MICROWAVE & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LAB

LABORATORY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

RAMANANDATIRTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Hyderabad)
NALGONDA-508 004
2013-2014
 RAMANANDATIRTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF ECE

MICROWAVE AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS LAB

Part – A:

1. Reflex Klystron Characteristics.

2. Gunn Diode Characteristics.
3. Attenuation Measurement.
4. Directional Coupler Characteristics.
5. VSWR Measurement.
6. Impedance Measurement.
7. Frequency and Waveguide parameters measurement.
8. Scattering parameters of Circulator and Isolator.
9. Scattering parameters of Magic Tee.

Part – B:

1. Pulse Amplitude modulation and demodulation

2. Pulse Width modulation and demodulation
3. Pulse Position modulation and demodulation
4. Time Division Multiplexing
5. Pulse Code modulation
6. Differential Pulse Code modulation
7. Delta modulation
8. Frequency Shift Keying
9. Phase Shift Keying
10. Differential Phase Shift Keying
PART-A
 1. REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the characteristics of Reflex Klystron.

APPARATUS:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube with mount
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Variable Attenuator
6. Detector Mount
7. Waveguide Stands
8. VSWR meter
9. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
10. BNC cable

PROCEDURE:

1. The equipment is arranged as shown in the figure.

2. The variable attenuator is set around by some position.
3. VSWR meter is set at 40db position. The input selector is switched to
crystal impedance position and meter switch to normal position.
4. Modulator switch is set to AM modulating position and beam voltage
control fully anticlockwise.
5. Switch on the power supply (KPS), VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch on the beam voltage and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise to
get 300V deflection on beam.
7. Keep the AM amplitude knob and frequency at mid position.
8. The reflection voltage knob is rotated to get deflection in VSWR meter.
9. Rotate the AM amplitude to get the maximum output in VSWR meter.
10. If necessary change the range switch of VSWR meter 30db to 50 db if the
deflection in VSWR meter is out of range.
11. The output can also be reduced by the attenuator.
12. The Oscillator frequency should be noted.
Mode Study of Oscilloscope:

1. Keep the position of variable attenuator to have minimum position.

2. Set the mode selector switch in FM position, amplitude and
frequency knob at mid position.
3. Keep the beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise and the reflector
voltage knob to fully clockwise and beam switch to OFF position.
4. Keep the Time / Div knob around 100Hz and Volts/Div knob to
lower scale.
5. Switch on the Klystron Power Supply and Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope. Switch on the beam voltage and set it at 300 V.
6. Keep the amplitude knob of FM to maximum position and rotate
the reflector voltage anticlockwise to get modes as shown in figure
and on the oscilloscope.
7. The horizontal axis represents the reflector voltage and vertical
axis represents output power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM, any mode
of Klystron tube can be seen on the graph.
RESULT:

The reflex Klystron characteristics have been studied and graph has been
plotted between output power and frequency Vs Repeller voltage.
 2. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study the characteristics of Gunn Diode Oscillator.

APPARATUS:

1. Gunn Power Supply

2. Gunn Oscillator
3. PIN modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. BNC cable
7. Waveguide Stands

PROCEDURE:

1. The components are arranged as shown in the figure .

2. The control knobs of Gunn Power Supply are kept as per the
following positions.
3. Make the meter switch – ‘OFF’.
4. Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
5. PIN bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
6. PIN modulator Frequency – Any position.
7. The micrometer of Gunn oscillator is set for required frequency
of operation.
8. The Gunn Power Supply has to be switched ON.
9. The Gunn diode currents are measured with respect to the
corresponding values of the Gunn diode voltage through the
digital panel meter and meter switch by varying the Gunn bias
in steps.
10. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in
the figure. Find the threshold voltage.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The bias voltage should not exceed 10V.

2. At the threshold value the Gunn bias knob should not be kept for more
than 10 seconds.

RESULT:

The Gunn diode characteristic has been studied and graph has been plotted.
 3. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT

AIM: To study the Attenuation.

APPARATUS:

1. Microwave Source
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector Mount
8. Matched Termination
9. Test attenuator
10. Cooling fan
11. BNC-BNC cable and TNC – TNC cable

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipments as shown in fig.

2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular
frequency of operation.
3. Set any reference level on VSWR meter without variable attenuator
with the help of gain control knob. Let it be P1(db).
4. Connect the variable attenuator between frequency meter and detector
mount.
5. By varying the variable attenuator position note the power output from
VSWR meter. Let it be P2(db).
6. The attenuator is calculated by taking the difference between the power
with the without attenuator (P1 – P2) db.
7. Repeat the above steps (5 & 6) for different readings of variable
attenuator (positions)
8. Draw the graph between different positions of variable attenuator and
respective attenuators.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Note the readings without parallax error.

2. Note that the beam voltage should not exceed 300V and current not
more than 30mA.
3. Connections are to be made tightly in order to avoid leakages & losses.

RESULT:

Attenuation has been measured for various positions of attenuator and the
graph is drawn between attenuation and attenuator scale.
 4. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
AIM: To study the function of multihole directional coupler and to measure the
coupling factor and directivity.

APPARATUS:

1. Microwave source
2. Klystron tube with mount
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Variable attenuator
6. Slotted section line
7. Detector mount
8. Matched load
9. Directional Coupler

PROCEDURE:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the figure.

2. The microwave source is energized for a particular frequency.
3. The MHD coupler is removed and the detector mount of the frequency
meter is connected. The detector is tuned for maximum mode.
4. Tune the detector for maximum output.
5. Set any reference level of Power on VSWR meter with the help of
variable attenuator gain control of VSWR. Note down the reading (x).
6. Insert a DC as shown in figure with the detector to the auxiliary port
and matched termination to port 2, without changing the position of
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
7. Note down the reading of VSWR meter with db range Switch (y).
8. Calculate the coupling factor
C = x – y.
9. Connect the DC in the reverse direction, i.e., port 2 to frequency meter
side, matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3,
without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control
of VSWR.
 10. Measure the reading on VSWR meter. Let it be Yd. [x – yd = I]
11. Compute the directivity as y – yd = I – C

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The Connections are to be made tightly.
2. Do not exceed beam voltage more than 300V and the current 30mA.
3. Readings are to be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:
The experiment is conducted and the values low, medium and high VSWR are
measured.
 5. VSWR MEASUREMENT

AIM: To determine the voltage standing wave ratio.

