Near Surface Geophysics, 2003, Vol.

1, 5-12

Georadar and seismic investigations

over the Glacier de la Girose (French Alps)
G. Sénéchal1, D. Rousset1, A.-L. Salomé1 and J.-R. Grasso2
1
UMR 5831, Laboratoire d'Imagerie Géophysique, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, BP 1155, 64013 Pau Cedex, France.
2
UMR 5559, Laboratoire de Géophysique Interne et Tectonophysique, Université Joseph Fourier, 38000 Grenoble Cedex, France.

Received October 2001, revision accepted August 2002

ABSTRACT
Several ground penetrating radar (GPR) acquisitions have been performed on a temperate
glacier (glacier de la Girose, southern French Alps) in order to determine the ability of this
method in terms of penetration and resolution. The final goal of these experiments is to
constrain the structural context on an area where 3-C wide-band seismic recorders have
been deployed for icequake analysis. Radar data have been recorded using 50 MHz
antennae in order to get information about the glacier thickness, and 250 and 500 MHz
frequency antennae have been used for shallow high resolution structural images. For
comparison, thickness of the glacier has been independently evaluated from seismic data.
Local determination of the electromagnetic wave velocities has been obtained from a CMP
acquisition. Several hyperbolas can be picked up to 1600 ns, the strongest one being
interpreted as the reflection from the ice-bedrock interface, at 1150 ns (around 90 m depth).
This result is well correlated to the seismic data which show on the unmigrated time section a
strong dipping reflection between 50 (West) to 70 ms (East) (between 90 and 120 m after
migration and depth conversion).
Where the radar profiles cross crevasses, the unmigrated sections obtained with 250 and 500
MHz antennae show shallow diffraction patterns associated with low amplitude strip. On
the migrated sections, one can observe deeper diffraction points, probably generated by
rock material or water feeders. The high resolution data provided with radar allow to
distinguish several periodic arrivals between 1150 and 1600 ns. These are interpreted as
multiple reflections due to a thin water layer separating the base of the glacier and the
bedrock. The lower resolution of seismic data doesn't allow to detect this thin layer.
In terms of resolution, deep radar resolution is one order of magnitude better than the seismic
one and shallow radar resolution is two orders of magnitude more accurate than seismics.
Shallow radar appears as the only efficient tool for imaging the shallow glacier structures.

INTRODUCTION interest and we decided to test seismic and radar

During the 2000 summer, a passive seismic survey has been
performed on the French alpine glacier named 'Glacier de la
Girose'. It is a temperate glacier located on a northern flank
between 3500 and 2500 m of elevation (Fig. 1), its thickness is
unknown but supposed to be more than some decameters.
The studied area is located at 3200 m of elevation, in a
depression in the central part of the glacier. Such a glacier is
characterized by a high liquid water content. The final goal of
this study is to investigate the mechanism of icequakes and
crevassing in time and space and energy domain, by means
of icequakes recording (Helmstetter et al., 2000). Thus, a well
defined inner structure of the glacier studied area is of major
acquisitions. These data may allow us to obtain geometrical
informations about the internal structure of the glacier
(thickness, crevasses, and heterogeneities). This short study
was mainly a feasibility experiment in terms of geophysical
response and practical aspects using conventional shallow
geophysics equipment. The conditions of this experiment
were controlled by the limited variety of radar antennae
available (50, 250, 500 MHz).
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a well known tool
commonly used for cold glacier exploration, taking into
account the very good penetration of electromagnetic
(EM) waves in the ice (Arcone, 1996). A wide variety of
bandwidths (from 2 to 500 MHz) has been used in several

