Asian Music Volume 10 Issue 2 1979 (Doi 10.2307 - 833989) Ter Ellingson - Tibet Issue - 'Don Rta Dbyangs Gsum - Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories

'Don rta dbyangs gsum: Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories
Author(s): Ter Ellingson

Source: Asian Music, Vol. 10, No. 2, Tibet Issue (1979), pp. 112-156
Published by: University of Texas Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833989 .
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'Don rta dbyangs gsum: TIBETAN CHANTAND MELODICCATEGORIES
By
Ter Ellingson
Tibetan Buddhism developed what is almost certainly

one of the largest vocal music repertoires existing any-
where in the world. A manuscript recently published by
Kaufmann, although incomplete, contains 79 notations of
separate dbyangs melodies for a single ritual from a
single monastery (Kaufmann 1975: IA-XLA); however, in a
more complete compilation of the same monastery's notation
collection (Dpal spungs Dbyangs yig skor), a longer version
of the manuscript published by Kaufmann constitutes only
a fifth of the entire collection. Moreover, such notated
"chants"l form only a small part of a monastery's vocal
repertoire, inserted amongst the ordinarily-used chants
of a ritual at strategic moments on special occasions of
performance. Taking the approximately four hundred
notated chants of the collection cited as a base for com-
putation, it would be safe to estimate that a monastery
with an extensive ritual performing tradition might include
over a thousand separate chants in its total repertoire.
Since performing traditions and repertoires varied between
the four great religious traditions, their separate sub-
divisions, and even to some extent from one monastery to
another of the same tradition, we can only assume that
the pre-1959 vocal repertoire of the T betan monasteries
must have reached immense proportions.
Tibetan performers use several systems of reference
and classification to sort out this vast repertoire.
Often, chants are simply referred to by proper names given
by the composer or assigned by tradition (e.g., "Long
Song of the Crane's Path", p. 33 below). Proper names
may also be derived from a chant's opening words; thus, a
chant beginning with the line "Dmigs med rtse ba'i dbang
phyug Spyan ras gzigs" becomes known as the Dmigs rtse
ma' (p. 14, 18 below). Most frequently, perhaps, chants
are referr d to by a classification system employing two
components : object (yul), the "deity" (lha)3 to whom
the chant is addressed; and function/signlfcance (don),
the intended purpose of the chant. Thus, individual
chants may be referred to as "Invitation to
"Praise of Pe Har", and so on. Mahakla",
However, musical specialists and ordinary performers

also use a system which classifies chants according to
melodic type. The terminology of this system varies 2
according to particular religious and performing traditions.
112

FIGURE 1
'DON, RTA, AND DBYANGS
THREELEVELS OF INCLUSIVENESS AND CONTRAST
'don1
Chant
'do
I
rt_. ,
Recitation-chant Melodic chant
I
'don r ta
I
3 dbvans
db__an_
3
Recitation-chant Discrete-pitch Tone-contour
melodic chant melodic chant
113

For example, according to one system in use among the
Karmapa branch of the Kargyudpa religious "method", chants
are divided into 'don (pronounced "do"), 'debs ("dep"),
and gdangs ("dang") or dbyangs ("yang") (Phursang n.d.).
An abbot of the Tsharpa branch of the Saskyapa method
divides chant into the categories of 'don, rta ("ta"),
and dbyangs (Chogye Tri Rinpoche 1971: 37). The three
categories of 'don, rta, and dbyangs are also used by
followers of the Gelugpa method, along with another
three-part classification, rta, 'dur ("dur"), and dbyangs.
We will takg the 'don/rta/dbyangs system as our basis for
discussion. For our purposes, the Kargyudpa category
'debs can be taken as corresponding with the Saskyapa-
Gelugpa rta. The special meanings of 'dur and gdangs
are discussed below.
The general designation for the monastic chant
repertoire is 'don cha, derived from the verb 'don p~a,
"to recite, Thus, 'don can apply in general to
all types of chant".-
chant (Sopa n.d.), a mode of application
which must not be confused with the specific technical
sense of 'don discussed below. Similarly, most of the
technical terms we discuss can be used in ways that are
more general and less technical. Rta can be used to
designate melody in general; and, in this sense, a
dbyangs melody is a type of rta, dbyangs rta. We thus
see that what may appear to be one and the same term may
contrast with another term on a specific level of meaning,
and be included within it on a more general level (Fig.
1). Awareness of the presence of this sort of multi-
level "inclusive contrast" in Tibetan classification
systems will prevent confusion when one encounters
apparently contradictory applications of a term. Some
more inclusive-level uses of the terms that are contrasted
in the following discussion include dbyangs and gdangs
used in the sense of "melody" or "chants", and 'dur or
'dur ma as a category including all chants which incorpor-
ate a relatively great amount of 'dur elaboration (see
below).
In their specific technical application as melodic-
type categories, we can roughly describe 'don, rta, and
dbyangs as follows: 'Don, "recitation-chants", are
stylized recitations which employ reiterating pitch and
rhythmic patterns and vary constantly according to the
words of their texts. Rta, "melodic chants", are strophic
chants sung to melodies composed of sequences of discrete-
ly separated pitches, repeated with relatively little
variation due to changes in the words of their texts.
Dbyangs, "tone-contour chants", are special notated
114

FIGURE2
AS A CONCEPTUAL
'DON, RTA, AND DBYANGS SPECTRUM
RELATED
TO OTHER
Chant/melody 'don - - - - - - - rta - - - - - - - - - - - -

pa) ('dur rta) (rta dby
(rkJangJ
Beauty . (-) - - - - -- -- - - -- -- - --- - - -- - -(+)
(sn.van
_a)
Skillfulness - (-) ----------
-- ---------- -- ----------- -
H-
HJ
(mkhas pg)
Effectiveness - (-)-- -------------------- -- -----------
(nus idan)
Pitch - (higher) - -- - - - - - - ---- - - -- - -
sbom)
(_hra
Speed - (faster) -- - -- - - - - -- - - -
(mgyoss dal)
Drum accompaniment (sometimes)- - - -(often)- - - - - - - - - - -
(ts h rnga)

compositions set to a single text line, pair of lines, or
stanza, with a melody composed of continuously varying,
non-discrete subtle modifications of pitch, vocal color-
ation, and other intonational features.
A ritual may be performed using only 'don. Most
performances include both 'don and rta, with rta used
for especially significant chants (for example, the
Invitation, Praise, or Offering6) where a more aurally
beautiful (snyan pa) performance is wanted. Dbyangs
may be used to further enhance the beauty of performance
of these crucial phases of the ritual (and, hence, to
increase the ritual's effectiveness); the more special
the occasion of performance, the more dbyangs will be
included. When dbyangs are included, the first line or
stanza of a given chant is performed in the dbyangs
setting, and the remaining verses are sung to a rta
melody. The usual sequence of melodic types in an
elaborate ritual performance is: 'don - rta - dbyangs -
(rta - dbyangs - .... etc.) - rta - ('don). Dbyangs
chants often are associated with instrumental music (rol
mo) compositions; an instrumental composition may, however,
be used by itself in the place where the dbyangs would
occur if the ritual is performed using only 'don and rta
chants.
For reasons that will become clear in the course
of our discussion, we suggest that 'don, rta, and dbyangs
can best be thought of as the designations for contiguous
ranges of a conceptual spectrum, with 'don at the lower
end, and dbyangs at the higher. Seen in this way, the
'don-dbyangs spectrum coincides with several other
conceptual spectra of relatively lower-to-higher value
ranges: less beautiful-more beautiful, less effective-
more effective, faster-slower, higher pitch-lower pitch,
etc. (Fig. 2). Thus, rta occupy a range of these over-
lapping conceptual spectra that is characterized by
relatively more beauty, effectiveness, slowness, and depth
of pitch than 'don; and dbyangs similarly occupy a
relatively higher position on the combined spectra than
rta. The orientation of relatively higher values towards
the dbyangs end of the spectrum is determined by the
three conceptual spectra which express relative "value",
those of beauty, skillfulness (complexity), and ritual
effectiveness.
This brief conceptual outline of the interrelation-
ship between 'don, rta, and dbyangs provides a general
fromework for our investigation of the individual
characteristics of each of these three chant/melodic
categories. However, before proceeding to this
116

investigation, we must consider two further general
subjects: the concept of gdangs, and some basic Tibetan
concepts of the components of melody.
GDANGSAND DBYANGS
In everyday language, gdangs, like dbyangs, can
be used with the general meaning of "melody" or "chant"
In some religious and performing traditions, such as the
Karmapa Kargyudpa (p. 2 above), gdangs is used as a
synonym of dbyangs in its most specific technical sense,
of "tone-contour melody". However, the two terms
actually designate separate but related acoustical fea-
tures of a melody. The compound gdangs dbyangs, used by
the Karmapa Kargyudpas as an honorific form of dbyangs,
combines both features in a single term.
The etymological meaning of dbyangs is "vowel".
In classical Tibetan phonological theory, four groupings
of vowels are said to be the "occasions" (rkyen) of, or
"essen ial" (mkho) for, specific types of melodic move-
ments. If this is a theory of vowel-generated melody,
it does not seem to be usually followed in practice.
However, there is a close practical relationship between
vowel-dbyangs and melody-dbyangs, in that certain types
of dbyangs melodic movements involve specific changes in
the vowel sung.
In terms of both Tibetan and Western phonology,
"vowel" and "melody" seem to be closely related phenomena.
That is, while "consonants" are relatively instantaneous,
stable features of a vocalization which serve mainly to
delineate phonemic-morphemic structure, both "vowel"
and "melody" are intonational configurations which allow
considerable variation in prolongation and modification.
Like its Western counterpart, Tibetan phonology bases
its analysis of vowels on the differences in how specific
vowels are articulated in the human vocal apparatus, as a
basis for consideration of how such differences effect
contrasts in morphology and meaning. Unlike Western
phonology, Tibetan phonology has no technologically-
supported terminological system for describing, classifying,
and analyzing the acoustical characteristics of the con-
trasting intonational patterns of vowels. Yet, Tibetans
of course recognize and respond to such differences in
intonational patterning; for, otherwise, both language
and music would be impossible. The term dbyangs, "vowel/
melody", refers to this intentional and purposeful
patterning of intonations in both speech and music.
Gdangs refers to another aspect of vocalized intona-
tion. In contrast to dbyangs, which emphasizes the
117