APPARATUS:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube
3. VSWR meter
4. Klystron Mount
5. Isolator
6. Frequency meter
7. Variable attenuator
8. Slotted section line with tunable probe.
9. Wave guide Stands
10. BNC cable

PROCEDURE:

Measurement of low & medium VSWR:

1. The probe is moved along the slotted line to get maximum deflection
VSWR meter.
2. The VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator is adjusted until
the meter indicates ‘1’ on normal VSWR meter.
3. The control knobs are kept as they were and the probe is moved to next
minimum position.
4 Read the VSWR on scale. The above steps are to be repeated for change of
SS tuner depth. Record the corresponding VSWR.
5 If the VSWR is between 3 to10 the range db switch to next higher position
and read the VSWR scale of 3 to 10.

Measurement of High VSWR:

1. The depth of SS tuner is set for maximum VSWR.

2. The probe is moved along the slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
 3. Adjust the gain control knob & variable attenuator to obtain a reading
of 3db in normal scale of VSWR meter.
4. The probe is moved to left on slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained on 0 – 10 db scale.
5. The probe position of slotted line is noted. Let it be “d1”.
6. Step 3 is repeated & the probe is moved towards right along the slotted
line until full-scale deflection is obtained on 0 – 10db normal scale.
Let it be “d2”.
7. Replace the SS tuner on termination by a movable short.
8. Measure the distance between two successive minimum positions of
the probe, which gives  g/2.
9. The SWR is computed with the formula
SWR = g /  ( d1  d 2 )

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The variable attenuator should be kept at minimum position before

starting the experiment.

2. The readings must be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

The experiment is conducted and the values low, medium and high VSWR are
measured.
 6. IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
AIM: To measure an unknown impedance using smith chart.

APPARATUS:

1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. Klystron mount
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted line section with tunable probe
8. VSWR meter
9. Wave guide stand
10. SS tuner
11. Movable short

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Set up movable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below.
Range – 50 db position
Input switch – crystal low impedance
Meter switch – Normal position
Gain – Mid position
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as below:
Beam voltage Switch – OFF
Modulation Switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage – fully clockwise
AM amplitude – around fully clockwise
AM frequency knob – around mid position.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter, cooling fan.
 6. Switch ‘ON’ the beam voltage switch position and set beam voltage at
300V with the help of beam voltage knob.
7. Adjust the reflection knob to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control
knob of Power Supply.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron mount for maximum deflection.
10. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12. Tune the frequency meter knob to get dip on VSWR Scale and note
down the frequency directly from frequency meter.
13. Keep the depth of pin SS – tuner to around 3 – 4 mm & lock it.
14. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection.
15. Adjust VSWR meter gain control knob & variable attenuator until the
meter indicated 1.0 on the normal db SWR scale.
16. Move the probe to minimum and note down the (probe) SWR, so on
the scale. Also note down the probe position. Let it be ‘d’.
17. Remove the SS tuner and matched termination & place movable short
at slotted line. The plunger of short should be at zero.
18. Note down the position of two successive minimum positions. Let it
be as’d1’ and ‘d2’. Hence  g = 2 (d1 – d2)
19. Calculate d/  g
20. Find out the normalized impedance.
21. Repeat the same experiment for other frequency if required.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Read the values without any parallax errors.

2. Do not exceed 8V of threshold in GPS.
3. Bias Gunn Oscillator to operate in negative resistance region.
4. Do not take reading with Gunn Oscillator at threshold if Gunn
Oscillator is used.
RESULT:

The impedance of unknown load is calculated using smith chart.

 7. FREQUENCY AND WAVEGUIDE PARAMETERS
MEASUREMENTS

AIM: To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular wave guide

working in TE10 mode.

APPARATUS:

1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. Klystron Mount
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted section line with tunable probe
8. VSWR meter
9. Wave guide Stands
10. Movable Short
11. Matched termination

PROCEDURE:

1. The components and the equipments are arranged as shown in the

figure.
2. The variable attenuator is kept at minimum attenuation position.
3. The control knobs are kept as follows:
Read – 50 db
Input switch – Crystal Low impedance
Meter Switch – Normal position
Gain – Mid position
4. The control knobs of Klystron Power Supply are kept as follows.
Beam Voltage – OFF
Modulation Switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – fully anticlockwise
Repeller voltage – Fully clockwise
 AM – Amplitude knob – around fully clockwise
FM – Frequency knob – around mid position
5. Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan are
switched ‘ON’
6. Beam voltage is switched ‘ON’ and is set to 240V with the help of
beam voltage knob.
7. The Repeller voltage is adjusted to get some deflection in VSWR
meter.
8. The deflection should be maximized with the help of AM
amplitude and frequency control knobs of Klystron power supply.
9. The plunger of Klystron mount is tuned to get maximum
deflection.
10. The Repeller voltage knob is tuned for maximum deflection.
11. The tunable probe of VSWR meter is tuned for maximum
deflection.
12. The frequency meter knob is tuned to get a dip on the VSWR meter
scale and frequency from frequency meter is directly noted.
13. The termination should be replaced with a movable short and the
frequency meter is detuned.
14. The probe is moved along the slotted line. Then the deflection in
the VSWR meter will vary. Then move the probe to minimum
deflection position to get accurate reading. If necessary VSWR
meter range is switched to higher position. Note and record the
probe position.
15. The probe is moved to next minimum position and the probe
position is again recorded.
16. The guide wavelength is calculated as twice the distance between
two successive minimum positions obtained as above.
17. The wave guide inner broad dimension ‘a’ is measured which will
be around 22.86 mm for X-band.
18. The frequency is calculated from the following equation
c /   c[sqrt (1/ g2  1/ c2 )]wherec  3108 m / s
 19. The frequency obtained from the above equation should be verified
with the frequency of frequency meter.
20. The above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
21. The wave guide parameters are calculated from the value of guide
wavelength using the following equations.

