Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Sensors

Sensors are elements that produces a signal relating to the quantity

being measured.
For example, in an electrical resistance temperature element,
the quantity being measured is temperature and the sensor
transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance.

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Transducers

Transducers are often used in place of sensors.

Transducers are elements that when subjected to some
physical change experience a related change.
Hence sensors are transducers.
However, a measurement system may use transducers, in
addition to sensors, in other parts of the system to convert
signals in one form to another form.

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Analogue and Digital Sensors/Transducers

Analogue and Digital Sensors/Transducers

A sensor or transducer can be:
Analogue –
if it gives an output which is analogue and so changes in a
continuous manner and has an output whose size is
proportional to the size of the variable being measured.
Digital –
if the systems outputs are digital in nature, i.e. a sequence of
essentially on/off signals whose value is related to the size of
the variable being measured.
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Smart Sensors

Some sensors come combined with their signal conditioning all

in the same package. Such an integrated sensor still require
further data processing.
However, it is possible to have the sensor and signal
conditioning combined with a microprocessor all in the same
package.
Such arrangement is termed a Smart Sensor.

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Smart Sensors (Cont’d)

A smart sensor:
– has the ability to compensate for random errors
– adapt to changes in the environment
– give an automatic calculation of measurement accuracy
– adjust for non-linearities to give a linear output
– self-calibrate and give self-diagnosis of faults

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Range and Span

Performance Terminology
The following terms are used to define the performance of
transducers, and measurement systems as a whole:
1. Range and Span
Range – the range of a transducer is the limits between which
the input can vary.
Span – the span is the maximum value of the input minus the
minimum value.
Span = |Maximum Value| − |Minimum Value|
For example, a load cell for the measurement of forces may
have a range of 0 − 50kN and a span of 50kN.
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Error

2. Error

Error – is the difference between the result of the measurement

and the true value of the quantity being measured.

Error = Measured Value − True Value

If a sensor gives a resistance change of 10.2Ω when the true

change should have been 10.5Ω. The error is −0.3Ω.

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Accuracy

3. Accuracy
Accuracy – refers to the extent to which the value indicated by
a measurement system might be wrong.
A temperature-measuring instrument may be specified with an
accuracy of ±3o C. This means that the reading given by the
instrument can be expected to lie within +3o C or −3o C of the
true value.
Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range
output or full-scale deflection. A sensor may be specified to
have an accuracy of ±5% of the full range output. Thus, if
the range of the sensor is 0 − 200o C, then the reading is
expected to be within ±10o C of the true reading.
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Sensitivity

4. Sensitivity

Sensitivity – is the relationship indicating how much output

there is per unit input, i.e. Output/Input.
For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity
of 0.5Ω/o C.
A transducer for the measurement of pressure may be quoted
to have a temperature sensitivity of ±0.2% of the reading per
o
C change in temperature.

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Hysteresis error

5. Hysteresis error

Transducer can give different outputs from the same value of

quantity being measured according to whether that value have
been reached by a continuously increasing change or a
continuously decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.
Hysteresis error is the maximum difference in output for
increasing and decreasing values as shown in Fig. ??.

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Hysteresis error

Figure 1: Hysteresis error

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Repeatability/reproducibility

6. Repeatability/reproducibility

The term repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are

used to describe its ability to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input value.
The error resulting from the same output not being given with
repeated applications is usually expressed as a percentage of
the full range output.
maximum − minimum values given
repeatability = × 100
full range

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Non-linearity error

7. Non-linearity error

For many transducer a linear relationship between the input

and output is assumed over the working range, i.e. a graph of
the output plotted against the input is assumed to give a
straight line.
But few transducers truly have a linear relationship and thus
errors occur as a result of the assumption of linearity.
Non-linearity error – is the maximum difference form the
straight line.

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Stability, Resolution

8. Stability

The stability of a transducer is the ability to give the same

output when used to measure a constant input over a period
of time.

9. Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range, the output
signals for some sensors may change in small steps.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that
will produce an observable change in the output.

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Practice Problem 1

A pressure sensor consisting of a diaphragm with strain gauges

bonded to its surface has the following information in its
specification:
Ranges: 0 − 1400kPa, 0 − 35, 000kPa
Non-linearity error: ±0.15% of full range
Hysteresis error: ±0.05% of full range
What is the total error due to non-linearity and hysteresis for a
reading of 1000kPa on the 0 − 1400kPa range?

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Sensors Transducers Smart Sensors Performance Terminology Practice Problems

Practice Problem 2

The water level in an open vessel is to be monitored by a

differential pressure cell responding to the difference in pressure
between that at the base of the vessel and the atmosphere.
Determine the range of differential pressures the cell will have
to respond to if the water level can vary between zero height
above the cell measurement point and 2 m above it.

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Imagination is more important than knowledge.

knowledge is limited.
Imagination encircles the world.

–Albert Einstein

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