meaningfully-patterned aspect of vocalization, gdangs
refers to the intonational patterns of specific vocaliza-
tions as they are actually produced. According to a
Tibetan scholar educated in both Tibetan and Western
linguistics:
Every sound has a gdangs, including
ordinary speaking, but not every sound has
a dbyangs. ...If two monks chant together,
but their sound is slightly different, they
are chanting the same dbyangs with different
gdangs. If you and I chant the same chant
together, we would chant the same dbyangs
with a Tibetan and an English gdangs. The
dbyangs has a clear meaning and purpose; the
gdangs is the sound pattern. (Ngag dbang Don
grub n.d.)
Thus, as applied to melody, we can define gdangs and
dbyangs respectively as "phonetic melody" and "phonemic
melody", or possibly, as "surface-structure melody" and
"deep-structure melody". 9
OF MELODY
THE COMPONENTS
Indian and Chinese musical scholars base their
analyses of the component parts of melody upon theories
of division of the octave into discrete-pitch intervals
which can be combined to form musical scales. The
Tibetan scholarly tradition preserves the basic
nomenclature of the Indian theory of scales and modes,
including both the original Sanskrit terms and Tibetan
translations. However, according to Saskya Pandita
(n.d.: 6b-7a), by the beginning of the thirteenth century
the Tibetans had rejected Indian scale concepts "...because
of the differences in [Indian and Tibetan] language and
gdangs" Whether or not this rejection was conscious
and deliberate (cf. Rakra article, this issue), the
following discussion tends to confirm that discrete-pitch
scale analyses are indeed inadequate for dealing with
some types of Tibetan melody, especially dbyangs.
Saskya Pandita utilizes a unique alternative
approach to melodic analysis and description, grouping
melodic components into four categories which refer to
different aspects of a melody's overall sound contour.
His four categories of melodic components, which divide
intonation (nga ro) into the four classes 'dren pa, bkug
a, bsgyur ba, an- Ideng ba, are ideally suited for
describing and analyzing d"yangs, and can be applied to
'don and rta also.
118

A. 'dren pa: This term designates the "attack",
or beginning of a vocal intonation. Saskya Pandita lists
five classes of attacks: 1) drang o (from 'dren pa,
literally, "drawn" or "pulled"), a straight" tone with
no modification of the beginning intonation; 2) bsgreng
ba, "stretched" or "extended"; 3) dgug (or bkug) pa,
"nterrupted"; 4) bstod pa, "raise , and 5) pa,
"lowered". In modern terminology, gan is also
pa -smad
used to designate a sound that "exten is the original
intonation without significant modification.
'Dren pa (especially its drang, bsgreng, and
rgyang forms) covers the steady, "straight" deminsion of
musical intonation which, in non-Tibetan theory, provides
a basis for pitch and scale analyses, and which also, in
practice, sometimes causes Tibetans to be amused over the
tendency of Westerners to sing with a "flat" intonational
contour.
B. bkug pa: This category includes "stops" or
"interruptions" in the intonation. Saskya Pandita lists
two types, "simple" (rkyang pa) and "compound" (brtsegs
pa); but a great many types are actually used. Most bkug
(or khugs) involve changes in pitch, loudness, and/or
vowel quality.
C. bsgyur (or 'gyur) ba: This includes the
"changes" or "modifications" in pitch, loudness, and tone
quality during an intonation. Saskya Pandita mentions
"long" and "short" varieties of 'gyur produced by the
throat, nose, and tongue; but the practical variations are
nearly infinite.
D. ideng (or itengs, or stengs = idang) ba: This
term covers rises" in melodic contour during intonation
between one attack and the next. Again, Saskya Pandita
mentions "long" and "short" varieties of rises. Rises,
like "falls" (phab), also sometimes call for changes in
loudness and tone quality as well as pitch. In modern
terminology, the term 'deg (or bteg) is often used to
replace ideng.
Each of these four terms describes categories of
intonational patterns which can be combined to produce a
melody. They may follow one another in individual
sequence, or two or more components may intersect in a
single intonation to produce combined effects on the melodic
contour. Thus, for example, a given intonational pattern
may incorporate both 'gyur and bkug components. The
usefulness of these categories will become apparent when
we attempt to characterize dbyangs melody. Before
119

EXAMPLE1
'DON (Version 1) of first stanza of PHYOGSDUS KUN NAS
* . 3'-
aIlt. Ir Irnr~rrrl c ~ ru tr- N?I IL o3 r Ir~e r) " .J
r~d*
~f t-*kc ~I t -
SIGNS USED IN TRANSCRIPTIONSOF CHANTS:
-d- Intonation fluctuates,as in speech, pitch uneven.
-L Intonation controlled, as in singing, pitch steady.

- Intonation controlled, pitch rising and/or falling in smoothly-
'-
fluctuating contours. Relative thickness of line indicates
relative loudness.
9 Pause for breath.
('a) Vowels or syllables occurring in performance, but not in
written text or notation.
('a) Vowels or syllables occurring in performance and notation,

but not ih written text.
Bhyo Syllables occurring in performance and text of non-notated

('don and rta) chants.
Bhvo Syllables occurring in performance, text, and notation of
notated (dbyangs) chants.
+15, -5 Variation in cents of sung pitch above or below pitch level

shown in transcription (in dbyangs transcriptions, above
or below nearest line with a letter designating pitch level).
120

proceeding to this step, we must turn to a consideration
of the simpler categories of 'don and rta.
'DON: RECITATION-CHANTS
'Don refers in general to chanting and recitation
of texts, and specifically to chanting that does not
include rta, 'dur, or dbyangs. In Tibetan terms, its
style is characterized by inclusion of a few simple
'dren pa and ideng ba, and by the relative absence of
'gyur ba and bkug pa elements. In Western terms, it is a
form of stylized or heightened recitation that may or may
not include simple iterative melodic patterns and
isorhythms. More simply, it is the recitation of a text
in a way that may seem more or less musical, following a
basic pattern that repeats and varies according to the
words of the chanted text.
The simplest form of 'don resembles an extremely
regularized form of ordinary speech (Ex. i). The length
and loudness of individual syllables are held to a
uniform length, rather than being allowed to vary
naturally as they would in speaking. The pitch is
generally held to a monotone, but a few rises in pitch
level are added to specific text syllables. The use of
an "x"-symbol in the transcription to indicate pitch
levels reflects the fact that pitches of the individual
syllables are not steady, but, as in speaking, approximate
and fluctuating.
Since Lhasa-dialect Tibetan employs high and low
tones, it might be suspected that the pitch fluctuations
in 'don derive from language tones. This is not correct.
Using the symbols (') and ( ) to indicate, respectively,
high and low language tones, we can outline the speaking-
tone features of the text stanza chanted in Example 1 in
this way:
Phyogs dus kin nas skyabs gs~unmbkW' sdod bcs/

Nyon mongs 'gro la mkhyen brts~s rab dgongs nas/
Dpg med zhing nas med rdzu 'phruT gyis/
'Dir gsh~gs mchad thogs rgya mtsh'i
sprln dbus bzhugs gsbl/
This high-low pattern obviously does not resemble
the pitch pattern of Example i. However, if we roughly
translate the text, marking pitch patterns according to the
meanings of the corresponding English syllables, the 'don
seems to make more sense. In the following translation,
low-pitched syllables of the 'don are unmarked, medium-
pitch syllables are marked by (-), and high pitches by ('):
121

Fqq all aireiSi? and times, dwelling together
with the words of the Three Refuges,
Tygyrds sff~r~ beings h1ain thought with

great kfno~edge and compassion,
From the thfiFit P&&Ii, by B6giglnngless
projSttahf,
We ask you to comh 5 , and dwell in the faitd
of this ocean of oLerFing-
~c~sA.
Although this translation creates an unavoidable
rearrangement of the syllabic organization of the original
text, it does suggest that the raised pitches of the 'don
recitation-chant are used, at least in part, to highlight
important text syllables. However, this highlighting is
not so simple a matter as would be the case if the highest
pitches were assigned to the most important words or
syllables of each line. For example, in lines one and
two, the highest pitches fall on the words bcas (together
with) and la (for or towards), while more important words
receive no raised-pitch highlighting. Thus, while the
distribution of pitches in this style of 'don seems to
follow a kind of semantic accenting principle, with raised
pitches used to highlight words which are important in
meaning, the accenting at times becomes a sort of
"semantic syncopation" in which the emphasis is shifted
from the most important word to less important adjacent
words.
In addition, pitch distribution seems to be

partially related to the pattern of rhythmic organization
of the text syllables. This relationship can also be seen
in 'don recitations of prose texts; but it stands out
most clearly in recitations of poetic stanzas. In such
cases, as in Example i, the strongest pitch rises tend to
occur around intralinear caesuras and line cadences (or,
in prose texts, around pauses which mark divisions between
phrases, clauses, and sentences). Moreover, the usual
pattern in 'don recitations of this type is to mark the
endings of intermediate lines of a stanza (in prose,
phrase and clause endings) with raised or alternating
pitches, and the end of a stanza (in prose, of a sentence)
with a repeated low pitch (cf. Ex. i). Thus, it seems
that 'don pitch patterns are determined by both the
occurrence of especially significant syllables and by the
formal rhythmic organization of the text.
Example 2 shows a more complex style of 'don

chanting of the same text passage by the same performer.
122

EXAMPLE2
'DON (Version 2) of first stanza of PHYOGSDUS KUN NAS
Ic I
*r,,: :~~X'~ PuJ.y g
EXAMPLE2A
Deep-structure and transformational components of Example 2
Melodic contour:
I ~ I
i I I: i i
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4
Rhythm:
i 1
~zjr-t-rr
123