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers 5

6 G. Sénéchal et al

THICKNESS INVESTIGATIONS
N

EM and seismic waves in the ice

356˚ 358˚ 0˚ 2˚ 4˚ 6˚ 8˚

50˚
Physical properties which govern EM wave propagation
50˚

48˚
are electrical conductivity and permittivity whereas seismic
48˚

46˚
46˚
44˚
44˚
42˚
356˚ 358˚ 0˚ 2˚ 4˚ 6˚ 8˚
radar CMP
seismic profile
0
0 90
45
radar profile (P5)
crevasses
N
0 25 50
Glacier flow direction
m
FIGURE 1
Location map of the radar and seismic experiments. Radar profiles (black
dashed lines) P5 and P11 are oriented North-South and cross several wide
crevasses (blue solid lines) oriented East-West, whereas 3 profiles (oriented
East-West) cross thin North-South crevasses (central profile is P8). The
seismic profile (black solid line) and the CMP radar (red solid line) are also
oriented East-West.
studies (Jacobel et al., 1988; Arcone et al., 1995), highest
frequencies antennae being mainly used for ice stratigraphy
studies and lowest frequencies antennae for glacier
thickness estimation. For temperate glaciers, the high fluid
water content strongly affects the EM wave propagation
and common GPR studies on temperate glacier are limited
to ice thickness determination, using low frequency signals
(Watts and England, 1976; Moran et al., 2000).
Several previous experiments have been done few years
ago on a similar context located some kilometers far from
our site of interest (Nicollin and Kofman, 1994; Barbin et
al., 1995), but these experiments were mainly oriented to
low frequency (10-20 MHz) approach and ice thickness
estimation. The main goals of our experiment were firstly to
evaluate the thickness of the glacier, comparing
information obtained from reflection seismics and low
frequency radar, and, secondly, to obtain information
concerning the internal structure of the glacier (hidden
crevasses, discontinuities, heterogeneity patterns, water or
rock materials), using high frequency radar.
wave propagation is related to elastic properties and
density. In a temperate glacier, materials are mainly ice
(including snow and firn), liquid water and rock (from
isolated morainic blocks to thin layers). This means that
changes in radar reflectivity are generally correlated to
seismic reflectivity allowing a joint analysis of the two kind
0 1500
m of data. Typical cold ice parameters are relatively well
known: around 3000 to 4000 m/s for P-wave velocity and
radar profile (P8)
0
around 0.17 m/ns for EM waves; for fresh water, velocities
0
are around 1500 m/s and 0.033 m/ns respectively. Other
26
common materials as snow (more or less compressed), firn
or melting ice exhibit very variable velocity values which
can only be determined by data analysis.
Several approaches are used to analyse wave
propagation velocity, depending on the available data.
radar profile (P11) Variable offset acquisition allows to use reflection
curvature for velocity measurement. For seismic, this can be
130 obtained using multichannel acquisition whereas for radar
it is necessary to design a specific acquisition procedure.
Velocities determined in this way are affected by reflector
dip: the apparent velocity is overestimated by a factor of
1/cos(dip) (Sheriff and Geldart, 1983). This has to be taken
into account for migration and conversion to depth. For
constant offset acquisition, velocity analysis is based on
results of migration for several velocities. Diffraction is
efficiently focused when the appropriate velocity is used.
Velocity and frequency determine spatial resolution,
generally assumed to be a quarter of the dominant wave
length. Dominant seismic wavelength within the glacier
may be estimated between 30 to 40 meters, assuming a
central frequency of 100 Hz. For radar waves, 50 MHz
central frequency leads to a wavelength around 3 meters
and 500 MHz to 0.3 m. Typical deep radar resolution is one
order of magnitude better than the seismic one. The
resolution in shallow radar is two orders of magnitude
more than seismic.
Seismic reflection imaging
Along an East-West profile parallel to the main crevasses
(Fig. 1) 18 shots have been recorded by 24 vertical
geophones (14 Hz). The acquisition parameters are
summarized in table 1. One sample record of raw shot is
shown on figure 2a. First arrivals are direct P-waves, with an
approximate velocity of 3400 m/s. Even if the basement
velocity is higher than the ice velocity, the limited offset
(compared to the thickness of the ice) explains that no
headwave, generated at the basement of the glacier, has been
recorded. The first break is only the P-wave propagating

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
 Georadar and seismic investigations over the Glacier de la Girose (French Alps) 7

TABLE 1 Equipment and parameters used for the seismic experiment. TABLE 2 Detailed processing used for the seismic data.