  Z0 /[(1  fc2 / f 2 )]
1/ 2

g  2 / g ; v p   / g ;VpVg  Vc2

  Z0 /[(1  fc2 / f 2 )]
1/ 2

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The variable attenuator is kept at minimum position before starting the

experiment.
2. The VSWR meter readings are noted without any parallax errors.
3. The frequency reading on frequency meter is noted without any error.
RESULT: The wavelength and frequency are obtained for TE10 mode. And other
parameters of wave guide are calculated.
 8. STUDY OF CIRCULATOR & ISOLATOR

AIM: To study the Isolator and Circulator characteristics.

APPARATUS:

1. Microwave Source
2. Isolator
3. Variable attenuator
4. Frequency meter
5. Slotted line
6. VSWR meter
7. Detector Mount
12. Isolator
13. Circulator

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig.

2. Remove the probe and isolator or Circulator from slotted line and
connect the detector to slotted section. The output of the detector
mount should be connected to VSWR.
3. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular
frequency. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in VSWR
meter.
4. Set any reference level of power in VSWR with help of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be P1..
5. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without
disturbing the position of setup. Insert the Isolator / Circulator
between the slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port to slotted
line and detector to its output port. A matched termination is placed at
third port in case of circulator.
6. Record the reading in VSWR meter if necessary change range switch
to high or lower position and read 10 db changes for each step change
of switch position. Let it be P2.
7. Computes insertion loss as P1 – P2,
 8. For Isolation, the Isolator or Circulator has to be connected in reverse
i.e., output port to slotted line and detector mount to input port
terminated by matched termination.
9. Record the reading of VSWR meter and let it be P3
10. Compute Isolation as P1 – P3 in db.
11. The same experiment can be done for the other frequency if needed.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The connections are to be made properly & tightly.

2. Readings are to be taken without any parallax error.
3. Do not exceed beam voltage 300V.
RESULT:

The insertion loss and Isolation loss of Isolator and Circulator have been
computed in db.
 9. STUDY OF MAGIC TEE
AIM: To study the magic TEE characteristics.

APPARATUS:

1. Microwave Source
2. Isolator
3. Variable attenuator
4. Frequency meter
5. Slotted line section
6. Tunable probe
7. Magic Tee
8. Matched termination
9. Wave guide Stands
12. Detector Mount
13. VSWR meter

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig.

2. The tunable probe and magic Tee are removed from slotted line and the
detector mount is connected to slotted line.
3. The microwave source is energized for particular frequency of operation
and the detector mount is tuned for maximum output.
4. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR
meter, set any power level in the VSWR meter and note it down as P3.
5. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control
knob, carefully place the magic Tee after slotted line, detector to E-arm
and matched termination to arm 1 and 2. Note down the reading of VSWR
meter. Let it be P4.
6. Determine the isolation between port 3 and 4 as P3 – P4 in db.
7. Determine the isolation & coupling coefficient from the given equations.
8. The same experiment is repeated for other ports also.
9. Repeat experiment for other frequencies.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections are to be made properly & tightly.
2. Readings are to be taken without any parallax error.
3. The beam voltage of Klystron Power Supply should not exceed 300V.
RESULT:

The isolation and coupling factor of Magic Tee are determined and recorded.
PART-B
 1. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION

Aim: To study the pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation.

Apparatus:

S.No. Name of the equipment Range Quantity

1 Function Generator 1 MHz 1
2 Transistor (BC 107) --- 1
3 Resistors 100K, 10K, 1 K 3
4 IC – 741 --- 1
5 Capacitors 1F 2
470 pf 1
6 Bread board --- 1

Circuit Diagram:
Modulator:

Demodulator:
Theory:

The amplitude of the train of pulses is made proportional to the instantaneous

value of the modulating signal is called PAM. The samples of the PAM wave must
be proportional to the modulating signal. Distortion is minimum in case of pulse
modulation.

In the generation of PAM wave, the modulating signal is applied to the

collector of the transistor from the signal generator. So that collector current varies
according to the modulating signal voltage and clock signal is applied to base of the
transistor taken from the clock generator so that the same frequencies of pulses are
obtained at the output side and those amplitudes must be proportional to the
modulating signal voltage at that instant. This is the practical analysis generating
PAM wave.

It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM. In a generator, the signal to

be converted to PAM is fed one input and an AND gate. Pulses at the sampling
frequency are applied to the other input of the AND gate to open it during the wanted
time intervals. The output of the gate consists of pulses at the sampling rate, equal in
amplitude to the signal voltage at each instant. The pulses are then passed through a
pulse-shaping network, which gives them flat tops. FM is then employed, so that the
system becomes PAM-FM.

In the receiver, the pulses are 1st recovered with a standard FM demodulator.
They are then fed to the ordinary diode detector, which is followed by low pass filter.
If the cutoff frequency of this filter is high enough to pass the highest signal
frequency, but low enough to remove the sampling frequency ripple, an undistorted
replica of the ordinary signal is re produced.

Procedure:

1. Connections were made as per the circuit diagram

2. The outputs of the modulating signal and carrier clock generator are observed.
 3. The modulating signal generator output is adjusting to the IV peak to peak
amplitude. Now, the output of the modulating signal generator and clock
signal generator is applied to the PAM modulator.
4. During demodulation the output of PAM is connected to the input of the PAM
demodulator and its output is observed.