In this style, the vocal intonation is sustained and
steady, in the manner of singing, rather than uncertain
and fluctuating, as in speech. However, the same verb,
gsungs, "speaking", is used by performers to describe
both this and the style of 'don performance of Example i.
In terms of the Tibetan melodic-component categories
discussed above (p. 118 ), the style of Example 2
incorporates more use of drang ,o o "straight" tones.
It does not, however, have a definite "melody" (rta or
dbyangs).
In this example, pitch and rhythmic patterns are
used even more regularly than in Example 1 to highlight
both formal rhythmic/metric organization and semantic
content of the text. The chanting of each text line
follows a descending melodic contour, with a pitch rise
at the end of the penultimate line preceding the greatest
concentration of low pitches at the end of the stanza.
The descending contour is interrupted three times (lines
2, 3, and 4) to highlight the strongly-significant mkhyen
brtses ("knowledge and compassion"), dpa med zhing nas
("from the infinite realm"), and mchod sprin ("offering-
clouds"). The longest rhythmic values fall at the end of
each line; and longer values are generally used in
connection with text syllables with particularly important
meanings.
Given the Tibetan conceptual distinction between
intentional melodic patterns and actual sound patterns
discussed above (p. 117 ), we may be justified in
hypothesizing that 'don chant performances consist of
sequences of articulations produced by transformations
of basic "deep-structure" pitch and rhythmic patterns.
The hypothetical deep-structure patterns which generate
the 'don of example 2 would be something like the patterns
shown in Example 2A, consisting basically of a three-
pitch descending scale and an expanding triple "dotted-
rhythm" sequence. Such a hypothesis would help account
for the ability of Tibetan performers to chant unfamiliar
texts in 'don, for the ability of different performers
to produce acoustically-similar results (with some
individual variation) even though they agree that there
is "no melody" which all would know and follow, and for
the application of "the same" 'don to prose and poetic
texts which differ widely in rhythmic and metric organiza-
tion. The means by which such deep-structure patterns
are transformed - apparently according to principles based
on textual meaning and rhythmic organization - into
specific 'don chant performances is a complex question
that requires further research.
124

EXAMPLE
3
DMIGSBRTSE MA
'Don version, in call-and-response (res su briod) form
AL
I'A.~ g A
rkI
A
LkII ' ~ f
GA
~~ Pr
I1Anlp' XtL Ij 1 I~ A ~ -.
125

Even though 'don is considered to lack a "melody",
and although in practice 'don performance is usually
characterized by a lack of regularly recurring pitch and
rhythmic patterns, instances do occur where its use for
chanting regularly-structured poetic stanzas gives 'don
a melody-like repeating pitch-and-rhythmic pattern. Such
a case is shown in Example 3, in which the first stanza
of the Dmigs brtse ma chant is recited in 'don as a rjes
su brjod (call-and-response) chant. In the recording
transcribed here, the leader was the fourteenth Dalai Lama
of Tibet, and the chorus consisted of a mixed group of
monks, nuns, and laypeople.
In Example 3, the 'don is recited with an indefinite-
pitch, non-sustained style of intonation similar to that
used in speech. However, similarly regularly-patterned
performances of 'don also occur in which song-like sustained-
pitch intonation is used. In these latter cases, a
Western listener would be likely to presume that a simple
but regular "melody" was being sung. Certainly, from a
purely acoustical standpoint, there would be little basis
for differentiating such a performance from one of a simple
rta, "melodic chant". However, from the performers' view-
point, the regularity of such a performance is the result
of the regular text structure, rather than of the use of
a consciously-patterned melody, and so the performance
would clearly be a non-melodic 'don. Nevertheless, we
may hypothesize that the historical source for some rta
melodies may have been 'don recitations of regularly-
structured texts, with eventual acceptance and elaboration
of their regular recitation-styles leading to conscious
recognition of their "melodies" in the repertoire.
Among other features which characterize 'don in

general, we might mention their generally low ritual and
esthetic value, fast tempo, and higher pitch range relative
to rta and dbyangs (cf. the following sections). Beyond
these and the features already discussed, there are few
features that would lead us to view 'don as a stylistically
homogeneous category. Rather, 'don seems to designate a
fairly wide range of a conceptual spectrum, a range which
extends from formally stylized speech at one end to melody-
like verse chant at the other. If we were to discuss
examples of 'don other than those already considered, we
would find that this spectrum includes many points which
are stylistically intermediate to the points at which our
three examples fall. In addition, the most complex forms
of 'don are extremely similar to the simplest forms of rta,
as we will see when we turn our attention to the next range
of the chant/melodic spectrum.
126

EXAMPLE4A
MGONPO'I 'DEBS, Stanza 1
CymbalIs* ~ rrP c ~~""

and drums ________ Jbs ~ p ?3 .
i 7 ~ p. bL* p. 4a~,(t.
4B
EXAMPLE
MGONPO'I 'DEBS, Stanza 3
Voices ?i li ] • I I I , •
Cymbals* a.- A -
* * kt - Ih
and drums _
_--_
PQ aa 1CCSUP~LI)~~ L (*
dr-( •i
* TO CHANTS:
SIGNS USED IN TRANSCRIPTION OF CYMBALACCOMPANIMENTS
Cymbals held in both hands and struck together

One cymbal dropped onto another resting face upwards in lap
- Strokes on upper cymbal in lap with ring or rosary
Accelerating rebounds of hand-held cymbals against one another
••--
127

RTA: MELODICCHANTS
Rta refers to chants with distinct, consciously-

patterned "melodies" (rta). Unlike 'don, the sound
patterns of their intonation are relatively independent
of their texts; henc'e, also unlike 'don, they are
considered relatively "melodic" and "musical". However,
as with 'don, their manner of performance is called
sungs, "speaking". In Tibetan terms, their melodies
make use primarily of 'dren pa (especially drang po
"straight" tones), with varying mixtures of 'gyur, bkug,
and Ideng (p 118-9 above). In Western terms, the
melodies are strophic in organization, and are composed
of "scales" of discretely-separated pitches. More
simply, rta are much like the "melodies" used in Western
and other non-Tibetan performing traditions.
Example 4A shows a rta melody (in this particular
performing tradition, called a 'debs), Mgon po'i 'debs,
used in chanting the chant Mgon po'i Spyan 'dren. The
chant is preceded by a short introduction (bskul) sung
by the ritual/music director (dbu mdzad) of the
monastery ensemble. The melodyfis a "book-melody"
(gzhung gi 'debs); i.e., a melody by an unknown composer,
associated with a specific text. The performance was
accompan ed by drums (rnga) and lap-muted cymbals (sil
snyan) .lu
As the transcription shows, the melody of the
chant consists of a long phrase (sung in a single
breath) covering two text lines, repeated twice for each
stanza. The first half of each phrase is nearly
identical with the second half. The melody is repeated
in this form for two stanzas of text. Then comes a
lengthening of the text meter, accompanied by an elabora-
tion of the melody (Example 4B).
The melody still consists of two phrases, in each
of which the section marked off by the two final drumbeats
(transcribed as four measures) is identical to the
corresponding section in Example 4A. However, because
of the lengthened text meter, the beginning section of
each melodic phrase has been lengthened by an additional
drumbeat (two measures). On the other hand, such extreme
changes as the repeated emphasis on the uppermost pitch
level at the second drumbeat, and the extremely lengthened
time value of the intonation at the third drumbeat, seem
to have no direct correlates or causes in the text's
metric organization. This example helps to clarify one
important feature of the difference between melodic chants
and text-generated "recitations": that, when textual
128

EXAMPLE5
DMIGS BRTSE MA'I RTA
if
ff31eA(~J
C'Wft. "' . r . h
I,~4- ~ I Ic ~~ Iii;
ti
',e
(e-1-c.)-3
r~r[.. (~ eI
~~ I
e-aCt~,
129

organization changes, the feature which distinguishes
rta is not that the melody remains unchanged, but rather
that it changes independently of textual changes. And
the melody is even more independent of textual meaning
than meter, since it continues to be repeated stanza
after stanza regardless of changing textual content.
The melody of this chant could be classified more
exactly, using a further subdivision of our three-
category system, as a rta rkyang pa, or "simple rta".
The only relatively complex elements it incorporates
are exemplified in the first line of Example 4A by the
"fluctuations" ('gyur) sung on the syllables thugs and
dang, and by the short "rise" (ideng) sung on dam.
Nevertheless, we have somewhat oversimplified our picture
of this melody up to now, since the pitch levels of
Example 4B have been transcribed a half step below the
levels actually used in performance. Progressive pitch
rise is the most acoustically complex feature of rta, a
feature which sets it apart from the fixed-pitch melodies
of non-Tibetan traditions and which creates problems for
scientific description.
Most rta performances include some degree of rise
in pitch level from beginning to end. For example, the
performance of Mgon po'i Spyan 'dren which included the
passages transcribed in Examples 4A-B began at the pitch
level shown, and ended a perfect fourth higher. One
reason performers give for such progressive pitch rises
is functional: beginning at a low pitch level helps to
conserve the singers' breath and energy in a long
performance, but the restraint may be relaxed and the
performers allowed to expend more breath in higher-
pitched singing as the chant nears its end (Sopa n.d.).
However, the musical possibilities of progressive pitch
rise are recognized and deliberately made use of in some
rta which, to be performed "correctly", must include a
considerable heightening in pitch from beginning to end.
One of the best known of such chants is the Dmigs
brtse ma'i Rta (cf. the 'don version of this chant, p. 14
above). The Dmigs brtse ma was first composed by Tsong
kha pa in the ate fourteenth century as an offering to
his teacher Red mda' pa, and immediately recomposed by
the teacher as an offering to his student. Many versions
of its melody exist today. The version transcribed in
Example 5 is derived from the performing tradition of
Drepung monastery.
The chant consists of five repetitions of a four-
line text stanza to a rta which is repeated ten times,
130

