here, first and foremost, is the notion of a
refining family of covers, a development which appears in several
modifications and, together with the notion of paracompactness, plays a key
role in metrization problems.
One of the important aspects of the method of covers is the
investigation of basis of a topological space.
The method of covers is important not just for the investigation of
questions relating to paracompactness and metrization. Rather it can be said
that it has universal significance for general topology, in particular for the
theory of uniform spaces, the theory of dimension and the general theory of
continuous maps. The method of covers permeates the very heart of the
theory of cardinal invariants via the notions of Lindelöf space and compact
space. Systems of covers provide the basic structure of inverse spectra of
topological spaces, which were introduced into mathematics by one of the
founders of general topology, P. S. Alexandroff. Also based on the method of
covers and inverse spectra is general homology theory, which is one of the
most fruitful contacts between topology and algebra.
Finally, in the process of work on Moore’s classical metrization
problem, which is in the main stream of the method of covers, new profound
connections were uncovered between general topology and the foundations
of mathematics, namely, axiomatic set theory.
Throughout, spaces are understood to be topological spaces in which
all finite sets are closed, that is, T1-spaces. The notation is the same as in
(Arhangel’skii 1989a): (Engelking 1986).
§1. Covers of Sets and Topological Spaces
1.1. Elementary concepts. By the body of a family of sets we mean
the union of the elements of the family .

By a cover of a set X we mean any family of subsets of X such that
X. By a subcover of a cover of a set X we mean any subfamily of
that covers X.
A typical question in topology is whether it is possible to select from
all covers of some given type a subcover with certain specified properties.
Of the special significance are characterizations of families of sets that
relate to the mutual disposition of their elements.
A family is called disjoint if for
Elements U and V of a family are said to be
neighbouring if their intersection is non-empty: . . If
each element of a family has only finitely many neighbouring elements in
, then is said to be star-finite. Every disjoint family is star-finite. A
family is said to be star-countable if each element of it has only countably
many neighbours. The starnumber of a family of sets is defined as the
smallest infinite cardinal τ such that for each U the cardinality of the
set of all elements of intersecting U does not exceed τ.

Translation Practice

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Translation Practice

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ПРЕВЕДУВАЊЕ ОД АНГЛИСКИ НА МАКЕДОНСКИ ЈАЗИК

2 Преведување од англиски на македонски и од македонски на англиски јазик

по избор на лект. С. Босилковска

 a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from

competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not

Current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual

There is, however, no sharp boundary between functional and formal

TRANSLATION PROCEDURES, STRATEGIES AND METHODS

Тranslation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL

texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of

translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts—including religious,

literary, scientific, and philosophical texts—in another language and thus

making them available to wider readers.

If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal

concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore,

under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier

differently, and languages do not simply name categories; they articulate

(1976) writes is that one of the troublesome problems of translation is the

The difference between an SL and a TL and the variation in their

2. Translation procedures, strategies and methods

The translating procedures, as depicted by Nida (1964) are as follow:

II. Organizational procedures:

a. constant reevaluation of the attempt made;

Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as "translator's

potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the

framework of a concrete translation task," and Seguinot (1989) believes that

translating without interruption for as long as possible; (ii) correcting surface

errors immediately; (iii) leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic

errors in the text to the revision stage.

Moreover, Loescher (1991:8) defines translation strategy as "a

potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a

text, or any segment of it." As it is stated in this definition, the notion of

consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the

learners or translators. In this regard, Cohen (1998:4) asserts that "the

element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these

processes that are not strategic."

Furthermore, Bell (1998:188) differentiates between global (those

Venuti (1998:240) indicates that translation strategies "involve the

basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a

method to translate it." He employs the concepts of domesticating and

foreignizing to refer to translation strategies.

Jaaskelainen (1999:71) considers strategy as, "a series of

competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage,

and/or utilization of information." He maintains that strategies are "heuristic

and flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a decision influenced by

amendments in the translator's objectives."

Taking into account the process and product of translation,

Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into two major categories: some

happens in the process.

Product-related strategies, as Jaaskelainen (2005:15) writes, involves

it. However, she maintains that process-related strategies "are a set of

(loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to reach the

goals determined by the translating situation" (p.16). Moreover, Jaaskelainen

strategies: "global strategies refer to general principles and modes of action

and local strategies refer to specific activities in relation to the translator's

problem-solving and decision-making."

Newmark (1988b) mentions the difference between translation

methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "[w]hile translation

and the smaller units of language" (p.81). He goes on to refer to the

following methods of translation:

 Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved

Newmark (1991:10-12) writes of a continuum existing between

"semantic" and "communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more,