Model Graphs: The graphs are shown on left side.

Observations:

Input signal: VI =
t
Modulated output:
V0 =
tp 
t
Demodulated output:
Vde =
t

Precautions:

1. Precautions are to avoid loose connections.

2. Observe the waveforms without any parallax errors.
Graphs:

Result:

The output waveforms of pulse amplitude modulator and demodulator are

observed and recorded.
 2. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
Aim: To study and generate the pulse width modulation and demodulation.
Apparatus:

S.No. Name of the equipment Range Quantity

1 Function Generator 1 MHz 1
2 Transistor (BC 107) --- 1
3 Resistors 100K, 10K, 1 K 3
4 IC – 741 --- 1
5 Capacitors 0.01F 1
0.1 F 1
1 F 2
470 pf 1
6 Bread board --- 1
7 IC – 555 timer --- 1

Circuit Diagram:

PWM Modulator:

PWM Demodulator:
Theory:

The pulse width modulation of PTM is also often called pulse duration
modulation (PDM) and pulse length modulation (PLM). In this system, we have
fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each pulse is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that instant.

PWM may be generated by applying trigger pulses at the sampling rate to

control the starting time of pulses from a monostable multivibrator and feeding in the
signal to be sampled to control the duration of these pulses.

The emitter coupled monostable multivibrator makes an excellent voltage to

time converter, since its gate width is dependent on the voltage to which the capacitor,
C is charged. If this voltage is varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series of
rectangular pulses will be obtained with widths varying as required. Note that the
circuit does the twin jobs of sampling and converting the samples into PWM.

The demodulation of PWM is quite a simple process. PWM is merely fed to

an integrating circuit from which a signal emerges whose amplitude at any time. This
principle is also employed in the very efficient so called class D amplifiers. The
integrating circuit most often used there is the loudspeaker itself.

Procedure:

1. Connections were made as per the circuit diagram

2. The clock generator output is connected to the clock input point of
PWM modulator and the same clock is observed on channel of a
dual trace CRO.
3. The CRO triggered with respect to CH 1.
4. A variable DC voltage of 8 to 12 V is applied from external
regulated power supply.
5. Modulating signal is applied to the modulating input point of PWM
modulator.
6. The output of the PWM is observed on CH2 of CRO.
 7. From the PWM output, the width of the signal varying with the
modulating signal is observed.
8. By applying variable amplitude modulating signal, the variation of
PWM signal for AC modulating voltages are observed. In this
case, the CRO is triggered with respect to modulating voltage.
9. The output of PWM is applied as input to the demodulator and the
demodulated output is observed.
Observations:

Modulating signal voltage =

Modulating signal frequency =
PWM modulated signal voltage =
PWM modulating signal frequencies:
i.e., fs = 1/ts
fL= 1/tL
PWM demodulating signal voltage=
PWM demodulation signal frequency =

Precautions:

1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.

2. Note the output without any parallax errors.
Model Graphs:

Result:

The response of PWM modulator and demodulator are observed and recorded.
 3. PULSE POSITION MODULATION
Aim: To study and generate the pulse position modulation and demodulation.
Apparatus:

S.No. Name of the equipment Range Quantity

1 Function Generator 1 MHz 1
2 R.P.S. (0 – 30)V 1
1 10K, 3
4.7 K 2
3 Resistors 1
1 K
3.3 K 2
4 IC – 741 Op-amp --- 1
0.01F 2
0.2 F 3
5 Capacitors
1 F 2
10 F 1
6 Bread board --- 1
7 IC – 555 timer --- 2

Circuit Diagram:
PPM Modulator:
PPM Demodulator:

Theory:

The amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant in this system, while
the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by each instantaneous sampled
value of the modulating wave. This means that the transmitter must send
synchronizing pulses to operate timing circuits in the receiver. As mentioned in
connection with PWM, PPM has the advantages of requiring constant transmitter
power output, but the disadvantage of depending on transmitter receiver
synchronization.

PPM may be obtained very simply from PWM. In PPM, the locations of the
leading edges are fixed; where as those of the trailing edges are not. Their position
depends on the pulse width, which is determined by the signal amplitude at that
instant. Thus it may be said that the trailing edges of PWM pulses are, in fact position
modulated.

When PPM is demodulated in the receiver, it is again first converted into

PWM. This is done with a flip-flop or a bi stable multivibrator.
Procedure:

1. Connections were made as per the circuit diagram

2. The modulating signal and the clock signals are observed.
3. These signals are connected at the respective points in PPM modulator and its
response is observed in one channel of CRO.
4. The output of PPM wave is observed with respect to the modulating signal
kept in one channel of CRO.
5. We observed the width remains constant but the position of the pulse was
changed.
6. For the process of demodulation, PPM wave is connected to the demodulator
input and its response as modulating signal is observed.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.
2. Note the response without any parallax errors.

Observations:
Input signal:
Modulating signal voltage =
Modulating signal frequency =
Output signal:
PWM modulated signal voltage =
PPM modulated signal voltage
PWM modulating signal frequencies:
i.e., fs = 1/ts
fL= 1/tL
PWM demodulating signal voltage=
PWM demodulation signal frequency =
Model Graphs:

Result:
The response of PPM modulator and demodulator are observed and recorded.
 4. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND
DEMULTIPLEXING

Aim: To study the Time Division multiplexing and De multiplexing.

Apparatus: TDM trainer kit
Circuit Diagram:
Clock & Address Generator:

8:1 Multiplexer 1:8 De multiplexer

Theory:

The sampling theorem enables us to transmit the complete information

contained in a band limited messages signal by using samples of the signal taken
uniformly at a rare that is usually slightly higher than the nyquist rate. An important
feature of the sampling process is the conservation of time. That is, the transmission
of the message samples engages the transmission channel for only a fraction of the
sampling interval on a periodic basis, and in this way some of the time interval
between adjacent samples is cleared for use by another independent message source
on a time-shared basis. We there by obtain a TDM system, which enables the joint
utilization of a common transmission channel by a plurality of independent message
sources without mutual interference.