once for every two text lines. During these ten repeti-
tions, the overall pitch level of the melody rises by
about a sixth or seventh. From the beginning of one
melodic repetition to the beginning of the next, the
average pitch rise is about a half step, but the actual
rise varies from about a quarter of a step to a whole
step. The actual vocal range of the performance is from
D to around b, or an octave and a major sixth; while the
range of any given repetition is about a major sixth to
minor seventh.
The presence of progressive pitch rise in rta
poses no problem in itself for scientific description.
The fact that successive repetitions of a melody begin
at higher and higher pitch levels could be accounted for
by successive "transposition" of proportionally similar
melodic structures to higher levels, a practice often
encountered in Western and other musical traditions.
However, in the case of rta, the structural patterns of
successive repetitions are not proportionally similar.
For example, if the pitch rise sung on the syllable Dmigs
at the beginning of the first repetition were "transposed"
in each following repetition, the following repetitions
might begin with different sequences of absolute pitches
(transcribed, for example, as D-F, D#-F#, E-G, etc.), but
the proportionate interval of the pitch rise would remain
constant, as a musical interval of a "minor third". But
in this performance, the interval in fact varies from a
minor third (repetition 1) to a Perfect fourth (2), with
intermediate intervals of a Major third (6, 7, 8, 9) and
a half-Augmented third or half-diminished fourth (3, 4, 5,
10). Other Western-theory explanations designed to
account for regular and discrete rearrangements of melodic
interval structures, such as "modulation" or "modal
transposition", are also inapplicable, since the interval-
structure changes in rta occur irregularly and gradually
as the pitch continues to rise. One might, of course,
construct individual transposition descriptions for each
separate pitch of a rta, but such an explanation would be
ridiculously complex and unwieldy.
The problem here can be simply formulated: in
what sense is a rta "a melody", when progressive repeti-
tions of "the same" rta vary both in absolute pitch and
in the proportional structure of their respective interval
sequences? Again, it seems that the simplest answer is
to turn to the Tibetan conceptual distinction between
intentional "phonemic"9 melody (dbyangs) and actually-
performed "phonetic" melodic sound (gdangs). Using this
distinction, we might postulate that the intentional rta
of the variations in Example 5 would be a melody that
131

could be transcribed, in rough Western notation, as in
Example 5A.
%- 1.? *II1 I I_ 1
?II I I
Given the presence of such an intentional melodic

pattern, the repetitions of the rta in Example 5 could
be explained as acoustically variant articulations p o-
duced by application of a simple transformation rule'
of continuous and irregular pitch rise. The only
comparatively simple alternative is to arbitrarily
assume, as some ethnomusicological writers seem to have
done, that the acoustically-complex variations in Tibetan
melody are the result of carelessness or incompetence on
the part of the performers. However, our observations
verify that not only do Tibetan performers recognize an
intentional rta pattern in complexly variant repetitions,
but that, given sufficient exposure, Westerners can also
learn to do likewise.11
If we accept that there is a rta which becomes

manifested in forms which vary in both absolute and
proportional structure, then we must also accept two
points which seem to conflict with traditional "scientific"
ideas of the nature of melody: 1) that a "melody" may be
susceptible to rough description, outlining, and symbolic
representation (as in our Western-notation Example 5A),
but still may not be exactly quantifiable in terms of
either absolute measurements or proportional interval
relationships; because 2) the "real melody" which serves
as a basis for variations may not be identical with any
actually-performed melodic series of sounds which "are"
the melody' We can only suggest that the time is overdue
for a complete ethnomusicological reassessment of the
nature of melody, with as much attention given to its
intentional and cognitive features as has traditionally
been paid to the measurement and calculation of acoustical
frequency relationships. As indications of the trans-
Tibetan, universal scope of this problem, we need only
cite Blacking's arguments for the use of intentional
rather than acoustical "transcriptions" in the study of
variant versions of Venda music (1959: 15), and Sumarsam's
132

(1976) case for the existence in Javanese gamelan music
of an "inner melody" which is not identical with any
actually-performed instrumental melody.
However, we also suggest that the need for such
a reassessment places an even greater importance on the
study of musical acoustics. In order to determine the
relationship between the acoustical and intentional
dimensions of melody, we must rely on increasingly
accurate and interrelated information about both dimen-
sions. Thus, as we continue our exploration of Tibetan
melodic concepts, we will refine our transcription
procedures to include both more accurate graphic symbols
to represent performed sounds, and more accurate state-
ments of melodic-structural relationships based on
electronically-aided measurements. 12
One of the more acoustically complex forms of rta
is the 'dur rta. 'Dur refers to increased-speed
elaborations inserted into the basic rta. In the
following transcriptions (Examples 6 and 7), the elabora-
tions are shown by reduced-size notes, the indicated
time values of which are intended to depict relatively-,
rather than absolutely-proportional subdivisions of the
time values of the larger "main" notes of the rta. The
plus-and-minus values below the transcribed notes indicate
deviations in cents from the pitch levels shown in the
transcriptions. For this more complex form of melody,
we also have to introduce a new kind of transcription
symbol: curving lines which represent smooth, gradual
movements between the discrete pitch levels indicated
by the notes of the transcription.
Example 6 shows a transcription of the first stanza
and the first line of the second stanza of the Bla mchog
'Khor bcas chant from the Sbyor chos ceremony. One of
the most distinctive features of this famous Gelugpa
chant, no matter which of several simple (rkyang pa) or
elaborated ('dur) versions is used, is the way in which
its melodic phrases cut across its textual plan of
organization. The text consists of stanzas of four nine-
syllable lines:
Dpal idan rtsa ba'i Bla ma rin po che/

Bdag gi spyi bor pad zla'i steng bzhugs la/
Bka' 'drin chen po'i sgo nas rjes bzungs te/
Sku gsung thugs kyi dngos grub tsal du gsol/
'Dren pa mnyam med ston pa Bcom idan 'das/ [etc.]
133

6
EXAMPLE
BLAMCHOG
'KHORBCAS
Voice u~------)-'; " ''",
?Cents -~.a ~ -S
#302C ~ -O -r +Z * rP.*O
-o '
t@
1- 43e
30
(e) L3 ~ 3; Cr;
10
ixJa
~) 3 rC~ ~
I kL I: ll 1 pr
3t0+~, *7hJ ..,
.~r
' r--~ /d c
I ~L Lr gl~ ------"'~ II ?
-u ' 3 0 0 fl?o */f 1,'e

p4 Mrly& P'i&0 $1*'/II\ ~ Pc
3fa -r I I/. I
pb wv??" mcd
#3-,r
13L1

If we indicate the beginning of each successive melodic
phrasel3 by a number in parentheses, however, we see
this relationship between textual and melodic phrases:
(1: Om) Dpal Idan rtsa ba'i
(2) Bla ma rin po
(3) che/
Bdag gi spyi bor
(4) pad zla'i steng bzhugs la/
(5) Bka' 'drin chen po'i sgo nas rjes bzungs te/
(6) Sku gsung thugs kyi dngos grub
(7) tsal du
(8) gsol/
Sku gsung thugs kyi
(9) dngos grub tsal du
(lA) gsol/
'Dren pa mnyam med
(2) ston pa Bcom Idan
(3) 'das [etc.]
We might advance any number of structural-specula-
tive observations about this complex and artistic melodic
setting. Instead, we will simply point out two features
which are not readily apparent: 1) the first melodic
phrase is a simplified form of phrase lA which leads from
the first into the second stanza, simplified by the
chant leader to create an easy-to-follow introduction
(bskul) for the other singers (a common practice in rta
performance); and 2) the three-syllable words rin po che
and Bcom Idan 'das are split by the break between melodic
phrases 2 and 3, the third syllable in each case being
incorporated into the melodic phrase that begins the next
text line. Obviously, we have proceeded far along with
melodic spectrum from the text-generated semi-melodic
articulations of 'don chant. A full exploration of the
musical features of this chant alone, with the necessary
aid of Tibetan musical and linguistic specialists, would
in itself be a valuable study.
Melodic elaboration in this style of chanting
consists largely of increased use of 'gyur fluctuations
and bkug "stops". In the context of this particular
chant, we can roughly characterize the difference in
sound between the two as a rhythmic difference: 'gyur
are smoothly- and evenly-articulated melisma (indicated
in the transcription by small-note sequences joined by
an equal number of flags), as on the syllable Bla in the
first line; while bkug introduce momentary interruptions,
in the form of ascending-pitch leaps, into the sung tones
(transcribed by dotted-note sequences), as in the syllable
rin. Relatively "straight" tones are rare except in the
135

simplified introduction. The very prominent pitch-and-
volume rise (ideng) sung on the last syllable of the
first line (che and 'das) and the last line (gsol, in
both repetitions) of each stanza, is used in both simple
and elaborated versions of the chant.
A musicological examination of this melody should
probably involve at least three levels of description.
The first and most basic level would involve extracting
an outline of a "phonemic" melody from the many "phonetic"
performance variations, which could be depicted in
Western notation approximately as in Example 6A:
*IA
Ir i tr
At this level of description, the melody's nine separately-

articulated phrases seem to group themselves into five
larger phrase groupings (1-2, 3-4, 5, 6-7, 8-9) which
rise, undulate, and descend to cadences at the lowest
pitch level; and there seem to be five basic pitch levels,
forming a "scale" consisting of the approximate intervals
(in ascending order) of a minor third, three major sec-
onds, and a minor third (compare Examples 4A-B, with their
prominent use of an approximate minor second). The second
level of discussion would take into consideration the
extensive melodic elaborations, which add further undula-
tions to the melodic contour, "anticipations" of upward
136