SEISMIC ACQUISITION PARAMETERS SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING

Seismometer: Geometrics StrataView R-24 Edition and geometry
Sampling interval: 0.25 ms Mute of direct waves (P and Rayleigh)
Recording time: 512 ms Bandpass filter: 40-50-240-270 Hz
Source: 4 kg sledgehammer Gain recovery
Number of shots: 18 2 steps predictive deconvolution:
Distance between shots: 6m - shot gather consistent (dist = 12 ms)
Geophones: 14 Hz - vertical - single trace (dist = 10 ms)
Number of geophones: 24 SuperCMP gather (merge of 4 adjacent CMP)
Distance between geophones: 3m NMO corrections
Stack
Phase shift migration

West offset (m) meters meters East

-25 0 25 25 50 25 50 interface. Before this reflection, one can observe some
0 0 0
events gently dipping (20 to 30 degrees) to the West related
to vertical heterogeneities in the glacier poorly imaged by
0.05 0.05 50
the long wavelength seismic signal. The rest of the section is
dominated by crossing linear events which cannot be
0.10 0.10 100 primary arrivals related to the inner structure of the glacier.
Depth (m)
Time (s)

Time (s)

After migration, the ice-bedrock interface appears more

0.15 0.15 150 continuous with a curved shape coherent with the aerial
surface topography of the glacier. Its depth is estimated to
0.20 0.20 200
be around 90 m for the western part of the section and 120
m for the eastern part. The dip of this interface is from 40
to nearly zero degrees, to the East.
(a) (b) (c)

Radar sounding (50 MHz)

FIGURE 2
(a) Seismic shot gather before processing. (b) unmigrated time section. The
vertical solid line corresponds to the location of the seismic CMP presented
in figure 3c. (c) migrated depth section.
along the surface. The following linear arrivals correspond to
Rayleigh waves, with a velocity of 1600 m/s. From these
results, S-wave velocity equals 1720 m/s (Udias, 1999). Unlike
usual land seismics, one can observe non dispersive surface
waves, which show the homogeneity of the investigated
medium. After these direct surface waves, several hyperbolic
arrivals can be related to reflections. Velocity derived from
the curvature analysis is similar to that of the direct Rayleigh
waves, and, undoubtedly, lower than P-wave velocity. These
reflections are probably related to crevasses which are
known to be parallel to the seismic line. We interpret them as
out of line reflections generated by waves propagating along
the surface and which reflect on a vertical crevasse.
Processing has been applied to the raw data in order to
obtain an unmigrated time section (Fig. 2b) and finally the
depth migrated section (Fig. 2c). The processing steps are
presented in the table 2. The unmigrated time section (Fig.
2b) displays an easterly dipping event located from 50 to 70
ms. We interpret it as the reflection from the ice-bedrock
Deep radar investigations have been performed using
RAMAC radar with unshielded 50 MHz antennae. This
experiment has been based on a common midpoint
geometry acquisition (CMP), in order to determine radar
wave velocity and penetration depth. The CMP experiment
is located in the central part of the seismic profile (Fig.1),
along an East-West direction (as the seismic profile). The
acquisition parameters are presented in the table 3. The
surroundings of the studied area does not contain any
object which could generate aerial diffraction so all the
recorded signals originate from subsurface heterogeneities.
Offsets range from 1 meter to 45 meters, with steps of 0.2
m. Figure 3a shows the radar CMP gather after processing
(see table 4 for the processing parameters). Vertical white
lines correspond to bad records. The CMP gather displays
the direct wave in the air (arrow (1), v= 0.3 m/ns), the direct
wave in the ice (arrow (2), v= 0.18 m/ns) and several
reflected waves: the strongest events (in terms of amplitude
and lateral continuity) can be picked at 150 ns two-way-
time (twt), 300 ns twt and 1150 ns twt (Fig. 3a, solid
arrows). After this last one, one can see several other
energy arrivals with a periodic time gap of 150 ns (Fig. 3a,
dashed arrows). For the events at 150 and 300 ns twt
apparent velocities obtained from semblance analysis are
around 0.18 m/ns (+/- 0.05 m/ns). The other events are

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
8 G. Sénéchal et al

TABLE 3 Equipment and parameters used for the CMP radar experiment. TABLE 4 Detailed processing used for the radar CMP data (50 MHz).