The TDM system is highly sensitive to dispersion on the common

transmission channel that is to variations of amplitude with frequency or lack of
proportionality of phase with frequency. Accordingly, accurate equalization of both
the amplitude and phase responses of the channel is necessary to insure a satisfactory
operation of the system. TDM is immune to amplitude nonlinearity in the channel as
a source of cross talk, because the different on the channel.

Procedure:
1. Connections were made as per the circuit diagram
2. The bit A2 of the address generator is applied to one channel of CRO &
triggered the CRO with respect to the same channel.
3. The output of 8 to 1 line multiplexer is observed on second channel of the
CRO.
4. A high (+5v) signal is applied to the 8 multiplexing inputs one by one &
multiplexer output is observed and the total time division by each channel
is observed with respect to the address generator.
5. Now, the 8 to 1 line multiplexer output is connected to the 1 to 8 line
demultiplexer.
6. The demultiplexer’s outputs are inverted as per the logic design of the IC.
7. Any data available from the data generator is given to any multiplexing
input and the output is observed at the corresponding demultiplexer output.
 8. Now, different data is connected to different outputs which are inverted are
observed and compared

Precautions:

1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.

2. The output waveforms of multiplexer & demultiplexer are
observed & noted without any parallax errors.
.
Model Graphs:
Outputs of Address Generator:
Multiplexer output waveforms:

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

Result: The response of the time division multiplexing and demultiplexing system is
observed & compared
 5. PULSE CODE MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION

Aim: To study the operation and working of the pulse code modulation and
demodulation.

Apparatus:
1. PCM modulator and demodulator kit.
2. Set of patch chords.
3. CRO.

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:

Pulse code modulation is just as different from the form the forms of pulse
modulation, so far studied as they were from AM or FM. PAM and PTM differed
from AM and FM because, unlike in those two continuous forms of modulation, the
signal was sampled and sent in pulse form. Like AM and FM, they were forms of
analog communication in all these forms a signal is sent which as a characteristic that
is infinitely variable and proportional to the modulating voltage. In common with the
other forms of pulse modulation, PCM also uses sampling technique, but it differs
from the others in that it is a digital process. That is, instead of sending a pulse train
capable of continuously varying one of the parameters, the PCM generator produces a
series of number or digits. Each one of these digits, almost always in binary code,
represents the approximation can be made as close as desired, but it is always just
that, an approximation.

Generation of PCM is a complex business. Essentially the signal is sampled

and converted to PCM, the PAM is quantized and encoded and supervisory signals are
added. The signal is then directly via cable, or modulated and transmitted. Because
MCM is highly immune to noise, amplitude modulation may be used, so that PCM –
AM is quite common.

Procedure:

1. AC adaptor is connected to the mains and the other side to the experimental
trainer kit.
2. PCM modulator and demodulator systems are switched ON.
3. The frequency of the clock is measured.
4. The DC variable voltage is applied as the modulating signal for visual
convenience.
5. The clock is connected to the timing and control circuit.
6. The binary wore from LED’s is noted i.e.; LED ON represents‘1’and OFF
represents ‘0’.
7. Sampling clock is connected to the CH1 of CRO and the serial data is
observed by connecting it to CH2 of CRO and the binary data is observed.
8. The same word, which is at the transmitter, is observed at the receiver end.
 9. Now, again the modulating signal is applied at the input.
10. The quantized level output waveform is observed at the output of D/A
converter and the demodulated output is observed.

Observations: The output waveforms in the form of coded binary data are
observed.

Precautions:
1. Precautions are taken to avoid loose connections.
2. The output waveforms are observed without any parallax
errors.
Model Graphs:

Result: The PCM modulated and demodulated waveforms are observed and
recorded.
6. DIFFERENCIAL PULSE CODE MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
Aim: To study the differential pulse code modulation and demodulation by sending
variable frequency sine wave variable DC signal input.

Apparatus:
1. DPCM modulator and demodulator kit.
2. Set of patch chords.
3. CRO.
Circuit Diagram:
DPCM Modulator:

DPCM Demodulator:

Theory:

When a voice or video signal is sampled at rate slightly higher than the nyquist
rate, the resulting sampled signal is found to be exhibiting a higher correlation
between adjacent samples. The meaning of this high correlation is that, in an average
sense, the signal does not change rapidly from one sample to the next with the result
that the difference between adjacent samples has a variance that is smaller than the
variance of the signal itself. When these highly correlated samples are encoded, has
in a standard PCM system, the resulting encoded signal consist redundant
information. This means the symbols that are not absolutely essential to the
transmission of information are generated as a result of the encoding process. By
removing this redundancy before encoding, we obtain a more efficient coded signal.
In this DPCM differential quantization scheme is applied and to predict future values
of the signal by using a prediction filter.

DPCM is quite similar to PCM. However, each word in this system indicates
the difference in amplitude, positive or negative, between the sample and the previous
sample. Thus the relative value of each sample is indicated rather than, the absolute
value as in normal PCM.

Procedure:

1. The AC adaptor is connected to the mains and the other side to the
experimental trainer kit.
2. The power supply is switched ON.
3. The variable DC signal is applied to the input terminals of the DPCM
modulator
4. The sampling signal output is observed on one channel of the CRO.
5. By adjusting the DC voltage potentiometer, the DPCM output waveform is
observed.
6. Now, by disconnecting the DC voltage, AF oscillator output is applied to
the input of DPCM modulator and the output of the conditioning amplifier
and DPCM output’s in synchronization with the sampling signal is
observed.
7. During demodulation, the DPCM is applied to the demodulator output and
DPCM demodulator output is observed.

Observations:

The signals i.e., output and inputs signals are observed on the CRO are
noted on left side.
Graph: Graph is drawn between the amplitude and frequency of the signals.