and downward pitch movements, and off-the-main-beat
rhythmic accents (melodies of this type may be performed
accompanied with a drumbeat at the beginning of every
second or fourth syllable). The third level would utilize
the figures obtained in our detailed pitch measurements
in order to explore the relationship of the "phonemic"
melodic outline to its "phonetic" performance variations
(for example, the 480-500 cent variation of the "same"
pitch rise on che, gsol, gsol, and 'das, which begins
at about DI, Eb1+40 cents, Ebl+20c, and Ebl+50c
respectively).
Such a detailed examination is beyond the scope
of this study. A thorough exploration of pitch measure-
ments and their implications would add little to this
discussion beyond general confirmation of our previous
statements concerning gradual pitch rise and alteration
of interval structures in rta. However, in our next step
along the spectrum leading to dbyangs chant and melody,
we will give more attention to the question of pitch and
interval relationships in Tibetan melody.
Example 7 shows a transcription of the first,

third, and fifth stanzas of Sku bzhi bdag nyid, another
chant from the Sbyor chos ceremony. The melody is
another elaborated ('dur) rta, which, like the simple
(rkyang pa) rta of Example 5, requires a progressive rise
in pitch and volume level. The melody consists of four
phrases, each set to half a line of a two-line text
stanza. The text of the first half of the first line
varies from stanza to stanza, and the variant ending
bdag nyid Bla ma la is used in the last half of the first
line of stanzas two to four, while the second line is
repeated in every stanza. The text of the first stanza
is:
Sku bzhi bdag nyid Bla ma lhag pa'i lha/

Thub dbang Rdo rje 'chang la gsol ba 'debs/,
set to four melodic phrases in this way:
(1: Om) Sku bzhi bdag nyid
(2) Bla ma lhag pa'i lha/
(3) Thub dbang Rdo rje
(4) 'chang la gsol ba 'debs/
Thus, the three syllable name Rdo rje 'chang in line two
of each stanza is split between melodic phrases three and
four.
Elaboration in this melody involves extensive use

of bkug pa, which again take the form of rhythmically
"off-beat" (optional drumbeats at beginnings of syllables
not shown in the transcription) momentary excursions to
137

EXAMPLE7
SKU BZHI BDAGNYID
Voice .. T,-
tCents O .c..-.. -1 'OU
., LY, r;1 b~ ny -- 0 , 10 B;k. rr-- .-----. l
ii iJ..IlJlj N I ..L-I .1
rje :'. Isof
-~0
-ILf
0 ~(,i .5 ~*
-/bL?0
7 (
-31 ~ u -
+50cl ~ .30 ~+3.

-500 -10 +50~~~ r
0
t~t*3
mg-~, -w+-- .,e(-sr ..10r3---1 Ro ----
-3 - -/0 -1 0 -1 .20, i -/0 -I. -2.0 o +l f a*~9 -/
-ge +2 ..e?- ./
L
Rd '-o *35 **S 0t$40 i*0 */0 'l ~
55e1~ 04- -o 0of.S
Rhythm is variable throughout, and time values shown are approximate.

138

higher pitch levels. While simple versions of the melody
would make use of one bkug on syllables such as nyid, ma,
and lha, the elaborated version transcribed here makes
use of sequences of two or more bkug, and of combinations
of bkug and 'gyur (adjacent-pitch "fluctuations"). In
successive verse repetitions more elaboration may be
added, as in the treatment of the syllable gsol in the
first three stanzas (second stanza not transcribed);
however, after the prescribed speed increase at the
beginning of stanza 5, repetitions are simplified by
omitting successively more bkug. The result is a complex
and subtly varying pattern of melodic development.
As the curving lines of the transcription show,
the melody does not move abruptly between sharply
differentiated pitch levels, but rather glides and flows
from one level to another in smoothly-varying "tonal
contours". This "contour" treatment of melody is
developed to its fullest musical extent in dbyangs chant,
which we will consider next. Before proceeding to this
step, however, we should consider once more the question
of progressive pitch rise in rta melody.
Figure 3 shows a correlation of pitch measurements
in cents of nine selected melodic movements of the rta
transcribed in Example 7. Measurements of corresponding
melodic movements in successive stanzas confirm that the
interval structure of rta melody varies continuously
with changes in absolute pitch. The first series of
measurements proves (if proof is needed) that Tibetan
performers are capable of acoustically consistent rendi-
tion of a given interval, without variation, in a series
of changing-pitch repetitions. On the other hand, we
see that the intervals of corresponding repeated move-
ments may vary by as much as 100 cents. The figure of
47 cents' average variation for three repetitions of
each interval seems to accord with the fact that, with
every two melodic repetitions, the general pitch level of
the melody rises about one half step (~100 cents; i.e.,
2 x T50 cents).
If we average the three measurements obtained for
each set of corresponding melodic movements, we obtain
the list given in the "Average" column of Figure 3. This
list would appear to describe nine separate kinds of
intervals, with very little difference between some of
them: for example, four "intervals" (110, 140, 165 and
177 cents) between a half step (100c) and a full step
(200c). However, it seems certain that the first three
sets of measurements represent movements between the "same"
two pitch levels, modified by the factor of progressive
139

FIGURE3
OF PITCHLEVELCHANGES
CENTSMEASUREMENTS IN EXAMPL
LOCATIONOF MELODICMOVEMENT STANZA1 STANZA3 STANZA5
Beginning of syllable bzhi to

beginning of syllable dgg -165c -165c -165c
bda~g beginning to nyid beginning +180c +170c +180o
nyid beginning to nvid middle -108c -142c -170c
nid middle to nid end -270c -318C -295c

bla (or bdag) middle to ma
(or nyid) beginning +320c +2200 +260c
O
p ma (or nyid) beginning to lhag
(or bla) beginning -1200 -120c - 9Oc
Rdo beginning to Rdo middle +300c +305ce +330c

Rdo middle to rie beginning -420c -425c -445c
lha (or la) end to thub beginning +595e +510c +580c
AVERAGERANGEOF VARIATIONIN THREEREPETITIONSEACH OF NINE MELODI
The descriptions of location of melodic movements of the first

measurements refer to the text of Stanza 1. Parenthesized syllables
descriptions refer to the text of Stanza 3.

gitch rise. Thus, we might take the figures of and
+177c as allophones of the same melodic interval, -165c applied
in descending and ascending contexts respectively, with
the ascending allophone larger in order to produce an
overall rise in pitch level. Likewise, the "•l40c figure
may represent an allophone used in a descending series
to restrict the range of the overall descent, again
causing a general rise in pitch level. The phonemic
interval which finds expression in these allophonic
variants might be approximated by averaging them to
/-161c/, with a variation range of +19c and -53c. This
would considerably simplify the description process,
reducing nine individual (or three averaged) measurements
to a single "phonemic interval".
Another approach to simplified description might
involve weighting our average interval figures by omitting
the most variant reading from each group of measurements.
Applied to Figure 3, this approach would yield the
following weighted averages: variation Oc; r180c,
var. Oc; l56c, v28c; v23c
•165c. +240c, v40c;
vOc; $303c, v5c; -307c,
v5c; and '588c, vl5c; with •120c,
an
overall weighted-average
-423c, variation of 13c. This approach
might bring us closer to the central "phonemic" values
of the various intended intervals, but it obviously
restricts our picture of the range of "phonetic" varia-
tion of the actually-sung intervals.
Finally, if we wished to simplify still further

for comparative purposes, we might round off either our
average or weighted-average figures to the nearest 100c
(half step) or 50c (quarter step). This would give us a
"scale" consisting of minor seconds (100c), "blues
seconds" (halfway between minor and Major second, 150c),
Major seconds (200c), second-thirds (250c), minor thirds
(300c), Major thirds (400c), and Augmented fourths (600c).
However, this brings us so far from the original that the
results seem suspiciously artificial. To cite only one
objection, measurements of other Tibetan rta seem to
indicate a fairly frequent and consistent use of intervals
of about 25c (varying from about 15c to 35c) in certain
contexts.
In preceding examples, we have presented hypothe-
tical intentional rta in Western notation, subjectively
abstracted out of series of performance variations. It
now becomes clear that such a method is crude, approximate,
and oversimplified. Example 7A shows a more exact
approach toward defining the "phonemic melody", taking
into account both more accurate interval measurements and
the range of possible phonetic variation. In this example,
141

EXAMPLE7A
SKU BZHI BDAG NYID, Verses 1, 3, and 5, first phrase
with pitch levels superimposed on a selected + O-cent level
tt~t i
iitf !f!tr i i I j j lili
i:I
r1 i i i t tIii ttIt iti
t iI i i ,Ili ii i i ~ i;: I i 1 Ii
,,,,I::
i I; '' i i j i ti : Ilj i 1j
:Lt,.
r~
1!
1
ir ; I: 1:; : ; ,?
II i:i
iti1II~i iii t1 ;;;!1:

f; i i 1 f i ; II
i1ii i j i ; fi ii1:.tt,!iI,iftf it IIlilllr

i ti i tt tt !1 :i ri; i ri: i it i i 11
ti i ii I if i f i ;i
i! ; i :i i i i f i r:ii i i ti : ; It r: 1i ii.i
+800 I:
I
i II i f rt : i:: ..;. fi
I
~
::I itiii
f : 11.
;! I
I: i: i ji ????
:;: : i i ; it: : : ; : it
:~c CCI 1:i
?~??-f~- I:: ?~-)-e LLT;
II;i i t: ri-: I If :f!
; r; i!!fi i .i I : i : :r . :r
i i i fi i j : !:::II:: i :::i ::;: 1:i i i I t ft ;
+600 r '' I f i ;;f iiiI f t .i ii
i i
fl I f i I i i i . It f til
iiii
it
i I j j !iii
111_1 ??I i;;11: i j i :::
+~00
?? ~ i i : ::
::r:
;:: :
: :I ::: : :
LL;L
: : : ~ i i f ~ i i i i i tI i i i 11:ri t i
Ilf: II: i t
t
I i ;t iI
,,,
t tI: rf iI~ ; ;
:
i:ft j 1;;; f : fi I ...
i I r: i, i : : i : : : I jI
, t ?I I rr !?
:i::::.I~-
::i i
ttf,
i i:I i i rIt r; r : ; :: ~ifi I t !1 f ~J1 ii I i i I :: ir: f i i j : ::i ri
i:r: Ir
1i1ii ii1:t
::i ?.;: f!l : :::: : i .
1t
L;t: icr;
ii
Ii
:;:;li :;!1titi ::::::.::-
t
iii:::; ]I '::!1;r II 1: i I iii/i::
i'! fiIii ,,, : ?n-
i
i i; : : ::
fj fIili~r;I f :; ;?r?i :i ?)t tir iiIi ~T~TT~ i
~LL: ;/i
cZ 00 ',t: ii tiftiiiii~ii
;; Iii1: i iIii 1 t iiii i;titI iiI I : :
i i i
\:t
ii
i!ii i i:: i ; 1:
' ? :i f
1! t;J?I- I i f i 1 ti t i rI
i t~r1-
i i ii t I; ir
2:7 t
iiii ;71 y;:
tf: i.~tti t cce. :i: ii ;li1i fiJ.i
i :i ttn i t(
;r ti:: Ii i TT:
,..
;:I i I
.
ii
i ;tfiif
ri)
II
it:;
I: : I . ?i I 1
i:i'. : I 'ii : I
i Iri 1i : I; ; i t
fl~ii irr: ---t:t
~fi
i;t i 1 f t It tj1 j;i 1:i i i i i:::?r ic
1i ,I 1
LL: ti i
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-200
ii i i i ii i
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i le~ iIii ic%I r: I~ tl iiitt
iryl i , f Iiii rii;tI
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i i
,,, 1 i;
i iL;;ii! j!:tttti ii-i~ i 1:iSiIt:; ,jf ii1' ii ii! i I iili trtrttti
:I1r: r Lf: iiI:iII i;1iiir:1i r;;; i i i i jiit ri i jili i i It'I I : 1If i i IrI r;i) IIitI tti:; i: : j?r'rI r
iii
t i
-1600
t: ; ilr jt tt
t~r t t r; t
iiti It rt~jfii
~t
1ii iijI ii 1:
t
i i!
1i i i i"
i~.1 if i i Iii tII t
1r i i
~~ilt
i
Ji
i
fi;
i t1 i i r1
t
i i i lj I i i i ti
ti I ;tiIi I
i i I : i i : ; i , : I; :i i i I
t ' Ii
I:ff :tt ::-
~j
; Ir t
i II t
TTi~
ii~t!
tCI ti '
: r:
ii i i
1i ' f:t: i
.: i IIi::
r 1i
i i i I Ii t f)i ij
ii I II t: 1 iI ,I iittl i ii it ill ij( ,
(O~) (sku) (bzhi) bdag nyi

bde chen longs sku
bla ma kun 'du

we have superimposed the first phrase of Stanzas i, 3
and 5 of Example 7 onto a graph designed to show
similarities and differences in proportional interval
structure rather than absolute pitch level. Since the
melody includes a prescription for gradual pitch rise,
we have assigned the 0 cents value to a middle-range
pitch level occurring near the beginning of the phrase,
rather than to the lowest pitch at the end of the phrase.
The beginning of the syllable bzhi (chen, ma) was
selected because the initial syllable is given an altered
treatment in the introduction (bskul) to the first stanza;
thus, this syllable is the first place where the three
repetitions of the melody coincide.
The graph shows three parallel versions of a
single melodic contour, brought together to show points
of convergence and divergence. Leaving aside the peculiar
features of the introductory part of Stanza 1 shown in
parentheses, it is clear that we are dealing with
variations of a single melodic pattern. We see that the
range of variation is greatest in the bkug (fast high-
pitch glides) "interruptions" which serve to elaborate
the basic melody. This graph is inadequate in two
respects: its calibration is not fine enough for
accurate differentiation of closely-adjacent cents
measurements, and it does not show a sufficient number
of melodic repetitions to yield significant comparisons.
If we showed more repetitions of the melody on a more
accurately calibrated graph, we would see this result:
there would be a "black" central melodic contour where
the lines representing melodic repetitions tended to
converge, and a "gray" surrounding contour of varying
thickness where the various repetitions tended to diverge
more and more widely into separate melodic lines. The
two together - the black central contour and the gray
range of possible variations - would constitute a fairly
accurate description of the rta melody.
Thus, we might characterize rta as "melodic chants",
with the reservation that their "melody" may not be
exactly describable in terms of either absolute pitch
levels or proportional interval structures' We might
point out that rta are generally lower in pitch and slower
in tempo than 'don chants, and that their melodic contours
are generally ascending-and-descending. As in the case of
'don (p. 15 above), we find that rta seems to be a range
of a conceptual and musical spectrum, rather than a homo-
geneous and clearly contrastive category. The rta of
Example 4 seems stylistically close to some types of 'don,
while the rta, of Example 7 shows stylistic similarities
143

to dbyangs chant (see below). If we extended our inquiry
further, we would encounter hybrid forms which combine
the elements of rta and dbyangs (rta dbyangs). However,
since an examination of these forms would be incompre-
hensible without an understanding of the special
characteristics of dbyangs, we must turn our attention
to the highest range of the Tibetan spectrum of chant
and melodic types.
DBYANGS: TONE-CONTOUR
CHANTS
Dbyangs are the most highly valued, slowest paced,

lowest pitched, most complex and most beautiful chants
and melodies used in Tibetan Buddhist music. In contrast
to 'don and rta chants, which are "spoken" (gsungs), the
melodies of dbyangs chants are "intoned" ('then pa) in a
drawn-out and complex manner which makes use of almost
infinite varieties and combinations of the components
of melody. In Western terms, their melodies consist of
sequences of smoothly and continuously varying intona-
tional contours, including changes in pitch, loudness,
and/or configurations of resonance (overtone) mixtures.
There is no simple way to describe the flowing subtlety
and complexity of dbyangs melody.
Some dbyangs styles make prominent use of pitch
variations. Others seem to base their melodic develop-
ment primarily on alterations in quality or "color" of
vocal intonation, alterations which are produced mainly
through interpolation of "alloy" (lhad) syllables among
the syllables of the text. Still other styles utilize
special vocal techniques to produce such extreme
intonational effects as the sounding of two or more
pitches simultaneously by a single performer. A full
exploration, or even a representative sampling, of the
actual variety of dbyangs styles and intonational
features would be far beyond the scope of this study.
Unlike the simpler 'don and rta melodies, the
melodies of dbyangs chants are preserved and transmitted
by written notations which graphically represent their
intonational features. Like the melodies themselves,
these notations vary considerably in style and in the
types of written symbols used to represent sound patterns.
Some notational styles emphasize a symbolic convention
used in Western music: ascending movement from left to
right on the page to indicate "upward" (yar) pitch move-
ment, and descending movement to indicate downward"
(mar) moving pitch. A single example of a dbyangs melody
notated in this style will be used here to suggest a few
of the subtle intricacies possible in dbyangs melody.
144

EXAMPLE8
KHRUNGKHRUNGGI LAMGLU RING MO, by Grub chen Kar ma pa
Notation
(dbyans : i\- . " , -
I. ',
.'
Voices, x ,
= or s
"
.
-to
-F, .
-,,
-Is -As"
- ." - 3j -ar $" -Tr
,n
. . ' +tt 97o
170
(A) (9
;)* ) -o,'
( ) ")<
M(( ) t)()X ( )()(nX)(4)(*)()*)(
/7
<*i * XX.) 8' ( *)(.)& , *)
"-
4(>)X
Y-)(
Cymbals ipJ ."' e , "PJ ,
Drums
Mint sec 5 056666 5 5

O 1*5 :10 eggsI-i, :20 :30 i,, :40 i 55- :5o
55 I5S
ii-6i 1o00
mi o * ** * ** ** * **
**-* *,***.
011i'
********
,* - ..,_
5550
... ... ..
,, . -.
+7*
s .19
*jo
o -re.o
f':) C.) * s
.
Is' !(
) C)
(L)-"
(-.) -) ,-(. -, -- )()(-)4
:00... . .2J :0.. J
",- ; ;
1:05 :10 :20 :30 :40 :50 2:00
0,
Fr r I"n
a,
:10 :20 :30 :40 3:00
j",Eaf,. ? ,50
2•00
J J j J.. .J. .
p3$5I r r r r
W11 ,A A .
10O1te -j5
A1 :-J .. J . It. .
2:55 3:00 :10 :20 :30 :40
145

KHRUNG KHRUNG GI LAM GLU RING MO - ctd.
3:45 ?50 4,00 :10 :20 :30
cS or - ,'
-
F -? , ,sc *g? o•-
A
a i,, g a gg.,J o, gag, ggg a,,J,, i
egg,,. .. ... .,, . a,_ g.
4:35 :40 :50 5"00 :10 :20 :30 :40
I i_ _
___
F) -~ .~C~)
F -r
L-,
~-44occ~4. MK JiJ . LL
...gigs,,,.a..i.... isi. ii.. ., i , ....oe.,,; egg. ,,,.. is
5:40
6:r30 :50
:40 6,00
:50 :10
7:00 :20
:10 :3
:20 :30 :4
6530 :40 50 700o :!0 s20 :30

,40
146

Example 8 shows a transcription of a dbyangs
setting of the chant "Invitation to Ma mo" from the
ritual Sdang ba Rnam sreg, belonging to the Karma
Kargyudpa tradition. The melody was composed in the
thirteenth century A.D. by the religious leader Kar ma
pa Grub chen Rdo rje, and is known by the title Khrun
khrung gi Lam glu Ring mo, "Long Song of the Crane's
Path". Readers may wish to compare this transcription
with the transcription published by Kaufmann (1975: 45-
51).
The text of this dbyangs consists of the first
half of a four-line stanza:
Bhyo! Bskal pa me Itar 'bar ba'i dur khrod nas/