RADAR CMP ACQUISITION PARAMETERS RADAR CMP PROCESSING (50 MHz)

50 MHz unshielded antennae Edition and geometry
Offset min: 1 m DC removal
trace interval: 0.2 m Residual statics
Vertical stack: 128 Trace equalization
Length of record: 2975 ns Spiking deconvolution (op. Length=150 ns)
Sample frequency: 840 MHz Automatic Gain Control (w=250 ns)

offset (m) offset (m) offset (m)

recorded at larger times and, due to the limited offset it is West 0
10 20 30 40
−0 0
10 20 30 40
0
−50−25
-500 25500
-25000 250 50750
75
East
not possible to determine any velocity. The measured (1)
200 200
velocities are higher than common velocity in the ice. This (2)
0.05
400 400
can be explained by pores filled with air in the upper layers
− 45
(which concerns the direct wave) or by the dip of the 600 600
0.10

Depth (m)
reflectors for deeper reflections, as previously observed on

Time (ns)

Time (ns)

Time (s)
800 800

the migrated seismic section. For example, for a dip of 25
degrees, a true layer velocity of 0.16 m/ns corresponds to an
apparent velocity of 0.18 m/ns.
The reflection recorded at 1150 ns twt presents strongest
amplitudes and we can suppose that this event corresponds
to the reflection on the bottom of the glacier. In that case,
the computed ice-thickness (perpendicular to the reflection
interface) is around 90 m, supposing a velocity of 0.16 m/ns.
The latest periodic events (at 1300 ns, 1450 ns and 1600 ns
twt) can be interpreted as multiple reflections between the
base of the glacier and the top of the bedrock. As a matter
of fact, temperate glacier are characterized by high water
contents which tend to accumulate at the base of the
glacier, over the rock basement, in a water rich transition
zone. In order to validate this interpretation, we computed
a synthetic CMP gather (Fig. 3b) with the following model:
a first thin water layer (thickness = 2.5 m, ε = 81, V = 0.033
m/ns) between a layer of ice (ε = 2.8, V = 0.18 m/ns) and the
granitic bedrock (ε = 6, V = 0.11 m/ns). The modeling
program uses 1D velocity model and is based on the
reflectivity method (Kennett and Kerry, 1979) combined to
discrete wave number integration (Bouchon, 1981),
detailed in Garambois (1999). Note that we use the
apparent velocity for the ice in order to obtain similar
arrival times for both synthetic and field data.
In order to compare seismic and radar data, we
extracted one seismic CMP gather (Fig. 3c) located at the
radar CMP. It displays the data after processing and just
before stack. The field acquisition procedure used in
seismics gives positive and negative offsets whereas radar
data exhibit only positive offsets. On the seismic CMP (Fig.
3c), the arrows correspond to three main reflectors that we
consider to be identical to those shown by the solid line
arrows on the radar CMP (Fig. 3a). This comparison clearly
displays the difference of resolution between the two
methods. In particular, the glacier basement appears as a
single reflector on the seismic data.
1000 1000
0.15
1200
− 90
1200
1400 1400 0.20
1600 1600
1800
(a) (b) (c)
FIGUR 3
FIGURE 3
(a) Radar CMP gather (50 MHz). Arrow (1) corresponds to the direct wave
in the air and arrow (2) to the direct wave in the ice. On the left side, solid
line arrows corresponds to the main reflections (the echo at 1150 ns twt
corresponds to the ice-bedrock interface). Dashed arrows show the periodic
arrivals. Depth scale assumes a velocity of 0.15 m/ns. (b) Synthetic data
computed with a 1D reflectivity model supposing a thin layer of water (2.5
m) between the ice and the bed-rock. (c) Seismic CMP gather, with arrow
showing the main reflection.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE INVESTIGATIONS
High frequency radar (250 and 500 MHz)
Several radar profiles have been recorded using high
frequency shielded antennae (250 and 500 MHz). Table 5
displays the acquisition parameters. These acquisitions have
been performed in order to image the internal structure of
the glacier between the surface and the first decameters.
Moreover, we have oriented the profiles perpendicular to
the crevasses, in order to analyse the signature of these last
ones in the data. All the data have been processed
following the processing flow chart described in the table 6.
The third step of the processing is dedicated to the
attenuation of the strong ringing observed on the raw data.
For a given profile, we have subtracted to each trace the
calculated mean trace of this profile. Concerning the
compensation of the attenuation, we have first computed
an average attenuation curve for the overall profile and

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
 Georadar and seismic investigations over the Glacier de la Girose (French Alps) 9

TABLE 5: Equipment and parameters used for the radar TABLE 6: Detailed processing used for the high frequency radar data
profile experiments. (250 and 500 MHz).