Precautions:

1. Loose connections and wrong connections are avoided.

2. The output waveforms and values of amplitude and frequency or
time are observed without any parallax errors.

Model Graphs:

Result:
The DPCM modulated and demodulated waveforms are observed and studied.
 7. DELTA MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
Aim: To study the modulation and demodulation by comparing the present signal
with the previous signal of the given modulating signal.

Apparatus:
1. Delta modulator and demodulator trainer kit.
2. Set of patch chords.
3. CRO.

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:

Delta modulation is DPCM technique in which the difference signal between

two successive samples is encoded into a single bit code.

The exploitation of signal correlations in DPCM suggests the further

possibility of over sampling a base band signal to purposely increase the correlation
between adjacent samples of the signal so as to permit the use of a sampling
quantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal. DM, which is the one, bit or
two level conversion of DPCM is precisely such a scheme.

In its simple form, DM provides a staircase approximation of the over sampled

version of an input and band signal. The difference between the input and the
approximation is quantized into only two levels namely,  , corresponding to
positive and negative differences, respectively. Thus if the approximation falls below
the signal at any sampling epoch, it is diminished by  , provided that the signal does
not change too rapidly from sample to sample, we find that the staircase
approximation remains within  , of the input signal.

Procedure:

1. The AC adaptor is connected to the mains and the other side to the
experimental trainer.
 2. Clock signal is applied to the delta modulator circuit.
3. Modulating signal is applied to the modulating input of the delta modulator
and it is observed on one channel of CRO.
4. The delta modulator and it is observed on the other channel of CRO.
5. Now, the delta modulation output and clock signal is applied to the delta
demodulator and the output is observed.
6. The demodulator output is observed with the without RC filter on CRO.
.
Observations: The waveform is observed and is noted on the left side Graph is
drawn between the amplitude and frequency of the signals.

Precautions: Loose connections and wrong connections are avoided. The output
waveforms and their amplitude and frequency or time are noted without any parallax
errors.
Model Graphs:

Result:

The delta modulated and demodulated waveforms are observed and studied.
 8. FREQUENCY SHIFT MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
Aim: To study the frequency shift keyed output and also to modulate the FSK
output.

Apparatus:

S.No. Name of the equipment Range Quantity

1 Function Generator 1 MHz 1
2 Transistor (BC 107) --- 1
3 Resistors 100K, 10K, 1 K 3
4 IC – 741 Op-amp --- 1
0.01F 1
0.3 F 1
5 Capacitors
1 F 2
470 pf 1
6 Bread board --- 1
7 IC – 555 timer --- 1
8 IC – 565 --- 1

Theory:
FSK is a system of frequency modulation. In it, the nominal un modulated
carrier frequency corresponds to the mark condition, and a space is represented by a
down ward frequency shift. The amount was 850Hz in the original wideband FSK
system designed for HF radio. For transmission by line of broadband systems, the
current shift is 60Hz, as laid down in CCITT. This is known as narrow band FSK, or
frequency modulated voice frequency telegraph (FMVFT). FSK is often used for HF
radio transmissions, with a frequency shift that is commonly 170Hz. FSK may be
thought of as an FM system in which the carrier frequency is midway between the
mark and space frequencies and modulation is by a square wave.

In the FSK generator, the frequency shift may be obtained by applying varying
DC output of the telegraph machine to a varactor diode in a crystal oscillator. At the
receiving end, the signal is demultiplexed and applied to standard phase discriminator.
From this, signals of either polarity will be available. An amplitude limiter is always
used in the receiver, to take full advantage of the noise immunity to FSK
Circuit Diagram:

FSK Modulator:

FSK Demodulator:
Procedure:

1. Connections were made as per the circuit diagram

2. Data applied to the data input point of the FSK modulator and the same on one
channel of the CRO is observed.
3. The output of the FSK modulator on the second channel of the CRO is
observed.
4. During the demodulation, the FSK output is connected to the input of the
demodulator.
a. By adjusting the 10K potentiometer, the demodulated output
equivalent to the modulating data signal is observed.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.
2. The waveforms of FSK generator are noted without any parallax
errors.

Model Graphs:

Result:
The response of modulated and demodulated output of FSK system are
observed and recorded.
 9. PHASE SHIFT KEYING MODULATION
AND DEMODULATION
Aim: To study the operation of phase shift keying modulation and demodulation.

Apparatus:
1. AC adapter,
2. PSK modulation and demodulation trainer kit.
3. CRO
4. PROBS
5. Patch chords.

Circuit Diagram:

PSK Modulator:
PSK Demodulator:

Theory:

This is digital modulation technique in which the carrier phase is shifted

between two values and hence this is called Phase Shift Keying (PSK). Ideally PSK
& FSK signals have a constant envelope. This feature makes them impervious to
amplitude nonlinearities, as encountered in microwave radio links and satellite
channels. Accordingly, we find that, in practice, FSK & PSK signals are much more
widely used than ASK signals.

The modulation scheme using base band pulse shaping followed by analog
modulation requires the minimum transmission bandwidth. The equipment required
to generate, transmit and demodulate the signal is quite complex. In contrast, the
digital modulation schemes are extremely simple to implement. The price paid for
this simplicity is excessive bandwidth and possible increase in transmitter power
requirements.

In PSK, the phase of the pulse will be shifted between the symbols 1 and 0 of
the digital data given.

Procedure:
1. AC adaptor is connected to the mains and the other side to the experimental
trainer kit.
2. Carrier signal is applied to the input of the modulator.
3. The modulating data signal is applied to the modulator input and it is observed
on one channel of the CRO.
4. The output of the PSK modulator is observed on the channel two of the CRO.
5. The PSK output is applied as input to the PSK demodulator and also the
carrier input is applied to it.
6. The demodulator output is observed and it is identical to the modulating data
signal applied to system.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.
2. The readings are observed and recorded without any parallax
errors.
Model Graphs:

Result: The response of PSK modulator and demodulator for a given modulating
data is observed.
 10. DPSK MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
Aim:
To study the various steps involved in generating the differential binary signal
and Differential phase shift keying signal at the modulator and recovering the binary
signal from the received DPSK signal.