Nag mo ral pa 'bebs pa srin mo'i tshogs/
The melodic notation incorporates a number of textually
meaningless "alloy syllables" (tshig lhad):
Bhyo (ba) Bskal pa me Itar 'bar ('e) ba'i ('e) (ya) dur
khrod nas (ya) (ya)/
Nag mo ral pa 'bebs ('e) ('beb) pa (ba) srin
mo'i ('o) ('o) ('o) ('o) ('i) ('i) ('i) tshogs
('o) ('o) (ba) ('a) ('a) (ba)/
However, these written syllables constitute only a fraction
of the variety of intonational modifications employed in
this dbyangs. The actually-sung vowel modifications
number perhaps into the hundreds of recognizable vowels,
and in fact each vowel in the transcription represents
only a single isolated moment from a continuously varying
contour of vowel fluctuations. These fluctuations not
only produce continuous fluctuations in the contour of
the overtone-spectrum "envelope" which determines intona-
tional quality; they also serve as the "occasions"
(rkyen) for modifications in the basic pitch and loudness
contour of the dbyangs.
The pitch of the melody rises and falls in smoothly
flowing curved contours. In Western and most non-Tibetan
melodic styles, pitch levels would be a defining (phonemic)
characteristic of the melody. In this example, where
separate pitch "levels" could only be specified by
arbitrary isolation of selected moments from the
continuously-varying melodic contour, pitch is clearly an
incidental (phonetic) performance feature. The melody is
defined not by sequential relationships of pitch levels,
but by th 4sequential configuration of its intonational
contours.
147

Briefly, the melodic contour is defined by the
following notational symbols: Thickening lines indicate
increasing loudness and definiteness of pitch. Rising
lines indicate rising pitch (ldeng or bteg), and falling
lines, falling pitch (phab or 'bebs). A sharp angle
between rising, level, and/or falling lines indicates
an interruption (bkug) in the melodic contour; this may
be articulated, according to the context, by falling and
rising movements separated by breath pauses, momentary
pitch leaps to higher levels, or other sound patterns.
A special kind of bkug, indicated by the symbol 'i (la
mgo), calls for a vowel modification to /i/ followed by
a rest. Another special bkug, called rngub, "swallowing",
makes use of a backwards (leftwards) curving descending
line to indicate a fall in pitch accompanied by modifica-
tion towards a back, rounded, and nasalized vowel (e.g.,
a-o-u- ). And a line that undulates smoothly upwards
and downwards without sharp breaks represents a smoothly-
articulated up-and-down fluctuation ('gyur ba).
This subtle variation in the melodic contour is
accompanied by a subtle variation in the relationship
between the melody and its cymbal-and-drum accompaniment.
In the notation, each new text syllable begins
simultaneously with each new contour-curve of melodic
movement and each new drum-and-cymbal beat. In practice,
the relationship is more complex. Unless a given syllable
articulation/melodic contour sequence ends with a
prescribed interruption (bkug), the following sequence
occurs: 1) the following syllable is sung at the end of
the melodic articulation of the preceding syllable;
2) a breath pause, if used, is taken; 3) the first vowel
modification of the following syllable is sung; 4) the
cymbal beat to accompany the following syllable is played;
and 5) the drum beat accompanying the cymbal beat is
played. Thus, even the beginning of a syllable-beat-
melody articulation is stretched into a pattern of sound
events lasting from one to several seconds. Of course, if
the available performance time is so short that the
dbyangs has to be performed at a very fast speed, a less
highly valued pattern of simultaneous syllable-beat-
melody articulations may be used. In any case, the dbyangs
is performed in free rhythm.
Dbyangs normally fall within a musical context

that includes an introductory instrumental piece, the
dbyangs, a closing instrumental piece, a rta ('debs) chant
that completes the series of text stanzas introduced by
the dbyangs, and a final instrumental closing. In the
performance transcribed here (recorded during a six-hour
performance), the introductory drum and cymbal piece
148

"Five Beats" (one very loud beat with prolonged accelera-
tion of cymbal pulses, five loud beats with an extra
soft "afterbeat" added to the fifth beat, and another
group of five with the afterbeat prolonged into a cadential
acceleration) was followed by an interpolated short
dedicatory 'don chant and a tea break. The dbyangs began
the next section of the ritual, and was followed by a
repetition of "Five Beats". Instead of the following rta
chant, another drum and cymbal piece, "Four Beats", was
played to introduce a related dbyangs setting of the
last two lines of the four-line stanza. This dbyangs
and the following rta ('debs) were sung after another
break in the ritual.
This brief discussion of a single dbyangs,

supplemented by the traditional notation and performance
transcription given in Example 8, must serve as our sole
illustration of the musical characteristics of dbyangs
melodies. We do not limit our discussion because this
example can be considered a "typical" dbyangs, but rather
because the dbyangs category covers such a range of
musical variety that a very extensive study would be
needed to produce anything more than arbitrary and mis-
leading results. Comparison of this example with other
styles in which melodies are constructed with more
emphasis on such intonational elements as, for example,
overtone configurations, would require both increasingly
more sophisticated electronic measurements and greatly
expanded discussions and analyses. Yet, without such
comparisons, even a more detailed discussion of Example 8
would be contextually meaningless. Thus, we leave readers
to explore for themselves the evidence of the transcrip-
tion and its implications.
This evidence should at least be adequate to
establish the uniqueness of dbyangs, both as a concept of
the nature of melody and as a class of actually-performed
musical compositions. We should point out that the
category of dbyangs includes a wide range of melodic
types, some of which show resemblances to the more complex
forms of rta, while others are based on concepts and sound
patterns which transcend both rta and most non-Tibetan
melodic styles and concepts. Some Tibetan traditions
classify dbyangs into relatively "short" and simple types,
on the one hand, and "long" and complex forms, on the
other. However, a great variety of classificatory and
componential terms are used to refer to the almost
infinite range of subtlety and complexity of dbyangs.
From a Western perspective, we can just barely begin to
describe and characterize these radically unfamiliar "tone-
contour melodies". To avoid prejudice and distortion, we
149

must realign and refine our basic concepts of the nature
and component structure of melody. To transcend super-
ficiality, we must refine our measuring techniques to
produce both more accurate and more meaningful measure-
ments of sound phenomena. And to establish a meaningful
historical and comparative perspective, we must consider
dbyangs in relation to Korean chissori and Japanese
shomyo Buddhist chant. As we progress along these lines,
we can expect that dbyangs will stand out more and more
as a conceptual and musical peak of achievement of Tibetan
Buddhist civilization.
MELODYBEYONDMELODY?
This brief survey of Tibetan chant and melodic

categories and sound structures leaves us with more
unanswered questions than firm conclusions. We have been
forced by our limited format to leave out consideration
of the harmonic and contrapuntal relationships of the
melodies discussed and transcribed here to their
accompanying vocal parts. We have not considered the
important question of melody in instrumental music:
the rta-type melodies played by the rgya gling oboes,
and the dbyangs-type melodies of the various kinds of
trumpets, including especially the rich melodic repertoire
of the dun chen bass trumpets. And, even within the
context of our restricted format, we have been able to
give only the barest outline of the great variety of
conceptual classes and melodic sound structures.
Yet, we have seen that Tibetan melody is a concep-
tually and musically coherent system when viewed from the
perspective of Tibetan, rather than Western, musical
concepts. Some Western scholars using non-conceptual
approaches, beginning with "objective and scientific"
transcription of recorded performances, have encountered
results so confusing that they have "explained" Tibetan
melody in terms of hypothetical underlying principles of
monotony, mysticism, and incompetence on the part of the
performers. Our results tend to suggest, rather, that
Westerners' impressions of chaos and unmusicality in
Tibetan melodies result mainly from unique musical concepts
and sound patterns upon which the melodies are based.
Tibetan performers do not consider 'don chant to be
"musical" or "melodic"; yet, it occupies a special place
in the conceptual and acoustic spectrum between ordinary
speech and melodic chant, and seems to be generated by
intentional deep-structure pitch and rhythmic patterns.
Rta chant accords most closely with traditional
ethnomusicological concepts of melody; but it incorporates
150

conscious esthetic use of elements such as progressive
pitch rise, and requires basic modification of such
standard scientific concepts as interval structure and
musical scale. Dbyangs chant takes us into a realm of
such extreme structural and intonational subtlety and
complexity that any attempt to adhere to Western melodic
concepts, even with the support of precise electronic
measurements, leads only to confusion and distortion.
As we encounter increasingly more complex and "musical"
types of Tibetan melody, we are forced into increasing
reliance on Tibetan concepts, such as Saskya Pandita's
four component-types of intonational contour, and the
vowel modifications which act as the contributory "agents"
(rkyen) for changes in melodic contour.
The key to understanding the relationship between
Tibetan melodic categories is the performers' assertion
that musical, esthetic, and ritual value increases as
one progresses in ritual performance from 'don to rta to
dbyangs. 'Don is clearly the least beautiful and
effective type of chant, and dbyangs, the most. However,
the conceptual/acoustic spectrum covered by 'don, rta,
and dbyangs is part of a larger continuum. Less beautiful
and effective than 'don are the various informal and
formal types of non-ritual speech, and still less so,
involuntary vocalizations, yawns, coughs, and so on. Is
there anything more beautiful and effective than dbyangs
at the other end of the continuum? Perhaps not in the
phenomenal world. However, the songs of the celestial
musicians, which are heard in dreams and meditative
experiences, would certainly fall higher on the continuum;
and higher still would be the speech of fully enlightened
Buddhas. The goddess Sarsavati, who is the emanation of
the speech of all Buddhas, can play on her lute melodies
so beautiful and skillful that she totally captivates
and controls the minds of all beings, divine or human.
The best of music that can be heard with the ears can
offer only a faint and clouded echo of the best and most
enjoyable forms of music.
But, even restricting ourselves to phenomenal music
that can be recorded and measured, we are left with a
difficult problem: clearly, our usual ethnomusicological
concepts of the nature of "melody" fall within the range
of the category rta, and yet, from a Tibetan viewpoint,
there is a further category of melodies which are still
more melodic, skillful, and beautiful. Taken at face
value, this would mean that there are kinds of melody
that lie beyond our limited conception of melody. And,
unlike the sound of Sarsavati's lute, this "melody beyond
melody" exists in the form of dbyangs chants which can be
recorded, transcribed, described, and analyzed.
151