HIGH FREQUENCY RADAR ACQUISITION PARAMETERS HIGH FREQUENCY RADAR PROCESSING

250 MHz 500 MHz Edition and geometry
shielded antennae shielded antennae DC removal
Antenna separation: 0.4 m 0.6 m Ringing attenuation (mean trace removal)
trace interval: 0.1 m 0.05 m Mute of the air wave 250 MHz (45-70-500-600 MHz)
Vertical stack: 16 32 Band-pass filter 500 MHz (150-200-900-1000 MHz)
Length of record: 641 ns 260 ns Gain compensation (based on the attenuation curve)
Sampling frequency: 2807 MHz 5763 MHz Time migration (Vmig = 0.15 m/ns)
Elevation statics (topography)
Time to depth conversion

North Distance (m) South

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 FIGURE 4
0
Unmigrated (a) and migrated (b)
radar sections P11 (250 MHz).
Vertical arrows indicate the
crevasse locations.
200
Time (ns)

400

600

(a)

North Distance (m) South

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

10

20
Depth (m)

30

40

50

60

(b)

then divided each trace by this curve. In that way, lateral
variations of amplitudes are preserved. Numerous constant
velocity time migrations have been computed (Stolt
migration) using velocities from 0.10 to 0.18 m/ns. For the
overall data, the analysis of the diffraction pattern focusing
suggests that a 0.15 m/ns velocity is the best choice. For the
north-south profiles, which are roughly oriented in the
slope direction, elevation statics have been applied before
time to depth conversion. The last step of the processing is
the conversion of time migrated section in to true depth

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
10 G. Sénéchal et al

North Distance (m) West Distance (m) East

South 0 5 10 15 20
0 10 20 30 40
0 0

100 50

200 100
Time (ns)

Time (ns)
300 150

400 200

250
(a) (a)

North Distance (m) South West Distance (m) East

0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20
0 0

10 5
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

20 10

15
30

(b) (b)

FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6
Unmigrated (a) and migrated (b) radar sections P5 (250 MHz). Vertical Unmigrated (a) and migrated (b) radar sections P8 (500 MHz). Vertical
arrows indicate the crevasse locations. arrows indicate the crevasse locations.

sections using the migration velocity. For each section both
unmigrated time sections and migrated depth sections are
presented (Figs 4, 5 and 6). All depth sections are plotted
with a 1:1 aspect ratio.
Radar interpretation
Up to here, the interpretation is based only on a
descriptive analysis of the different sections. This data set
can be considered as a first test on this area which will be
intensively imaged in the future.
Figure 4 corresponds to a north-south profile recorded
with shielded 250 MHz antenna. This profile is 120 m long
and the recorded time is 620 ns. It is limited to the north by
a strong change in the topography with wide crevasses.
Starting from the south, the first half of the profile presents
a constant slope, whereas the northern part is horizontal.
The unmigrated section (Fig. 4a) displays a strong lateral
variation of the reflectivity. One must remember that the
amplitude recovery process preserves lateral amplitude
variations. South to x=60, the first 150 ns show numerous

© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
 Georadar and seismic investigations over the Glacier de la Girose (French Alps)
reflections overlying an apparently transparent zone. The
northern half shows a transparent zone starting from the
surface, limited in depth by a dipping sharp boundary
underlying a highly reflective medium. If the upper part in
the section clearly displays strong lateral differences, the
observed variations of the deeper part of the profile are
probably induced only by the reflectivity variations during
the first hundred nanoseconds. On the overall section, we
observe numerous diffraction patterns located between the
0 and 200 ns twt. Some of them, located near the surface,
are related to the crevasses (see arrows on Fig. 4a) which
have been located from the surface (x = 12, 25, 35, 40, ...).
For the main crevasses (x=35 to x=45), these diffractions
generate a low amplitude strip visible on the unmigrated
sections. The other diffractions, with their apex located
below the surface, are probably generated by rock
materials or water feeders.
On the depth migrated section (Fig. 4b), diffraction
patterns are nearly perfectly focused. The strongly reflective
zone (from x=60 to x=120) corresponds to the dipping part
of the profile, whereas the transparent zone (from x=0 to
x=60) is located in the horizontal part of the studied area.
These reflectivity change may be related to the ice melting
which destroys the glacier stratification in the flat part,
whereas in the south part the water can't accumulate. The
fan geometry layer is observed down to 20 meters in depth.
Fig. 5 shows profile P5, recorded with the shielded 250
MHz antenna, which is oriented north-south (Fig. 1) and
crosses several open crevasses (x=4, 18, 22, ...). As on the
previous section P11 in Fig. 4, diffractions and amplitude
variations are correlated to the different crevasses. The
snow-ice interface generates a strong horizontal reflector.
Also for this profile, penetration depth is estimated to be
around 20 to 25 meters. The strong dipping reflector
(around 50°) is probably related to a strong discontinuity
(as a crevasse). The identification of such linear dipping
structure needs more investigation effort (e.g. drilling).
Three parallel running profiles, with only a few meters
distance between them, have been recorded along an East-
West direction (Fig. 1) using a shielded 500 MHz antenna.
They all display similar images and, therefore, only the
central one is shown (Fig. 6). As the topography is flat, no
elevation statics have been applied. The signal penetration is
estimated to be 15 meters. Compared to the previous
profile, the use of 500 MHz antenna improves the resolution
by a factor of 2 but reduces the investigation depth by a
factor of 1.3. We observe strong lateral amplitude variations,
like in previous sections. The unmigrated section displays
numerous strong diffraction patterns, which are perfectly
collapsed after migration. Deep diffractions can be related
to rock material or to water feeders, whereas those located
near the surface (x=13) are generated by a thin crevasse
(few centimeters wide).
© 2003 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Near Surface Geophysics, Vol. 1, 5-12
11
CONCLUSIONS
The main goal of this survey was to evaluate the ability
of GPR to image the internal structures of the temperate
glacier de la Girose.
The use of 50 MHz antenna gives valuable information in
term of glacier thickness. From the seismic data the ice
thickness is estimated to be 80 m in the western part of the
section and 110 m for the eastern part. From the radar data,
the velocities derived are similar to those commonly
observed, if the dip is correctly taken into account. Ice
thickness computed from radar data is 90 m. A zero offset
low frequency imaging (50 MHz) would provide the
geometry of the glacier bottom, associated to several CMP
acquisitions to constrain the propagation velocity. Reflection
seismic method also gives useful results but it is more difficult
to operate in such a context, due to the high elevation of the
site, the abundant water on the surface during the day,
freezing during the night and the difficulty to get adequate
coupling of the geophones on the glacier surface.
High frequency radar antennae (250 and 500 MHz) are
efficient tools for investigations of the first decameters. 500
MHz antennae dramatically improves resolution at the cost
of a limited reduction of the penetration depth. Radar
images display strong variations of the reflectivity and
allow us to locate various scattering objects (e.g. rocks,
water feeders) and image layered structures. This technique
is particularly suitable to study crevasses at depth, even for
thin or closed ones at the surface. Moreover, GPR does not
interfere with simultaneous acquisition of seismological
data. Advanced interpretations could be very well
constrained by combining georadar investigations with
drillings between 0 to 20 meters depth. Future
investigations should consist in a real time GPR imaging of
the icequake activity areas, which suppose nearly
simultaneous acquisition of both seismic and radar data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the team of the cable car (Téléphérique de la
Meije) used from the village La Grave to the glacier de la
Girose. Most of the processing and data representations
have been carried out using Seismic Unix software package
(Cohen and Stockwell, 2001). We are grateful to Michel
Dietrich, Stéphane Garambois, Agnès Helmstetter, Jérome
Weiss and all the people who help us to bring the material
on the glacier along with V. Damm and an anonymous
reviewer for their constructive reviews.
12 G. Sénéchal et al
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Sheriff, R.E. and Geldart, L.P., 1983. Exploration seismology Vol. 2:
Data-processing and Interpretation. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Udias, A., 1999. Principles of seismology. Camb. Univ. Press, 475p.
Watts, R.D. and England, A.W., 1976. Radio-echo sounding of
temperate glaciers: ice properties and sounder design criteria.
Journal of Glaciology, 17, (75), pp 39-48.
Wall-lock geophones for
borehole P and S-wave
velocities. Rugged, battery-
powered mechanical clamp
operates reliably to greater
depths. Systems available
with automatic orientation to
align sensor with energy
source.
Contact us for a copy of the
paper explaining how to
perform downhole shear wave
velocity surveys.
Geostuff
12996 Somerset Dr., Grass Valley, CA 95945
phone 530-274-4445, fax 530-274-4446
e-mail dcrice@georadar.com
www.georadar.com/geostuff.htm