Apparatus:
1. AC adapter.
2. DPSK trainer kit.
3. Patch chords.
4. CRO.
5. PROBS.

Circuit Diagram:

DPSK Modulator:
DPSK demodulator:

Theory:

This is digital modulation scheme; Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

may be viewed as the noncoherent version of the PSK. It eliminates the need for
coherent reference signal at the receiver, by combining two basic operations at the
transmitter i.e., (i) differential encoding of the input binary wave (ii) phase shift
keying hence, the name, DPSK. In effect, to send symbol 0, we phase advance the
current signal waveform by 180 and to send symbol 1, we leave the phase of the
current signal waveform unchanged. The receiver is equipped with a storage
capability, so that it can measure the relative phase difference between the waveforms
received during two successive bit intervals

At the receiver input, the received DPSK signal plus noise is passed through a
band pass filter centered at the carrier frequency fc, so as to limit the noise power.
The filter output and a delayed version of it. With the delay equal to the nit duration
Tb, are applied to a correlator. The resulting correlator output is proportional to the
difference between the carrier phase angles in the two-correlator inputs. The
correlator inputs. The correlator output is finally compared with a threshold of 0V,
and a decision is there by made in favor of symbol ‘1’ or symbol ‘0’.

Procedure:

1. AC adaptor is connected to the mains and the other side to the experimental
trainer kit.
2. The carrier signal and data generator’s outputs are observed on CRO.
3. The carrier signal is applied to the carrier input of the DPSK modulator and bit
clock pulse is also applied, and data input from data generator is also applied
to the data input terminals of DPSK modulator.
4. The output of the DPSK modulator output is observed on one channel of CRO,
with respect to the data generator signal on other channel of CRO.
5. Now, the output of DPSK modulator and also the bit clock is applied as input
to the demodulator and also carrier input and also applied as input to the
DPSK demodulator circuit.
6. The demodulator output is observed with respect to the generator signal which
is the modulating signal.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections.
2. The readings are observed and recorded without any parallax
errors.
Model Graphs:

Result:
The response of DPSK modulator and demodulator for a given modulating
data is observed.
 MDC VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Why can’t conventional tubes be used at microwave frequencies?