If we adopt a supposedly universal, comparative,
and "scientific" theoretical approach, such as that
advocated by List (1963), to classification of the speech-
song continuum, then it seems we would have to reject
the Tibetan concept of dbyangs as occupying a higher
place on the continuum than ordinary melody. If we
adopted a similar approach to, say, Indian music, we
would have to reject concepts like raga and tala in
favor of Western categories like "mode" and "measure"
Thus, we have suddenly emerged from a consideration of
Tibetan music in itself onto a field of much broader
implications. The issue we face is this: is ethnomusicology
an ethnocentric science that imposes its own theoretical
preconceptions ("universals") upon phenomena which they
may or may not fit; or is it an ethnoscience which draws
conceptual enrichment and increasing precision from all
peoples and cultures which have something to offer? If
the admission of raga into our vocabulary is a true
precedent, and with balungan still waiting in the wings,
we are approaching a restructuring of our concept of
melody - and dbyangs will necessarily be a cornerstone
of the new structure.
Tibetan melodic categories have still wider
implications. While some scholars have criticized
ethnoscientific, category-oriented approaches to culture
by asserting that such approaches emphasize abstract
ideas to the distortion of the physical realities of the
real world, we see, on the contrary, that a conceptual
approach to Tibetan melody explains the physical reality
of acoustic patternings much more coherently than is
possible by beginning with acoustic description and
measurement. However, our investigation contradicts the
assumption by some structuralists and ethnoscientists
that human minds form categories primarily by opposition
of binary opposites, in a way analogous to the operation
of a digital computer. Both the concepts and sound
patterns of 'don and rta, or rta and dbyangs, may indeed
be contrasted with one another; but each category also
shades continually into the other through a range of
intermediate concepts and forms, and the overall picture
that emerges is that of a gradual continuum rather than
an array of discretely-contrasting separate items. Could
it be that the melodic relationship between discrete-
pitch rta and tone-contour dbyangs reflects a similar
relationship in human cognition between thinking in
discretely-contrasting categories and thinking in patterns
of non-contrastive but sequentially related contours?
The question calls for more explicit and extensive
consideration; but, if true, Tibetan melody, and music in
general, may offer a better model for understanding the
human mind than does the computer.
152

NOTES
i. Although Apel (1969: 147) defines "chant" as "General

term for liturgical music similar to plainsong, i.e.,
monophonic and in free rhythm", the term seems to be
used in ethnomusicological literature as a loose
catchall for almost any style of religious vocaliza-
tion. Rather than challenge its widespread use in
ethnomusicological studies on Tibet, we will use it
here with the approximate meaning of "ritual vocaliza-
tion", covering a range from recitation to tone-
contour melody - or, in other words, as an English
translation gloss for the widest meaning of the
Tibetan term 'don (p. 11A). We should, however,
point out that Tibetan "chants" are not monophonic
unless performed solo (and sometimes not even then),
and that only a fraction are in free rhythm.
2. Religious musical performing traditions in Tibet
are based on, but not identical with, religious
traditions. For example, the Gelugpa religious
tradition has two main traditions of ritual and
musical performance deriving from the Tantric
monasteries Rgyud stod and Rgyud smad, other influential
traditions emanating from important monasteries such
as Bkra shis Lhun po and Kun bde gling, and various
locally important subtraditions based on the practices
of dominant regional monastic centers. A given
monastery's performing tradition is influenced by
such factors as the preferences of its founder, the
pattern of "flow" (rgyun) of its monks to other
monasteries for advanced studies, provisions covering
music in its written charter, and by various kinds
of personal, sponsorship, or competition relationships
between it and other monasteries. The result is a
"web" (Miller 1961) whose strands sometimes diverge
and sometimes converge.
3. Ma, a feminine substantive affix, is the usual ending
for chant titles derived from the opening words of
the text.
4. "Components" are features or dimensions of meaning

used to identify and distinguish categories. Those
unfamiliar with this and other basic terms used in
ethnoscientific or cognitive anthropological studies
may wish to consult the introduction to Tyler (1969).
5. "Deity" is meant in the widest sense of the Tibetan
term lha, which includes Buddhas, teachers, and all
beings who are primary foci of meditations and rituals.
153

6. Some of the main functional categories of ritual and
musical performance include recital of the
characteristics of the deities to be visualized
(rtogs brjod), Invitation (spyan 'dren), Offering
(mchod pa), Praise (bstod pa), Propitiation (bskang
ba), Exhortation (bskul ba), and many others.
Explanation of the enormous and complex subject of
the Tibetan pantheon would require a separate study
which, as far as we know, has not been written,
although Nebesky-Wojkowitz (1956) gives an excellent
introduction to the subject of Tibetan "protective"
deities.
7. Ivan Vandor (1976: 105-110) covers these terms in

a short discussion which seems to us to largely miss
the point. His category of "mGur" or "Gur" seems
out of place in this discussion (Helffer 1T977: 168),
and is probably a misprint for 'dur.
8. Saskya Pandita (n.d.: 6) gives this list of rkyen:
for 'dren pa, a a; for bsgyur ba, la lo; for bkug pa,
a yi; and for rdeng ba, a a. In Klong rdol's (n.d.:
76} list, the corresponding examples are a a, o o,
i i, and e e respectively. The Tibetan terms are
Kiscussed-below; and cf. Example 8.
9. In linguistic theory, the phonetic/phonemic and
surface/deep structure distinctions are applied
respectively to word sounds and sentence structures,
two very different levels of language. There is no
certainty that sound patterning and significant
structure are as distinctly separate in melody as in
language; thus it seems best, for purposes of investi-
gation, to explore the usefulness of both distinc-
tions (leaving their exact musical definitions open)
for explaining relationships between intended and
performed melody.
10. The cymbals are laid on the lap, faces touching,
and one edge of the upper one is raised and dropped
onto the lower one.
11. These observations include recordings, interviews,
performance lessons, and eight months of teaching
performance classes for Westerners. Special thanks
to Geshe Lhundup Sopa for arranging these classes
and procuring the tapes transcribed in Examples 6
and 7.
12. Pitch measurements in the following transcriptions
were made with a recalibrated Korg WT-10A Tuning
1544~

Standard, using a combination of direct meter
readings and matching by ear. Time measurements
were made with a UIT 911 Chronograph at normal and
half speed.
13. "Melodic phrase" here simply means a melodic articula-
tion sung between breath pauses.
14. Since peaks and plateaus of dbyangs contours tend to
occur at relatively constant pitch levels, a fast
performance gives the impression of a "three (or
two or four) note scale". Most Tibetan recordings
which include dbyangs are fast performances. An
outstanding exception is The Ritual Orchestra and
Chants, Nonesuch H-72071. On Side 1, a beautrful
dbyangs is sung after the instrumental beginning of
Band 2; Band 1 begins with a 'don and a rta.
REFERENCESCITED
Apel, Willi
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Asian Music Volume 10 Issue 2 1979 (Doi 10.2307 - 833989) Ter Ellingson - Tibet Issue - 'Don Rta Dbyangs Gsum - Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories

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'Don rta dbyangs gsum: Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories

Author(s): Ter Ellingson

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

Tibetan Buddhism developed what is almost certainly

However, musical specialists and ordinary performers

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Recitation-chant Melodic chant

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

Chant/melody 'don - - - - - - - rta - - - - - - - - - - - -

Beauty . (-) - - - - -- -- - - -- -- - --- - - -- - -(+)

Effectiveness - (-)-- -------------------- -- -----------

Pitch - (higher) - -- - - - - - - ---- - - -- - -

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This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

SIGNS USED IN TRANSCRIPTIONSOF CHANTS:

-d- Intonation fluctuates,as in speech, pitch uneven.

-L Intonation controlled, as in singing, pitch steady.

('a) Vowels or syllables occurring in performance and notation,

Bhyo Syllables occurring in performance and text of non-notated

+15, -5 Variation in cents of sung pitch above or below pitch level

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Phyogs dus kin nas skyabs gs~unmbkW' sdod bcs/

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Tygyrds sff~r~ beings h1ain thought with

In addition, pitch distribution seems to be

Example 2 shows a more complex style of 'don

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*r,,: :~~X'~ PuJ.y g

Deep-structure and transformational components of Example 2

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This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

Among other features which characterize 'don in

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

MGONPO'I 'DEBS, Stanza 1

CymbalIs* ~ rrP c ~~""

MGONPO'I 'DEBS, Stanza 3

Cymbals held in both hands and struck together

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Rta refers to chants with distinct, consciously-

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This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

Given the presence of such an intentional melodic

If we accept that there is a rta which becomes

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Dpal idan rtsa ba'i Bla ma rin po che/

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Voice u~------)-'; " ''",

3t0+~, *7hJ ..,

-u ' 3 0 0 fl?o */f 1,'e

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This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Tue, 17 Jun 2014 07:12:28 AM

At this level of description, the melody's nine separately-

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Example 7 shows a transcription of the first,

Sku bzhi bdag nyid Bla ma lhag pa'i lha/

Elaboration in this melody involves extensive use

Rd '-o *35 **S 0t$40 i0 /0 'l ~