2. What is transit time?
3. What is the operating principle of reflex klystron?
4. What is velocity and current modulation in a reflex klystron?
5. How does bunching occur in a reflex klystron?
6. Why do different modes of operation exist for a reflex klystron?
7. What modes are generally used in a reflex klystron?
8. What is the operating frequency and power output of a reflex klystron?
9. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the reflex klystron?
10. What is mechanical tuning and electronic tuning in a reflex klystron?
11. What is the range of frequency variation of reflex klystron in the X-band by
the above two methods?
12. What are applications of reflex klystron?
13. Leaving reflex klystron, what other devices are used as microwave signal
sources?
14. Is Gunn diode a p-n junction?
15. What is Gunn Effect?
16. What are the materials used in the construction of Gunn diode?
17. What is negative resistance?
18. Can any negative resistance device be used for amplification?
19. What are the other names of Gunn diode and Gunn oscillator?
20. Draw the equivalent circuit of an X-band GaAs Gunn diode.
21. Mention the characteristics of an X-band GaAs Gunn diode.
22. Can a Gunn diode be used as an amplifier?
23. Mention some applications of Gunn diode.
24. Expand the terms IMPATT, TRAPATT, & PIN referring to the types of
diodes.
25. What is the use of crystal diode in a microwave bench setup?
26. What is a square law device?
27. Mention conditions for a crystal diode to function as a square law device.
28. Name the types of crystal diodes used.
29. Draw the equivalent circuit of a microwave crystal detector.
30. Define current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity of a crystal detector.
31. Why is a tuning element provided with a crystal mount?
32. Apart from signal detection what are the other applications of crystal diode?
33. Which crystal diode is commonly used for X-band operations?
34. Give the relation between output current and input voltage for a crystal diode.
35. What is a wave guide?
36. Define guide wavelength.
37. Define cutoff wavelength for a waveguide.
38. Define dominant mode with respect to a waveguide. Mention dominant mode
for rectangular and circular waveguides.
39. If the broader dimension of a rectangular waveguide is 2.2cms, what is the
cutoff frequency and wavelength for dominant mode?
40. Write the relation between guide wavelength, cutoff wavelength and free
space wavelength.
41. What are the various power losses in a waveguide?
42. How are modes excited in a rectangular waveguide?
43. What is the preferred frequency range for waveguide operation? Why?
44. Is a waveguide equivalent to a high pass filter or a low pass filter? Explain
45. What is TE mode and TM mode?
46. In the notation TEmn and TMmn what do m and n represent?
47. Define wave impedance and characteristic impedance.
48. Write the formula for wave impedance of a TE and TM wave considering
propagation in z direction.
49. What are the applications of waveguide bends, corners and twists?
50. What is a mitered corner?
51. Define VSWR.
52. What is reflection coefficient?
53. Write the relation between VSWR and reflection coefficient.
54. Write the values of VSWR for open circuit, short circuit & matched load.
55. What is the range of VSWR and inverse VSWR?
56. What is a matched load?
57. Define attenuation.
58. Define insertion loss.
59. Mention the different types of attenuators.
60. Why are attenuators used?
61. Define directivity and coupling factor of a directional coupler.
62. What are the properties of directional coupler?
63. Mention the different types of directional couplers.
64. What should be the value of directivity? High or low?
65. Mention some applications of directional coupler.
66. What is Uniline?
67. Why is an isolator used in a microwave bench?
68. What are the types of ferrite isolators?
69. What is Faraday rotation?
70. What are the commonly used ferrite materials for isolators?
71. What is meant by line width of ferrite?
72. What is Curie temperature?
73. What is a circulator?
74. What are the main applications of circulators?
75. Mention some types of circulators.
76. How can you construct a 4 port circulator with magic tees and a gyrator?
77. If an isolator is not available explain how a 3 port circulator can be used to
serve the function of isolator?
78. Why is a matched termination needed at port 3 in the above case?
79. Is it necessary to connect source to port 1 of a circulator only always?
80. What are scattering parameters?
81. What is scattering matrix?
82. Write the S matrix for magic tee.
83. Write S matrix for a 4 port ideal circulator.
84. Write the S matrix for an ideal directional coupler.
85. What is magic tee?
86. What are the properties of magic tee?
87. What are the applications of magic tee?
88. What is pyramidal horn?
89. Mention different types of horn antennas.
90. What is half power beam width?
91. Define directivity if an antenna.
92. How are far and near fields identical for a horn antenna?
93. What are the other names for the above fields?
94. Define antenna.
95. What are the devices used for microwave power measurements?
96. What are the types of Bolometer elements?
97. What is the characteristic of Barrater bolometer?
98. What is the principle of calorimetry?
99. Which method is preferred for low power measurements?
100. When is calorimeter used for power measurements?
101. Mention the main application of IMPATT diode.
102. Mention the application of TRAPATT diode.
103. What is the S-band frequency range?
104. Where is BARITT diode used?
105. Why npn structure is preferred to pnp in high frequency transistor?
106. What are the commonly used ways of fabricating microwave
transistors?
107. What are the applications of tunnel diode?
108. What is cavity resonator?
109. What is quality factor of a cavity resonator?
110. The power measured in auxillary arm of a 20 db directional coupler is
1mW. What is the power input to the main arm?
111. What are the classifications of pulse modulation techniques?
112. What is the transmission bandwidth of Pulse amplitude modulation?
113. What are the Draw backs in Pulse amplitude modulated signal?
114. What do you mean by synchronization in PAM?
115. Write the standard equation of a PAM in frequency domain?
116. What is meant by Aperture effect?
117. Draw the frequency spectrum of a PAM signal?
118. What is the time domain representation of a PAM signal?
119. What are the major differences between PAM &PWM?
120. Which type of sampling technique is used in PAM signal?
121. What are the different types of PTM systems?
122. What is the other name of Pulse width modulation?
123. What do you mean by pulse time modulation?
124. What is the comparison between the PAM and PWM?
125. What is the definition of PWM?
126. What is the transmission bandwidth of PWM signal?
127. Which type sampling technique is used in PWM?
128. What are the applications of PWM modulation technique?
129. Define PPM?
130. What are the differences between PPM & PWM?
131. Which type of sampling technique is used in PPM?
132. The Multivibrator used in PPM is?
133. Pulse duration of PPM is?
134. In PPM the position is proportionally varied in which parameter of the
modulating signal?
135. Give the statement of sampling theorem?
136. What do you mean by Nyquist interval?
137. What is meant by Guard band?
138. What is meant by Aperture effect?
139. Draw the sampled output of an analog signal in frequency -domain?
140. What is meant by Aliasing effect?
141. Which filters are used to attenuate the aliasing effect?
142. What are the different types of sampling techniques?
143. What is meant by Nyquist rate?
144. Define sampling theorem in time- domain?
145. What is meant by multiplexing technique and what are the different
types of Multiplexers?
146. Briefly explain about TDM&FDM?
147. What is the transmission band width of a PAM/TDM signal?
148. Define crosstalk effect in PAM/TDM system?
149. What are the advantages of TDM system?
150. What are major differences between TDM&FDM?
151. Give the value of Ts in TDM system?
152. What are the applications of TDM system and give some example?
153. What is meant by signal overlapping?
154. Which type of modulation technique will be used in TDM?
155. What is the expression for transmission bandwidth in a PCM system?
156. What is the expression for quantization noise /error in PCM system?
157. What are the applications of PCM?
158. What are the advantages of the PCM?
159. What are the disadvantages of PCM?
160. What is the other name of ASK signal?
161. Draw the o/p waveform of ASK?
162. What are the demodulation techniques of BASK?
163. Draw the power spectral density of ASK signal?
164. Write the standard equation of ASK signal?
165. What is the transmission BW of an ASK signal?
166. What are the differences between BASK&FSK?
167. What the advantages are of ASK over an AM?
168. What are the advantages of Delta modulator?
169. What are the disadvantages of delta modulator?
170. How to overcome slope overload distortion?
171. How to overcome Granular or ideal noise?
172. What are the differences between PCM & DM?
173. Define about slope over load distortion?
174. What is the other name of Granular noise?
175. What is meant by staircase approximation?
176. What are the disadvantages of Delta modulator?
177. Write the equation for error at present sample?
178. Define Binary FSK signal?
179. What is meant by carrier swing?
180. Define Frequency deviation of FSK signal?
181. What are the advantages of this FSK signal?
182. Give the differences between FSK & FM?
183. What is the bandwidth requirement of BPSK?
184. What is the expression for error probability of BPSK reception using
coherent matched filter detection?
185. What are the draw backs of BPSK?
186. Draw the Power spectral density of BPSK?
187. What are the major differences between DPSK&BPSK?
188. What are the advantages of BPSK over a PSK signal?
189. What is the difference between PSK&DPSK?
190. What is the band width requirement of a DPSK?
191. Explain the operation of DPSK detection?
192. What are the advantages of DPSK?
193. What is meant by differential encoding?
194. In Differential encoding technique which type of logic gates are used?
195. What are the disadvantages of delta modulation?
196. What are the necessary steps to overcome the disadvantages?
197. What is adaptive delta modulation?
198. What happens if the step size is decreased?
199. What is Granular noise?
200. What is the importance of integrator in ADM?